INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (BPCC 101)

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA)

Course Code: BPCC 101

Assignment Code: Asst /TMA /2022-23
Total Marks: 100

NOTE: All questions are compulsory.

Assignment One

Answer the following descriptive category questions in about 500 words each. Each
question carries 20 marks. 3 x 20 = 60

1. Discuss the nature, types and theories of motivation.

2. Elaborate upon the nature, types and models of memory.
3. Discuss the nature and scope of psychology.

Assignment Two

Answer the following short category questions in about 100 words each. Each question
carries 5 marks.
8x5=40

Manifestation and Measurement of Emotions

DA-S

Decision Making.
Laws of Organization: Gestalt Principles.
Monocular Cues.
CPA

Stages of Perception.
Psychology: As a Science.
10. Cognitive learning.
11. Language in Infants.
 BPCC-101: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

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Assignment One
Answer the following descriptive category questions in about 500 words each. Each question
carries 20 marks.
Q1. Discuss the nature, types and theories of motivation
Ans. Motivation is a reason for actions, willingness, and goals. Motivation is derived from the word
‘motive’, or a need that requires satisfaction. These needs, wants or desires may be acquired through
influence of culture, society, lifestyle, or may be generally innate.
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is
an important factor that encourages individuals to give their best performance and help them reach
enterprise goals. A strong positive motivation will. enable increased production of employees but a
negative motivation will reduce their performance. A key element in personnel management is
motivation.
Nature of motivation: Motivation is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a person. A
person lacks some needs, which makes him satisfied that he works more. The need to satisfy the ego
motivates a person to do better in general.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the definitions given earlier:
e Motivation is an inner feeling that makes a person excited to do more work.
e Aperson’s feelings or desires motivate him to performa particular task.
e A person has unsatisfying needs that impair his balance.
e Aperson proceeds to fulfill his dissatisfied needs by conditioning his energies.
e A person has passive energies that are activated by channeling in actions.
Types of motivation: When a manager wants to take more work from his subordinates, he has to be
motivated to improve his performance. They will either be offered incentives for more work, or they
may be in place of rewards, better reports, recognition, etc., or they may instill fear in them or use
force to achieve the desired task.
The following are the types of motivation:
(1) Positive motivation:
¢ Positive motivation is based on reward. Workers are offered incentives to achieve desired
goals. Incentives may be in the form of higher salaries, promotions, recognition of work, etc.
Employees are offered incentives and seek to improve their performance voluntarily.
e According to Peter Drucker, genuine and positive motivators are responsible for placernent,
high levels of performance, sufficient information for self-control, and worker involvernent as
 a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation comes from the support of
employees and they feel happy.
(2) Negative motivation:
e Negative or fear is based on motivation or fear. Fear causes employees to act a certain way. In
case, they do not act accordingly then they can be punished with demotion or take-off. Fear
acts as a pushing mechanism Employees do not cooperate voluntarily; instead they want to
avoid punishment.
e Although employees work to a level where punishment is avoided, this type of motivation
leads to anger and frustration. This type of motivation usually becomes the cause of
industrial unrest. Despite the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly
used to achieve desired results. There can hardly be any management who has not used
negative motivation at one time or another.
Theories of motivation
(1) Maslow’s need hierarchy theory: It is probably safe to say that the most famous theory of
motivation is Maslow’s requirement hierarchy theory. Maslow’s theory is based on human needs.
Primarily based on their clinical experience, they categorized all human needs from lower to higher
order.
In short, he believed that once the level of need given is satisfied, it does not work to motivate man.
Then, the next higher level need to be activated to motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in
its need hierarchy
These are now discussed one by one below:
(1) Physiological needs:
e These needs are basic to human life and, therefore, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water
and life requirements. These are related to the existence and maintenance of human life.
e They have a tremendous impact on human behavior. These needs must be met at least
partially before high levels of needs emerge. Once physical needs are met, they do not
motivate the man.
(2) Safety needs:
e §6After satisfying the physical requirements, the next needs to be felt are called the need for
safety and security. These require expression in desires such as economic security and
protection from material threats.
e To meet these needs more money is required and hence, the person is motivated to do more
work. Like physical needs, they become inactive after being satisfied.
(3) Social needs:
e Man is a social animal. Therefore, he is interested in social interaction, companionship,
belonging, etc.
e It is because of this socialization and belonging that individuals like to work in groups and
especially older people go to work.
(4) Esteem needs:
e These refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include requirements that indicate
confidence, achievernent, ability, knowledge, and independence.
e Meeting the requirements of respect creates confidence, strength and the ability to be useful
in the organization. However, inability to meet these needs creates feelings of inferiority,
weakness and helplessness.
(5) Self-Actualization needs:
e This level represents the culmination of all lower, intermediate and higher needs of humans.
In other words, the last step under the needs hierarchy model is self-realization. It refers to
fulfillment.
e The term self-realization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and it means that what is probably
good becomes real. In fact, self-realization is the motivation to change one’s perception of
oneself in reality.
Criticism of this theory:
e The needs may or may not follow a certain hierarchical order. So to say, needs can be
overlapping in the hierarchy. For example, even if the need for security is not satisfied, social
need can emerge.
e The requirement priority model may not be applicable to all locations at all times.
e Research suggests that human behavior at any given time is guided by a multiplicity of
behaviors. Therefore, Maslow’s proposal that one satisfied at a time also has questionable
validity.
e In the case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently reduced. For
example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment can remain satisfied for the rest of
his life, if only he can get enough food.
Despite this, Maslow’s theory of hierarchy has received widespread recognition, especially arnmong
practicing managers.
(2) Herzberg’s motivation hygiene theory: Psychologist Friedrich Herzberg carried on Maslow’s
work and introduced a new motivation theory known as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene (Two-
Factor) theory. He conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers
employed by firms in and around western Pennsylvania.
He asked these people to describe two important events in their jobs:
e When did you feel good about your job and
e When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? They used the critical event method of
obtaining data.
When analyzed, responses were found to be quite interesting and quite consistent. Respondents when
they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the answers given when they felt bad.
Reported good feelings are usually associated with job satisfaction, while bad feelings accompany job
dissatisfaction.
Herzberg labeled the job-satisfying motivators, and he called the job unsatisfactory with hygiene or
maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors are known as Herzberg’s
two-factor theory of motivation.
According to Herzberg, dissatisfaction is not the opposite of satisfaction. The underlying reason, they
say, is that rermoving dissatisfied characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job
satisfactory. He believes in the existence of a double continuum
According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are the hygiene of tommorrow because the latter influences
the behavior of individuals when they receive them. Accordingly, one hygiene may be the motivator
of another.
Herzberg’s model is labeled with the following criticism:
e When things go well, people usually start taking credit for it thernselves. They blame failure
on the external environment.
e The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.
e Even job satisfaction is not measured on an aggregate basis. It is unlikely that a person may
dislike part of their job, yet they consider the work acceptable.
e This theory ignores situational variables to motivate the individual.
Due to its ubiquitous nature, pay usually appears as a motivator as well as clean.
Despite criticism, Herzberg’s ‘two-factor motivation theory’ has been widely read and some
managers seem ineligible with his recommendations. The main use of their recommendations is in the
planning and control of the work of ernployees.
(3) McGregor’s participation theory: (X and Y theory): Douglas McGregor formulated two different
views of humans based on worker’s participation. The first basically negative, the label of Theory X,
and the second basically positive, the enabling of Theory Y.
Theory X is based onthe following assumptions: -
e People are indolent by nature. That is, they like to do as little work as possible.
e People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be guided by others.
 e People are naturally self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs and goals.
e People are usually naive and not very sharp and bright.
On the contrary, theory Y assumes that: -
e They want to assume responsibility.
e They want their organization to succeed.
e People are able to direct their own behavior.
e They require achievement.
4. Urwick’s theory Z: Following the propositions of theories X and Y by McGregor, three theorists
Urvik, Rangnekar, and Auchi accepted the third theory as the Z theory.
The two propositions in Urwicks’s theory are that: -
e Everyone should know the organizational goals properly and the amount of contribution to
these goals through their efforts.
e Everyone should also know that the relationship of organizational goals is positively
satisfying their needs.
In Urwik’s view, both people above are willing to behave positively to meet both organizational and
personal goals.
However, Ouchi’s Theory Z has attracted a lot of attention from management practitioners as well as
researchers. It should be noted that Z does not stand for anything, only the last alphabet in the
English language.
Theory Z is based onthe following points: -
e Strong bond between organization and employees
e Employee participation and participation
e No formal organization structure
e Human Resource Development

