Contents

BASIC CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

UNIT 01
Scope of Education
AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
Informal Agencies
ANCIENT EDUCATION SYSTEM
VEDIC EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA
BUDDHIST EDUCATIONAL SYSYTEM
Salient Features of Buddhist System of Education in India
EDUCATION IN MUSLIM PERIOD
CURRICULUM
MODERN EDUCATION SYSTEM
Wood’s Despatch (1854)
POST- INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION SYSTEM
UNIT II
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL THINKERS
CONTRIBUTION OF RABINDRANATH TAGORE IN EDUCATION
Religious Education
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF MAHATMA GANDHI
Gandhiji’s Educational Experiments’
Principal features of Gandhiji’s philosophy of life
Gandhiji’s Teaching System
Principles of Basic Education
Merits of Basic Education
EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF GIJUBHAI BADHEKA
Critical Evaluation
INTRODUCTION OF FOUR PHILOSOPHIES
2. NATURALISM
3. REALISM
Realism in Education
Merits of Realism
4.PRAGMATISM
School
UNIT 03
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION
Definitions:
SOCIAL MOBILITY
Types of Social Mobility
Social Change
CULTURE AND EDUCATION
CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA
ESSAY ON CULTURAL HERITAGE
Unity in Diversity
Important of Unity in Diversity
Advantages of Unity in Diversity:
Disadvantages of Unity in Diversity:
Conclusion of Unity in Diversity:
UNIT 04
The Preamble:
Keywords in the Preamble:
10 things you need to know about the RTE Act
4.Article 24
REFERENCE (WEB-LINKS)
 BASIC CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
B.EL.ED FIRST YEAR – PAPER 1
AUTHOR
RADHIKA AGARWAL
(B.EL. ED, CTET, UPTET)
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi
CO-AUTHOR
Dr. USHA AGARWAL
(B.Ed., M.Sc., Ph.D.)
Mewar University, Rajasthan
COPYRIGHT
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the Author.

© Author

First Edition: 2020

DISTRIBUTOR-

Radhika Agarwal (Self-Published)

Usha Agarwal
 1379/C Sharda Hills Colony, Antia Talab,

Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh

Website/ Youtube Channel - www.beled.in

Email: radhika@beled.in

Phone – 9415265356, 8299177569

PREFACE
This book gives a holistic image about the understanding of the
Basics of Education. How Education is important in each and
everyone's life.? What is scope, Nature etc?

Why you should read this book?

The topic “BASIC CONCEPT OF EDUCATION” relates to how,
Education is important and plays a significant role in making us
developed citizens of the Nation. We will get to know about our
Cultural Heritage, Unity and Diversity of India.

This book will provide you great help in your B.EL.ED course.
Content will help you in writing effective answers in your examination.

I have prepared this content from different verified sources and

made good efforts to make it error free.

I am deeply grateful to God for his shower of blessings throughout

my work and I am thankful for my mentor Dr. Usha Agarwal for
encouraging me every time and also to my parents who helped me at
various stages.

At last, any suggestions or improvements for this book will be

gratefully received and appreciated.
"SWAMI VIVEKANAND"
 UNIT 01
EDUCATION
Education is a systematic process through which a child or an
adult acquires knowledge, experience, skill, and sound attitude. It
makes an individual civilized, refined, cultured, and educated. For a
civilized and socialized society, education is the only means. Its goal
is to make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance to
education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is the key to solve
the various problems of life.

Education has been described as a process of waking up to

life:

❖ Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable problems, and

the ways to solve the problems and celebrate the mysteries of
life.
 ❖ Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to the
threat to our global village, to the power within the human race
to create alternatives, to the obstacles entrenched in
economic, social, and political structures that prevent our
waking up.

❖ Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to aid

the human being in his/her pursuit of wholeness. Wholeness
implies the harmonious development of all the potentialities
God has given to a human person.

❖ True education is the harmonious development of the

physical, mental, moral (spiritual), and social faculties, the four
dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated service.

ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING OF EDUCATION

Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived from

different Latin words.

a) ‘educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to nourish’.

b) ‘educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’.
c) ‘educatum’ which means ‘act of teaching’ or ‘training’.
d) ‘educatus’ which means ‘to bring up, rear, educate’.
e) ‘ēducātiō’ which means “a breeding, a bringing up, a
rearing.”
· The Greek word ‘pedagogy’ is sometimes used for education
 · The most common Indian word ‘shiksha’ is derived from the
Sanskrit verbal root ‘shas’ which means ‘to discipline’, ‘to control’,
‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’.

· Similarly the word ‘vidya’ is derived from Sanskrit verbal

root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Vidya is thus the subject matter of
knowledge. This shows that disciplining the mind and imparting
knowledge were the foremost considerations in India.

Back in the 1500s, the word education meant “the raising of

children,” but it also meant “the training of animals.” While there are
probably a few teachers who feel like animal trainers, education these
days has come to mean either “teaching” or “the process of acquiring
knowledge.”

DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATION ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT

AUTHORS

Since time immemorial, education is estimated as the right road to

progress and prosperity. Different educationists’ thoughts from both
Eastern and Western side have explained the term ‘education’
according to the need of the hour.
 John Locke said, “Plants are developed by cultivation and men by
education”. This world would have been enveloped in intellectual
darkness if it had not been illuminated by the light of education. It is
right to say that the story of civilization is the story of education. Thus,
education is an integral part of human life. It is the basic condition for
a development of a whole man and vital instrument for accelerating
the wellbeing and prosperity by the light of education.

Various educationists have given their views on education. Some

important definitions are:

1. Mahatma Gandhi – “By education I mean an all-round drawing

out of the best in man – body, mind and spirit.”

2. Rabindranath Tagore – “Education enables the mind to find

out the ultimate truth, which gives us the wealth of inner light and love
and gives significance to life.”

3. Dr. Zakir Husain – “Education is the process of the individual

mind, getting to its full possible development.”

4. Swami Vivekananda – “Education is the manifestation of

divine perfection already existing in man.”

5. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound

body.”

6. Rousseau – “Education is the child’s development from within.”

7. Herbert Spencer– “Education is complete living.”

8. Plato – “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at

the right moment.”

9. Aristotle – “Education is the creation of a sound mind in a

sound body.”

10. Pestalozzi – “Education is natural, harmonious and

progressive development of man’s innate powers.”
 11. Froebel -“Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded
in the germ.”

12. T.P. Nunn – “Education is the complete development of the

individuality of the child.”

13. John Dewey – “Education is the process of living through a

continuous reconstruction of experiences.”

14. Indira Gandhi – “Education is a liberating force and in our age

it is also a democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste
and class, smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth and other
circumstances.”

Western Concept of Education

Some of the famous western Educational thinkers interpret the

term Education as per their understanding. Biranchi Narayana Dash,
a noted Educationist has summarized the different opinion of western
scholars on Education.

❖ Socrates: - Education means the bringing out of the ideas of

universal validity which are latent in the mind of everyman.

❖ Plato: - Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at

the right moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the
pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable
of.''

❖ Aristotle:-Education is the creation of a sound mind in a

sound body. It develops man's faculty especially his mind, so
that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme
truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness
essentially consists.

❖ Rousseau :- Education of man commences at his birth

before he can speak, before he can understand he is already
instructed, Experience is the forerunner of preceptº
❖ Comenius:- All those who are born as human beings need
Education because they are destined to be real man , not wild
beats , dull animals and clumps of wood.

❖ Pestalozzi: - Education is natural harmonious and

progressive development of man's innate powers.

❖ William Froebel:- Education is unfoldment of what is already

enfolded in the germ . It is the process which the child makes
internal, external.

❖ Herbart Spenser: - Education is complete living .

❖ Thompson:-Education is the influence of the environment

upon the individual to produce a permanent change in his
habits, Behaviour of thought and of attitude,

❖ Adams:-Education is a conscious and deliberate process in

which one personality acts upon another in order to modify the
development of that other by the communication and
manipulation of knowledge.

❖ T.P. Nunn:-Education is the complete development of the

individuality of the child so that he can make an original
contribution to human life according to the best of his capacity.

❖ T.Raymont:- Education is a process of development from

infancy to maturity, the process by which he adopts himself
gradually in various ways of his physical, social and spiritual
environment.

❖ Ross :-The aim of Education is the development of valuable

personality and spiritual individuality.

❖ John Dewey:- Education is the process of living through a

continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the
development of all those capacities in the individual which will
 enable him to control his environment and fulfill his
possibilities.

❖ Milton :- I call, therefore, complete and general Education

that which fits a man to perform just by , skillfully and
magnanimously all the offices, both private and public of
peace and war.

❖ Ulich Robert :- It (Education) is the constant instruction

among people and between people and the subjective worldº.

NATURE OF EDUCATION

As is the meaning of education, so is its nature. It is very complex.

Let us now discuss the nature of education:

1. Education is a life-long process- Education is a continuous

and lifelong process. It starts from the womb of the mother and
continues till death. It is the process of development from infancy to
maturity. It includes the effect of everything which influences human
personality.

2. Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its

activities through a systematic institution and regulation.

3. Education is development of individual and the society- It

is called a force for social development, which brings improvement in
every aspect in the society.

4. Education is modification of behaviour- Human behaviour is

modified and improved through educational process.

5. Education is purposive: every individual has some goal in his

life. Education contributes in attainment of that goal. There is a
definite purpose underlined all educational activities.

6. Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behaviour,

activities; skills are trained in a constructive and socially desirable
way.

7. Education is instruction and direction- It directs and

instructs an individual to fulfill his desires and needs for exaltation of
his whole personality.

8. Education is life- Life without education is meaningless and

like the life of a beast. Every aspect and incident needs education for
its sound development.

9. Education is continuous reconstruction of our

experiences- As per the definition of John Dewey education
reconstructs and remodels our experiences towards socially desirable
way.

10. Education helps in individual adjustment: a man is a

social being. If he is not able to adjust himself in different aspects of
life his personality can’t remain balanced. Through the medium of
education he learns to adjust himself with the friends, class fellows,
parents, relations, neighbours and teachers etc.

11. Education is balanced development: Education is

concerned with the development of all faculties of the child. It
performs the functions of the physical, mental, aesthetic, moral,
economic, spiritual development of the individual so that the
individual may get rid of his animal instincts by sublimating the same
so that he becomes a civilized person.

12. Education is a dynamic process: Education is not a static

but a dynamic process which develops the child according to
changing situations and times. It always induces the individual
towards progress. It reconstructs the society according to the
changing needs of the time and place of the society.

13. Education is a bipolar process: According to Adams,

education is a bipolar process in which one personality acts on
another to modify the development of other person. The process is
not only conscious but deliberate.
 14. Education is a three dimensional process: John Dewey
has rightly remarked, “All educations proceeds by participation of the
individual in the social consciousness of the race.” Thus it is the
society which will determine the aims, contents and methods of
teachings. In this way the process of education consists of 3 poles –
the teacher, the child and the society.

15. Education as growth: The end of growth is more growth

and the end of education is more education. According to John
Dewey, “an individual is a changing and growing personality.” The
purpose of education is to facilitate the process of his/her growth.

Therefore, the role of education is countless for a perfect society

and man. It is necessary for every society and nation to bring holistic
happiness and prosperity to its individuals.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated

keeping in view the needs of the situation. Human nature is
multisided with multiple needs, which are related to life. Educational
aims are correlated to ideals of life. The goal of education should be
the full flowering of the human on this earth.

According to a UNESCO study, “the physical, intellectual,

emotional, and ethical integration of the individual into a complete
man/woman is the fundamental aim of education.”

The goal of education is also to form children into human persons

committed to working for the creation of human communities of love,
fellowship, freedom, justice, and harmony. Students are to be
moulded only by making them experience the significance of these
values in the school itself. Teachers could achieve this only by the
lived example of their lives manifested in hundreds of small and big
transactions with students in word and deed.

Education is not a single aimed activity. It has a multiplicity of

aims. Some Scholars say that the information of character is the aim
of Education when others say that the preparation for a full life is the
aim of Education. Again someone says that Education aims at the
formation of a sound mind in a sound body. Apart from this, scholars
are also in the opinion that the aim of Education is Adjustment,
acquisition of ability for livelihood and the making of good citizens are
the aim of Education. All these views appear to be logical as to the
aim of Education but after a closer look; it will have lots of demerits
and defects.

All the views fail to answer completely to the questions, relating to

the components or ingredients of good character, the fullness of life,
and a sound mind. Education is closely connected to the life of a
human being. The aim of Education must touch the whole philosophy
of life of man, but it not so. The aim of Education may different in
time, condition, individual, and society.

Here we may discuss the six aim of the National Education as

Raghunatha Safaya describes are as follows

1. Vocational Aim - Artha

2. Cultural Aim - Karma
3. Moral Aim -Dharma
4. Spiritual Aim – Moksha
5. Individual Aim
 6. Social Aim

1. Vocational Aim/Utilitarian
In the past, social life was very simple. The son usually adopted
the profession of his father and therefore, there was seldom any need
for specialized training, outside the home, in ordinary occupations
and callings of life. In modern times; however, with great
advancements in the fields of technology and industrialization, the
simple social structure of the past has no place.

Parents are so busy in offices, fields or factories that they seldom

find any time to impart the necessary education and training to their
own children in the vocation, they are themselves engaged in. The
result is that educational institutions have to perform his function also,
along with imparting general education.

Some educationists think that education should have a utilitarian

aim. It means that it should help an individual to earn his own
livelihood. They stress that education should be useful rather than
ornamental. Certain critics, however, have contemptuously called it
the “bread and butter aim” but there is nothing mean about this aim.
Earning one's own livelihood is an essential function of human life.

It, therefore, cannot be ignored if we are to impart education for

life. More than seventy-five percent of parents send their children to
school, only with the aim that they may be able to stand on their own
feet rather than be drags on others.

John Dewey says, ªTo find out what one is fitted to do and to
secure an opportunity to do it, is the key to happiness.

2. Cultural Aim - Cultural means something cultivated and

ripened as against the raw, crude, and unrefined nature of man. E.B.
Taylor, the English anthropologist, defined culture as, “that complete
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and
any other capabilities and habits, acquired by man as a member of
society.”
 The earlier scholars emphasized the material aspect of culture
and thus gave a historical account of the various cultural epochs, viz
nomadic pastoral, agrarian, and industrial. But the material aspect is
represented by the word `civilization'.

The present trend is to emphasize the non-material aspects like

moral habits, art, language, literature, and religion, which add dignity
and grace to life. So education for culture aims at giving such
knowledge and characteristics to man as may add beauty and grace
to his life. It is the knowledge that leads to culture. Worthwhile
experiences of the race are assimilated in such a way in the mind that
it becomes polished and cultured.

3. Moral Aim - Some educationists advocate that moral or

character-building aim should be kept in the fore-front and all other
aims be subordinated to it. Mahatma Gandhi, the embodiment of
morality, says, “Education of heart or moral education is the prime
most function of education to provide, if it is to be worthy of its name.

If we succeed in building the character of the individual, society

will take care of itself. Herbert, the great educator of the nineteenth
century, declares, ‘The one and the whole work of education, which is
a long and complex training, may be summed up in the concept
`morality'.”

‘Russell’ also emphasizes that the formation of proper character

is the chief aim of education. The idealists also support the moral aim
as the ultimate aim of education. They say that education must lead
the youth to things that are true, honest, just, pure, lovely, and good.
Character-building is also an ancient aim of Greek and Indian
education.

