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By the end of this readings, you should have prett}: good o\’ei‘view of how
a
perception pi*oce.~:,<es zittetl _V’UL11‘ interpersonai connnnnicatinfg.

I I7f€7‘pI‘€liZ’€ C0irzpez‘eiice.'
How We [~’::’i'Cei*ee ,l}i(ll?’lL"l1{{?l5, Rvlatitiizs/zips,
and Social Eeciiis
rah Tren hol in an d Artlm 1‘ jenzsen

Io inteiumt with others suc<.:e.~’sfull}‘ requires .1 wealth of serial knowledge. You

lflttbl be able to per(ei\‘e the iiifoi‘i1mtioii in }uui’ :sot;i.il em irennienl i3i“i‘iii‘.1l,:*l3‘
ei1oLi;_;l1 to l\fl0\\' which of the hundreds of schemata in your li1L‘11lt)l‘}‘ b&I1l\ are
the best ones to pull out of the Vault. This is, of course, :1 Very complicated oper-
ation. Cognitive ps_\‘cimlof.;ists: a re just beginning to Linderstancl how we do it. We
have tried to simplify the problem by hi gh lighting fou r perceptual processes that
people engage in before, during, and after social interaction. These include iden-
tit‘_ving ( i) What the situation is, (2) who the other person is, (3) who you are and
what kind of 1‘el.iti0nship between self and other is implied, and (4) why things
unfold the we-’a»\e' they do. Let"s examine each of these processes more closely.

SIZING UP SITUATIONS

The more we know about the particuiar situations in which we interact with
others, the more lil<elV we are to produce effective messages. We propose three
useful ways to manage situations: (1) identifying episodes, (2) lmowing scripts,
and (3) pei‘cei\fing potential con.~;equences of following \'LZl'lptS.

Orienting Ourselves: Episode identification

A\[ one time or another, we lmxe all been in sitiiatioiis; where we didn't lxnow
wliat mus going on O1” wliai to do Visitiiig ii tiireign Culture or ljieing initiated
into .3 E1(?F(>l’if\'01‘i:I‘.li{‘I‘lTil}’8l't‘(‘\”fili§f7l€‘Si‘li:\i‘l"1lCi'ilt>Ti§~i‘l7d’f.’lT‘E‘l‘IOlV{‘l”V\VE‘llClL"
fined for us‘. l<novrii1g the $lfU(lii(\l‘l can make interactions murli easzier. in its
$‘lJ1“t}"l{">l form a sitiiiition is "is plmge plus B: tlefiiiition.'” When we enter (1 place,
our liirzsl tzisk is; to mieiit ourselx es or get our hearings. L me wally to «la; this is to
ask the signple qll€:~ll£)H ”Wliere ain £7" We linil {,)li£’t%.t‘,l\’t‘:-,~ in J wi‘iety of plaeezs
L‘\’¢.;’1‘\‘ gliijgt in ll,1,t‘kj«.ll‘, at hoiine or vmrlx, in the :§liL)pplil§,: in¢1ll,at the /no, Ll'lLU't.’ll,
xi‘ 3;’ 35»
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i>tiildi:n;; place tor wtirsliip, wetid.in§,:s, ice CI‘t‘d’t‘f‘t Socials, ex en

can serve as it
l.~iii§_:tw. in ctimmiinicate dppI‘UPt‘ldt'¢:‘l_\‘ reqiiiifes‘ that we reeu;;ni/e the ph\s‘ic‘til

and S{)i§,ldl cues that define the episode o1'at:ti\'it}; that is taicing place. liiach cul~
tute has an €tI‘i‘a_\ of ::;0cial episodes or activities far its members. to fellow. Im-
the ‘mdividual, social episodes are ’’internal co;;:iiti\'e representtititms almut
cummeii, t‘tZ’Ct.11‘t‘lHg i1itei'a<:ti<;m routines witliiii a detined citltuml inilieii.”
Swine txpical .<ncial epismies? l laving A big familfa dinner‘, attendin_~; .1 pa rent—
teacher cnntei‘ence, planniiig .1 part)’, }.§0.SSlpll1}_;. How do we i\i‘lU\\' which
episodes to enact.‘ Often we hate as particular episede in mind when we iI"iii‘ltll8
it c0n\'e1‘s.1titm with SOHlL’0l‘tL‘. l’erlitips _\‘tiu lxnnw =,~omeene who lll\L‘.\ to "pick
tiglitza" er t‘ease ti l‘t”t)tl‘tL‘t‘ or sister in mdei‘ to get him tit her riled up. Often en-
acting an episode is a pmcess mt negotiation»mane pt‘I‘F~()ft sitegests an aetixlity,
tml\' tu hate the other cotmtei‘ with aiintliei‘ option, as in this‘ ccm\'ei\tititm:
l, \t;RA: i noticed that kiiiart is liavine, .1 sale on iawn tI1U?\?€3t‘S.
hi I): This is the UIll_\' evening I'm free all weelx. l don't want to spend it :«hnp—
ping for .1 lawn iiiowei‘. Besides, the Battle of the }\l.icl< Triicl\:’;. is guiiig on at
the ta i rgrou ds liCml‘21_l\li.
11

Social intemeticm is .1 continuous dance in which participants accept and de~

time each ut:her"s invitations to enact different episodes. For instance, when two
old ttiends liaxe ti chance meeting on the street, the question ’’Can buy you gt J

di'inl<?" is an imitation to engage in the episode of ”tall<ing over old times.” Re-
fusing the drink because you are not thirsty would he niissiiig the point—~ it
would reflect a failure to recognize the ot'liei"s detinition of the situatitm.

Using Scripts to Guide Interaction: Open, Closed, and

Defined Episodes
\\7hen penple play out an episnde, they may also follnw a script. ;\s we hm e
seen, a script lb .i l1lgl“Il\' predictable .‘>L‘k]Ll¥3llCt.‘ ml‘ events. ‘Some L‘lJ5:%t‘U0t]1 learn-
in;,: episedes are highly acripted; others are itf‘tUt. For emmple, \’OtI max’ be alile
tn predict (from experiemel that E,‘\'t‘t'\ \\'edtiestlaV t"nUI'l’llt,t&I, \ um‘ liistttty pm-
t't.-sst;>i' xx ill cail the roll, hand out (3 qui/, collect the qiii/3/es, lecture tor It) min-
utes, and end the class with a htimerotis tmeedi >te. The more E,-‘l~‘.,iCii,{.‘fLll\ll,{,) the xeo
t’Jiieiit‘e mt L‘\it_‘tll\. the tHU]‘t‘ ‘~tfripted the intemclitm is. ;\I‘tt,3llit’l‘ «ijltiw mgw lie
tdtiglit mi dittei‘ently' that jytiu never l\1'3U\\.' tat‘ sure wlmt will happen in a gix en
t;ili~.<. peimd. Beth eéstamples are t[l€tSSl‘(>UlTt episodes, but {mix the that due tnle
luws J cle.i1‘l_\' identifiable ~xft'it‘.l.
tietiptx and epi>(')Cle- are UtS{‘l>ttlgttitlestGi11lL’t‘€tCilUH. ldeiititiying the episede
tltll'l‘DVCS the t‘:m;_;e at pn~..»il:ile tictitmss and i”edt*tit>1ii<. lxiitmtiiig the sttipt lTltll\l‘*~
it int tits‘ ex en §'!1Ht'r.,‘ §Jtetlit_t;il>l_e. \liclmt'! tit‘:-i‘izie:' l‘ttiti~ §‘r':>1“ic>>»i_2-.l 9’l’tt:t ifli“ :’ii._i~