Q2. Elaborate upon the nature, types and models of memory.

Ans. Nature of Memory: It refers to the ability to retain information and reproducing it over a period
of time when required to perform a cognitive task. It has been conceptualised as a process comprised
of three stages; (i) encoding, (ii) storage, and (iii) retrieval. All information received by our senses
goes through these stages.
e Encoding: It is the process of converting sensory information into a form that can be
processed further by the memory systems.
e Storage: In this second stage, received information from memory systems are stored so that it
can be used at a later time also, and
e Retrieval: It refers to locating and bringing the stored material information to one’s awareness
when required to complete a task.
However, any issue or hindrance in the completion of any of these stages can lead to memory failure.
Types of Memory: There is no single region in the brain responsible for memory, instead different
parts of the brain are responsible for memories of different types. In this section, we will talk about
the different types of memory.
(1) Declarative or Explicit Memory It refers to that memory system which can be controlled
consciously and for which we are aware of in some form It involves effort and intention, and it
generally declines with the age. Recalling the name of a friend, remembering a contact number or
ATM pin involves declarative memory. Following are its three subsystems:
e Working memory: It can be considered as a benchmark of consciousness. This system of
memory is responsible for processing and storing of information needed for immediate use.
Such as, remembering a phone number when dialling it on a landline, solving a mathematical
problem involves working memory or listening to a speech.
e Semantic memory: The word semantic refers to meaning or logic. This subsystem of memory
stores knowledge about the world, facts, concepts, logic, and meaning associated with the
words or symbols.
 e Episodic memory: The memory associated with our experiences or life events is called as
episodic memory. It is used to recall past events, such as, how did you celebrate your last
birthday? What did you eat at today’s breakfast?
(2) Non-declarative or Implicit Memory: That system of memory for which we pose no awareness. It
works unconsciously and without any efforts and intentions. It is unaffected by aging. Following are
its three forms:
e Priming: It is the process that works unconsciously and helps in speeding up the process of
retrieving. This process suggests that memory can be activated unconsciously also.
e Conditioning: As already discussed in the previous unit, that this form of memory is
responsible for learning an association between two stimuli.
¢ Motor/Procedural memory: The process of learning a motor skill is slow but once it is well
learned it becomes automatic in nature. That is, it does not need any further attention or
conscious effort. Such as the motor process involved in walking does not need any conscious
effort.
(3) Sensory Memory: Sensory memory, which is also known as ‘fleeting memory’ sometimes, is
closely related to the process of perception. It is responsible for keeping a record of our percept for a
very brief period of time. It is important to note here that our sensory register works as a memory
system. The information from the environment first reaches sensory memory and if required attention
is given to the information, it moves to other memory systems. It can store information only for 200-
500 milliseconds. Psychologists have argued that there is a visual sensory memory, an auditory
sensory memory, an olfactory (smell) sensory memory, a gustatory (taste) sensory memory, and a
tactile (touch) sensory memory. However, a bulk of literature is available on iconic sensory memory —
the memory for visual inputs and echoic sensory memory — the memory for auditory inputs. George
Sperling (1960) was credited for conducting classic experiments on sensory memory.
MODELS OF MEMORY
(1) The Traditional Model of Memory: Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed a model for memory,
known as “Stage model of memory” or “Modal model”. This model is greatly influenced by the
working of the computer. If you ever had use computers, you must be aware of two types of memory
used by it; RAM (Random Accesses Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) or memory available in
the computer in the form of hard drive. RAM is the memory that you use while performing a task at
hand whereas ROM is that part of memory where you can save all types of files as it has a vast
storage capacity. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) equated working of human memory to the working of
computers. They proposed that similar to computers, we also possess different forms of memory
systems, described as follows:
e Sensory memory: In this, representation of sensory information is stored from a very brief
period of time.
e STM (Short Term Memory): This system also holds information for a short duration of time.
Studies have suggested that it can hold information for up to 30 seconds. Tasks such as
dialling a phone number manually or writing in a dictation.
e LIM (Long Term Memory): It has been considered as a storehouse of all kinds of memories.
You can remember things from last evening to since your childhood due to this system of
memory
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, only that information which can grab our attention will move
from sensory memory to STM. Whereas, information from STM can only be moved to LTM through
elaborative rehearsal-thinking in terms of the meaning of the information and relating it to already
existing information in LTM.
(2) The Levels-of-Processing Model: This model refutes the claim of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model
that memory consists of the different subsystem. According to the model of the levels of processing
(LOP), whether the information will be retrieved successfully or not depends on its level of
processing. LOP refers to the level at which information has been encoded.
Craik and Tulving (1975) have proposed three LOP:
e =©Physical/Structural Processing: Encoding of information based on its physical attributes.
e Phonological Processing: Encoding based on how it sounds. Such as, ‘Hat’ rhymes with ‘Cat’
e Semantic Processing: Encoding done based on its meaning and/or concept. Studies on this
model have suggested that deeper the level of processing, the higher will be its probability to
be retrieved successfully
(3) An Integrative Model: Working Memory The concept of STM propounded by Atkinson and
Shiffrin was very narrow. They considered STM only as a short-term memory storehouse but later
studies disapproved it. Later studies suggested that STM is dynamic in nature ie., it works not just as
a storehouse of information but also responsible for manipulation of incoming information for the
completion of a cognitive task. In 1974, Baddeley & Hitch, after incorporating the idea of the level of
processing (LOP) proposed a new model for STM and termed it as working memory. Thus, working
memory can be defined as “a limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of
information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
e The central executive, as the name suggests it works as an executive in our working memory.
It coordinates and regulates cognitive operation between sub-ordinate systems namely,
phonological loop, visuospatial, and episodic buffer. It decides which of the memory will
become part of long-term memory and which will fade away.
e The phonological loop is responsible for storing verbal and auditory information. The
information stored in the phonological loop will decay within 2 seconds unless it is not
rehearsed. It consists of two components: phonological store, which stores information for
few seconds; and the articulatory rehearsal process, responsible for rehearsing the
information in order to keep the information stored in phonological store from decaying. For
instance, trying to rermember a phone number, you have been just told by your friend,
involves the phonological loop.
e The visuospatial sketchpad keeps visual and spatial information stored. For instance, the
mental picture that comes up in your mind while listening to a story or solving a puzzle
involves using your visuospatial sketchpad.

Q3. Discuss the nature and scope of psychology.