Plato remarks, “Nothing should be admitted in education which

does not conduce to the promotion of virtue.” The ancient Indian Guru
taught his pupil to show respect to all that is noble and to strive after
truth and purity of thought, word, and deed. The English system also
claims that elementary education should aim at the training of
character.
 4. Spiritual Aim - The idealists proclaim that the only aim of
education is to develop the spiritual side of an individual. Along with
“Education for vocation.” “Education for citizenship “, “Education for
social efficiency”, and “Education for Democracy”, a slogan like
Education for Spiritualism, may appear to be the lasted fad to be-
wilder the poor teacher. But it is the oldest principle underlying all
educational endeavors in our country, which had gone into oblivion
due to vicissitudes of time and the impact of an alien civilization.
Ancient India educators defined education as a means for salvation.

Dr. Radhakrishnan, the great educator of modern India says, “The

aim of education is neither national efficiency nor world solidarity but
making the individual feel that he has within himself something
deeper than intellect, call it spirit, if you like.”

5. Individual Aims – Sir Percy Nunn observes, “Nothing goods

enter into the human world except in and through the free activities of
individual men and women and that educational practice must be
shaped the individual. Education should give scope to develop the
inborn potentialities through maximum freedom.”

Because:
(1) Biologists believe that every individual is different from others.
Every child is a new and unique product and a new experiment with
life. Thompson says, “Education is for the individual”. An individual
should be the center of all educational efforts and activities.

(2) Naturalists believe that the central aim of education is the

autonomous development of the individual. Rousseau said,
“Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of
Nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man.” God makes
all things good, man meddles with them and they become evil. God
creates everything a good man makes it evil. So an individual should
be given maximum freedom for its development.

(3) Psychologists believe that education is an individual process

because of individual differences. No two individuals are alike. So
education should be according to the interest of the individual.
 Criticism of Individual Aim:
The individual aim is not desirable because man is a social
animal. Society’s interests should be protected.

(1) Individual aim makes individual selfish.

(2) Maximum freedom may go against society.
(3) Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it develops in a
social atmosphere.
(4) Unless society develops, the individual cannot develop.
(5) Who will recognize society- where the individual is selfish?

6.Social Aim:
The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or real.
The individual is only a means. The progress of society is the aim of
education. Education is for the society and of society. The function of
education is for the welfare of the state. The state will make the
individual as it desires. It prepares the individual to play different roles
in society. Individuality has no value, and personality is meaningless
apart from society. If society will develop individual will develop
automatically. Here society plays an important role.

Criticism of Social Aim:

(1) It makes individual only a tool of government.
(2) It reduces individual to a mere non-entity.
(3) Society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and interests of
the individual.
(4) It is against the development of individuality of the individual.

Individual aims and social aims are the most important aims of
education. They are opposed to each other individual aims gives
importance to the development of individuality. Social aim gives
importance to the development of society through individual not
fulfilling his desire. But it will be seen that the development of
individuality assumes meaning only in a social environment.
 Scope of Education
Scope means the range of view outlook field or opportunity of
activity operation and application. Education has a wider meaning
and application.

1. Educational philosophy
Philosophy of education covers aims of education, nature of
education, the importance of education, the function of education its
very old and essential part of education.

2. Educational psychology
The main aim of education is the development of a child.
Psychology helps to understand the child better and development of
child with respect of physical, mental, emotional, social adjustment,
individual difference, personality, thinking, reasoning, problem-
solving.

3. Educational sociology
A child lives in the society so its important for him to know about
the society the nature of society, type of society, the interdependence
between culture and society.

4. History of education
It is also important to know the background, origin, development,
growth and aspect of the subjects.
And also the education system method of teaching during ancient
period, medieval period, British period and the modern period.

5. Economics of education
For the growth of business and market the world-class economical
education is important for each and important.

6. Method of teaching
In ancient time the pupil were passive listeners but now they
actively participate with the teacher in the process of education. So
the skill and proficiency of difference teaching methods needs to be
developed.

7. Educational administration and supervision

The educational institution and the system has to be supervised
and administrated smoothly so that the process of education goes
well. Regulation of fund, democratic administration, autonomy,
personnel management etc.

8. Problems of education
This scope includes problems of teaching management of
education and also suggestion and remedies for it.

9. Population education
Viewing at the undesirable growth of population, awareness is
created through population education.

10. Environmental education

Ecological in balances have drowned the attention of intelligence
today.
So looking at the study of the environmental problems of
environmental education has great importance.

Types of Education
There are different ways to categorize education, for example by
age or subject. One way is to divide it into formal education, non-
formal education, and informal education.

Formal education is usually in school, where a person may learn

basic, academic, or trade skills. Small children often attend a nursery
or kindergarten but often formal education begins in elementary
school and continues with secondary school. Post-secondary
education (or higher education) is usually at a college or university
which may grant an academic degree.
 1.FORMAL EDUCATION
Formal education is the one that works under the framework set
by individual boards of education. The orderly learning environment
includes educational institutions, classrooms, specially trained
teachers, teaching equipment, extra-curricular activities,
competitions, examinations, and a curriculum or syllabus. Formal
education, as the name suggests, is very structured in nature as
proper guidelines are laid, and the students are expected to work
under these guidelines.
Formal education is followed in schools, colleges, and other
courses that follow a specific type of coursework. Some of its
characteristics are as follows:-

A proper chronologically designed structure based on the

hierarchy is followed.
Syllabus and books are assigned correctly.
The schedule is maintained and followed.
 Regular exams and tests are conducted.
Fees are applied, and the students work in a disciplined
organization.

PROS

Works towards instilling technical skills in the students.

A proper schedule helps in disciplining the students towards
achieving a common goal.
Teamwork and social interaction skills get developed.
Education is obtained under the influence of the
professionally trained educators.
A certified course that is recognized by the institutions.

CONS

Students are more susceptible to the negative influences of

society as a large number of people are present in schools,
colleges, etc.
Every student has a different set of abilities and keeping
everyone together under typical coursework can be
disadvantageous to specific students.
The costs incurred and the resources used can come out to
be very expensive in the long run.

CHARACTERISTIC OF FORMAL EDUCATION

Formal education is a term that broadly covers the education

imparted in schools and colleges and has the following characteristics
–

1. It is purposeful, time-bound, syllabus-oriented, and

professional with identifiable objectives and specifications.
2. It is deliberately planned to train the child.
3. Consists of imparting instruction through direct schooling
and tuition.
4. It intends to prepare the child for any walk of life where he
can take up a suitable profession on attaining maturity and
 lead a socially desirable life.
5. Conscious and well-planned schools and colleges are the
specialized agencies for imparting formal education in
socially developed groups.
6. There is a definite course to be covered within a definite
time.
7. While teaching through formal education, specific norms and
styles of functioning within a fixed time-table are followed.
8. There is a syllabus, textbooks, and infrastructure like
buildings, laboratories, playgrounds, etc. proper teaching
aids and methods are followed with attendance being
marked, examinations and assessments done and results
reviewed.
9. Professional teachers with specific qualifications and training
are involved and fees have to be dully paid.
10. This type of education though universally followed is
artificial, not deep-rooted, transitory, less effective,
monotonous, and is often theory-based and far removed
from the practical world.
11. Formal education only prepares a man to earn a living more
specifically for the white-collared jobs.
12. Formal education concentrates on developing the 3R’s viz.
reading, writing and arithmetic and often do not realize the
hidden potentials of a child.
13. There is mental strain on the teacher and the taught.
14. It is covers only part of an individual’s life and is not a
lifelong process.
15. Education is centralized.
16. Student cannot earn and learn at the same time as it is a full
time course.
17. Teacher is considered superior to the taught.
18. It caters to all round development of the child.

Conclusion –

Thus though formal education is a universally accepted mode of

education, it is often theory-based and far removed from the practical
world.
 2. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Non-formal education is one that is framed according to the

requirement of a particular job. This type of training is not considered
as a necessity but more of a skill. Such kind of education should be
promoted more as they are proficient in catering to industrial needs. A
proper framework can be developed in making this education more
mainstream.
These can be various fitness programs, boy-scouts, software
learning etc.

Non-formal education includes adult basic education, adult

literacy education or school equivalency preparation. In nonformal
education someone (who is not in school) can learn literacy, other
basic skills or job skills. Home education, individualized instruction
(such as programmed learning), distance learning and computer-
assisted instruction are other possibilities.
 PROS

Flexible courses as per the capabilities of the individuals are

offered.
No schedule is to be followed, and exams are not a
necessity.
Helps in developing specialized skills in an individual.
Diploma, degree, awards etc. are not a necessity.

CONS

Primary formal education is necessary for indulging in such

courses.
Lack of seriousness as the individual has more
independence.
Lack in regularity and schedule.
No exams and certifications can undermine its credibility.
Many such courses may not be that useful in the long run.

3. INFORMAL EDUCATION

Informal education is the type of knowledge that one gains

through several life experiences. This knowledge can be the one that
we obtain from our parents and elders. Individual necessary skills of
life that are important for survival and sustenance come under this
category. It does not contain the theoretical knowledge of the books.
 Learning to drive, cook, make specific arrangements, and booking
appointments are some example of informal education. Informal
education is gained under the influence of society and the community.
The most excellent teacher of informal education is the
experience and encounters that one faces throughout their life.
Home-schooling is also one of the most exceptional examples of
friendly education practices. Some of its characters are as follows:-

It is free from the various rules regulations and restrictions.

It is devoid of the various schooling formalities such as
following a schedule, carrying the necessary school items
and a proper dress code.
There are no exams, and no complicated curriculum is
followed.

PROS

A cost-free and natural system of gaining an education.

 There is no time pressure and boundaries.
One can choose their preferred sources of gaining an
education.
No exam stress.

CONS

Reliable sources for getting knowledge are absent. A person

may fall prey to all kinds of misleading information.
Absence of professional trainers can lead to inefficient
learning practices.
Certain things that one learns in schools such as discipline,
social interaction and communication skills are not available
in an informal teaching atmosphere.
No proper schedule is followed hence making the whole
procedure less efficient.
 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
Meaning of Agencies of Education
Society establishes some of the institutions to main aim its
continuity of life. For the continuity and development of its life, society
counts upon education.
Education not only shapes the behaviour of the individuals but
also helps in transformation of rich cultural heritage to the rising
generation. Therefore, society establishes and develops institutions
for achieving the modification of behaviour and passing on cultural
heritage to the successive generation.

These institutions are called “Sources” or “Agencies of Education”.

More precisely, society has created several specialized institutions to
carry out these functions of education. These institutions are known
as “Agencies of Education“. Sources through which the child
directly or indirectly receives education-formal and informal-are called
agencies of education.

MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL AGENCY

An agency of education is a specialized institution or organization
that directly or indirectly exercises an educational influence on the
child. This includes both formal and informal institutions such as the
school, the church, the library, the newspapers, the magazines, the
exhibitions, the museums, the planetariums, the radio, the cinema,
the television etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES ➢

➢It exercises some educational influence on the individual.
➢It is directly or indirectly concern with the education of
youngsters.
➢It includes both formal as well as informal social institutions.
➢It concerned with the transmission of the cultural and social
heritage of society.
 It includes both specialized as well as non- specialized
institutions.

TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES

Classification based on the type of education provided by the
agency

a) Formal agency of education: This includes institutions

deliberately set up by the society with the specific objective of
carrying out the various functions of education. E.g.: the school, the
church, the museum.

b) Informal agencies of education: This includes institution which

performs educational functions just incidentally and indirectly. E.g.:
the family, the peer group, youth clubs etc.

Classification based on role played by the agency

a) Active agencies of education: There is the personal interaction

between educator and educand. E.g.: Home, school, religious
institutions, society.
b) Passive agencies of education: They affect the individual but
they are not affected by them.Eg; library, radio, tv etc.

Classification based on the monitory intention of the agency

a) Commercial agencies of education: They have their objective of

business in view but they also provide different kinds of education.
E.g.: Newspaper, radio, television, etc.

b) Non-commercial agencies of education: They are non-profit

service-oriented educational agencies created for social welfare and
social good.Eg: Club, social welfare centers, scouting, girl guiding,
etc.

AGENCIES OF INFORMAL EDUCATION

 1. THE FAMILY
The family is the oldest, basic and fundamental unit of human
society. It is regarded as the primary agent of education. The basic
purpose of the family is to provide a loving safe environment for
children.

Educational functions of the family

1. It provides early physical training
2. It socializes the child
3. It acculturates the child
4. It helps in character formation
5. It supports mental development
6. It imparts spiritual and moral education
7. It can collaborate with school
8. It prepares ground for future learning

2. THE PEER GROUP

A peer group is a group of individuals having more or less same
age and status. It is a group of friends that a certain person will try to
impress to get their bond, social status, and interest.

The Educational role of the peer group

1. It socializes the individual
2. It helps to develop balanced personality
3. It facilitate mental development
4. It favours physical development
5. It inculcate social values
6. It develops leadership qualities
7. It fosters talents and creative abilities 8. It acculturates

3.THE COMMUNITY
The term community refers to a group of people living together in
an area having common ways of working and common ideals to
achieve. Community is an informal and active agency of education
which casts lasting influence on the educational development of the
individual.

Educational role of community

 1. Provide educational facilities to children through institutions.
2. Formulate aims and objectives of education.
3. Socializes the child.
4. Helps for cultural development.
5. It encourages the vocational development of the learner.
6. They encourage and co-ordinates the educational efforts of
various parallel agencies.

4. THE MASS MEDIA

The media used for the masses to communicate something are
called as mass media. They are sources of and news such as
newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema, and internet that
reach and influence large number of people.

Educational functions of mass media

1. Television can serve a powerful medium for imparting education
through educational broadcasting.
2. The World Wide Web make interaction between the teacher
and the taught sitting in remote places.
3. Helps in intellectual, social, emotional, and aesthetic
development.
4. Helps children to enrich their imagination, ignites their creativity,
encourage them to think divergently.
5. Helps to transmitting cultural values from one generation to
another.
6. Helps to develop social and political values like feeling of
brotherhood, oneness, cooperation, democratic values etc.
7. Newspapers play their educational function by providing up-to-
date information about many areas and also by intimating information
about the opportunities of education

Formal agencies
Importance: Formal institutions are purposely set-up by society
for various functions of education. They are special organizations to
impart education and instruction in some way or other.

Characteristics:
(I) planned with a particular end in view.
 (ii) Limited to a specific period.
(iii) Well-defined and systematic curriculum.
(iv) Given by specially qualified teachers.
(v) Includes activities outside the classroom.
(vi) Observes strict discipline.

Agencies of formal education

1) Schools: This in modern time is treated as the most suitable,

active, and formal agency of education. School is an institution where
the culture of the society is transmitted.

2) Libraries: These are also considered as the formal agencies of

education. A school library is an academic library that supports
school programs as well as the teaching and learning processes. The
school library is central to learning and plays a key role as a place for
encouraging innovation, curiosity, and problem-solving. A school
library is a place in the school where vast collections of academic
books are kept.

3) Religious Institutions: In India, there are several private

schools run by religious institutions, especially for Hindus, Muslims,
Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists.

4) Cultural Organizations: No education can be complete

without the arts and creativity playing a central role in a child’s life.
Successful schools put culture at the heart of their curriculum. The
effective teaching of art, music, drama and other creative subjects is
important in ensuring students experience in a rich and balanced
curriculum.
 Informal Agencies
Importance: Informal education is a gradual process, for people
to learn a few things after years of experience. But the things learned
in this manner prove to be more valuable than all the degrees
accumulated through formal education.