3
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14!?
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lilo“ of 'i1ll'BI‘$§it‘lilO1‘l. Rituals such as gl't‘€f.‘ilt*..‘,'S and rel gious {)l”’Stf,'£‘\'dt1CL‘F~ are closed
i

episodes. Xianjy business twgatiizatioiis tighth‘ script interactions hi‘ training

their personnei to follow carefulhs deviseti sets of pro::edures: it you’\‘e exer ap-
plied tor a loan at a hanlx, it on hax e pl‘t\bdl‘l§' partmpated in a closed episode. iou
liJ\‘L‘ a standard set of tiuestiongs you want answereti {the loan rate, fixed or Vari~
able, length oi‘ repaynient, a nd so on) and so does the loan oftirei‘ iincoine, cola
lateral, address, credit ret'ei‘ence_s‘, and so on}. Utlier, iless t1‘>rinal, interactions a re
also somewhat scripted. An episode of "sinail talk" has a iiznited raittge of topics,
although the sequence in which these topics are discussed t7tc'1,}‘ \ ai‘}".

Open Episodes When participants ente a situation \\ ithout any pJ‘t‘CO1lCt3i\‘t‘Ll.

1*

plan Oi‘ with a \ter’\‘ 5./§eiiet'al one, they are i.n\‘ol\ted in an open episode. In such
situations there is greater tireedom to Create new forms oi‘ interaction and to
change episodes inidwa}: tlirou;.;h. Episodes such as “liangiiig out with trieiids”
are sometimes seripteti, but not al\\'a_\:sp Wihen almost anything can he intro»
duced as a topic of CO11\'€t‘sJ tion or an acti vity to pet‘f01‘m, the episode is an open
one. .~\n orchestra pei‘ftii‘ii1iiig a (lohn Philip Sousa march is clearl_\' tollowingz a
inusicai script, but a group of musicians having a ”ja1"n .sessio,n” is not. The free-
dom to iinprovisie or break the rules is typical of an open episode. Some open
episodes niay he titisettling, since there is no clear idea of what should be done
next. Perhaps you haw been in situations where nobody seemed to know what
to do. We l<now of an instru::tor wliose routine on the first day of class was to
walk into the room, assunie the lotus position on top of his desk, and say noth-
ing for the first ha it of the class. His point was to show how communication is
used to define ambiguous sitiiations. E\‘entuall_\‘, students would l9L‘f;§lT1 talking
to one another, trying to figtire out w hat he was doing. From the students’ point
of View, this was an open episode.

Defined Episodes \\'hile closed episodes are lgnoxyn to he such in adxaiice as

a result of e\pectations, many situations are defined "in p1‘ogi‘e:-is" as partit"i~
pants follow their tmsri personal goals and plans to achieve a i\oi‘l<ing consen-
sus. l7.\'en so, the consensus is often tempot*ar\'——detinitions of the situation may
tail apart as L]Lti(‘l\l\—" as the\ de\ elop, 53: defined episode is an open episode in
\\.fi1ltfl1 the participants are tt'v\,'lH:_:’) to t,ie;;otiate some rlo::sure. the tlit7tei‘t~iice is
that open episodes e~<pei'ieiiceci as creatixe and lilvei*atin},:;: defined episzotles
are
are t‘otnpetiti\‘e attempts to Control the actix ity. l‘it‘€i"tllt;3f suggests that defined
epi;sode;s a ft,‘ often amhi:_;uous and iiii:_sti‘tictui‘etiI' interat tions because each part~
net‘ nia}; he pioposing dl’£Pt‘l‘l£3i”l\'t‘ di rectit vns it at the episode. For e>:ample, a not~
vet} —3_;ood salespersoii niielit initiate a “saies episode" but ex» entualli’ succuinb
to a (‘lt‘\’t,‘t‘~l‘ttl“tlt’l‘\'X illin;,;—to—l_ui\‘ t i1s‘totiiei"s definition of the situation as
7<}i’itt’;,‘. the bns‘<:ae," A zvwrnaiitic mreniiig 2.11:1 be spoiled tlliit ~:ly \,\ hen it can,»

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§\§eedles« to say, they ended up doing, nothing but ta king about nhiit they Could l

be deiiiie. Chances are none at the persons inxolxved planned to spend the
evening; that way, but our ohse1'V.‘itioiis lead us to helie\‘e that these two Cemples
ii‘Cultlt‘Hll_\ end up plti\'in;: this "\\‘lmt‘ do yet: ngiiit to do toni;:,l‘it" episode.
;Xltlioii;_:,h we min lllilll\ that t‘lo-'ed episiodes are too limiting and Valtit‘
open ones for the freedom they prm ide, step and think how chaotic :;0e:iai lite
would he without am \x'ell~d.efined or scripted episodes. The important thing,
of C011 rse, is that we ietoggriize the t ypes. of epiéeodes others propose so that we
an accept the invitation or decline gl‘tlCt‘i:Llll\.

identifying Consequences of Episodes and Scripts

?~%ometiines it is just as important to perceive the piweesible outcoines of a szitum
tion, lll\L‘ the el‘I€E~i:» plin er wlio sees sexeml moves. ahead, as it is to properlx‘ la~
hel that sitiiation. We can axoid detrimental outcomes it we Call see them Com-
mg. Salespeople often use the t1‘ied~and—tme "ye.~i technique" to set up
zzmvitting customers. they ask questions that seem unrelated to selling their
procluet, such as ”;’\i*t~ those lovely photographs of ‘t/UHF’ Children?” or ”l’Ve had
11 hard time catching you i1thome.You inust work cl\\'iLtl,l}’l0I1gl‘I0ttI‘S.H The cus-
aoiner's automatic ”}‘e_s” in response to each question or comment establishes .1
Eabittial pattern that could cost a lot of rnoney at the end of the episode.
Follo\x'ing a script can lead to positive or 1‘tL‘}.;allV’t3 outcomes. Sometimes
we know the script so well that we ca n tell our friends what they are going to
my next. it we finish the sentence for them, they niay be gratified that we Lin-
~ lerstand them so well or offended that we cut them off. Another negative con-
seqtieiice is that scripted interactions ca n hecome l7Ol'lU}; or even d amage a re-
mtionship if repeated too Often. Researchers xv ho study marital Conflict
;§‘»‘£./1tlf€‘1"ll>t)l:t€f'l comment that couples get caught up in "conflict :stiript.s” that nei~
éher perrson intended to start but hoth felt C0tlipL‘l,l(‘,Cl to see to the bitter
»nd owe the episode lwgtiii. ;\nd as we haxte alreadv seen, e\peetin;_; the inter-
—“\,il()1l to tollon’ a Set'lPlL1iil pi‘e\'ent us from pei‘cei\'in;.; iinportaiit iiie.~;sag;es the
:3€'l‘t{’1‘i‘lm\ he aetmling our xuiy. l‘oltlo\\'in}.a; the seript ca n dl.::‘() limit t‘i'eatixrity, but
lazily’ it \\ e remain tied mmpletel}> to the Script. \linor alteration», improvisa-
tions, and other fttsrim «it playing with the script an add same ~t'tlU;‘ to everxe K

tax’ intemt tion<.

SIZING U P PEOP L [E

we lttlviklff, We Lottie to an ttt'ttlt‘t‘\l't'lllCliftf;_{ of \\l1(ti' other people are lll\t‘.