Ans. Psychology is a science which studies human behavior with reference to context as well as other
individuals. With the help of observation and learning, the discipline tries to find out the causes of a
particular behavior shown by an individual in a specific situation. Broadly, all sciences have two
branches. One, the basic or academic branch and the other, applied. The basic or academic branch is
the result of an academic curiosity or a question e.g. Newton asked “Why does the apple fall on the
ground?” which gave rise to the theory of ‘gravity’. On the other hand, the applied branch deals with
solving problem by applying inputs from the basic/academic branch. However, this distinction is not
rigid and beyond a point, both the branch converge. e.g. many theories of basic branch are applied, or
have potential to be applied, to solve problems. Similarly, many applied branches have come up with
new or supplementary theories that have been included in the basic branch. According to
Parameswaran and Beena (1988), psychology may be broadly classified into general psychology and
differential psychology. The former is concerned with the investigation of generalities and similarities
in behaviour, especially armong the normal adults while the later has been primarily concerned with
the observation, measurement and explanation of individual differences. Gradually, these two broad
divisions developed into further branches or divisions of general psychology and applied psychology
(1) Early Divisions of Psychology: Like other sciences, psychology also started with basic branches,
which were classified as: experimental and non-experimental. The experimental branch started with
the research studies in the field of physiological, learning, and perception processes. Many
psychologists attempt to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour and such attempts may not
be directly applied to solve practical problems. They are primarily engaged in basic research, and
study fundamental processes such as learning, memory, thinking, sensation, perception, motivation,
and emotion, by using experimental method. Thus, the experimental psychologist investigates how
behaviour is modified and how people retain these modifications, the processing of information
thinking, how human sensory systems work to allow people to experience what is going on around
them, and the factors that urge them on and give direction to behaviour. The non-experimental
branch included personality, social, and developmental processes. However, many of these academic
branches are having further sub branches, i.e. developmental psychology has sub-branches like child
psychology, adolescence psychology and gerontology. Similarly, social psychology has an ‘applied
social psychology’ branch and it has given rise to an applied field called ‘organisational psychology’.
Applied fields have also led to development of many theories, e.g. application of theories of
motivation to organisations has resulted in many work motivation theories.
(2) Subfields of Psychology: As discussed above there are many branches of psychology, which are
categorized under basic and applied branches. Many authors use the terms ‘branch’ and ‘field’
interchangeably. Area or branch seems to be broader terms which include both basic and applied
aspects, whereas, field implies specific area, where expertise or specialised knowledge is required to
solve problems. However, some authors use the term ‘field’ in a broad manner, eg. ‘the field of
psychology’ has many sub fields. Others use the term ‘division’ and ‘sub-divisions’ of psychology.
Clear cut distinction is not obvious. Therefore, these terms are used interchangeably. The subfields of
psychology have increased the scope of psychology in various other disciplines and areas. The
implications of psychology have therefore led to emergence of several other subfields. It is applicable
to different fields such as employment, industries, education, and personality development. It has
also led to an emergence of a subfield that studies and assesses the mental and emotional problems of
individuals. The scope of psychology can therefore be discussed under the following sub fields:
e Biopsychology: This branch deals with biological bases of behaviour. The intimate
relationship between psychology and the biological sciences is quite obvious. All behaviour
occurs through bodily processes. The brain plays a very important role in coordinating and
organising the functions of the different organs of the body. In fact, it is the seat of all forms of
complex behaviour. Genetics, the branch of the biology which deals with the nature of
inheritance of different qualities is also an important discipline from the point of view of
psychology. Over the years, geneticists have carried out important researches, bringing out
the role of heredity in determining behaviour. This has been particularly so in the case of
abnormal behaviour like neurosis, mental retardation, psychosis etc.
e Cognitive Psychology: The cognitive psychology deals with human information processing
abilities. Psychologists in this field try to study all aspects of cognition such as memory,
thinking, problem solving, decision making, language, reasoning and so on.
e Comparative Psychology: It studies and compares the behaviour of different species,
especially animals. That is why some authors used to call this field as animal psychology. By
studying animal behaviour, these psychologists gather important information which can be
compared with and applied to human behaviour. For example, investigating how the queen
bee directs, control, and gets things done by the worker bees, may provide meaningful
information about leadership.
e Cultural Psychology: The branch studies the ways in which culture, subculture, and ethnic
group membership affect behaviour. These psychologists do cross cultural research and
compare behaviour of people of different culture across different nations.
e Experimental Psychology: This field investigates all aspects of psychological processes like
perception, learning, and motivation. The major research method used in this field deals with
controlled experiments. Morgan et al. (1986) mentioned that experimental method is also
used by psychologists other than experimental. For instance, social psychologists may do
experiments to determine the effects of various group pressures and its influences on a
person’s behaviour. So, in spite of its name, it is not the method that distinguishes
experimental psychology from other sub-fields. Instead, experimental psychology is
distinguished by what it studies—the fundamental processes of learning, and memory,
 thinking, sensation and perception, motivation, emotion, and the physiological or biological
bases of behaviour under certain circumstances.
e Gender Psychology: This field studies the roles and influences of gender on basis of