Characteristics:
1. This type of education is informal because no formalities are
observed here.
2. No conscious efforts are made either by the teacher or the
taught.
3. It is in no way pre-planned activity.
4. It is incidental.
5. No formal goals are fixed up.
6. No formal means are used to attain the goals.
7. There are no fixed or appointed teachers.
8. Here a situation might crop up where student may teach a
teacher something.
9. There is no prescribed curriculum and no time table is
observed.
10. None organize this type of education.
11. There is no fixed place for it.
12. This type of education is never completed as there is no fixed
syllabus.
13. There are no examinations of any type.
14. It is all a natural way of teaching and learning.

Agencies of Informal Education

HOME OR FAMILY
This is most true of the family, for the family makes a sizeable
contribution to the child’s education, irrespective of the quality of this
education. As an agency of education family should perform the
following duties:
 Place Of Affections
How to be Social able
Makes Morally Sound
Imparts Education
Statistics Economical Needs
Helps In Physical, emotional and mental development
Helps Religious Development

SOCIETY OR COMMUNITY
❖ The society performs several educational functions which are
briefly explained below:
❖Establishes Schools
❖Maintains Standard of the Schools
❖Helps In All Round Development Of Individual
❖Sets Up Aims and Objectives Of Education
❖Plans National System of Education
❖Make Provision of Suitable Curriculum
❖Appoint Commissions and Committees
Preserves Traditions and Conventions

STATE
State is also informal agency of education. Briefly, the main duties
of the state as an educational agency are given below.
• It is the duty of the state to establish its own schools and provide
assistance to private schools.
• State is to establish inter relationship among various agencies of
education.
• State should keep education free from local crisis
• It should provide sound attitude to parents towards education.
• Arrangement of free and universal education for a definite period
is an important task of the state.
• Proper arrangement of training for teachers is to be made by the
state so that the standard of education many not decease.
• State should give proper advice to educational institutions.
• State is expected to help inculcate the feeling of duty to the
nation in the minds of its citizens and it should contribute to the
development of normal ideas for social efficiency.

PEER GROUP
Peers are the ones who are equal in rank older boys and girls
form groups of their peers called peer groups.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PEER GROUP

1. Socializes
2. Modification of Behaviour
3. We- Feeling
4. Help in All-Round Development
5. Teach Them to Work Independently
OTHER AGENCIES:

Mass media
Museums
Library
Sports

Nonformal agencies
Non-formal education is one of the recent concepts getting into
use. Indian involvement in non-formal education has increased as a
result of our interest in making education a life-long affair rather than
a matter of formal schooling.

Characteristics:
(I) derived from the expression 'formal education.
(ii) Outside the realm of formal education.
(iii) Conscious and deliberate.
(iv) To be organized for a homogeneous group.
(v) Serving the need of the identified group.

COMPONENTS OF EDUCATION

1. Teachers: like leaves, everywhere abound. Effective

teachers: like fruits, rarely found."
Effective Teachers Are:
❖ One who has honed his skills in the art of teaching.
❖ Compassionate and understanding.
❖ Gives allowance for personal limitations.
❖ Looks at every learner as a unique individual with peculiar
needs and interests.
❖ Allows himself to grow professionally.
❖ Aspiration of every mentor whether new or has been in it for
years.

Roles of an Effective Teacher

✓ Manager
✓ The teacher is responsible for effective management of her
class from the start to finish.

✓ Counselor
✓ Acts as counselor to the pupils especially when the pupils
especially when the pupils are beset by problems.

✓ Motivators
✓ Encouraging and motivating pupils to study well and behave
properly in and outside the classroom.

✓ Leader
✓ A leader directs coaches, supports, and delegates depending
on the needs of the situation.

✓ Model
✓ A teacher is an exemplar.

✓ Public Relations Specialist

✓ The credibility of the school to attributed most of the time to
the ways to teachers deal with the people outside the school.
 ✓ Parent - Surrogate
✓ The teachers are the second parents of the pupils and the
students.

✓ Facilitator
✓ The pupils must be given the chance to discuss things under
the supervision and monitoring of the teacher

✓ Instructor
✓ The main function of the teacher is instruction.

✓ Learner
✓ To understand the child, the teacher must know:

❖ The child as a biological organism with needs, abilities, and

goals.
❖ The social and psychological environment; and
❖ The cultural forces of which he is a part.

2.Classroom
The classroom environmental encompasses factors are:

❖ Physical Environment
❖ Intellectual Climate
❖ Social Climate
❖ Emotional Climate

3. CURRICULUM

Curriculum *from the Latin word "curere" which means "to

run".

Academic Curriculum
❖ Refers to the formal list of the courses offered by the school.
 ❖ Extra Curriculum o Refers to those planned but voluntary
activities that are sponsored by a school.

Hidden Curriculum
Refers to those unplanned learning activities.

4. Administration
It is defined as the organization, direction, coordination, and
control of human and material resources to achieve desired ends.

School administration has the following functions:

a. Seeing that all school money is economically expanded and

accounted for;
b. Preparing the school budget.
c. Selecting and purchasing school sites;
d. Planning, erecting, and equipping the school buildings;
e. Operating the school plant and keeping it in an excellent state
of repair;
f. Selecting, training, supervising teachers;
g. Providing supplies;
h. Providing textbooks;
i. Assisting in curriculum construction;
j. Organizing an instructional program;
k. Keeping the public informed of the aims, accomplishments, and
needs of schools, and
i. Keeping school records and accounts.
 ANCIENT EDUCATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The education system of ancient period has unique characteristic
and qualities which were not found in the ancient education system of
any other country in the world. Gurukul (ashram) was a type of school
in ancient India, residential in nature, with pupils living in proximity to
the teacher (guru). In a gurukul, students would reside together as
equals, irrespective of their social standing, learnt from the guru and
distribute work in themselves to help the guru in his day-to-day life.

At the end of studies, pupil would be ready to offer gurudakshina

(one time fees) to the guru. The gurudakshina is a traditional gesture
of acknowledgment, respect and thanks. Sanskrit was language of
vedic education system and Pali was language of Buddhist education
system. Subject of the study were Vedas, vedangs, upnishads
darshans, purans and trakshastra in vedic period and three Pitakas in
Buddhist period. During the vedic period also provision was for music,
dancing, housekeeping and arts training for women. Vocational
education was also available free of cost in this period. Methods of
learning, period of study and types of Teachers were unique in
ancient India.
 VEDIC EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA
Development of Education in the Vedic Period
It was particularly observed in one of the Upanishads “He who is
possessed of supreme knowledge by the concentration of mind must
have his senses under control, like-spirited steeds controlled by a
charioteer.

From the Vedic age downwards the central conception of

education of the Indians has been that it is a source of illumination
giving us a correct lead in the various spheres of life. “Knowledge
says one thinker, is the third eye of man, which gives him insight into
all affairs and teaches him how to act”. To attain salvation by realizing
the truth has been the aim of education, during this period. Only that
education was regarded true which helped one to realize the
supreme truth.

According to the Upanishads ‘truth’ alone is the knowledge and

otherworldly knowledge is untruth. Worldly knowledge was regarded
as ignorance. Upanishads maintain that one cannot attain salvation
through worldly knowledge because through this one becomes
involved in illusion (Maya).

Upanayana Samskar: Upanayan Samskar was considered

important both in the Vedic and Post-Vedic periods. This is evident in
several places in the Rigveda. But different values were adhered to in
the two periods. It was not necessary during the Vedic period to have
the Upanayana ceremony before starting education. But 25 during
the Post-Vedic period Upanayana ceremony was considered
necessary for starting education.

The word ‘Upanayana’ means to come near. In the context of

education, this word signifies that the student comes near the teacher
for receiving education. The Upanayana ceremony became so
important during the Post-Vedic period that it was usually regarded as
the second birth of the individual. Brahmans began to be called as
Dvij (the twice-born or born again). It was after the Upanayana that
the Brahman boy could be called a Dvij. Two births signify the worldly
and spiritual births. On the Upanayana occasion, the Guru (receptor)
used to give him his Mantra (Advice). His spiritual life used, to begin
with, this advice. That is, from this day his education was started
which ultimately led to his spiritual development in due course of
time. The Upanayana ceremony is still vogue in certain religious
groups in the world, though in different forms. The Important

Place of the Teacher

During this period the teacher (Guru) enjoyed a predominant
place not only in his Gurukul (seat of learning) but in the entire
society. He was regarded as a great guide for all. To his pupils, he
showered all love and affection and used to teach them whatever he
knew, but before doing this he always tested the 26 deservingness of
a particular pupil. The pupils were free to discuss any points freely
with the Guru.

The curriculum during the Post-Vedic Period

During this period the curriculum included more subjects than
during the Vedic age. During the Post-Vedic period, the curriculum
consisted of Vedas, History, Puranas, Grammar, Mathematics,
Brahma-Vidya, Nirukti (etymological interpretation of words),
Astronomy, dance, Music, etc.
Veda mantras (Vedic hymns and verses) were principally thought
in the Vedic Period.

Question-Answer System in Upanishad Literature

entire Upanishad literature is on the question-answer system.
Through this system, difficult and abstract ideas were made simple.
The terse-spiritual elements were explained through this method.
This method is successfully used by Socrates in Greece to explain
abstract ideas.

Daily Routine of Students

During the Post-Vedic period, the Ashramas (schools) were
generally organized and run by Gurus (preceptors). It was
compulsory to adhere to laid down rules of discipline and conduct. No
distinction was made between students in this respect. Everyone was
required to observe celibacy. Rules of conduct were enforced keeping
in view the physical, mental, and moral development of 27 students.
Strict adherence to rules of conduct and discipline was an
inseparable aspect of education in those days.

Practical Education
❖ Practical education consists of three parts
❖ To beg alms
❖ To prepare the fire for the Yajna-Kund.
❖ To look after the animals and other fellow beings of the
Ashrama (School).

There were varying aims of all these three aspects of practical

education, Begging of alms was meant to teach politeness. Preparing
fire for the YajnaKund signified the mental development of students.
Rearing up Ashrama animals and agricultural works were meant to
make the students self-dependent.

Moral Education
Leading a disciplined and controlled life is the real basis of moral
education. Moral education affects the conduct of the individual.
Therefore the observance of celibacy was considered necessary for
good conduct.

Mental Development
Hearing, Thinking and Meditation were three parts of mental
education. Thinking over the heard things and perception through
meditation were the accepted methods of mental development.
Teacher’s Place in the

Ancient Indian Society

❖ In ancient Indian society, the teacher always enjoyed a
dignified place. During the Vedic and the Post-Vedic periods,
the teacher’s place was second to 28 that of God only. He was
more respected than the king in society.
 ❖ The GuruAshrama was known as the Gurukul (the family of a
teacher) and the Guru was regarded as a rishi (sage) or
Acharya (the one who practices what he professes).

❖ The Guru was the guide and could help anyone to carve out
his course of action. He used to bring the light wherever there
was darkness.

❖ During the Upanishad period also, when self-study was

considered as dignified the place of Guru in society remained
intact.

❖ It was believed that no knowledge could come without

assistance from the Guru. It was thought that the attainment of
salvation was not possible without the help of the Guru.

Restriction on Teachers
The teacher was expected to lead a life of penance free of worldly
things. He, too, was required to follow all the rules of the strict
discipline, thinking, and meditation that were prescribed for the
students. After the demise of the Guru, even one of his disciples
could succeed him if his son was not considered worthy.

Women Education
Many changes were introduced in women’s education during the
Post Vedic period. This led to the fall of Women’s education. During
the Vedic age, the women enjoyed equal educational rights. During
the Post-Vedic period, they were deprived of social and religious
rights. They were not allowed to participate in social functions.
Ultimately the position of women in society fell so low 29 that the birth
of a girl was regarded as a curse on the family.

But an upward trend again appeared in the status of women

during the Upanishad period. Now they were given social and
educational rights again. Once again they were given equal status
with men and many women became a learned man. Many women
became Acharya (Principal teacher- Guru) in Ashramas.
 Convocation Address
After receiving education for twelve years students used to
assemble near their teacher (Acharya) for blessings before going
home. The teacher used to tell them how to lead a life of householder
(Grihastha), how to take care of the society and the nation, and how
to serve humanity as a whole. The teacher used to tell all these in a
ceremony which was known as Samavartan Samaroha like the
modern convocation address.

Different Types of Gurukuls in Ancient India

Initially, the gurukul system had the advantage of being egalitarian
and fair. The teacher there observed the children’s attitude, aptitude,
and ability, and educated them accordingly. As this was done without
the interference from any external source (parents can be very
pushy!), the educators were able to match the individual’s
temperament with the trade they learned. Later, however, this was
corrupted and educators were no longer independent-rather they
were paid to teach a particular skill to a particular group of students.
(Sound familiar?) I am 30 not just making this up either-there is
written evidence for this name in the Mahabharata.

At the time when Drona and Drupada were students, the system
was still fair and open. Princes and paupers went to the same
Gurukul to learn life skills. There, different children learned different
skills and the gurukul was able to develop the skills of a particular
child to its maximum potential. As a result, a Brahmin was taught
Danurveda and became highly skilled in the martial arts. Impressed
by his skills, a prince sought his friendship, as he knew he would
need such men in his army, sadly, he forgot his friendship and an
animosity took root which culminated in the great Bharat war.

In the same generation, from an open system that Drona

attended, he came to run a gurukul that was elitist and exclusive. He
was paid to teach the Kuru princes and hence refused to teach any
other student, no matter how talented. The fact that Akalaya sought
Drona’s tutelage, shows the system was changing so fast, most
people could not comprehend that education could be restricted in
this way! Education was supposed to be open to all and this was a
rare, new experiment in education whereby a teacher was “paid” to
teach a specified group of students only. Parashurama's gurukul was
also elitist and hence flawed.

By being closed, and yet so well reputed. It encouraged sincere

seekers to twist the truth 31 or, lie, in order to get in. Karna’s entry
was surely not the first, and I am sure not the last into this them.
From an egalitarian Gurukul of Sandipani, came Lord Krishna and
Sudama. Theirs was a friendship that lasted the test of time.
Krishna’s knowledge culminated in the great Bhagavad-Gita. This
great scripture still continues to inspire, so many centuries after its
first recitation. From the Gurukul of Parushuram, came Karna, who
sacrificed everything, including ethics, at the altar of his misplaced
idea of “friendship”. He was unable to save himself with the
knowledge gained at his Gurukul, as it was gained with deceit. It cost
him his life! From the Gurukul of Drona, came the Great War,
annihilating an empire as old as time! Harvest of hate is bitter indeed,
all those connected with this Gurukul, died a painful acrimonious
death. Varna

System and Education in Society: - The Varna system in the

Vedic age was based on one’s work or duty (Karma). Members of a
family used to engage themselves in different types of work
(profession) and their work decided their Varna. During the Vedic
period, one could choose a particular profession as he liked, and
accordingly, his Varna was determined. But during the Post-Vedic
period, Varna came to be determined by birth.

Consequently, the whole society was divided into four Varnas-

Shudra• Vaishya • Kshatriya • Brahman

❖ The Brahmans occupied the supreme position and enjoyed

more rights. Kshatriyas resented their superiority.
Consequently, a clash ensued between Brahmans and
Kshatriyas.
❖ In the clash, Kshatriyas won over Brahmans and took
administrative powers into their hands. In the Varna system,
the Brahmans and Kshatriyas became predominant.
 ❖ The Vaishyas and Shudras came into lower groups. In Varna,
hierarchies Shudras were kept at the lowest order of society.
Thereafter, they were regarded as untouchables and they
were denied all social and religious rights. Vaishyas remained
superior to Shudras.