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- £3‘: ' » 'T;i§%;:;: are‘ ttititit Peg.

3
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The Use of Personal Constructs to ludge Others

. lkzrsonal COll.*:liTtlCiZS [are] mental yai*dstit;l<s tor t‘\5tlll..1dlll‘tg obieets, events,
and people. . F~in<;e eonstrticts sire "pei‘soiml," no two people will Lise them in
. .

t'\tit‘tl3* the some way. ‘fort and l lTlE‘1_\ l"(Vil1Ol‘$€€’I‘\’€‘ Bill eating; a sandwicli in two
lwites, t‘I1tl>€iIaI‘d di‘ilotvling LiC}\\'{1lit:5 thin. ion may think he is “;i;;;;ressix:t"’ wliile
l .irgiie that he is ”11iess\"’ ariti "impolite." \\‘h.it' we see in others is ti combina-

tion tiil,lie‘it‘Cteigtldll‘L‘l1J\‘lOt‘.t1”3Cl our personal Construct of their behavior. Tliese

mnstructs szrv 85 much about jasoit and me as they’ do about ltiiil.
liveii though we each use tiitterent eoiisttrtutts to judge otliers. we do use
them in .~iniil.ir \\1r\'s. ‘Steven l)ucl< lias noted A t_\’pit‘.il pattern in the use of tour
klii:l:L‘l‘€’Ill l<:intls of coiistrticttsii The tour t_vpes are:

l’hx:siCal Coii<.triitfts ttaii—.<hort, l‘Ga1tlIl,fttl~L1f.Zl\"l

0

Role coiistriicts (buyer-seliei‘, tetieher-stutient)

interaction t‘onstruets ttrientll}‘—hostile, polite-rude)
l’s_Vcliolo;;;iical constructs (i1lt3il\‘di“€tl-lZ1Z_\", lxlllfl-LTi1L‘ll
0

Our initial impressions are trequentlx‘ based on plrvsieal attributes~—we tai<e

stock of how people are clressed or how attractive they are. These are quiel<l_\>
tolloxigetl by the formation or role constructs as we try to ma ke sense out of each
other’s position in the social World. As we talk, We ina_\j focus attention on in-
teraction constructs, or aspects of the other’s style of com munica tion. Fiiially, we
use these obsewations to infer wltat 1n.il<es the other ilkjlx (psy<:liolo«_;ical
tonstructs')—i\'e begin to gtiess at motixiations and build persoimlity for the 1.]

other. When we reach this last stage, we have gone beyond sirnply interpreting
what we see and hear; \\*e’\'e begun to assurne that we know things about the
persoin that we can't see.

Implicit Personality Theory: Organizing Trait Impressions

We don't simply form isolated opinions of other people; rather, we or;.;aiiixe all
of our i1'lCli\'lClLltll percjeptioiis into (l more complete picture by titling: in a lot oi
inissiiie inforrntition. One of the ways we Lit} this is through wliat is referred to
.15 an implicit personality theory. lhis is the lieliet on our part that LTt‘l'lt‘tlll in-

t_llVlLl,ll{ll traits A re related to other traits. line ol'>>+er\'e a trait that We think is part
of a tsiuster, use will assiitne that the person atso hm the rest oi the traits in the
«luster. llicli it}l.:ll:'Jl_‘lkl.5()lll_'§l\\:(11ll(.)tl()£l.5\lf‘\'l_‘lCllll»-(lift; go totzetliei". lot some. the
traits tor C0t1_‘~i1'tlCl5l "intelli;gent,” ”t]uiet,” and “t7riencil\ Did/Y rltister i’UgCllt0t'.
"

lfvye otiserx e tiehax ior that we interpret‘ as l:‘i‘i€‘tiCil’\' anti quiet, we iltEt\" then at~
tribute iiitelligeiiee to that person ix'ithout mi}; l‘lt’:>l.'lh}tlLl ex itleiice. . . .

:32, tit» 23; 12;. re; tr, *it*e'.‘§'%_§ ts

M12

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1.11
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iintl), the ,self~fulfilliiig_; pi‘opliet‘y lll\'Ol\'t‘>" both perception mm! beli.i\'ior. let
i.i!‘l‘t< when one pei1<oii—-tlie tibserxei‘——~-»—belie\‘iii}: >ometliiii;.; to be true about
.i7UlllL’I' pt‘I'SUit~~ii3t’ tat';.:t‘t—~lw;_:iiis .lL‘llItg toimiti the target as it the belief \\‘t‘t‘€
t. this J(ll{>I1}‘1't'3111pt’S the target to behaxe in line with the obsei‘\"ei"s e\peti—
\

stioiis‘. lt _\’0U heliex e yoiir trieml is "toL.it?h\',"’ you are lilgel} to ansid seii.~»itix‘e
pit» and be more hesitant in what you say‘. lhe effect of your beliti\‘ioi‘7 Your
wentl l?t‘CO131€S OV€it7:$€hSll‘i\ e l‘L‘(dtlf~1L‘ _i/on are acting ()\"L‘i‘S0,l,].Cll0t15. LiI“td\.\'d1'L’
hll you helped create the pl‘lk‘l\'l.\' atiiiospliete, you say to }'oiii'selt, ".\I_\' God,
true. You catft say’ €iI’t}»’ll1lIt}_.’, to him."
«

ugnitive Complexity: Factors Affecting

m pression Formation

.- forms impt‘e5sioiis< in the slime xmy. Ob5€‘I'\'t‘l‘5 tlitlei' in the num-

it L‘\"t?I‘}i'L}[1,&‘
"t'tt11Cl qLtCtlll_\' of personal eoii.s'ti‘tit‘ts they use to evaluate others. .»\ cognitively
wmplex pei‘son's S_\'SlL‘I1l is greatei‘ in number of persoiml tfon.~«ti‘tit‘ts (ili'if}i'i‘t’i2tf—
.«-:1), ititjludes more abstmct ps}'elit>lo;,;ic:il eategories lizlllfillltltillltllll, and has
i ore elaborate xmys of relating Various construet.<. (i2zteg;'zItz't>;1).‘‘ .\ cogniti\‘ely
mple P€I‘S()}1 has fewer, less abstmct eonstriiets about people and \*ie\\‘s those
Itf~»lt'L1C’[>T as relatively isolated im pI‘L‘SSlO1‘tS. Let’S look at an example compar-

; the two extremes.

Suppose Pat and Chris ob.~ser\*e A\”1L1I.\V1-» on several occasions. The_\‘ a re both
H sent when Marvin (1) cheats on an English test, (2) takes Cl1£ti'gL‘ and gets

eryone out of a burning building, 3) refuses to help with a clmrity car wash,
(

helps a friend study for a tiittietilt math test, (5) embarrasses another friend
pointing out her faults in front of a large group of people, and (o) always
«*9 blood when there is an oppoi‘tunit}'.

it you waiit to test _voLii's«elt, you mi;.;ht Write tlmvn _V'our own impi'e.s>-ion of
1l‘\'lt'1 before i‘eadit1g on lhen come bticlx and read the impi‘es~;ioiis that Lhris
l’at formed.
=.l

lo Pat, ;\laif\'iii is ”tall and ligmdsome, but ext:‘emel_\' :selti:;li, tlitiitiult to get
ht; with, and not ti‘tist\x'oi‘tli\.” \\hen remindeti of some of the positiw tliiiigs
i «t'\ in ltd: ClOl’1E?,,ljalSl‘l1'L1;I,S and ,‘~tl\H, l 1'5 just a front. The real ,\lar\'iu lw L‘ll.il‘lLl(1l'.l”
"

lo Chris, ”Marvin S€t,‘iD.‘~ sellisli ix hen he is unsure of himgselt, but quite 5t‘lf~
\\l1€R he knows he can help out. ,‘\tllLllA\/Vii} also Very outspolwii {llltl «lii'et:t»—-~
i

ri\ 9 what is on his; mind. it he hel le\ es in a cause, he’ll St}.pp{[.!l“l it, it he tlt>t~9n’t
‘?!l\ll',SlIIl?OffEif1lCl’1€ won't ;_;i\ e it the time of clay." Chris 5111115 up .\ltll‘\ ink be-
ioi‘ as being motivated hi hi.» iiiwt ui‘it_\': "lti he CliClh’t \»’\'Ut'h\' so iiiut li about
H i;; imtieetl, he wotiltlifit m.il\e himself lool\' 50 had. He liasi real potential."