researches done on males and females. It tries to analyse the acquisition of gender identity,
and the role of gender throughout life.
e Learning Psychology: It studies how and why learning occurs. In this field the psychologists
develop theories of learning and apply the laws and principles of learning to solve a variety
of human problems.
e Personality Psychology: The field of personality psychology studies personality traits and
dynamics. The psychologists develop theories of personality and tests for assessing
personality traits. They also identify the causes of problems related to personality
development.
e Physiological Psychology: Physiological psychologists investigate the role of biochemical
changes within our nervous systems and bodies in everything we do, sense, feel, or think.
Mostly, they use experimental method and do basic research on the brain, nervous system,
and other physical origins of behaviour. Physiological psychology is not only a part of
psychology, but also is considered to be part of the broader field called neurobiology which
studies the nervous system and its functions.
e Sensation and Perception Psychology: The field studies about the sense organs and the
process of perception. Psychologists working in this field help to investigate the mechanisms
of sensation and develop theories about how perception or misperception (illusion) occurs.
They also study how we perceive depth, movement, and individual differences in perception.
Researches in this field have given rise to many laws and principles that help us
understanding the ways we adjust to the visual world in a meaningful way.

Assignment Two
Answer the following short category questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 5
marks.
(24. Manifestation and Measurement of Emotions
Ans. We understand emotions expressed by others when we observe their non verbal behaviour
which can be in terms of facial expression, tone of voice and even body movernent and gestures.
There could also be variations in the way in which each emotion is perceived. For example, happiness
is perceived more accurately from facial expression rather than tone of voice, where as, anger is
perceived more accurately in terms of tone of voice when compared with facial expression Emotions
occur in a social set up that constitutes of family members and friends as well as culture. Thus, both
positive and negative emotions are as a result of an individual’s social interaction. Further, emotions
also have an impact on an individual’s social interaction as the social stimuli can stir up emotions. It is
important to note that, expression of emotions is not same as experience of emotions, as the later is
mainly a subjective experience. Expression of emotions plays a significant role in an social interaction
and there are certain display rules that are specific to one’s culture with regard to expression or
emotions. Display rules can be defined as “a culture specific rule that indicates when, to whom and
how strongly certain emotions can be shown” (Kosslyn and Rosenberg, 2013, pg. 269). Thus, each
culture will have its own norms and rules with regard to expression of emotions and these norms and
rules are learned by the individuals. Also, it can be stated here that though the basic emotions are
same for all individuals, the way these basic emotions are expressed may differ based on the display
rules. An emotional response constitutes of the physiological changes, behaviouralexpressive changes
as well as subjective changes (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015). Emotions lead to certain physiological
changes that can be due to activation of autonomic nervous system. With regard to emotions that are
related to the survival and protection from any harm, the sympathetic nervous system is activated.
Parasympathetic nervous system is engaged when positive emotions are elicited (Feist and
Rosenberg, 2015). Emotions can also lead to changes in the facial expressions, tone of voice and body
language. And these emotional expressions in terms of changes in face, voice or bodily postures could
be conscious or unconscious, that is, the individual may or may not be aware about his/ her own
emotional expressions. The subjective experience of emotions is related to the changes that occur in
the quality of conscious experience that takes place during emotional experience. The feelings that are
created by emotions differ based on the emotion that is experienced. Thus, the feelings when
happiness is experienced is different from the feelings when one is angry. The subjective experience is
based on physiological changes and impact on cognition as links with memories and images are
activated by emotions. When the manifestation of emotions is discussed, the term emotion regulation
also needs to be discussed. Emotion regulation can be defined as “the cognitive and behavioural
efforts people make to modify their emotions” display rules and as such display rules do play an
important role or may lead to voluntary control of expression of emotions. Thus, an individual may
not express his/ her emotions in certain situations and may freely express them in certain other
situations. Further, the expression of emotions can also be prolonged besides voluntarily reducing
one’s emotional reaction. Emotional regulation is significant and does play an important role in our
social interactions and if emotions are not regulated there could be outcomes that are undesirable or
negative. For example, if anger is not regulated, it could lead to aggressive actions. Regulating
emotions can also play an important role in prevention of negative cognitive effects that may occur as
a result of suppressing behaviours that are driven by emotions. We often infer emotions of others
based on the interpretation of the minimal cues that could be minute differences in body language.
Thus, emotional expressions by an individual can be inferred and on the basis of these inferences one
can understand the emotional state of that individual. Emotional expressions can be deliberate (you
may smile at a person as you wish his/her in the morning) or it could be an unconscious indication of
the internal state of a person (for example, a person who is confused may display a wrinkled nose and
crease between the eyebrows). Thus, we can understand emotions with the help of reading cues and
with the help of perception by imitating. Interpretation of emotions based on the nonverbal
communications is also based on experience. With regard to perception based on imitating, when an
individual perceives an emotional expression, he/she may subtly imitate that emotional expression
(by movement of muscles) and the feedback that he/ she thus receives helps in recognition of
emotions in other individuals. This may occur even if one is not consciously aware of seeing the facial
expression.