❖ Vaishyas divided themselves into professional groups such

as – goldsmith, blacksmith, potter, cobbler, milkman, and
sweet-seller, etc. he Post-Vedic literature does not contain
much about the education of Vaishyas and Shudras.
Agriculture was the main occupation of Vaishyas during this
period.

Features of Ancient Indian Education

1. Each stage of life was marked and sanctified by an appropriate

religious ceremony which in course of time became a part and parcel
of the social life of the people.

2. Education at that time was-free and accessible to all (universal)

except the Sudras. But the rule of begging was prevalent. The society
had an obligation to provide alms. The system of education was
intimately connected with the social structure.

3. Kings and rulers of the country had nothing to do with education

directly. It was a private affair of the people managed entirely by
Brahmana teachers.

4. The teachers depended on their support on the goodwill and

charity of the people. It was the duty of the people to give alms.

5. Teachers were a highly honoured class. They were more

honoured than kings who were honoured only in their own countries
whereas the learned men were respected everywhere.

6. Teachers behaved as parents to their pupils and the pupils also

in their turn behaved as members (sons) of the teacher’s family. The
house of the teacher was the school. Teachers and pupils lived
together and their relationship was very cordial.

7. The knowledge imparted in those days was of two types:

(a) Para Vidya and

(b)Apara Vidya.

Para Vidya means Supreme or the highest knowledge for self-

realization or knowledge of the Supreme Self.

Apara Vidya means the lowest knowledge of the four Vedas and
six Vedangas etc.

8. The ultimate aim of education was the complete realization of

the self. It was neither a preparation for this worldly life nor for life
beyond. Education aimed at freedom from bondage and knowledge
or illumination makes one free from this bondage and helps to unite
with the Supreme self.

9. The immediate or proximate aim of education was to prepare

the different castes of people for their actual needs of life.

10. The subjects of instruction varied according to the needs of

the different castes. These included the Vedas and Vedangas in the
case of the Brahmans, the art of warfare in the case of the
Kshatriyas, the art of agriculture, arts, and crafts in the case of the
Vaisyas. Ancient Indian Education was thus caste dominated.

11. Pupils were taught individually. No class instruction was

provided. Sometimes senior students acted as teachers of junior
ones. This was known as the monitorial system. Ancient Indian
Education was individualized and not institutionalized.

12. The method of teaching was mainly oral through debates and
discussions which received due attention.

13. The method of the study consisted in:

1. Sravana—listening to the teacher
 2. Manana—a reflection on what was listened to,
3. Nidhidhyasana—constant repetition of the subject of study.

14. Travelling was regarded as necessary to complete the

education.
15. In ancient India, education was for education’s sake, and not
for examination or for getting a job. Education was all-round, i.e.,
complete or total development of personality—intellectual, physical,
moral, and social.

16. The place of education was generally the forest which was far
from the madding crowd and ignoble strife. The ancient Rishis
established the earliest schools in hermitages or Ashrams in the
forest. The system of Guru-Kula was then in vogue. The home of the
teacher was also regarded as a school.

17. There was generally no provision for corporal punishment.

Discipline was free. Self-reverence, self-knowledge, and self-control –
these three alone can lead life to sovereign power. Self-discipline was
the best discipline. Ancient Indian Education was dominated by strict
moral codes of conduct.

18. Girls were educated privately in their homes by parents,

elders, or husbands and not publicly as boys. Education that girls
received was highly intellectual and it reached a very high level as in
the well-known cases of Gargi, Maitreyi, and others.

19. There was no formal system of examination of the present

day. The teacher was the sole judge of the standard of achievements
of the pupils.

20. The period of studentship was longer, i.e. twelve years,

because there was no printed book in those days. Everything had to
be memorized. Hence memory played a very prominent role in
Ancient Indian Education.

21. Teaching was practically honorary. Taking anything from the

students was regarded as a sin. There was no pecuniary relationship
between the teacher and the taught. At the end of studentship some
honorarium (Gurudakshina), of course, could be paid to the teacher
either in cash or in kind.

22. Strict celibacy had to be observed during the period of

studentship.

23. The teacher was regarded as the only source of knowledge

and as such he was highly respected.

24. There was no formal system of admission. The teacher was

the only deciding factor in matters of admission.
25. Education (teaching) in ancient India was regarded as a
religious duty and intimately connected with the performance of some
ceremonies or rituals (Vidyarambha, Upanayana, Utsarjana,
Samavartana, etc.).

26. Ancient Indian Education aimed to develop both the body and
the mind. It intended to develop a sound mind in a sound body.

27. Ancient Indian Education was both spiritualistic and

materialistic.

28. Vedic education was caste-ridden.

29. The moral upliftment of the pupil was the cherished goal of
Ancient Indian Education.

30. It had both catholicity and elasticity in outlook and as such, it

had the power of adaptability. It was not rigid but flexible. So it
continued for centuries.
 BUDDHIST EDUCATIONAL SYSYTEM
Buddhists had their own educational system and was entirely
based on different principles. Buddhists never believed in caste
distinctions, they believed in equality of all men, they believed in
equal status to women. Even after the fall of Buddhism, the education
system continued through the Siddhas. The students used to utter
‘om namao siddam’ at the start of their studies. The present
‘ganeshay namah’ is quite recent. The remnant of this system of
siddhas, the word ‘onama’ meaning ‘beginning’ a corrupted form of
‘om namah siddham still exists in the Marathi language.

To understand the difference between Brahmanic and Buddhist

methods of education is a crucial point which should not be missed if
one wants to realize the implications of the education system in
Indian society. Ancient India was known all over the world for
Buddhist Education, not Brahmanic.
 Brahmanic education was essentially a single individual teacher
with his small group of disciples and pupils at his residence. On the
other hand, the Buddhist system is institutional i.e. monastic. This
difference is significant, leading to different lines of evolution. Prof.
Mookerji says, “The necessity of a domestic environment in the
Brahmanical system did not favour the expansion of a small school
under an individual teacher into a large educational federation,
controlled 60 by a collective body of teachers, as was the
characteristic of the Buddhist system.

It gave birth to those large scale monastic universities, with

thousands of teachers and students, and attracted students from all
over Asia. An evolution that continued for more than fifteen hundred
years culminated in establishing Universities like Nalanda, Vallabhi,
Vikramasila, Jagaddala, Odantpuri, etc.
 Though these universities started as training grounds for monks,
did not remain places for cloistered meditation but developed into
seats of culture and learning, and remained so till got destroyed by
Muslim invasions.

Those were the times, without any books, all teaching was
imparted by word of mouth. Books came not before the first century
B.C. Students had to learn by heart Dharma and Vinaya, and at the
end of learning these used to be a ceremony of Paravana, on the last
day of varsavas.

The remnants of this Buddhist practice remains even now in the

form of “Kojagiri” in Maharashtra and by other names in other areas
like “Pujagiri” in Bengal. During the course, there was unrestricted
freedom to argue, to dispute, and debate, and each was expected to
think reason and decide for himself all matters of Vinaya and dharma,
the facility, presumably was absent in gurukuls.

The subjects were not only dharma and vinaya but they were
trained in varied cultural subjects, in the tenets of other faith, in
systems of philosophy, and even the subjects of pragmatic
importance like agriculture and architecture. Afterward, when books
began to be written, these centers developed huge splendid
manuscript libraries.

We have seen in gurukuls, admission was based on caste,

reserved only to all dwijas technically. But only to Brahmins in
practice, because in Kali Yuga, there were only two varnas, Brahmins
and Shudras, and the last Kshatriya kula was that Nandas, because
they did not want to recognize the Mauryas as Kshatriyas. We also
know that people of all castes were admitted to Buddhist sangha, and
in Buddhist centers of learning, the admission was open not only to
monks of different Buddhist sects but, also to untrained seekers of
knowledge and learning, even to non-Buddhists, irrespective of caste
and sect, religious denomination or nationality.

It is also worth noting that the system of education was free and
for the benefit of residence and learning in a monastery, there could,
of course, be no question of payment. The monasteries were
maintained by grants from princes and people alike as an act of
spiritual merit.
 Salient Features of Buddhist System of
Education in India
1. The chief aim of education was the spread of Buddhist religion
and the attainment of Nirvana through it.

2. Education was imparted in Mathias, Viharas, and Monasteries,

and monks were responsible for its organization and management.
Monastic life of the Shramanas and monks had always been
exemplary for the Indians so much so that the educational institutions
attracted students from distant parts of the world, such as China,
Japan, Korea, Java, Burma, Ceylon, Tibet, and other countries.

3. Educational facilities were provided to all on an equal footing.

All differences of caste and social status which had taken deep-roots
under the Brahmanical education had been removed. The attitude of
society towards education was broad and positive. Not only the
sacred portals of the institutions were opened to all but also all the
students were provided equal opportunities for the development of
their character according to their capacity and aptitude.

4. Along with religious and philosophical aspects of education,

secular education formed an essential part of it. Besides, rituals were
in vogue while imparting education.
5. There existed a harmonious relationship between the teacher
and the taught. Students had great respect for the teachers and the
teachers had tremendous love and affection for the students. They
led a much disciplined life.

6. Though the educational system was dominated by religion yet

there was provision for imparting practical knowledge in Spinning,
Weaving, Drawing, and Medicine, etc. The medium of instruction was
folk language—Pali.

7. Lecture, questioning, and discussion were the main methods of

teaching.
 8. The system of education was purely Indian having been
evolved by the Indian educationists. So education was closely
wedded to the various problems of life and is aimed at finding out
concrete solutions thereof.

System of Admission

The ceremony of admission into the Sangh was made on the

same procedures as that of the Brahmnical initiation of studentship.
The Buddhist initiation was called “Pabhajja” or going out of his
previous condition and adopting a new ascetic order.
The initiation or Pabhaija inaugurated the student life and a final

ordinat ion
was called “Upasampada” which conferred the status of monkhood or
Bhikshu on the student. He was then accepted as a full-fledged
monk. The newcomer had to take an oath, “I take refuge with the
Buddha. I take refuge with the religion. I take refuge with the order”.

Aims of Education

The Buddhist education aimed at spiritual and mental

development mainly to get rid of the worldly bondages. Buddha
pointed out that the world was full of sorrows and sufferings due to
‘avidhya’ or ignorance and by removing ‘avidya’ a man can be able to
relieve himself from the bondage of life as a result of which he can
secure Nirvan or Mukti, a state of eternal bliss.
 It can be possible by developing social relations and by living
ethically.
The aim of Buddhist education is essential to achieve moral
perfection and to develop a morally perfect personality. Buddha
preached that mere repetition of prayers or chanting of Vedic hymns
was fruitless in cleaning the mind from wrong desires.

The desire can only be removed and moral development can be

possible through eight Noble Fold paths or the Arya Asthang marga.
The aim of education is to make familiar with these paths and
practice in life.

The noble eightfold paths are right views, right resolved, right
speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,
and right concentration. Another aim of Buddhist education was to
teach the monks the law of Varna, it's working and the transmission of
souls. The teaching of Ahimsa or non-violence was also one of the
aims of Buddhist education.

Curriculum

While emphasizing the spiritual subjects the Buddhist education

did not ignore the secular and vocational subjects. The curriculum
included almost all the subjects starting from 3 R’s to military training
and medical education.

The main subjects of Buddhist education were spinning, weaving,

the printing of the cloth, tailoring, accountancy, painting, Ayurveda,
surgery, etc. Besides these subjects, different arts and crafts also
formed an essential part of the curriculum. On the whole, all arts and
sciences, all vocational and commercial subjects were included in the
course of studies.

Methods of Teaching

The method of instruction was mainly oral as it was during the

Vedic age. The pupils used to learn the content of different subject
matter by rote. Besides this, the important methods of teaching were
lecture, speech hearing, debate, discussion, deliberation, and
question-answer

Thinking, meditation, and self-study were duly emphasized. In

viharas and monastic schools, Hetu Vidya or the inductive method of
logic was adopted and through this method, the intellect of the pupils
was trained. In course of debate and discussions, some controversies
arose which were solved by eight pramanas like principle, reasoning,
comparison, analogy, perception, information, and induction.

Occasionally, monitorial methods were adopted and some efficient

students were entrusted with the duties of teaching and disciplining
the other students. Pupils were given both theoretical as well as
practical methods.
 EDUCATION IN MUSLIM PERIOD
Since the establishment of Muslim rule in India (around 1204-
1206), Bengal was ruled as a province of the Delhi empire, and
sometimes it was an independent state. The Subahdars, the
independent rulers, and Nawabs established mastabas and
Madrasahs as educational institutions. Maktabs provided primary
education and madrasahs were seats of secondary education and
higher learning. The madrasahs of Bengal were in a flourishing
condition during Muslim rule. These were run with state funds. The
nobility and the private individuals were also found to set up and run
madrasahs at their initiative. Many illustrious scholars, administrators,
and officials were graduates of madrasahs in Muslim Bengal.

In the school of Shah Mubarak, his sons Faizi and Abul Fazal,
historian Badauni and other scholars studied. In the madrasah run by
Sharafuddin Abu Taoama in Sonargaon students studied both secular
and religious subjects. During the rule of emperor Shahjahan 80, the
madrasahs of Jahangirnagar specialized in teaching science,
theology, philosophy, and mathematics. Madrasah education was
free. The teacher enjoyed high status in the society. The courses of
madrasah generally included other Islamic studies. Secular subjects
such as history, logic, geography, algebra, astronomy, medical
science, chemistry, and other technical, vocational, professional
subjects were more cultivated in some centers.
FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM
1. Shahadah – faith
2. Salah – prayer
3. Zakat – charity
4. Hajj – Pilgrimage
5. Sawm or siyam – fasting

ISLAMIC EDUCATION
• Education- religious in character
• Spread of Islam
• Preservation of Muslim culture

The medium of instruction was Persian but Arabic was

compulsory for Muslim students. The teaching of history was one
special feature of madrasah education during the Muslim period. As a
result, their learning centers could produce some illustrious historians
in the subcontinent. Generally, Muslim students studied in madrasah.
Akbar adopted a policy so that Hindu youths can study at the
madrasah. Women during Muslim rule did not have the opportunity
for education due to the Purda system. But there is evidence that in
HAREMS of kings, nawabs, and nobles some ladies, daughters,
sisters of kings and nobility received education and some of them
attained great distinction. But the great mass of Muslim women
received no education at all except some domestic training in the
performance of household duties.
 The tradition of madrasah education continued during the British
period but its nature and character of the flourishing period changed
to a great extent. In 81 early 19th century as reported by Adam
(1835-1838) there were various types of madrasahs and a wide
range of courses such as Grammatical works, Rhetoric, Logic, Law
Doctrines of Islam, Ptolemy and Astronomy; courses of Natural
Philosophy, Science, History, and Literature were also taught. Role
learning was given a large place and the main aim of a teacher was
to pass on the pupil the learned tradition, which he had received.
During the decadence of Muslim power due to lack of state
patronage, financial support from the landed aristocracy and nobility
and change of official language from Persian to English madrasah
education lost its past glory. Rather it assumed conservative
character and used classical language as the medium of instruction.
Madrasah education with some modifications is continuing in
Bangladesh.
AIMS 0F ISLAMIC EDUCATION
• Perfect all dimensions of human beings
• Being Muslim
• Live as prophet Muhammad
• Personality and character development
• Understanding Quran
• Aware of their responsibility as Muslims
• Develop spiritual knowledge
• Critical thinking and problem-solving skills
• Prepare the students for a life of purity and sincerity
• Five pillars of Islam

ORGANIZATION OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

• Bismillah

• Maktaba / primary education

• Madarsas/ higher education

 CURRICULUM
1. Maktaba • Letters of alphabets- Urdu, Arabic, Persian •
Stories of Muslim fakirs • poems of Persian poets • Grammar and
literature, history of laws of Islam, Astrology, History,
Geography, Agriculture, Unani system of medicine

2. Madarsas Religious education: • Intensive and critical

analysis of the Quran • Intensive study of Islamic Law • Sufism •
The heritage of Mohammad Sahib

3.Secular education: • Languages and literature of Arabic and

Persian, • History, Geography, • Astronomy, Astrology, •
Arithmetic, • Agriculture, Medicine, • Economics, Ethics,
Philosophy.