\\h\' are these two llt‘tpt‘t‘\.\lHtt.~» w tlllillL’l't.‘Ul'/.7 l’.it u5es fewer’, more t'oiit‘i“ete
~t:‘z.sa_t:~ ttwt’ ”'t;ill tlllkl ll«i?'lt_l-<,\§'Ett_’l3 mzva mm li -._>l lltt‘ ll'*,,ll!,,?§"
.1

e tiéj; i:2te\;/.;.,gr V L -',<‘;7.;J:£3i,ié:3{?;€;§§"tZ:¥ ‘ i

144
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Chris has arrixed at a more subtle under§t.indin;_: rut Marvin, retfxigiiiziiig aitua-
tional constraints as well as p5§'eliolo;.;ieal motivations.
Research lms shown cognitiveii‘ complex persoiis to he more accurate in
proeessiiig intorination about others, better at placing them.<el\’es in the role of
the other person, and more patient in weigliing most of the evidence before for-
mulating ii complete lI11pl‘CS~iSiOIt.'- Less complex indi\ ideals tend to either SIlL'l§
with their original impression and i§.=;nore coiitratlitftorv information or to
cliaiige the impression to tit the most recent information they lftd\’L‘.R l‘he}' lack
the ability to integrate the cimstructs they use into a more conipiete imaf2,e of
others.
Considering the CliffL*i‘eT1(‘L‘5 between more x.‘0IEt}‘>lt‘.‘< and Iesa cornplex per-
sons, }'oi1 iiiiglit get the li‘flp£'t’S5l,()n that the more eoniplex, the better. .>\ctuall}j,
it depends on the situation and the other person. imagine Pat and Chris talking
to each other. lhey would prolmbly d rive each other ci‘az}: Pat would claim that
Chris thinks too much and antilyzes eveiylvody. Chris would charge Pat with
inaking snap iudgnients. ln. general, complex persons are more \'C1,'SdIllL’ in so~
cial situations and better at CI‘OS»S~CUliLi].'al adaptation. But a erigniti\'ely com- . . .

plex person is not l1t’C€SSJlTIl}' a ”better" person. Like any of US, sucli (1 person
can abuse his or her abilities by being unethical, insensitixre, and so on.

SIZING UP RELATIONSHIPS

As read the situation and form impressions of the other, we also face the per-
we
ceptual task of determining W hat relevant aspects of self tit the situation and
how the L‘n1€I‘gli1g relationship between self and other should be interpreted.

Self-Monitoring: Deciding Who to Be

. . Just as we term inipressions of othera, we form and present iinages of our-
.

selves to others. The awmeness of images of self and the iIl7IlI{}' to adapt these
ii“IlCi_\.§CS to the situation at hand has been referred to as self-inoniitoringfi .~\ liigh

selhmrgmittar tends to read the social situation tirst and then p1‘(,‘5€I‘tiZ an apple»
priate ta(‘e, as opposede to simplx’ mesentiiig a (0nSi5lCt1t iitizrge of Self in every‘
aitiiatieir
f\larl\' .‘;It\'L‘lL’t‘ (li&1"at'lL’t'lXL‘.H the difference between a liigii and low »elt~
monitor in the torni of the question each might ask in defining the situation.
the high ~elt-monitor .i~l\;s, "Who does thia :';littcti‘IL)I1 want me to he and how
ran lnethiit per.son?”Io ‘~.0Cit>lllf.},’,il1L’I1igli «etf~nionitoi'in§2;iiidividualreiida the
1

rliarxit ter oi the sittiatioii to lLlt'Hi.ll‘>\‘ the t\ pe oi" pt‘t">(1ii ctilierl tor in th:-.7t type ot
eittiynvran, wiistrén : tie a ziwzatai iriaagw wt Z‘%?t‘!’€3S€fi‘l ztien .3 323:: I has tn-t

inn‘ ';:>'§,’%3: I aarét ::%::Z tit; diet; aft}: I ;§{‘t§;' .3212 rat}:
‘ ; i ~, : _ ~47 ' 3 ‘v

E St; ti‘: '3 2:9 rtitif

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lead at calling; pmtmhpe to guide his 0!‘ her artiniis, the ion" ~‘ell~niuiii—
on a
L lieliaves in aeszordaiiee with an iniage at his ur her "real" self.
a‘

in tesstft on rself, ma Re a shmt list of ti \e or si\ \ er}; ditterent social t§iiualTlUIiF»

‘ll trequentl_\' take part in. \\ rite clmxii lit>\\' you typically liehaxe in each silli-

mn, or better yet, haxe soiiiemie ui\<+ei"\te }uu in eaeh ot thnae >‘iitiatii>n.- and
no down what you Llt}. Then compare your actiial behax ier to §iiyder’s :~ell'~
«ziiittiring k]llt‘SilOl'l5. l)o Wit: nurmall_\‘ present a cnnsisteiit szelt‘-image, or tie
ll alter i our rselt~pi'e:~entatinii for each situatiim.’
a

Our <:tultui"e often sends us mixed 1ilL‘.‘+.\‘5tg€S. l-Am‘ instaiice, we are told to “he
wives” and "remain true to self,” messageg that seem tn enclerse the low st-it?
e i

~iiitui"s pusition. On the other hand, i‘e>'eai‘eh detnnn_~ti"ates that being; adapt-
3:‘ (being a high 5t‘lll~HiO1‘lil0l‘l is one oi the keys to seeial .~tiL‘CeSté. lt is prolmlily

Fm in reeogiii/e that either extreme can be limitiiig. if we always try to maintain

l

wnsistent self‘-concgept, we will be less \'e1‘5atile and pmbably less human be—
;

u~.i: we won't experience the full range mt human L‘I]10ll0HS and potentials. l-tut

‘ext’ are always Chaiigiiig to fit the situatiun or snmeone el.se’s conception of us,

inay coiiipmmise important stancianls and Values. The best C(Jtll‘S€ ie; to aslx
-

i‘-»el\'es which is more important in a giveii Sll’Lldtl0l1—-‘l‘€lHf.§ adaptable or being

mistent. On one 0CjCdHl01"t it inay be important for you to exert your lI1CllVl{.lLIal~
and Violate the fainily rule that ”e\’erv\'0ne mines home for Chi‘i.s‘tmas.” Tlie
ti teat‘ you might pass up a wonderful ski trip just to be home and lit in again.

lining Relationships: Self in Relation to Others

men people interact, each presents an image of self to the other. T hese ii1ia;.;es
liuwever, USL1a,il}' quite fluid. We are responsixe to the teedback at the Other
lweggin quickly’ to negotiate a definition of the relationsliip between self and
1

L 1'1‘. “lhiis, «me important pereeptual pi'0Ct?SS is the identiticatiigm at the type of

munship that applies‘. in a gixen situation. Office W'O]fl\t‘I”\ at a cuiiipany pic-

iii.—i},t pei‘cei\*€ that the superior-subiirdinate i‘L‘ldlil()I‘i5l‘ilp with tlie boss nu

~ei" appluies Lll.1l’ll‘l[_£: a game mt softball. .\s lung as the boss aees ll1lI1}.;.\ll‘iC‘>¢ililL’
there is nu prohlein. But what it the lmss abf.‘,-Lillie‘: he U1‘ «he is still in Cl‘ldi‘}.;L‘
« _

wants tu pitrch? it he differeiice in pL‘I‘\f‘Cpll()fi\ inay lead to negatix e feeliiigs

:

:\’et‘C nex er intentletl.