Q5. Decision Making.

Ans. Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative resolutions.
Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach increases the
chances that you will choose the most satisfying alternative possible.
Step 1: Identify the decision
You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of the decision you must
make. This first step is very important.
Step 2: Gather relevant information
Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what information is needed, the
best sources of information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal and external “work.”
Some information is internal: you'll seek it through a process of self-assessment. Other inforrnation is
external: you'll find it online, in books, from other people, and from other sources.
Step 3: Identify the alternatives
As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of action, or alternatives.
You can also use your imagination and additional information to construct new alternatives. In this
step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.
Step 4: Weigh the evidence
Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you carried out each of
the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be met or resolved
through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult internal process, you'll begin to
favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential for reaching your goal. Finally,
place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own value system.
Step 5: Choose among alternatives
Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative that seerns to be best
one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your choice in Step 5 may very
likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at the top of your list at the end of Step 4
Step 6: Take action
You're now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the alternative you chose
in Step 5.
Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences
In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or not it has resolved the
need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, you may want to repeat
certain steps of the process to make a new decision. For example, you might want to gather more
detailed or somewhat different information or explore additional alternatives.

Q6. Laws of Organization: G estalt Principles.

Ans. In the early 20th century, three German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and
Kurt Koffka proposed new principles for explaining perception called as Gestalt principle. According
to these psychologists, the process of perception does not involve perceiving an array of stimuli as an
object but it involves our tendency to seek a form or pattern in it. The literal meaning of the word
Gestalt is form or configuration. The basic premise of Gestalt psychology is that ‘whole is different
from the sum of its part’. Based on this basic prernise, Gestalt psychologists proposed a number of
principles or laws to explain the process of perceptual organisation i.e., how we perceive smaller units
of stimuli as a whole, having a particular pattern
Figure-ground Relationship: This principle states that we have a tendency to segregate our world in
the form of figure and ground. Figure is that part of stimuli which has our focus of the visual field,
whereas the ground is background. Figure has a definite shape and is better remembered whereas;
background is shapeless and has no limits.
e Law of Proximity: In order to perceive stimuli meaningful, stimuli which are closer to each
other are perceived by us belonging to one group. Due to this reason, people tend to see
following circles as cluster or group rather than individual circles. Our brain tends to group
large elernents as one to make us interpret more easily.
e Law of Similarity: This principle states that stimuli similar to each other are grouped
together. For instance, in the Figure 8, we tend to group circles based on its colours. In real
life also, we use this principle extensively. For example, during a cricket match, we tend to
group players based on the colour of their jersey.
e Law of Continuity or Good Continuation: It refers to our tendency to perceive figures in
continuation rather than in parts. This principle is exhibited more in the perception of line.
e Law of Closure: Following its name, this law should not be confused with the law of
proximity. This law states that we have a tendency to perceive stimuli as closed shapes even
with some missing parts.
e Law of Common Region/Common Fate: This principle states that stimuli moving in similar
directions are perceived as belonging to same group.
e Law of Good Form/Pragnaz: The word Prgnaz is a German in origin, meaning “good figure”.
This principle is also called as “law of good figure”. According to this principle, out of all
possible ways of grouping stimuli, we tend to group stimuli in the simplest and stable shape.
Thus, we can say that simpler forms are more perceived by us. For example, instead of
perceiving