TEACHING METHODS

1. Maktaba • Recitation, collective repetition. • Writing, reading

and oral methods • Monitor methods

2. Madarsas • Lecture method, • self-study, • practical method in

subjects like music architecture.

TEACHER (ustad) • Spiritual father. • qualities of teacher:

tolerance, patience, hardworking, honesty, and punctuality.

STUDENT (Shagird) • Character building is given importance

EVALUATION • Oral or written tests

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION ✓

❖ Practical and useful Education

 ❖ Free education

❖ Individual contact

❖ Monitorial system

❖ Status of teacher

❖ Patronage of education

❖ Promotion of cultural unity

❖ Encouragement to Persian language and science

❖ Development of literature and history

❖ Democratic leadership

General Features of Islamic/Muslim Education

1. One very prominent aspect of Islamic Education was that the
Muslim rulers—who were the chief patrons and promoters of Islamic
education in India—were simultaneously destroyers and creators.
They destroyed many old traditions of India which have been
regarded as treasures of India since the beginning of her history. The
Muslim rulers at the outset were conquerors.

Hence, it is expected that they would destroy the traditions of their

adversaries. On the other hand, they created many new things out of
their own accord. They were devout Muslims. They ‘had a deep faith
in Islam. They had a proselytizing zeal. For the sake of their own
religion, they laid the foundations of many new endeavours which
undoubtedly helped them to establish, finally, their position in India.
Thus, from their activities it is evident that they were primarily
religious-minded.
 They were determined to propagate their religion in new soil with
great enthusiasm. This dual role of the Muslim rulers in India can
easily be traced in the activities of Sultan Mahmud, Muhammad Ghori
and Firuj Shah Tughluq. All of them patronized learning but that was
purely Islamic in character. Sultan Mahmud had destroyed many
Hindu shrines in India and had razed to the ground many old centres
of Hindu learning.

But he himself was learned and established a University at

Ghazni, where many scholars of the time assembled. Firuj Shah
maintained the famous Asokan Pillar at Delhi. He collected many
Hindu manuscripts from Hindu temples which were destroyed by him.
Thus we may conclude by saying that the Muslim rulers were
destroyers as conquerors and creators as Muslims.
2. Acquisition of knowledge is regarded as a boundant duty in
Islamic religion. Hajarat Muhammad said in the Quran “It is a religious
duty to acquire knowledge which is a friend, guide and benefactor in
this world and the other world.”
3. The Muslim rulers in India carried with them the rich mine of
Arabic culture which contributed tremendously to the culture of
Europe.

The history of Islamic culture had a chequered career. The Islamic

culture as we find in India was different from the original Arabic
culture which was highly indebted to the Graeco-Roman culture.
What we have got as Islamic culture is not purely Islamic culture. In
course of its evolution, the Arabic culture lost much of its original
character. With Islamic invasions, in India Islamic culture brought
many impurities. It was a culture as recognized by Islam and the
Quran. Thus, the Islamic culture in India was a perverted Arabic
culture.

4. The Islamic State in India was not democratic. It was theocratic

in theory and practice. The rulers were puppets in the hands of the
Muslim Amirs, Uzirs, Maujavis, and Mollas. Muslim lordship was not
hereditary. Muslim claim was mainly based on military autocracy and
aristocracy. The chief character of the state was ” weak ruler, weak
state; strong ruler, strong state.”
 5. Education in the Islamic era depended to a great extent on the
patronage of the Muslim rulers—the Sultans and the emperors, in as
much as the state depended on them. The Islamic state was
personified in the ruler. He could shape it in accordance with his
sweet will. Islamic learning could not develop without the patronage
of the lord of the land. But one thing is to be noted here.

The Islamic culture was not rooted in the Indian soil at the
beginning of Islamic rule in India. It had to take time to strengthen its
hold on the Indian subcontinent. The traditional conservatism of the
Hindus was a strong hurdle in the way of Islamic education and
culture. Another important point to be mentioned in this connection is
that the Islamic culture and learning achieved little progress and
success in the extreme south of the Indian sub-continent.

6. Another important feature of Islamic learning in India was that

the “Court” which was its center. The courts of the Islamic rulers were
assemblies or shelters of many ulemas, poets, teachers, artists,
singers and historians and writers. The Muslim capitals like Delhi,
Jaunpur, Fatehpur Secri, Murshidabad were the centres of Islamic
learning.

7. The Amirs and Ujirs were mighty factors in the Islamic

education. They contributed largely to its progress in as much as they
made huge educational endowments. They patronized Islamic
education not only for the sake of education alone but also to
establish their position as social and political leaders in their
respective zones of influence.

8. The examples of the central rulers were also followed by the

provincial and local rulers who also patronized education. Hussain
Shah of Bengal and Jainal Abedin of Kashmir are such provincial
rules who not only patronized Islamic culture but also Hindu culture.

9. Education which developed in the court centres was of the

higher type. Apart from this higher type of education there was also a
popular type of education. Hence, two types of educational
institutions developed to render these two types of education. The
higher type of Islamic learning was primarily meant for the gentry—
the children of the Sultans, the Amirs and Ujirs. The “Madrashas”
were the centres of higher learning.

Elementary or popular type “of education was imparted in the

Maktabs”. Each Maktab was attached to a mosque. At some places
the madrashas were also attached to the mosques. These are
comparable to the tols in the Hindu system of education. The
maktabs were like the pathsalas in the Hindu system.

10. The curriculum of the madrashas was dominated by theology

just as that of the tols by Sanskrit scriptures. In the madrashas,
Islamic classics—both Persian and Arabic, were taught. The
curriculum of the maktabs, on the other hand, was basically
constituted on the 3 R’s and some primary teachings of the Quran.

11. The medium of instruction in the madrashas was Persian or

Arabic, just as in the tols, it was the Sanskrit language. In the
maktabs the vernacular, Arabic, was the medium of instruction.

12. Islamic education was thus stratified between the education

for the elite and education for the masses. Higher education in the
madrashas was theoretical, but elementary education in the maktabs
was practical. There was a necessity to remove ignorance of the
unlimited Muslim populace. The Quran gives stress on the removal of
ignorance which was regarded as the prerequisite of the Islamic faith.

13. The teachers of the madrashas as well as the maktabs had to

perform both teaching and religions duties, just as the priests in the
Brahmanical system of education had to perform religious
.ceremonies as well as teaching. They had also a social obligation to
impart knowledge to the future generation because they were the
custodians of Islamic cultural heritage.

Here lies the similarity between the two systems of education. The
teachers in the madrashas and maktabs were highly esteemed just
as the priest-teachers of ancient India. The teachers were known as
the Maulavis. A maulavi was not only a teacher but also a moral
guide and a social leader.

14. The teacher-pupil relation in the Islamic system of education

was very cordial and healthy just as in the cases of the Brahmanical
and Buddhistic systems of education.

15. The Islamic education was almost free. Sometimes a certain

amount of the earning was collected for education. It was entirely
devoted to the cause of Islamic learning and known as the “Zakab”.

16. Another major feature of Islamic education was the origin,

evolution and creation of the centres of Islamic learning such as
Jaunpur, Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Ahmednagar, Fatehpur Secri,
Daulatabad, Lahore and Murshidabad.

17. Another important feature or peculiarity of the Islamic

education was the education of women. The Islam followed the
principle of “Purdah”. This system also gradually penetrated into the
Hindu society. Though the Islamic society was primarily conservative,
yet even in the early days of Islam there was large amount of female
education.

There were many learned ladies in those days such as Fatima,

Hasina, Madina etc. In medieval India, we also come across a host of
educated and learned ladies such as Raziya, Maham Auga-foster-
moiher or nurse of Akbar, Jahanara, Jeheb Unnisya, Nur Jahan
(Mehr Unnisya) etc. The courts and “harems” were the centres of
women learning.

Widespread popular woman education was impossible and

unthinkable in those days. All important Muslim rulers patronized
woman education. Akbar was particularly interested in woman
education. But some were hostile to it. Among them, the names of
Firuj Shah Tughluq and Aurangzeb can specially be mentioned.

18. Different types of vocational or artistic education also

developed as by-products of the general Islamic learning. Among
these, music, dancing, painting, sculpture, architecture deserve
special mention. Some Muslim rulers favoured these types of
vocational education. Iltutmish, Alauddin, Jahangir, Akbar, Shah
Jahan favoured it. But the conservative Muslim rulers like Firoj Shah
Tughluq and Aurangzeb disfavoured them.

19. Linguistically: The Islamic education contributed to several

momentous and far-reaching developments:

a) Firstly, the period of Islamic rule witnessed the development of

“Persian” as court-language,
b) Secondly, the script of “Arabia” was also widely used because it
was regarded as a sacred language of the Islam,
c) Thirdly, “Urdu”, as a full-fledged language, came into existence
during the Islamic regime. It is the admixture of so many languages. It
is the resultant of the Hindustani grammar and the Arabic-Persian
Turkish vocabulary.

20. The art of writing history was a definite contribution of the

Islamic education. The courts maintained and patronized historians.
Apart from court historians, there were also other historians. Among
the historians the names of Badaun, Min-haj-vi-Siraj, Khafi Khan and
Ferishta deserve special mention.

21. The Islamic education was heavily weighed by the principles

of morality. Strict moral discipline was demanded from the students
and it was introduced through various persons of quality. The dictum
of the Quran also dictated the students to be disciplined.

22. Up to the Lodhi period, the Islamic education and the

traditional Hindu education existed in parallel lines. The Hindu
education was rooted in the very soil of the country. The early Muslim
rulers felt that such a deep-rooted education could not be destroyed
though it lost much of its vitality. In course of time, the two hostile
cultures became close to each other forgetting the mutual animosity
at the initial stage.
 But the fusion or synthesis of the Hindu- Muslim culture was more
prominent in the social and religious fields rather than in education.
But education cannot take place without social context, and education
in the Muslim world was unthinkable without religious reference. The
Hindu-Muslim amity and secular tendency in the field of
administration began to be prominent since the days of the Lodhis.

Sher Shah patronized this tendency to the highest degree. Akbar

also took various scatholic measures to strengthen the Hindu-Muslim
bond and fellow-feeling. He encouraged the translation of many
Sanskrit books into Persian or Arabic. Many important posts in the
army as well as in the administration were offered to the Hindus both
by Sher Shah and Akbar. Many Hindus embraced Islam Many others
learnt Persian in the hope of having lucrative jobs.

Dara Suko, a devout muslim, was a scholar of Sanskrit learning,

poet Faizi, historian Ferishta also learnt the Hindu literature. The
signs of this cultural fusion were also prominent in the various
religious ceremonies, in dress, in food etc.

Aurangzeb’s narrow and erroneous policy foiled this secular

tendency.
Provincial rulers also patronized this cultural fusion. The name of
Hussain Shah can especially be mentioned in this respect. Jainal
Abedin, the ruler of Kashmir, also contributed largely to this cultural
interaction. There were also other personalities like Nizam Uddin
Aulia, Muinuddin Chitsi, Guru Nanak and Kabir, whose liberal
teachings contributed immensely to the development of eclectic
tendency in the socio-cultural domain of the Hindus and the Muslims.

23. The social status of the teaching class was highly respected.
The teachers occupied a high position in society for their integrity of
character and profession. They commanded universal respect and
confidence.

24. There existed a most affectionate relation between the teacher

and his pupil. There was constant intellectual communion between
them. The relation was like that of father and son. No regular fee was
charged.

25. More intelligent and advanced students were associated with

their masters in the work of teaching. While the monitors helped their
teachers a good deal in their work, they, in return, received good
practical training in the art of teaching.

26. The teachings of Islam are meant for all human beings.
According to Muhammad, education is meritorious in the eyes of the
Almighty, and as such everybody should acquire it irrespective of sex.
He emphasized that the acquisition of knowledge should be made
compulsory for both men and women.

27. Islam does not place any injunction against the education of
women. There could be no quantitative expansion of female
education. But qualitative excellence was maintained. Women had
made a fair advance in the acquisition of knowledge. Proper attention
was paid to their education. There were separate schools for girls, but
majority of them used to receive their education in their houses.
Education was given to according to their requirements. They
received moral, intellectual and practical training.

28. The Muslim rulers, particularly the Mughals, took keen interest
in the education of their subjects. They used to look after religious as
well as educational institutions. The Muslim kings of medieval India
opened schools and colleges and established libraries in various
parts of their dominions. The Muslim universities were fountains of
education and produced a large number of scholars of high repute.

29. Muslim educational institutions received both court and private

patronage. The Court was the fountain-head of encouragement for
literary fortune hunters. Almost every scholar and writer of repute was
attached to the Muslim Court. Famous authors commanded great
respect and huge emoluments.

30. Education was free for the poor but meritorious. Stipends and
scholarships were granted to them. The children of the poor and
orphans received education free of charge.

31. Teachers and professors were employed on salary basis in

schools and colleges. Vast endowments were created and large
estates were set apart for the maintenance of the maktabs and
madrashas.

32. In the absence of the printing ‘press progress of education

was greatly hampered. Books had to be written by hand. Calligraphy
or the art of good handwriting was greatly valued. In Muslim India,
penmanship was highly prized.

33. Technical training or vocational education received equal

importance along with scholastic; learning. Cultivation of such fine
arts as painting and music was equally emphasized. There were
thousands of karkhanas or workshops. Vocational training was mainly
craft-based.

34. Commercial education was also imparted to provide scientific

training in the structure of trade, .commerce and industry and in the
knowledge of business and accounts.

35 Before the advent of Islam in India, knowledge was the

monopoly-of the Brahmins. The low-born people were deprived of it.
By the grace of Islam, education became the birth-right of every
citizen—Muslim and Hindu, man and woman, rich and poor. The
Hindus began to receive education in Muslim schools with their
Muslim class-fellows;

36. The Muslim rule in India also witnessed cultivation of Sanskrit.

Under Imperial patronage, several Sanskrit books were translated
into Arabic and Persian.

MERITS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

• State Patronage of Education

• Organization of Free Education

 • Beginning of Scholarship

• Separate arrangement of Primary and Secondary Education

• Emphasis on the development of knowledge

• Encouragement to Literature

• Education of History Writing

• Development of Monitorial System

DEMERITS OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION

• Discrimination in Economic assistance

• Main aim of Education to propagate Islamic culture and religion

• Disregard to Indian Languages, Literature, Religion and

Philosophy

• Foreign languages as the medium of education

• Emphasis on Rote Learning

• Repressive Discipline

• Neglect of Women Education

 MODERN EDUCATION SYSTEM
Education in the British Period/Pre-
Independence
European trading companies began their commercial activities in
India from 1600 AD. Gradually, the Portuguese, the French, the
Dutch, and the English settled in some important parts and
commercial centers. Among them, the English East India Company
was ultimately able to establish their rule in India. Till the early 19th
century, they did not evolve any definite educational policy. It was
only in the Charter Act of 1813 that education of the Indian people
was included within the duties of the East India Company and an
annual sum of 82 10,000 pounds was provided for their educational
activities. However, the company mainly spent the money on oriental
learning.