\\\‘lili’I1l!i(*;j€ at l‘\‘li}llL)l‘1.5lil}VlJl3t‘l‘w.ii‘t’d‘williil7lL‘to us. He can lie tfa:iii.al U!"
time é3\ tiiiaintaiices, frieiiil~., ClO&>e lt't€I‘iCltw. almost ii'iend:-3, iuat l;1‘l€l'ltlH.
i>l‘l\t?l“?~, iiei;.;lit)<i>t'_~, l‘0\\?l‘ii1}_{ pai*tne1'~, platenii luvere, liiisl>antl- amt ‘\\’i\ u»,
illHl,H3§ltl?~ anti —ax‘i\ es», hlooil l.‘i‘i,¥llis:‘}“~ Hi" \l,>lL"i“~, l‘l1,\'l‘i‘lt‘.\‘~a iis>ai><._iiiti~\. sttaifglit
l .ii‘zdft.1iiii_\ man, i’HUi’I‘tII1;;1i<‘*~,CO'L1It5t_‘li>[‘€£1"tLl{itl\ isee, ma~ter and slave, ex en
4«~titamltiuiCl1er. l he list Ctllllkl gt) mi.
iuye ;: :‘«*liit,iz*'2:il ’(1}'}§,V:§‘»!' fun: in amt‘ ’ 9: T liizfét wit?’ §‘t":,’<;i,“'Z,"‘li'i"l‘~
2: We;'‘ : » iii? 2;" i gig: L ,*3*:i7Et;,‘ ~ ‘W: ea}. wit: e its _;».§E.%§‘a

‘”ti:%é;‘iE?i‘"— tat: eta tt:§ei< tut tit er E etgt §:::*e:e 1:? tit?

;_> t .;:;_; Q} :1. ., ,;;[‘s. a i£_,:"l.. ; ,§.E:§K

LII:
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lmye tte1noii;;ti'..tted the e,\.isti:m:e at 1‘eiati.onal prototypes. in

/Z\>t"\'(:‘.I‘.1,l§%fLlLlt£3S

the Sd]‘l‘t,L’ \\;a_\t that we luxe mental i,l‘Ildgt‘S of t}‘pit‘cii pt‘I'SOi1JlillL‘S, we also toi“ih
co;.;iiiti\‘e models at the best emmple at .3 mimmtic rcliit:iun:<l'ii*p or St goiwti
l:f'tt‘llClF~l°?ip. Sizlly Plimalp found that p1*mt(>t}’pes ++ttitlE*11tf—“s held of the r~'ft1(l€tll”-
pmt’essm* relatiunsltip rfzeemcci te he gttitietl by their e><pe<‘taticms about the re-
~;pecti\'e i’ig:l‘its and obligations that each pmrtv has in ttit‘t‘ercnt* S1tt'LtallOi‘lS.
Pianalp had stmteiits read th tee emwersiitions tvetuzeen ii pi‘otessm* and student:
it} it StL1(LlL‘i1lcZtSl\it1}..j to chlti the p.{‘Ute5>~0i‘ '5 (libs, (2) a student .1 stxing to Il1dl\B up
im exit 111 that had beei1mi:~;se<.t, and (3) it :stua.ient iieqitestiiig ii t:lian_t;e at ;.;r;ide
tor the pi‘otv5§ut"S <.:l.i:s5. Dli:,fL‘I'C1il' :lLtLlL‘t‘ti.\‘ read tlitterent \’ei‘>ion>f of the con-
\’e1‘5ations, some in K\'l‘ltL‘lt the pifziitessoi‘ made tiominimt, netltial, U1”SL1l‘t,1’UlSSl\‘C
statements and otlters in which the .<tLicivnt'si ,<tatements Varied in terms of dem—
inanrm or ‘§1ll’,‘Il1iS'~4i‘t’L‘1"i{?SS. One week later, stutlents were iisiwd ff) identity
whether the coiivereatitm they had read the week before cehtained the tl0h1i—~
nant, neutral, or Stt,bITi.'1SSlVL‘ statements. Ana e\pectecl, students ”remembered”
(inco1‘i‘ectl_\;) ha \»*iri;.; road statements that were lI1Ul'€ in line with protot/\'picat cx~
pectatiohs than they were with the actual Ll ialugues the students ltad read.“
Robert (fi1i‘.<+o1i has Lt:~}€Ll the term master contract to refer to the \x'orl«;ed—oLit
definition of .1 relationship that guides the recLm‘ii1;_: interaction of .m};' tt\'ad.]2
This means that as relatiohsliips develop, perceptions that were originalltv
guided by a pmtotype e\'ehtualt_V give \x'a_\i to an t111ClE‘l'Stdl1Cllfl,}.Z_ based On \'er~
hnlized itgreenients or silent acceptance of establiezhcd patterns of behavior. . . .

it is important to recogriize that itlentitying what type of relationship you're in~

valved in may be just as crucial as knowing the situation or forming it US€fL1lil1'1*
prcssion of the other.

EXPLAINING BEHAVIOR: ATTRIBUTION TI-{EORIES

When all is ssaitzl and alone, we are frequently left with the question "Wliy dict he
(or she} do that?" or ”Wl1y elid i do that?" .\-inst of the time we .1 the q_uict< to mt?
tier 50l11E‘ type of explatmtinn. it we think we LmUlei':+tiincl wlwatt lTiUti\'dlZt,’L‘l our
own 01.‘ .ihutliei";»: actiyoiis, we lld\‘t‘ retiticetl Eéiffiltt‘ t,lI”tL‘{‘t‘lt1l!1t§' :iYlLl I1l&LlL‘ our
\\*urltl is little imiwe ;pi‘etiictahle. TliCUt‘i,t‘.H mi1t‘emecl with llC5\\' the a\fei‘agc pur-
‘Sféli infers the tuzttaetsl mt <0gi:1l heliaxim‘ have been (tilted i—1tti*/lwiihrz t.?7mtit'<. he
tore we examine mme tit ’fll€‘S<_‘ thmries, let’: lt3{‘l\ at at typical coiivvrezitioiz and
try to expiain t‘.t(‘;ll pt~rst>n’7~ helsaxéeiz
tlmaygimi that you've been \'tSll‘tI{‘t}.§ tutti‘ trit*i:“ttl:; 1\{1?.:7££&.é.l emtt t louie I01’ 4: few
days. Y<:;wii are sitting at the l\.l‘€£'l1{;’ll table with lh)\v’iei' \;‘s‘ltE:I1 Aiigcla (011165 home
lfvttt Wt.)l‘lx. Silt‘ lo<>i<.- wtfv tired. lhe ttillmvmt; Ct¥1l\L‘I"5d§lUt1 L’I15Ltt',‘*~I
H: >‘Wit?: t?e.wt<‘i2.'§ 3:2’? tFr“:::2'it' tier :zlia€t:‘i* s.wi2tff.tt 1’ ft {£355 "'s’:*’?i t2si,tt}n§r :‘r?§3.N.?;2c"‘l l ti,
5* ‘£3: ii} 2’ E

5-? $2; '57:?’ ~33: 5: its 8 2?; :2: ‘tv 5?: 5? 39;; E Isa :3. ii? itfi t,éag‘:t;

14"?’
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E lt M IE: lt"s' heen a b§.,iS\‘ inoming. l just liaverfit hatl time.