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Q7. Monocular Cues.
Ans. The word “monocular” means “with one eye.” Monocular cues are all the ways that a single eye
helps you see and process what you're looking at.
Monocular cues play a huge role in how you perceive the world around you. Keep reading to learn
how different types of monocular cues help you interpret and understand what you're seeing.
How monocular cues help us interpret what we see
Monocular cues refer to the ways that each of your eyes takes in visual information that’s used to
judge:
e distance
e = =depth
e three-dimensional space
Here’s how Jo Vrotsos, a doctor of optometry based in Aurora, Colorado, explained how monocular
cues work:
“With monocular cues, images are interpreted as two-dimensional. Think of a painting that gives the
illusion of depth by playing with the foreground and background. That is your eye and monocular
cues in the real world — things that are closer are larger and move faster; things in the background
are smaller and move slower.”
That’s the high-level idea behind monocular cues.
Vrotsos also said that “visual information, as seen with a single eye, can detect an object moving at a
distance, but can’t necessarily decipher the entire scene.”
Types of monocular cues
Now, let’s get into the six main subcategories of monocular cues that contribute to your vision.
Relative size
This monocular cue gives you the ability to measure how far away something is. It works by judging
how big or small the object is and what that means in relation to other objects you've interacted with
in the past.
Here’s an example: When you see a plane fly by in the sky above you, it looks really small. But you
probably know that up close, a plane is huge.
What this means is that your vision (the plane you see in the sky) connects with your memory (a
plane you’ve seen up close) to indicate to you that because the plane looks so small, it must be
extremely far away.
Interposition
Interposition refers to what happens when two objects on a flat surface, like a drawing of two circles,
look like they have some relation to each other in terns of distance, even when they’re not actually in
3-D space.
Here’s a longer explanation of the classic circles example: Let’s say you have two circles drawn next
to each other on a piece of paper. In this case, both circles will appear to have the same depth.
But let’s say you then draw the circles so that they intersect with one another (kind of like a Venn
diagram). If you color in one of the circles, it’ll look like it’s overlapping the other circle.
Your eye will then perceive that the overlapping circle is closer to or on top of the other circle. Now
the circles will appear to have depth even though they’re still just 2-D drawings on a flat piece of
paper.
Linear perspective
Linear perspective happens when the angles of two adjacent objects and the distance between them
look smaller and smaller. This causes your eye to interpret those objects as increasingly farther away
from you.
For example, imagine you're drawing a road or train tracks extending into the distance. You might
start drawing each side of the road or tracks at the bottom of your piece of paper.
As you continue to draw the road or tracks moving “away” from you, the lines might angle closer
together toward the center of the paper. This will result in a triangular shape.

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As you look at the triangle, the closer you get to its tip, the farther away your eye will interpret the
road or tracks to be from your position. This is due to the angle of the lines and the fact that they're
closer together at the tip than where they start at the bottom of your piece of paper.
Aerial perspective
Aerial perspective is what makes far away objects look a bit blurrier, lighter in color, and less detailed
than those closer to you.
Think about mountains off in the distance. They tend to be much lighter in shade and color than a
mountain that’s much closer to you.
This happens because blue light scatters into the air when it interacts with the atmosphere — which
often makes distant objects appear light blue.
Contrast of color also plays a role in aerial perspective.
Objects that are farther away tend to have rough, blurry edges because of the scattered light in the air,
and colors tend to blur together. Closer objects, on the other hand, have more defined edges and a
starker contrast of color.
Big objects, like mountains and skyscrapers, seem bigger and clearer when the air is clean because
there are fewer particles to scatter the light.
Light and shade
The way that light hits an object creates shades of light and dark. This tells your eyes where an object
sits in relation to the light and to objects nearby.
This cue can also tell you if something is upside down because the light source will hit the object
differently, so that it visually contrasts with other parts of your environment.
Monocular motion parallax
This one’s a mindblower. The monocular motion parallax happens when you move your head and
objects that are farther away appear to move at a different speed than those closer to you.
Try it out by looking at something far away. Then, slowly turn your head from left to right and back
again.
You may notice that objects nearer to you appear to be moving in the opposite direction of the way
your head is going. But objects farther away from you seem to follow the direction of your head.

(28. Stages of Perception

Ans. There are five states of perception which are: stimulation, organization, interpretation, memory,
and recall.
1. Stimulation: The occurrence of sensory stimulation basically this part of perception process
involves in contact with a particular stimulus. The world is full of stimuli that can attract our
attention through various senses. Thus we are able to describe systematically the sights, sound, smell
and taste that populate our conscious experience Stimulation includes selective attention and
selective exposure. Selective attention occurs by anticipating fulfill needs and prove enjoyable (Rooks
& Willson, 2000, Devito, 2009). For example, friends talking to you but you were daydreaming. You
won't hear what they are saying until they called out your name. Selective exposure occurs by
exposing information that will confirm an existing beliefs, contributing to objectives and having a
state of satisfaction. As we are not able to percept everything that is happening around us
simultaneously, we tend to engage in selective perception; perceiving only positive things. For
example, after buying a laptop, one’s tend to read more online or asked people around that the
product one’s bought is good because we want to tell ourselves that we make the right decision and
avoid negative feedback
2. Organization: The capacity to identify and recognize objects and events is crucial for normal
perception. Without that capacity, people cannot effectively use their senses. Perception which
organized by rules, schemata and scripts. Organized by rules, people perceive things that are
physically close together constitute a unit. People developed schemata from actual experiences as
well as vicarious experience from daily activities or from television, reading or hearsay ( Devito ,
2009) Some familiarity represented in mind will be some kind of scherna. This would help one’s

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perception to categories into number of categories. However, it may cause perception errors as it
influences one’s to perceive non existence things or miss seeing things in presence. A scriptis a form
of scherna that focuses on action, event or procedure. It is a process of how we behaved and how we
organized it with our own action which organized by a pattern
3. Interpretation-Evaluation: In this interpretation-evaluation stage it is two process of stimuli by
individual experiences, needs, wants, values, expectations, physical and emotional state, gender and
beliefs meaning based on by individual’s rules, schemata and scripts. For example meeting a new
person who is a doctor, one’s tend to view this person as someone serious, successful, health
conscious, academic strong. In other words, evaluating individuals depending on one’s own script
the way individual behave and perform the action appropriate or inappropriate
4. Memory: After undergoing the stages of stimulation, organization and interpretation-evaluation,
this leads us to another stage called memory. It is a storage of both perception and interpretation-
evaluation that are kept according to scripts and schemas Events or experiences is not the objective of
recollection but is more likely heavily influenced by individuals preconceptions and individuals
schemata
5. Recall: After some time, the memory that are stored individuals want to recall certain information.
Recall stage reconstruct what individual heard in a way that are meaningful. Recall information that
consistent with schemas. However failure to do so, it is inconsistent with schemas. Recall information
drastically contradicts one’s schema because it forces individual to think or even rethink