The progressive reformers of Bengal such as Rammohan ROY

protested against this and demanded western education for the
people of this country. But the company did not pay any attention to
this. However, as per the Charter, missionaries were allowed to work
in the country. This had a great impact on the development of the
modern type of English schools at primary and secondary levels.
 One of the important events of this period was the endorsement of
Macaulay’s Minute in Lord BENTINK’s Dispatch of 7 March 1835,
which provided that western learning should be spread through the
medium of the English language. The use of English as a medium of
instruction in public education was announced as a formal policy. As
a result, a good network of English high schools and colleges were
established in Bengal, mostly due to government initiative and
support.

The new high schools demonstrated a fairly high standard of

instruction in language and literature, but their standard was low in
practical subjects. The syllabus was mainly bookish. Secondary
education received a new orientation in Wood’s Education Dispatch
of 1854. It provided that the government would give grant-in-aid to
high schools on the fulfillment of some conditions. Specifically,
schools should provide a secular education. This policy ultimately
enabled the government to withdraw 83 from the field of educational
activities and shoulder the responsibility upon the Indians.

However, grant-in-aid system scholarship scheme for students of

all levels and creation of a department of Public Instruction resulted in
the appreciable expansion of secondary education in Bengal, The
Indian Education Commission of 1882 addressed the issue of
secondary education at a great length. The government accepted its
recommendations to transfer all government secondary schools to
private bodies and to establish a model government high school in
each district headquarters.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the province of Bengal

experienced a spectacular growth of secondary education. There
were 3,097 English high schools in India in 1901-1902 and nearly half
of them were in Bengal. At the district level, Bengal had more schools
than any other presidency. There was an English secondary school
for every 104.3 square miles. It also had the largest number of
unaided schools. With low fees and easy admission, these schools
came up to cater to the demand for western education. Secondary
education experienced a setback as a result of Lord Curzon’s
regressive education policy adopted based on the Shimla conference
(1901) for strict control over high schools by the universities and the
Education Department.

However, during Curzon’s period, the partition of Bengal in 1905

offered a better opportunity for the development of education in East
Bengal. Henry Sharp, the 84 first Director of Public Instruction of East
Bengal, initiated educational improvement programmed. He arranged
a special aid programme for Muslim students such as scholarships at
every level of education and provision of free places in government-
aided schools for eight percent of Muslim students.
For greater participation, a Muslim hostel was established in every
government school. As a result, there was a substantial increase in
the number of Muslim students in primary and secondary schools.
The increase was about 35% from 425,800 in 1906-1907 to 575, 700
in 1911-1912. The policy of promoting education in eastern Bengal
continued under unified government of Bengal throughout the rest of
British period.

Under diarchic rule in 1921-1937, there was an increase in the

number of secondary schools in rural areas; large expansion is
secondary education of girls, adoption of mother tongue as a medium
of instruction, some improvement in training and service conditions of
teachers. During the World War II the development of secondary
education was slackened. In the post war period some efforts were
made to introduce vocational courses in high schools and establish
technical, commercial and agricultural high schools. On the eve of the
Partition of Bengal in 1947, two types of schools, middle school and
high schools provided secondary education. Middle schools offered
education of grades one through six and high schools grades seven
through ten.

There were nearly 20,000 middle schools and 2,000 high schools.
More than a half of them were supported from tuition fees and
donations contributed by the people. Less than 40% of the high
school received grant-in-aid from the state. Forty schools were
directly supported by the state. For teacher’s training of middle school
there were five normal schools. Two training colleges, one in Calcutta
and the other in Dhaka were set up to train high school teachers. It
was J.E.D. Bethune who first established a regular secular girl’s high
school in 1849 in Calcutta with six pupils. Bethune’s experiment was
so successful that it became a model of girls’ school in other
provinces of India. But progress of girl’s secondary education was
very humble.

By the end of the century (1896- 1897) there were only two girls’
English high schools; one was Bethune School in Calcutta and the
other Edern School in Dhaka. The impetus of girls’ education came
from the Indian Education Commission of 1882. According to the
several recommendations of the commission the government of
Bengal started to give higher grants to girl’s schools. Special subjects
suited to the girls were included in curricula. Enrolment of girls in
mixed schools was started.

The District and Municipal Boards also started to contribute a fair

share of funds for girls’ education. Education of Muslim girls entered
into the scene particularly with the efforts of Nawab Faizunnesa
Choudhurani and Roquiah Sakhawat Hossain. Gradually, the opening
86 of female training schools, starting with fee concession, prize, and
scholarship schemes greatly helped promote girls’ education in
Bengal.

Development of Modern Education

The company wanted some educated Indians who could

assist them in the administration of the land.
Also, they wanted to understand the local customs and laws
well.
For this purpose, Warren Hastings established the Calcutta
Madrassa in 1781 for the teaching of Muslim law.
In 1791, a Sanskrit College was started in Varanasi by
Jonathan Duncan for the study of Hindu philosophy and
laws.
The missionaries supported the spread of Western
education in India primarily for their proselytizing activities.
They established many schools with education only being a
means to an end which was Christianizing and ‘civilizing’ the
natives.
The Baptist missionary William Carey had come to India in
1793 and by 1800 there was a Baptist Mission in
Serampore, Bengal, and also several primary schools there
and in nearby areas.
The Indian reformers believed that to keep up with times, a
modern educational system was needed to spread rational
thinking and scientific principles.
The Charter Act of 1813 was the first step towards education
being made an objective of the government.
The act sanctioned a sum of Rs.1 lakh towards the
education of Indians in British ruled India. This act also gave
an impetus to the missionaries who were given official
permission to come to India.
But there was a split in the government over what kind of
education was to be offered to the Indians.
The orientalists preferred Indians to be given traditional
Indian education. Some others, however, wanted Indians to
be educated in the western style of education and be taught
western subjects.
There was also another difficulty regarding the language of
instruction. Some wanted the use of Indian languages
(called vernaculars) while others preferred English.
Due to these issues, the sum of money allotted was not
given until 1823 when the General Committee of Public
Instruction decided to impart oriental education.
In 1835, it was decided that western sciences and literature
would be imparted to Indians through the medium of English
by Lord William Bentinck’s government.
Bentinck had appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay as the
Chairman of the General Committee of Public Instruction.
Macaulay was an ardent anglicist who had absolute
contempt for Indian learning of any kind. He was supported
by Reverend Alexander Duff, JR Colvin, etc.
On the side of the orientalists were James Prinsep, Henry
Thomas Colebrooke, etc.
 Macaulay minutes refer to his proposal of education for the
Indians.
According to him:
English education should be imparted in place of
traditional Indian learning because the oriental
culture was ‘defective’ and ‘unholy’.
He believed in education a few upper and middle-
class students.
In the course of time, education would trickle down
to the masses. This was called the infiltration theory.
He wished to create a class of Indians who were
Indian in colour and blood but English in taste and
affiliation.

In 1835, the Elphinstone College (Bombay) and

the Calcutta Medical College were established.
 Wood’s Despatch (1854)
Sir Charles Wood was the President of the Board of Control
of the company in 1854 when he sent a dispatch to the then
Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie.
This is called the ‘Magna Carta of English education in
India.’

Recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch:

Regularise the education system from the primary to the

university levels.
Indians were to be educated in English and their native
language.
The education system was to be set up in every province.
Every district should have at least one government school.
Affiliated private schools could be granted aids.
The education of women should be emphasized.
Universities of Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay were set up
by 1857.
University of Punjab – 1882; University of Allahabad – 1887
This despatch asked the government to take up the
responsibility of the education of the people.

Assessment of the British efforts on education

Although there were a few Englishmen who wanted to

spread education for its own sake, the government was
chiefly concerned only with its own concerns.
There was a huge demand for clerks and other
administrative roles in the company’s functioning.
It was cheaper to get Indians rather than Englishmen from
England for these jobs. This was the prime motive.
No doubt it spread western education among Indians, but
the rate of literacy was abysmally low during British rule.
 The state of women education was pathetic. This was
because the government did not want to displease the
orthodox nature of Indians and also because women could
not generally be employed as clerks.
In 1911, the illiteracy rate in British India was 94%. In 1921,
it was 92%.
Scientific and technical education was ignored by the British
government.

Summary on the History of Modern Education during British

India
The British East India Company came to India as a trader, but the
socio-political conditions of the Indian subcontinent drive them to
become ruler. This resulted in the need of subordinates and to
achieve this goal, they instituted several acts to pour Indians into
English colour through the education system. Here, we are giving
“Summary of the History of Modern Education during British India”
which can be used as a revision capsule for upcoming competitive
exams.

The British East India Company came to India as a trader, but the
socio-political conditions of the Indian subcontinent drive them to
become ruler. This resulted in the need of subordinates and to
achieve this goal, they instituted several acts to pour Indians into
English colour through the education system. Here, we are giving
“Summary of the History of Modern Education during British India”
which can be used as a revision capsule for upcoming competitive
exams.

Summary on the History of Modern Education during British

India

1. Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the

study and learning of Persian and Arabic. In 1791, the efforts of
Jonathan Duncan opened Sanskrit College at Banaras for the
understanding of the laws, literature and religion of the Hindus.
 2. The Fort William College was set up by Lord Wellesley in
1800 for the training of the civil servants of the company in vernacular
languages and customs of India. The College published an English-
Hindustani dictionary, a Hindustani grammar and some other books.
However to impart training to civil servants a East India College at
Hailebury, England was established in 1807.

3. Charter Act, (1813): It provided for an annual expenditure of

one lakh of rupees "for the revival and promotion of literature and the
encouragement of then learned natives of India and for the
introduction and promotion of knowledge of the science among the
inhabitants of the British territories."

4. Sir Charles Wood's Despatch on Education, 1854: It is

considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India. It
declared that the aim of the Government's educational policy was the
teaching of Western Education. The three universities of Calcutta,
Madras, and Bombay came into existence in 1857. It proposed the
setting up of primary schools (vernacular languages) at the lowest
level, a high school in Anglo vernacular, and colleges (English
Medium) at the district level.

5. The Hunter Education Commission, 1882-83: The principal

object of the enquiry of the commission was to present the state of
elementary education throughout the Indian Empire and how this can
be extended and improved.

6. The Indian Universities Act, 1904: The act increased

university control over private colleges by laying down stringent
conditions of affiliation and periodical inspection by the Syndicate.
The private colleges were required to keep a proper standard of
efficiency. The Government approval was necessary for grant of
affiliation or disaffiliation of colleges.
7. The Sadler University Commission, 1917-19: It
recommended a twelve-year school course after passing the
intermediate examination, rather than the Matriculation, the students
were to enter a university.
 8. Wardha Scheme of Basic Education: The main principle of
basic education (better known as Wardha Scheme) is 'learning
through activity'. The Zakir Hussain Committee worked out the details
of the scheme and prepared detailed syllabi for a number of crafts
and made suggestions concerning training of teachers, supervision,
examination, and administration.

9. Sargeant Plan of Education: This plan envisaged the

establishment of elementary schools and high schools (junior and
senior basic schools) and the introduction of universal free and
compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 14.

The British Modern Education was injected in Indian society not

for education but to imparting Christianity to the people and creating a
class of Anglo-Indian.
 POST- INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION
SYSTEM
After the implementation of plans, efforts were made to spread
education. The government decided to provide free and compulsory
education to all children up to the age of 14. But this aim could not be
achieved yet.

In the First Five Year Plan 7.9% of total plan outlay was allocated
for education. In the Second and Third Plan, the allocations were
5.8% and 6.9% of the total plan outlay. In Ninth Plan only 3.5% of the
total outlay was allocated for education.

To streamline the education, the Govt. implemented the

recommendations of Kothari Commission under ‘National Policy on
Education’ in 1968. The main recommendations were universal
primary education. Introduction of new pattern of education, three
language formula, introduction of regional language in higher
education, development of agricultural and industrial education and
adult education.

To combat the changing socio-economic needs of the country,

Govt. of India announced a new National Policy on Education in
1986. Universalization of primary education, vocationalisation of
secondary education, and specialisation of higher education were the
main features of this policy.
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
at National level and State Council of Educational Research and
Training (SCERT) at State level were established to maintain the
standard of education. University Grants Commission (UGC) was
instituted to determine the standard of higher education.

The following points explain the developmentof education in

India after independence:

1. Expansion of General Education:

 During the period of planning there has been expansion of general
education. In 1951, the percentage of literacy was 19.3. In 2001 the
literacy percentage increased to 65.4%. The enrolment ratio of
children in the age group of 6-11 was 43% in 1951 and in it became
100% in 2001.

Primary education – been free and compulsory. Midday meal has

been started in schools since 1995 to check the drop-out rate. The
number of primary schools has risen by three times from 2.10 lakh
(1950-51) to 6.40 lakhs (2001-02). There were only 27 universities in
1950-51 which increased to 254 in 2000-01.

2. Development of Technical Education:

Besides general education, technical education plays an important
role in human capital formation. The Govt. has established several
Industrial Training Institutes, Polytechnics, Engineering colleges and
Medical and Dental colleges, Management institutes, etc.

These are given below:

(a) Indian Institute of Technology:

For education and research in engineering and technology of
international standard, seven institutes have been established at
Mumbai, Delhi, Kanpur, Chennai, Khargpur, Roorkee and Gauhati,
Technical education is imparted here both for graduation and post-
graduation and doctorate level.

(b) National Institute of Technology (NIT):

These institutes impart education in engineering and technology.
These were called Regional College of Engineering (REC). These are
17 in number throughout the country. There are other institutes in the
country to teach engineering and technical education.

(c) Indian Institute of Management:

These institutes impart education in business management and
administration. These institutes are located at Ahmedabad,
Bangalore, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore and Kozhikode.
 (d) Medical education
There were only 28 medical colleges in the country in 1950-51.
There were 165 medical and 40 dental colleges in the country in
1998-99.

(e) Agricultural education:

Agricultural Universities have been started in almost all States to
improve the production and productivity of agriculture. These
universities impart education and research in agriculture, horticulture,
animal husbandry, and veterinary sciences etc.

3. Women education

In India, literary among women was quite low. It was 52%

according to 2001 census. While the literacy among men was 75.8%.
Women education was given top priority in National Policy on
Education. Many State Governments have exempted the tuition fee of
girls up to university level. Separate schools and colleges have been
established to raise level of literacy among women.

4. Vocational education:

National Policy of Education, 1986, aims at vocationalisation of

secondary education. Central Govt. has been giving grants to State
Governments to implement the programme since 1988. Agriculture,
Pisciculture, diary, poultry, typing, electronics, mechanical and
carpentry etc. had been included in higher secondary curriculum.

5. Growth of highereducation:

In 1951, there were 27 universities. Their number increased to

254 in 2001. In Orissa state, there was only one university in 1951.
Now there are 9 universities.

6. Non-formal education:

This scheme was launched on an experimental basis from the

Sixth plan and on regular basis from Seventh plan. The aim was to
achieve universal elementary education to all children in the age
group of 6-14 years. The scheme was meant for those children who
cannot attend schools regularly and for full time due to poverty and
pre-occupation with other works.