\\t1t;i \: No time? You don't have a job. \ou't‘e not loolxing tor \\ UI‘l\. ,—\nd tou
cant find l3 minutes to do a dozen dishes.’
% la anl’\‘e heen l{3{)l<in;.; tltrough the classifieds. liUt'}’GL1,Z'i1ll‘tH‘l‘Hd§i{)}f1.
R3:

\\tTEl,§\I Did you send out any resuines?‘

llt >\\ it‘: No, not t'€€tll_\' . . .

\\(. .l‘l,. \: Here we go again. Do ha\ e to ph}1sit‘all_\' t'o1‘t‘e you to sit down and it

write letters of application and send your resuine out?

I lx t\\EIiEZ lill do it. till ClO it.

\\t}ELA: You’ll do What.‘ l he dighes or the resumes.’ . . .

' low would you e\plain the communication heliaxaior of _\'our two ttiemls.‘ ls
\ngela the l\lHLl of person who constaiithg nags and belittles‘ others? 01' did
I lowie PF{)\'Ul\t‘ thi3 tirade.‘ What {)il1L.‘l' exptattatioiis C{}i1lCi there be? . . .

identifying Attributional Biases

it all the Ca uses of behavior we attribute were Clearh‘ logical and made use of all
the relevant information, our social, lives‘ would be much easier to manage. L‘n—
lortunatel§', we humans: are I1t1l(H‘lL3tlSl}‘ irrational at times. A number of per
eptual biases atteet how we arrive at causal attributions‘. We rely on some of
these biases when we haxe no prior lmowledge of the persons‘ being ob:~;e1‘\'ed,
and at other times the biases just overritte whatexer l<noWlee:te,e we do have.

Persoltality Bias Toward Others The most common bias is to explain other
people's behm ior in terms of their peisonality dispositions. We are especially 1 ii’

prone to this personality bias when we observe sjtrangers. We just naturally as-
»u me that a stranger who throws a shoe at the tele\' ision screen la (ks self~Control
or is mentally unstable. lhe bias is e\’en strongzet‘ it the pei‘son"s bel1a\’iori.s‘ eon-
ti'ar_\’ to our e\peetations.' Since we e\peCt people in a restaurant to be eating
I

or tirinlcing, mg pi‘obabl}‘ thinlx that only a l:3tiffoon would. start singing in that
«ntting. Rarelx do we l0(ll\ tor other explanations such as the possil:>ilit_V that
oineone 0l‘l‘L‘l‘t‘Ll him ‘~33(l to do it 01' that the woman he was with accepted his
;vi‘oposal of llLll‘I'lJ;§’t’. (_i(,t§_jlllll,\'t"l,§ t‘omple\ ltl(l,l\'lLltl.tlF~ may be less ~'Ll.,\tft;‘Plll‘lL‘
in this bias, perliaps hetiaiise ot their tt*iitlt>i‘ie\ to ei1;_;a;,;e in :'i>|e»tal<in;.;. t\hen
.\ t,‘ try to see a situation from the other pei*s5.e:'t’s point of View \\ e inay see more

ituaticmal Ul‘ i“i~lati0t‘z2tl K ausesf.

wituational Bias Toward Self ’\\hen \\'e'i‘e d$l'\t‘Ll to explain our own ’oeha\ ioii.
!ltt‘ stt>rj; is soinewhat dittei‘ent———-we’i'e Ilt<)1't3lil*;t‘l\' to rel}; on situational bias. lit
’ llwow at éthw it the tetex isiof”£, t can t‘\%‘l€ttt"t that it lG€‘€at1\<‘<>?i't€§‘tSt0t”§ twiilt
%§i:::—% ~%':,;::%:fi . i tits) :22’ t%*»— ’ §?3{‘1?‘.~f= ~ 2

t - ~, V; “ .’;,‘§ie; : .,(-,3 % "fit; '::;'f’

; ~.e;;f£“%,?’§3 . «;a:tt:%:3 ot ; ii£&%§{}‘:t ‘ ‘fiat? tsette: ' .»%;‘:tt3ttia; s§.>t‘: ti: :3

1-18
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simply have information about our on 1} past and present e,><perience than
more
an obser\ er would. We know if we’\ e had a bad day,‘ an observer probabh
doesrft. l7inall_V, our visual xltintaqe point mal<es .1 clifference. \\ hen we behax e,
we don’t see ourselves perfo1'ming_: the action. \\‘hat we do see is other people and
external circuinstances. its much more til<el_v tha t we Witt referen<:e the situation
as the Cause of our behavior.

Bias Toward Groups in addition to these two biases, perceived group member-
ship also produces a bias. We explain the behavior of members of tiiglily stereo-
typed oIzt~gro11ps tggroups we do not belong to) differently than the behavior of in-
gqrozip members (such as our own friends, assoeiates, or ethnic group). in ;_:eneral,
researchers liave found that we attribute positive beli.n;ioi' by in—group rnembers
to their personal dispositions, while ne;_:ati\'e behavior is explained in terms «visit-
ua tional factors. We explain the behavior of out-‘group members in e,\actijxr the op
posite manner. l9’ositi\‘e behavior is e\plained away as situationally produced,
while negatixe behavior is seen as the product of personality or group (‘1llft.iI'(‘.Ij
For example, suppose you are watching a close friend play in a tennis tournament
w hen she screams at the referee for calling her shot out of bounds. You turn to the
person next to you and say, ”She’s been under a lot of pressure lately. I think she
just needed to blow off some steam.” Moments later, her opponent (from an arch-
rival institution) heated ply disputes another out—of—bounr:ls call. ”Wh\i' do they let
people without manners play this gaine?” you think to yorirself.
Why are we so prone to discriminate in favor of friends and against mem-
bers of other social groups? We usuall_v think of friends as being similar to us in
many ways, but apparentl_V perceive them to be even more similar when Com~
pared to an outsider. This in-group/out-group comparison seems to set in mo-
tion at role-ta king process in which we identify closely with the in—;_;rou p mem-
ber and viexx’ things from his or her perspective. As a result, we often seek a
situational account for the behavior. in Contrast, we tend to View the out—group
member with Very little empatlry or unclerstanding. This malxes it easier to as-
sume the person would behave negati\‘el_\' regai‘dless of the situation.