Q9. Psychology: As a Science

Ans. In the beginning, psychology was a part of philosophy. It moved away from philosophy and
became an independent discipline approximately 138 years ago. ‘Psychology has a short history but a
long past’, this remark was made by Hermann Ebbinghaus over a century ago, which is a kind of
reflection on Greek philosophers who wrote on human nature. Thus, Greek philosophers like Socrates
(428-348 BCE), Plato (428-347 BCE) and Aristotle (384-322 BCE) tried to explain human mind and its
relationship to the physical body as early as 4 BCE. Socrates famous thought ‘know thyself’
emphasized on the importance of self and personal reflection. Later on, French philosopher René
Descartes (1596-1650) considered pineal gland (body physiology) as the ‘seat of the soul’, the place
where all thoughts are formed. The success of experimental methods in physics motivated some
scientists to use experiments to study mind and behavior. One of the first scientists to study
psychological processes was the German physiologist Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887), who
studied psychophysics, a branch of psychology. The first laboratory was established in 1879 in
Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920).In 1883 in the USA, the first formal psychology
laboratory was set up in John Hopkins University by Wundt’s student, G. Stanley Hall (1644
1924).There was much progress, but moving away from philosophy was quite difficult, American
Psychological Association (APA) started in 1892 and Hall became its first president. William James
(1842-1910) wrote the first textbook on psychology known as “The Principles of Psychology”. The
psychologists, in the beginning, had an empirical approach to understand thinking, attention,
imagery, etc. The experiments were done to study the mind and mental experiences. Gradually,
different schools of thought came up with different viewpoints about the nature of the study of
psychology. They emphasized that the focus should be on the study of behavior rather than the mind.
(1) Structuralism: The main focus is on analyzing the basic structures of the human mind. This
view is known as structuralism. It is associated with Wilhelm Wundt and Edward
Titchener (Wundt’s student). Wundt believed that consciousness could be broken into
thoughts, experiences, emotions and other basic elements. The process to examine and
measure one’s subjective experience objectively was known as objective introspection.
Objectivity here refers to unbiased approach and this was the first atternpt to bring
objectivity and measurement in psychology. Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927) became
interested in knowing the structure of the mind. With structuralism came an active interest

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 in knowing the elements of consciousness. Structuralism was very strong in the beginning,
but faded out in 1900s.
(2) Functionalism: This view was strongly influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection
(functionalists believed that the theory could be applied to psychological characteristics)
and the focus of study was functions of mind and behavior (like learning, memory,
problem-solving and motivation) John Dewey (1859-1952) developed functionalism,
focusing on what the mind and behavior do and how they enable a person to adapt to new
and complex situations. William James (1842- 1910), the main contributor, was concerned
on how the mind allows people to function in the real world. This approach came to be
known as functionalism. James established psychology laboratory at Harvard University.
(3) Gestalt Psychology: Later psychologists conducted experiments to study sensations in
order to know how the mind functions. In 1912, Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka
(1886-1941) and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) founded gestalt psychology in Germany.
They emphasized upon the whole notion of sensory experience, connecting the sensations
to relations and organization as a whole. They studied the mind by applying the principles
of organization to human behavior.
(4) Behaviourism: This school originated with John B.Watson (1879-1958) and Burrhus
Fredrick Skinner (1904-1990), who disregarded mind as the matter of study and stressed
that psychology should study only observable forms of behavior, ignoring the covert
processes. They gave more importance to the study of behavior and what activities animals
or humans engage in. Watson emphasized on conditioned responses, learned behavior and
animal behavior. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), a physiologist whose studies of
digestion won him the Nobel Prize in 1904, concluded that stimuli other than food, may
produce salivation and this led him to study conditioned reflex in detail.
(5) Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis was founded by Austrian psychiatrist, Sigmund Freud
(1856-1938). Freud proposed that unconscious motivation plays an important role in
nervous disorders and stressed the importance of early childhood experiences in
personality development. Freud believed that urges and drives are expressed in behavior
and thought. The focus is on the role of unconscious thoughts, memories and feelings.
These unconscious thoughts and memories were revealed through free-talk and dream
interpretation, in a process called psychoanalysis. Freud influenced psychologists like Carl
Jung (1875-1961), Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Karen Horney (1855-1952) and Erik Erikson
(1902-1994). There approach was known as psychodynamic approach and were referred as
Neo-F eudians.
(6) Humanistic Perspective: Also known as ‘third force’ in psychology, focused on people’s
ability to direct their own lives. The key features are free-will, freedom to choose one’s
destiny, strive for self-actualization, and achievement of one’s own potential. The main
founders are Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987).
(7) Cognitive Perspective: The gestalt approach and the development of computers stimulated
interest in studying higher-order mental processes. This perspective gained prominence in
1960s and focused on memory, intelligence, language, problem-solving, and decision
making. Main contributors are German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909),
who started the study on memory by investigating the formation of associations by
learning serial lists of nonsense syllables, and the English psychologist, Sir Frederic Bartlett
(1886-1969), who studied the cognitive and social processes of remembering.
(8) Sociocultural Perspective: The main focus is on social and cultural factors that influence
behavior. Research from this perspective is important because it can highlight the different
influences of environment, social norms, class differences, ethnic identity, etc. Sociocultural
psychologists concluded that norms of western cultures are primarily towards
individualism and norms from east Asian cultures are primarily oriented towards
collectivism or interdependence. Social psychologist Leon Festinger (1919-1989) proposed