The Central Govt. is providing assistance to State Govt. and

voluntary organization to implement the scheme. Non-formal
education centres have been set up in remote rural areas, hilly and
tribal areas and in slums. These impart education to children of 6-14
age groups.

7. Encouragement to Indian Language and Culture:

After the adoption of National Policy of Education 1968, regional

language became the medium of instruction in higher education.
Syllabus on science and technology, dictionaries, books, and
Question Papers are translated into regional languages. Indian
history and culture have been included in school and college
curriculum.

8. Adult education:

Simply speaking adult education refers to the education for the

illiterate people belonging to the age group of 15-35 years. The
National Board of Adult Education was established in the First Five
Year Plan. The village-level workers were assigned the job of
providing adult education. The progress remained not too good.

The National Adult Education Programme was started in 1978.

The programme is considered as a part of primary education.
National Literary Mission was also started in 1988 to eradicate adult
illiteracy, particularly in rural areas.

The Centre assists states, voluntary organizations and some

selected universities to implement this programme. There were 2.7
lakh adult education centres working in the country in 1990-91. This
programme helped to raise the literacy rate to 65.38% in 2001.

9. Improvement of Science education:

 Central Govt. started a scheme for the improvement of science
education in schools in 1988. Financial assistance is given to provide
science kits, up gradation of science laboratories, development of
teaching material, and training of science and mathematics teachers.
A Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) was set up in
NCERT to purchase equipment for State Institutes of Educational
Technology.

10. Education for all:

According to 93rd Amendment, education for all has been made
compulsory. The elementary education is a fundamental right of all
children in the age group of 6-14 years. It is also free. To fulfill this
obligation Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has been launched.

The above discussion makes it clear that a lot of development in

education has been made in India after Independence. There is wide
growth in general education and higher education. Efforts have been
made to spread education among all sections and all regions of the
country. Still our education system is ridden with problems.
****
 UNIT II
PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy means love for knowledge or passion for learning.☐
The term has been derived from two Greek words, ‘Philos’ means
love and ‘Sophia’ means wisdom.

Philosophy and Science

☐ A guide to a way of life
☐ A comprehensive picture of the universe
☐ An Activity
☐ Love of knowledge

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY
 Philosophy is the tenacious attempt of reasoning men to think
through the most fundamental issues of life, to reach reasonable
conclusions on first and last things, to suggest worthwhile goals that
can command loyalty of individuals and groups. - Carlis Lamont ☐

DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
❖ ☐Philosophy is a search for comprehensive view of nature,
an attempt at a universal explanation of nature of things. -
Alfred Weber

❖ ☐Coleridge defined philosophy as the ‘Science of Sciences’.

❖ ☐Philosophy is a persistent effort of both ordinary and

persistent people to make life as intelligible and meaningful as
possible. - Branold

❖ ☐Dr. Ramnath Sharma states, ‘Philosophy is a philosophical

process of solving some characteristic methods, from a
 characteristic attitude and arriving at characteristic
conclusions and results.’

❖ According to John Dewey, ‘Whenever philosophy has been

taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it signified
achieving as wisdom that would influence the conduct of life.’

❖ ☐“Philosophy is the science of knowledge.” -Fichte

❖ “Philosophy is a logical enquiry into the Nature of Reality.” -
Dr. Radha Krishan

❖ ☐“Philosophy like science, consists of theories of insights

arrived at as a result of systematic reflection.” -Joseph A.
Leighton

❖ “Philosophy is an increasing effort to discover the general

truth that lies behind the particular facts to discern also the
reality that lie behind appearance.” –

❖ Raymont☐ “Philosophy is a search for comprehensive view

of nature, an attempt at universal explanation of the nature of
things.”

❖ -Alfred Weber ☐ “Philosophy aims at a knowledge of the

eternal nature of things.”

❖ Plato ☐“Philosophy like other studies aims primarily at

knowledge.” -Russell
 EDUCATION
☐In literary sense, education owes its origin to the two Latin
words: ‘Educare’ and ‘Educere’. ‘Educare’- means ‘to nourish’, ‘to
bring up’, ‘to raise’; ‘Educere’- means ‘to bring forth’, ‘to draw out’, ‘to
lead out’. ‘Educatum’- means- ‘the act of teaching and training’.

☐MEANING OF EDUCATION
☐Education as:
☐Acquisition of knowledge
☐A tool to discipline the intellect
☐A preparation for life
☐Direction
☐Growth
Transmission of culture

☐PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
 Philosophy of education offers a definite set of principles and
establishes a definite set of aims and objectives.☐Philosophy of
education may be defined as the application of the fundamental
principles of a philosophy of life to the work of education.

☐ Philosophy and education are closely interrelated.

PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION- THEIR INTERDEPENDENCE

❖ ☐Education is application of philosophy or philosophy of

education is applied philosophy.
❖ ☐It is the application of philosophy to study of the problems
of education that is known as philosophy of education.
❖ ☐According to Ross, “Philosophy and education are like the
sides of a coin, presenting different views of the same thing,
and that one is implied by the other”.
❖ ☐Education is the strongest instrument for the realization of
the ideals of life and a civilized attempt to bring about the
desired development of human personality.
❖ ☐This indicates the fact that plant of education draws its
nourishment from the soil of philosophy.
❖ Philosophy answers all the ultimate questions of education.

EXPERTS VIEW IS GIVEN BELOW

1. John Dewey- “Philosophy may be defined as the theory of

education in its most general phase”

2. Spencer- “True education is practicable only to true

philosophers”.

3. Gentile- “Education without philosophy would mean a failure to

understand the precise nature of education”.

4. Dewey- “Education is a laboratory in which philosophical

distinctions become concrete and are tested”.
 5. Fichte- “The aim of education will never attain complete
clearness without philosophy”. From the given statements and views
we can easily maintain that philosophy and education are closely
interrelated.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY
• It is a search for truth and reality.
• It is universal, although its methods and questions remain the
same, interpretations and applications will differ from place to place.
It is based on an inquiry about life and existence.
• It is a way of Life.
• It is an attempt to answer the ultimate question of life.
• It is a search for knowledge and wisdom.
• It is a conceptual rather than a practical activity.
• It is an explanation of the puzzling features of things.
• It is digging beyond the obvious.
• It is the search for principles that underlie phenomena.
• It is theory building from these principles.
• It is a living force.

FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy mainly performs three types of functions:-

1. Normative- The word ‘Normative’ refers to the ‘norms’ or

‘standards’. So the normative functions of Philosophy mean the
setting of norms, goals, principles, standards, etc. As professor V.R.
Taneja writes “When a man is faced with the difficulties, strains, and
stresses, contradictory situations, unforeseen circumstances and
intriguing problems, philosophy enables him to consider the ‘pros’
and ‘cons’ and arrive at the correct solution.”

2. Speculative- In this function, Philosophy strikes a synthesis

within the array of facts and bits of knowledge gathered from various
sources. It leads the man from a common-sense approach to a
rational and perspective approach.
 3. Critical- In this function, it classifies concepts, test hypotheses,
establishes consistency, presents the unity of outlook, and inspires
logical reasoning.

CONCLUSION
Philosophy is a philosophical process of solving some
characteristic problems through characteristic methods, from a
characteristic attitude and arriving at characteristic conclusions and
results.

SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The scope of philosophy of education is confined to the field of
education. Thus, it is a philosophy in the field of education. The scope
of the philosophy of education is concerned with the problems of
education.

These problems mainly include -

 • interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe and
their relation with man,
• interpretation of aims and ideals of education,
• the relationship of various components of the system of
education,
• relationship of education and various areas of national life
[economic system, political order, social progress, cultural
reconstructions, etc.],
• educational values,
• theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.

The above-mentioned problems constitute the scope of the

philosophy of education and explain its nature. Thus, the scope of the
philosophy of education includes the following.

a] Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy

Education critically evaluate the different aims and ideals of

education. These aims and ideals have been prorogated by various
philosophers in different times. They are character building, man-
making, harmonious human development, preparation for adult life, -
development of citizenship, -utilization of leisure, training for civic life,
training for international living, achieving social and national
integration, -scientific and technological development, education for
all, equalizing educational opportunities, strengthening democratic
political order and human source development. These and other aims
of education presented by educational thinkers in different times and
climes are scrutinized and evaluated. Thus, the philosophy of
education critically evaluates different aims and ideals of education to
arrive at.

b] Interpretation of Human Nature

A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis

of the facts borrowed from all human science with the values
discussed in different normative, sciences. The philosophical picture,
therefore, is broader as compared to the picture of man drawn by
biology, sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology, and
other human science.

c)Educational Values

Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract,

integral, and universal. Philosophy-of education not only critically
evaluates the values but also systematizes them in a hierarchy.
Educational values are' determined by philosophical values.
Educational values propagated by different philosophers have been
derived from their own world, view, and their outlook on the purpose
of human life. Therefore, a scrutiny of the world views, outlook,
beliefs is the specific function of philosophy and it is necessary for the
philosophical treatment of the values.

d] Theory of Knowledge
Education is related to knowledge. It is determined by the source,
limits, criteria, and means of knowledge. The discussion of all these
falls within the jurisdiction of epistemology, one of the branches of
philosophy, therefore, an important area of the functioning of the
philosophy of education is related to the theory of knowledge.

FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Philosophy of education performs various functions. The area

discussed below:

a] Determining the aims of education

Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all

aspects of education, particularly educational aims. It is said that
educational philosophy gives different views, but this situation is not
harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to the need
of society. The difference in view of the philosophy of education
reflects the multiplicity and diversities of human life. Philosophy of
education guides the process of education by suggesting suitable
aims from the diversities of life and selecting the means accordingly.

b] Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of

education the process of social development the old traditions
become outdated for the people.
They are replaced by new traditions. But this process of
replacement is not always smooth. It is faced with lots of opposition
from certain orthodox sections of the society. At the same time, it
must be kept in mind that every 'old' is not outdated and every 'new'
is not perfect, Therefore, there is a need of co-coordinating the two to
maintain the harmony between both. This function can be performed
by the philosophy of education.

c] Providing the educational planners, administrators, and

educators with the progressive vision to achieve educational
development:-

Spencer has rightly pointed out that only a true philosopher can
give a practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides
the educational planners, administrators, and educators with the right
vision which guides them to attain the educational goals efficiently.

d] Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of

modern time:-

Social commentators have given many labels to the present

period of history for some it is the information age and for others, it is
postmodernity, later modernity, high modernity, or even the age of
uncertainty. One more addition to this list may be that 'present age is
an age of Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on the economic
scene in 1990 in India. This watchword has had its implications in the
social-political, economic fabric of the country of which education is a
part. Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering, and liberating
force that helps young people and society at large to face the
challenges of modern time.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY & EDUCATION

 Philosophy and education are closely inter-related and inter-
dependent. Philosophy points out the ways and education follow it.
Without philosophy education would be a blind effort and without
education, philosophy would be crippled.

In the word of Ross, “philosophy and education are two side of

same coin; the former is the contemplative side while the latter is the
active side. Education is the process and philosophy is the product.
All educational problems are questions of philosophy.

In other word we can say that the application of philosophical

principle in the field of education to solve various educational issues
is regarded as educational philosophy. In fact, educational philosophy
is that philosophy which provide answer to the educational issues of
why to educate (aim), whom to educate (child), who to educate
(teacher), where to educate (school), what to educate (curriculum),
how to educate (methods), when to educate (motivation) and so on.
Further, “a sound philosophy of education is based on an adequate
philosophy of life”.

Philosophy and education are reconstructive; they give to and

take from each other in ebb and flow of thought and action; they are
means to one another, and ends. Thus it is the application of general
philosophical positions to educational problems is known as
philosophy of education.

The following are a few viewpoints that establish the relationship

between philosophy and education:
View of John Dewey: John Dewey endorses the viewpoint of Ross
when he says, “Philosophy is the theory of education in its most
general phase”.

Fichte’s view: “The art of education will never attain complete

clearness without philosophy”.

Spencer’s view: “True education is practicable to true

philosophers”.
 Gentile’s view: “Education without philosophy would mean a
failure to understand the precise nature of education”.

John Adams : Education is the dynamic side of philosophy.

T.P.Nunn: Education aims are correlative to ideals of life.

Dewey: Education is the laboratory in which philosophical

direction become concrete and tested.

We may define educational philosophy thus; it is the application of

philosophical principle in the educational practices which direct the
process of education towards the aims of human life. In short,
educational philosophy relates philosophy of life through the medium
of education.

DEPENDENCE OF EDUCATION ON PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy determines the real destination towards which

education has to go:
Philosophy has always inspired educational theory as well as
practice. It determines the real destination towards which education
has to go. In the words of Dewey: “Education is a laboratory in which
philosophic distinctions become concrete, and are tested”.
Philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from one
generation to the other. Philosophy represents a system of thought;
education embraces that thought in the content of instruction.
Philosophy embodies a way of life; education is the preparation for
life. Philosophy is the knowledge obtained by natural reason;
education is the development of that reason and other powers of
mind.

Philosophy determines the various aspects of education:

All the problems of education are the problems of philosophy. That
is why, Gentile says, “Education without philosophy would mean a
failure to understand the precise nature of education “. It is because
philosophy determines both the aim of life and the aim of education.
Every aspect of education has a philosophical base. There is no
aspect of education – aims, curriculum, methods, textbooks,
discipline, teacher, etc. which is not influenced and determined by
philosophy. Height and breadth of education are probed by
philosophy. It is the philosophy that provides aims to education and
these aims determine the curriculum, the methods of teaching, the
textbooks, the role of the teacher, and the school discipline.

It helps to construct the curriculum according to the needs of the

individual and society.

J.S.Ross remarks, “From every angle of the educational problems

comes the demand for philosophical basis of life and education.

Great Philosophers have been great educationists also: Great

Philosophers have been great educationists in the East as well in the
West. We can find the clearest examples of the dependence of
education on philosophy in the lives and teachings of all the great
philosophers from Yajnavalka down to Gandhi in the East and from
Socrates down to John Dewey in the West. Philosophers like Gandhi,
Tagore, Radhakrishnan, Aurobindo Gosh, Plato, Socrates, Locke,
Comenius, Rousseau, Froebel, and Dewey have been great
educators. They reflected their philosophical views in their
educational schemes. Socrates has given the world his “Socratic
method” (Method of questioning & cross-questioning) of teaching;
Plato, the Republic, the first educational classic.

Rousseau, the great French philosopher, held that education

should “follow nature”. John Dewey of America took keen interest in
solving the educational problems of his country. Gandhi ji is the father
of Basic Education. In the words of Ross “If a further agreement is
needed to establish the fundamental dependence of education on
philosophy, it may be found in the fact that on the whole great
philosophers have been great educationists”.

DEPENDENCE OF PHILOSOPHY ON EDUCATION

Education is the dynamic side of philosophy: Education can be

defined as the strongest instrument for the achievement of the ideals
of life and civilized attempt to bring about the balanced and proper
development of human personality. The plant of education draws its
nourishment from
the soil of philosophy.

In the words of Adams: “Education is the dynamic side of

philosophy. It is the active aspect of philosophical belief, the practical
means of realizing the ideals of life”. Philosophy is the theory of
education while education is practical thereof.
Education is the best means for the propagation of philosophy.
Education cannot even be imagined without philosophical principles
likewise philosophical principles are lifeless without the help of
education. Example- the introduction of the 10+2+3 system of
education and craft education is the consequence of philosophical
views. Thus philosophy equips us with thoughts and these thoughts
are put into practice by education.