Bias Toward Cultures Culture also plays a si;_§iiifioirit role in producing attri-
butional bias. Our (TUllt1I‘E’ is a Verv iiidivicltialistie one. .\s. a result. We liave a
greater tt‘i1ttt'ri<.;‘y to believe that the ll'l(ll\'lLlL1{tl person is responsible for his or
her beha\'ior. in coilet‘tia'ist cultures such as lapan or india, situational attribu-
tions are more common. :\ t/ol!<'t'fz£'z‘%t culture is one in \\'l1lCl1;§i'£)ttt‘ (S:’,UtllS have
a lii;:liei‘prio1'it§.' than indix idual epgils; lrr\'.ilt3’ to the group is usuallx expressed
by behaxing, ar:t:ordin;.; to the rules in tiitferent situations. thus, in collectixist
cultures people are more axmre of situational constmints and less .m';n‘e of in~
{§i\ iflttztl i:lil'll.(‘l‘£}Dt k)§¥

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the term at ttttrihutinns. ,lT \{i3L1 haxe .1 tendenexf tn e\plain intemctienrs in terms
.:»l5 sin;.;le 'C«.1Ll.’$E‘S t.<;uel“a as pe1‘5s;3rz1al or stinmlue att1'il‘~L:t*it'sns), year emntnuniem

lion xnay ff€?CiLie1‘lfl)' tal\e the form of m:n;:2iaining about or blamirag the ether.
\ nu lnsay even etc: this xxzithcut realizing; it. it may be lmweficial to sit dmxn 0:23»
..1.~i<malij¢’ and eValu.1te how j,f9u."\'e been explaining the events that hm e hap»
pened in your important 1‘elation~«l1ips‘. . . .

CONCLUSION
V: lm [reading] has pmvided 330:: with a lot of infC»:‘matinn about the perceptuai
glmress and some of the c0gn:iti\e'e sclternata that people use to make .<.e11se of
illeil‘ social world. We hmqe tried to 5lI11pllf}‘ what you need to know by 5tI‘L1C-
it:t‘i11;.; this infnrmation amend four cognitive p3'oeesses that inthtehce interper-
«nnal emnmunicatinn: lmw We size up situatiorts, people, and relationships and
how we explain the causes of social intera<:ti0n. Understanding sneial cage . . .

nition precesses is the first step ts iznpmving interpc~m»11.1l CO1‘1"tI'1f111I‘tiL‘(ltl0I1 be

awe so muclh of the meaning we assigxn to messages depends on our ;7m‘e;2t1’ens
»t the Social context and the persons. in\'ol\'ed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

l let the four perception processes this reading explains.

1"
How are Scripts related to episodes?
. What's; the difference between closed episodes and defined episodes?
\\Vhat's the relationship between personal con.~;;tmcts and implicit persnnab
ity theory?
\l\”lw.t’s an i3’ztez‘;m<<<v2zz2i self-fulfilling; prophecy?
lixplarin the di.fte1'eme between a hi;_;h sefilmonitor and a low eelf-mnnitnr.
Penple use attrihutinnr theorées tn inter the of other peeples: helmxior.
_wW,

PROBES

lx‘enh0k‘:1 ar:d}t~1m,>l13ajg a’t0.1”‘:ep«>int that "Sadat i1lte1'nCti£)i’1 is a {:<mli1m—

mm dance in whit h participants adept and decline mrlw othefs inx tttttluns
tn enact dlttterent epi-m:lesf' l7\tend their metapl"m1‘ ml’ Wlamie” tn mplain
§’\3ll1‘t1¥\'i‘lt’\pt‘I‘lL‘llL't‘, ln ‘wlzat <.m<\rs are from’ <inn\'e1‘~ati<>ns, say at \\'nrl\.
like elan::e?
£3

\\ lmt principle ix em-ttxpehfied 1:; the »nl,e$pe:‘§en's cw t.eehniq1:;e”‘ xx lml,

‘gm tree: Ere arid }€}":S€’=’
V T”? rag ghee): ti’: ltzzégzze? Q8 V

rife a ‘ 9%“: ‘age?

.—zw.» _ , ww; iv:/:1;

153
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we use these hastily formed impi'e5sioiis to decide whether to eoniiiiiie con-

\'t’l‘>l,i,]g or not.‘ Explain.
-l. Do you tend to he a liigh :‘»eli~monit0r or a low sell7—m<:>nitoi‘? l low does
your temlenex‘ affect tom‘ eoinmiiniCatin§;:?
5. Llixe an example of ti hiaz; toward groiips and .1 bias tmmrd cultures that at-
feL“l’.s how you pL‘i‘C€i\‘G ézoine of the people }‘ou"re L‘i3‘flf3fi’1Lli‘1iCal'li1g‘i\ ith.

NOTES

. Ste\’enson, .\lm.='z1eii1;; l;ii:'I‘;2vi'~i>izi2i L}i/mill/iiimiioii

l5ld,l1lQ\' Heel/. and 5he1'_\‘l
(;\1eW York: llarper 8: Row, 1956), p. 58.
loseph l’org.i.s‘, ".\ffecti\'e and Einotional influences on Episocle Represen-
id

tations," in Soigzézi L‘ogm'i/‘on: i’ui‘speciiz,2€s on £;72>i'i‘yd:2i/ Llmiwstarziiirzg, (Kl.

losepli l:o1‘gas (London: i«\c.iole1nic P,1‘L’.\"5, ’l,%1l), pp. l6i‘»—80.
;\li<:l1ael Breimer, "}\etors' l’owers," in N26 .vliiai3/5/s ¢,j;li‘i1’o2*i: l\’i*c.:’izf l'lz€0n’i—
‘.1

?lL‘(i/i?T"1i'il l§riz;9ii‘1'mx’zilzivizricw. ed. M. V011 Cranacli and Rom Harte (Cambricl;.;e:

(.Iimb1'idge LhiVers‘ity l‘1'es5, l982), pp. 213-30.

Steven Duck, ”lnterper.~:onal CO1TiI'i1L1nlC{1ti,()I1 in Developing Acquain-
tances," in E.\‘;>1omfioi1.~5 in l1ztL'i‘pvrs'oizzzl Comiizziizicnlioiz, ed. Gerald R. Miller
llfieverly Hills, Calilf: Sage, 1976), pp. 12747.
Se_vmoLir Rosenberg and Andrea Sedlak, ”Structural Representations of im-
plicit Personality Theory,” in Ad I’zZT1C€5 in E,x'peri7neiziai Social PS\l/Ch0l<7f{Ll/ 6, ed.
l..eonai‘d Berlwwitz ( New York: Academic Prests, 1972).
Walter Cro«:l<ett, “Cognitive Complexity and lmpression Formation,” in
Pi'Qez‘c'ss in E.tpcrz'2;zviznzl 1?’rrs0zzz1liti; RU.<m2'c/1 2, ed. 13. A. _\~iaher (New York:
;\c.1clemi<: Press, l9(v5). See also Jesse Delia, ”C(}I1Sl1‘L1Cil\’lSII1 and the Stud y
of Human Communication,” Q1iiirz‘m‘li/ [mirimi QfS;n’€(l1 (n3 (W77): oé»'«—83.
Jesse Delia, Ruth Ann Clarl<, and David Switxei‘, ”CogniliVe Complexity and
N

I
lli‘lpt‘E‘.<Sl0Ii Formation in informal Social lnteraction,’ 5;2m:i7 ;\lim(>gi‘izpizs 41
i l*>7~l): 2‘l9~3i‘)8. See also Clamlia Hale and lease Delia, "Cogniti\'e (:¢.)I1iPl.t;‘Xll_\f

and Social l)9I‘>p€C’ti\'C~Taking,” Lhilfffiiililllihfzlflillifi‘7l{7I1ilf3?"£¥}7/1* 43 i 1976): l0:’§-2ll3.