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 cognitive dissonance theory that states that a person is aware at some level if she or he acts
inconsistent with her or his belief, attitude or opinion.
(9) Biological Perspective: It is concerned with the biological bases of behavior and mental
processes. Role of nervous system, hormones, brain chemicals, and glandular system are
the biological causes of behavior, and they are the focus of research.
(10) Evolutionary Perspective: This perspective is inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of
natural selection. Evolution was first proposed by Darwin which involves three basic
components, namely, variation, inheritance and selection. The internal mechanisms are
adaptations and are products of natural selection that has helped the humans (living
species) to survive and reproduce world over. Evolutionary psychologists believe that the
behavioural predispositions or tendencies, such as ‘aggression’, is determined by genes and
which is transfered from one generation to the next. Research from evolutionary
perspective examines behaviour (aggression, mating, etc.) in different species, which may
be influenced by evolution. They also give importance to sociocultural factors that could
have led to the actual behaviours. David Buss is one of the main founders of evolutionary
psychology

Q10. Cognitive learning.

Ans. Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn how to
maximize your brain’s potential. It makes it easier for you to connect new information with existing
ideas hence deepening your memory and retention capacity.
The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain information through experience,
senses, and thought is known as cognition.
Components of Cognitive Learning
Traditional learning mainly focuses on memorization instead of trying to achieve mastery in a
particular subject.
The following are fundamental aspects of cognitive learning:
Comprehension: For cognitive learning to be efficient and benefit you, understand the reason
why you are learning a specific subject in the first place.
Memory: Cognitive learning discourages cramming of information, which is very ineffective
in education. Having a deep understanding of a subject improves your ability to relate new
knowledge with previous experiences or information.
Application: Cognitive learning strategies help you apply new information or skills in life
situations. They encourage you as you continue to develop problem-solving skills.
Benefits of Cognitive Learning: The following are the major positive effects of cognitive learning:
Enhances learning: Cognitive learning theory enhances lifelong learning. Workers can build
upon previous ideas and apply new concepts to already existing knowledge
Boosts confidence: Employees become more confident in approaching tasks as they get a
deeper understanding of new topics and learn new skills.
Enhances Comprehension: Cognitive learning improves learners’ comprehension of acquiring
new information. They can develop a deeper understanding of new learning materials.
Improves problem-solving skills: Cognitive learning equips employees with the skills they
need to learn effectively. They are thereby able to develop problem-solving skills they can
apply under challenging tasks.
Help learn new things faster: Through the experience of learning, the ernployee will be able to
recycle and use the same learning methods that worked previously. This will help them learn
new things a lot faster as they already know what works for them when it comes to obtaining
new knowledge.
Teaches to form concept formation (think abstract): Cognitive learning can also teach your
employees to form a range of different concepts such as easily perceiving and interpreting
information that could boost creativity and lead to innovations at the workplace.

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Cognitive Learning Strategies: Several psychologists have shaped the concept of cognitive learning
through research. They came up with theories and learning strategies that can be implemented in a
corporate learning environment.
Learner-centered strategy: Jean Piaget termed learning as relating information to already existing
knowledge. And each learner starts with their own knowledge and experience.
According to his theories, learning begins with the accumulation of some basic knowledge and
advancing deeper into the field with time.
Piaget suggested three vital components of learning:
e Accommodation - taking new information into account by modifying what we already know.
e §©Assimilation - the arrangement of new knowledge inside our heads beside what we know.
e = Equilibration - balancing what we already know with the new information that we are trying
to acquire.
Each company should develop their training programs with a personalized learning approach to
make it engaging for their employees to achieve better results.
To achieve that L&D professionals should focus on the following points:
e Develop and introduce their programs based on already existing knowledge.
e Provide more analogies to connect new knowledge with already existing knowledge.
e Divide learning materials into stages and maintain a logical flow of lessons taught.
e Provide examples or practical tasks that show how new information or principles can connect
with previous knowledge, or enhance it.
e Encourage questions and comments from trainees.
Meaningful Experiences strategy
David Ausubel made a clear distinction between meaningful learning and rote learning.
According to him, material that was closely related to what the learner knew was meaningful and
always turned out to be effective.
Learners with relevant background knowledge find it easier to add new information.
During the training of learners in an organization:
e There should be an emphasis on the meaningfulness of each session to the task at hand.
e Background information on new material is essential.
e New information should be instilled in learners in a sequence to build on what is already
understood.

Q11. Language in Infants.

Ans. A baby's first words are music to a parent's ears. But how can you tell if your child's speech and
language development is on track?
While every child learns to speak at his or her own pace, general milestones can serve as a guide to
normal speech and language development. These milestones help doctors and other health care
providers determine when a child might need extra help.
By the end of 3 months
By the end of three months, your child might:
e Smile when you appear
Make cooing sounds
Quiet or smile when spoken to
Seem to recognize your voice
e Cry differently for different needs
By the end of 6 months
By the end of six months, your child might
e Make gurgling sounds when playing with you or left alone
e Babble and make a variety of sounds
e Use his or her voice to express pleasure and displeasure
e Move his or her eyes in the direction of sounds

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 e Respond 10 changes in the tone of your voice
e Notice that some toys make sounds
e Pay attention to music
By the end of 12 months
By the end of 12 months, your child might
e §6Try imitating speech sounds
e = 5489 afew words, such as "dada," "Mama" and “uh-oh"
e Understand simple instructions, such as “Come here"
© Recognize words for common items, such as “shoe”
e Turn and look in the direction of sounds
By the end of 18 months
By the end of 18 months, your child might
© Recognize names of familiar people, objects and body parts
e Follow simple directions accompanied by gestures
e Say as many as 10 words
By the end of 24 months
By the end of 24 months, your child might
e Use simple phrases, such as “more milk”
Ask one- to two-word questions, such as "Go bye-bye?"
Follow simple commands and understand simple questions
Speak about 50 or more words
Speak well enough to be understood at least half the time by-you or other primary caregivers

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