Croelxelt, ”Co}.:niti\'e Com ple.\it\’q"
§\ld1”‘l< l. Snyder, l he Sell‘~l\2loiiitorin;_: of lxpressive i:’)eha\‘ior," ieizrmzl of
"’

/’i*i1<n:;iz/iii; mini .‘,%'ov."iz/ p%vll£‘.1Ii7[’ilj\'>l/ Ill (1074): 1?2i,~.~37.

a\lari< l,. §:?n};1‘let, ”}‘€elf-3v‘l«ii3it0i‘iiig i’)l”\3CESSt‘.*§,” in /7'l.ii7¢:li£'i“z7L~€l3$ iii EX}}i‘i'jf}'Z€}lf1i£
Sonya’? I‘~i,/i"2’i«.'/oei,I ll, ed. leoi"iai‘d l3erl\o\x‘ii/. i\§e\\‘ ‘iorl\: .3\L}l(lt‘i‘illk‘ l’i‘e.xs.
W79), pp. 86-» l3l.
, bolli Planalp, "Relational Sciieinaia: -\ Test of .\lternatix‘e l’om’i:~ of Rein‘
tionai Kiiowlmlge as Callie; to Q'c>In11itII1li.;dli()I‘:,«// liimmii LW{}:‘!i!/Ii{}’Zfi':(i‘!'L)fZ Ki ’»

lo: £‘li1\’"wii f"3‘-1:“

weir; :‘:4»_“ . gssg‘: gay if A Inez 2; 12:,
7? M 3: ? ‘V ‘iii? 3:73“: ‘:’i:‘{'? ¥‘é‘:fi%A i‘?”%§ I <4 ‘*3? =”¥:C=:“

iW:§'{:= ?;;:»: ‘:?;;; f:, Q g) pg;

= 7 375‘? ifgfiv i Ti}; 2:‘ V zfé *9 :fi<£'3‘sa €51 2?“:”?:e $833 é‘*‘i“é'* /$97
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1. E. E. lanes and l). ZVlCCil}iS, “Ct)l‘l't‘f-pO1’1dE‘i'1{£ lnfc1‘t‘tu‘t*s and the Ati:t'il‘»t1tlon

Cube: A COlllpdl‘.}fi\a’€ Reappraisal," in New l:)1‘?’€{‘l1lt’}l:~ in A:£t'z'Z?::fimz 1\’usoz;‘t‘l2
l, ed. I. H. l’ltlt'\'L‘}', W’. I. lCl<e:+, and R. F. Kidd (I/~lill~ttl.tlo, ?\?.I.: Lawremc lirl~
haum, l9>To).
l. lasi;\z:“5 and .\l. HC‘~.\‘Sl'0Ik‘, "C1‘<»ss'~Cttltural llntemction, Social ,\i:trilmtion,
amt ltztergrotlp l\‘elatitms," in L.‘zu’tm'c:< Ca:z;‘;zt‘t, ed. l%3~tx‘lmer tl’{lmsfot‘tl,
5.33 5%.

\I.Y.: l"er§.:mnon l’re5s; 1952): B. lfitrlx and M, l{0thlmrt. "Perceptions of Out-

greup Hotttogemsity and Levels of Secial Categorization: Memory tor the
Subordinate Attributes ef In-tlroup and Out—Group \‘iem‘oers,” Iezmml of
P€?‘SQ??Qlfl_t/ and Sot*z'z2Z PSy{I‘;“If;3lt7}\’l/ 42 t 1982): 1{}f5}~—h8.
l. :Viiller, "Culture and the Development of l?\‘ep\'tl.t\' Social F§<plat1ations,"
§t22;;*z;2m’ of [’t‘i'<omzlz'!t/ aiéézl Sttczlzl l’st/ttlzt>!:2gjzz ltd t l*?Sl): W» I

Wood teaclwse in the clepartnitent t,,llCOITt¥I1LiF’liC£i§lt\ll ~~tmlie:;~,; at the ltfinixwsituxt

slit:
L North Carolina at Chapel Hill, does research or’: ;.;t-mlur and eztammttnimtion,
ml has publislxcd ~;c\*et‘al interpersonal CUIflIH‘LIT’ll('.lll(Hl text». l ltis: clmpter comes
m .1 recent book that she dedicates to enl1.mt‘in;_; itx n-.ul:~r’- 11,I3tlt‘¥',\lzlI'lLlll1g of
-

ftttetent meanings that people may attribute to xxtlmt tlntx mu amt tlo," ln her
ok, Wood emplmsizcs how di\’m‘sity can contrilmtv to Inix!tItx,l£:3f5l.1ttn,li1t;.; and
w awareness and acceptance of tlixturslty can help imtm >\ v l,%,,'fl{j,i?f’Sf£l..Iltllllg.
As the subtitle of this selection says, this is a CliSCll$~Hlt H1 tIT§,f E%§E?fi3{l'3i"}?pll‘lt;, one
= the most familia r and unfortunate features of the xx ax \\ t’ pprz:*t:iVt2 pm >p|c. .\s
-subtitle also sttggests, the l<e_v concept in l’l“1is‘t‘l1.tplt‘t‘ t‘» "ltrl‘.‘”tll;>'.ttt}§.” \\tmd
lgmts that this word Llejsufilfics HLf(¥lI'tIlllllllt}tlltiil that t'lll¥’ll.l‘xl./1”»l3}\t‘.\"9PUL'l
.1 person abow allotl1ez‘s." Totali/int; tmuam. tttmt\tn;-,.mtt .1: l§i}:;:i3“ at .1 ain_«.;lc

mtitofa person is the totality of that pc1\m1. St; .tlliH}.'_ téptlw lee "lwlm l\ litm- 1, £11,

~ker” Sp()ill§.;l1lHl1iH}‘aC€il‘ta wax llml I1}¢1l<;£3f:S ifflit‘tl<IItI1H.111§fi;§£'1f'Z,.i2‘{:3 th.zt‘«. l>v~

noticed. Tlw same thing happt~m \\’l“tt'?f“i ;::et>p>le mitt on ”t§mi :»e;.l*:l:‘;zrt ;;tt\ Hut
1%,’,

ted,” "21 wlapamwo l/t”l€i‘t£;i cf mine," amt ttltmf ai~.tm. ’

Wood t1'1;1l\cs the t>l3\?imlss— tltougglt lIt!l"‘f’}¥"lklltl’ tn not that t‘:»t.:ll/in;_; has
uttixfe (‘l:lt‘&“lS(‘l1lllt‘l‘{‘U}"li;‘\\ll().ll't‘ll“al(!l'ft§i’l Butalt:-.tl»u<§:~~«tzlw~»~.oI11t*<>lT
t‘§lft‘CJ£'§\ <3?‘ htlttll/lit}; HI‘: ills.‘ §‘<‘H}‘lt‘ \\ ltx: film it l’:.tw|s.tll\.,1\lis'§t:Xi’<'tt;§tt;;t‘ll‘t

all/ting, we I‘lpt‘lt'Ut1t‘pt’1"x‘1‘i\it1;;l*\ ton lI¥:,s},;i,,?1lt‘a1‘l\ can to look £l’1:;w:;.;ls Him!-

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nmilae them."
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or ll »t.z€i;»te £3;

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*8312:3arzetévzutli/gait:12% ‘<=.e:==.1l:l lw ms t H ma» nth.

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