Education is the means to achieve the goal: Philosophy deals

with ends and education is the means to achieve those ends.
Philosophy gives ideals, values, and principles; education works out
those ideals, values, and principles. In the words of Herbert,
“Education has no time to make holiday till all the philosophical
questions are once for all cleared up”.
 EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF
EDUCATIONAL THINKERS

Contribution of Swami Vivekananda to

Education
Swami Vivekananda was not only a social reformer but also the
educator, a great Vedanta’s, patriot prophet of India, born at Calcutta
on 12 January 1863. His father, Vishwanath Datta, was a successful
attorney with interests in a wide range of subjects, and his mother,
Bhuvaneshwari Devi, was endowed with deep devotion, strong
character, and other qualities. A precocious boy, Narendra excelled in
music, gymnastics, and studies. By the time he graduated from
Calcutta University, he had acquired a vast knowledge of different
subjects, especially Western philosophy and history.

Born with a yogic temperament, he used to practice meditation

even from his boyhood and was associated with Brahmo Movement
for some time. His contribution to the awakening of modern India is a
critique of its kind and quality. If education is viewed as the most
powerful instrument of social change, his contribution to educational
thought is of paramount importance. He defines education as ‘the
manifestation of perfection that is already in man.
 According to him, education is a continuous process; it should
cover all aspects of life - physical, material, intellectual, emotional,
moral, and spiritual. His attitude towards modernization is that the
masses should be educated before anything else is done.
He wanted to remove from India four major evils, via;
1) priest-craft,
2) Poverty
3) Ignorance
4) Tyranny of the wise.

He tried to make the people of India understood that political and

social strength should have their foundations on cultural strength. He
has a true vision of the philosophy of education in India in its cultural
context.

His educational thought has very great significance today because

modern education has lost much of its connection with the values of
human life. Therefore, he suggested that education should not be for
stuffing some facts into the brain, but should aim at reforming the
human mind. True education to him, was not for the carrier, but for
the contribution to the nation. The great religious saint and social
reformer died in 1902 when he was just 39 years. He is no more but
he will be remembered forever on this earth. His missions and his
preaching are will continue inspiring the coming generations.

Principal features of Swami Vivekananda philosophy

1. Gods reside in every human heart.

2. The best worship of God is service to mankind.
3. Ethics and morality should be the real basis of life.
4. Love and renunciation should permeate the universe.
5. Religion means self-realization through self-control.

Meaning of Education

Vivekananda said: “The education which does not help the

common mass of people to equip themselves for the struggle of life,
which does not bring out strength of character, a spirit of philanthropy,
and the courage of a lion – is it worth the name? Real education is
that which enables one to stand on one’s own legs. Education must
provide ‘life-building, man-making, character-making assimilation of
ideas”. The ideal of this type of education would be to produce an
integrated person.

VIVEKANANDA’S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

1. Knowledge resides within the Individual

Knowledge is inherent within the individual himself. The individual
finds out this knowledge by experiencing it within himself. Perfection
is inherent in everyone. It is the function of education to lead one to
perfection. Therefore, education should be made available to all.

2. The Child Furthers its own Development

Swami Vivekananda says that it is wrong to think that we promote
the development of a child. In fact, he furthers his development
himself. He says, “Everyone develops according to his own nature.
When the time comes everyone will come to know this truth. Do you
think you can educate a child? The child will educate himself, your job
is to provide the necessary opportunity to him and remove the
obstacles in his path. He will educate himself on his own. A plant
grows itself, does the gardener grow it? He just provides the
necessary environment to it, it is the plant itself that does its own
growth.” Thus Swami Vivekananda advocates the principle of self–
education.

3. Education according to the Nature and need of the Child

In order to make education useful, it must be according to the
nature and needs of the child. It is not the teacher or the parents who
will determine his needs and nature. His education should be
patterned on the lines of these tendencies. The teacher has to
visualize God in the soul of each child. Each child should be
considered as a manifestation of God. In fact, we have to serve God.
Therefore we have to serve each child.

4. The ability of Concentration is the Essence of Education

For the acquisition of knowledge, concentration, or attention is
very necessary. For success in life also, this power is very helpful.
Everyone does not have the same power of concentration. With the
help of this power, one can acquire useful knowledge and arrange it
in mind for use whenever necessary.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

The ultimate aim of all education and all training, according to

Swami Vivekananda, is man-making and also he recommends the
following major aims of education.

1. Creation of Self-Confidence and Self-Realization

Man has an immortal soul which is the treasure –house of infinite
power. A man should, therefore, have full confidence in himself and
strive to reach the highest goal of his life, self-confidence leads to self
- realization. In Swamiji’s own words: “Faith in us and faith in God –
this is the secret of greatness.” Education of the right type should aim
at removing the veil ignorance from our mind and make us
understand that what actually we are.
 2. Formation of Character
Character is the aggregate of a Man’s tendencies, the sum –total
of the bent of his mind. We are what our thoughts have made us. It is,
therefore, that education should aim at sublimating the evil
tendencies of our mind. Swamiji said, “We want that education, by
which character is formed, the strength of mind is increased, intellect
is expanded and by which one can stand on one’s own feet.”
Education must build up character and manifest our real nature.
“If you really want to judge the character of man, look not at his
great performances; watch a man do his most common actions.
Those are indeed the things which will tell you the real character of
the great man.” ‘Intellectuality’ is not the highest good. “Morality’ and
‘spirituality’ are the things for which we strive’.”Our women are not so
learned, but they are purer.” He does not consider a man as educated
if he can only pass some examination and deliver good lectures. The
basis of all system, social or political, rests upon the goodness of
man. No nation is great or good because its Parliament enacts this or
that, but because its men are great and good.

3. Development of Personality
Personality is the influence, the impression, one creates on the
others. It is the personality of a man that counts. “According to
Vivekananda, personality is two-third and his intellect and words are
only one – third in making the real man.” The ideal of all education
and all training should be thus man-making.

4. Service of Mind
Another important aim of education is serving God in man. It is the
God in the sick, the poor, the miserable, the ignorant, and the
downtroddenen what we should worship. In Swamiji’s own words, “if
you want to find god, serve man.” He was pained to see the wretched
poverty of his countrymen. He, therefore, wanted that education must
enable everyone to stand on his own feet and satisfy his own primary
needs.

5. Promotion of Universal Brotherhood

Swami Vivekananda’s love for mankind knew no geographical
boundaries. He always pleaded for the harmony and good
relationship of all nations. He said,’ through education, we should
gradually reach the idea of universal brotherhood by flinging down the
walls of separation and inequality. In every man, in every animal,
however weak or miserable, great or small, resides the same
omnipresent and omniscient soul. The difference is not in the soul,
but in manifestation.” He insisted that education must call forth this
power in every person and broaden
it to such an extent that it may cover the whole world.

6. The Aim of keeping view the Practical Aspects of Life

To Swami Vivekananda, the practical aspects of life must not be
ignored in any scheme of education. Only then, it will be possible to
make an individual self– dependent and the country prosperous.
Swamiji said: “It will not do merely to listen to great principles. You
must apply them in the practical field, turn into constant practice.” So
he has emphasized the importance of education in agriculture and
other practical arts.

7. Aim of Physical and Mental Development

The second aim of education is that the child should able to
promote national growth and advancement as a fearless and
physically well-developed citizen of tomorrow. Stressing the mental
development of the child, Swamiji wished education to enable the
child to stand on his own legs economically rather than becoming a
parasite of on others.

8. Aim of Moral and Spiritual Development

According to Swami Vivekananda, a nation’s greatness is not only
measured by its parliamentary institutions and activities, but also by
the greatness of its citizens. But the greatness of citizens is possible
only through their moral and spiritual development which education
should foster.

9. The Aim of Searching Unity in Diversity

The true aim of education is to develop insight into the individuals
so that they are able to search out and realize unity in diversity.
Swami Vivekananda has further asserted that physical and spiritual
worlds are one; their distinctness is an illusion (Maya). Education
should develop this sense which finds unity in diversity.

10. Aim of Religious Development

To Swamiji, each individual should be able to search out and
develop the religious seed embedded in him and thus find the
absolute truth or reality. Hence he advocated the training of feelings
and emotions so that the whole life is purified and sublimated. Then
only, the capacities of obedience, social service, and submission to
the teachings and preaching’s of great saints and saviors will develop
in the individual. Education should foster this development.

Role of the Teacher

According to Swami Vivekananda a person with an attitude of
renunciation, influence children through his ideal example, love his
students, sympathize at their difficulties, teaching according to the
needs, abilities, and interests of them, contribute to their spiritual
development can be a good teacher.

A student should have an inclination and eagerness to learn. He

should be an observer of celibacy. He should have control over his
senses. He should follow the ideals laid down by his teacher.

Vivekananda laid stress on the following qualities that a teacher

should have:

1. The first condition is that he should be sinless.

2. The second condition is that he should know the spirit of
scriptures.
3. The third condition is the spiritual force of the teacher based on
love for the students.
4. The fourth condition is that the teacher should think that he is
only helping the child grow.

He is the external teacher and he offers the suggestion which

arouses the internal teacher i.e. in the mind of the child.
 CURRICULUM

According to Swami Vivekananda, the prime aim of education is

spiritual growth and development. But this does not mean that he did
not advocate material prosperity and physical well-being. He feelingly
advocated the inclusion of all those subjects and activities, in the
curriculum, which foster material welfare with spiritual advancement.
For spiritual perfection, Swamiji prescribed Religious, Philosophy,
Upanishads, Company of saints and their preaching’s and for
material advancement and prosperity he recommended Languages,
Geography, Science,
Political Science, Economics, Psychology, Art, Agriculture,
Industrial and Technical subjects together with games, sports, and
other physical exercises.

METHODS OF EDUCATION

Swami Vivekananda prescribed the same ancient spiritual

methods of teaching wherein the Guru and his disciples lived in close
association as in a family. The essential characteristics of those
religious and spiritual methods were as under:-

1. To control fleeting mental faculties by the practice of Yoga.

2. To develop the mind by concentration and deep meditation.
3. To gain knowledge through lectures, discussions, self-
experience and creative activities.
4. To imitate the qualities and character of teacher intelligent and
clear understanding.
5. To lead the child on the right path by means of individual
guidance by the teacher.

Principles of teaching-learning
Swami Vivekananda emphasized the following:

1. Self-teaching-” No one was ever taught by another. Each of us

has to teach himself. A child educates itself.”
 2. Living Examples of Teacher-” Words even thoughts, contribute
only one-third of the influence in making an impression-the man two-
thirds.”
3. Teaching through Positive Suggestions-” We should give
positive ideas. Negative ideas only weaken men. If you speak kind
words to them and encourage them, they are bound to improve in
time.”
4. Concentration as the only method of education-” The power of
concentration is the only key to the treasure-house of knowledge.”
5. Qualities of the Learner-” The conditions necessary for the
taught are purity, a real thirst after knowledge and perseverance.”

THE BASES OF MODERN EDUCATION

Vivekananda felt that modern education all over the world has so
far concentrated on ‘the learning to do’ aspect and not on the
‘learning to be’ faculties of education. He says that education must
focus on the requirement of the human mind. His philosophy of
education is based on universal principles of morality and ethics. He
wanted to teach the common masses of India the ideals of synthesis,
tolerance, and universal harmony. His philosophy gives equal
importance to the claims of spirit and matter. To him, diversity is as
real as unity. The matter is only ‘veiled spirit’.
Thus he creates a metaphysical synthesis reconciling the claims
of spirit and matter and makes it one of the chief bases of its
philosophy of education.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ‘YOGA’ IN EDUCATION

Vivekananda wants to place maximum emphasis on concentration

and meditation in the teaching-learning process. In the practice of
yoga, as it is in the practice of general education, five elements are
necessarily involved-the the teacher, the taught, the aim, the subject,
and the method.
He convinced of the fact that all knowledge is in the human mind
and that the same can be experienced by practicing concentration
and meditation.
 TRANSMISSION OF KNOWLEDGE
To Vivekananda, all teaching implies giving and taking; the
teacher gives and the student receives. Here he stresses the need for
effective participation in the teaching-learning process.
The teacher should motivate the students to acquire knowledge
and develop in them scientific temper, secular outlook, and civic
responsibility.

LEARNING THROUGH ACTIVITY

Vivekananda anticipated many modern thinkers in suggesting that
learning through activity should be the guiding principle of any
scheme of education. He wanted every activity in Indian schools and
colleges-dance, drama, etc; Inter-school and inter-collegiate
competitions are also required in order to enable the students to learn
how to sacrifice personal and selfish interests for the sake of the
larger interests of society.

THE IDEAL OF WOMANHOOD IN INDIA

Vivekananda suggested that women should be made ambitious
through a good system of education. He made a strong appeal for
raising the status of women along with that of man. He felt that it was
much against the ancient ideal of India that women were not given
enough opportunities for self-development.

RELEVANCE OF SWAMI VIVEKANANDA’S IDEAS IN MODERN

EDUCATION

VALUE EDUCATION
Here, education is conceived in a broad sense; everything in
society plays an educational role. The formal education system is but
part of the culture and values in the system are inevitably determined
by the culture. Education is seen as an instrument for harnessing
human drives and
has consequences, it becomes to some extent a method of
behavior modification. Education preserves rather than changes
social values. Education is seen to abide by the existing cultural
norms of society.
 PEACE EDUCATION
Constructive education for peace must aim to reform humanity so
as to permit the inner development of human personality and develop
a more conscious vision of the mission of mankind and the present
conditions of social life as was so emphatically averred by Swami
Vivekananda as well. What we need today is an education that is
capable of saving mankind from the present predicament. Such
education involves the spiritual development of man and the
enhancement of his value as an individual and preparing the young
people to understand the time in which they live.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Environmental education is viewed as an integral part of the
education process. It is taken to be centered on practical problems
and can be an interdisciplinary character. It should aim at building up
a sense of values, contribute to public well being, and concern itself
with the survival of
the human species. Its force, therefore, should aside mainly the
initiative of the learners and their involvement in activities and it
should be guided by the immediate and future subject of concern.
Environmental education enables them to manage the
environment in which they live through judicious use of resources.

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
The concept of citizenship education should target to mould future
citizens into the frame of a civic society where citizens are aware of
their rights, respect democratic ideals, and work for a welfare society
with shared responsibility. Education for democratic citizenship is a
set of practices and activities aimed at making young people and
adults better equipped to participate actively in democratic life by
assuming and exercising their rights and responsibilities in society.

OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS IN BRIEF

1. He laid stress on character development education.

2. He advocated the education of the masses which implies adult

education and free and compulsory education regardless of caste
creed or colour. He said, “I consider that the greatest national sin is
the neglect of the masses”.

3. He reviewed the spirit of humanism in education.

4. His clarion call to the educated people was, “So long as the
millions live in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a traitor who,
having been educated at their expense pays not the least head to
them.”
5. He considered the education of women as the chief instrument
of national regeneration.

6. He stressed the teaching of western learning.

7. He emphasized social sendee, “Service to mankind is the

highest goal of religion.” ‘Assimilation’ and ‘toleration’ were the key
points in religion and religious education.

8. Ramakrishna Mission established by Swami Vivekananda is

running several educational institutions and spiritual centres,
hospitals, and dispensaries and doing several types of social work.

Thus, Swami Vivekananda's views on education may be summed

up in his own words, “We want that education by which character is
formed, the strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded
and by which one stands on one’s own feet.”
 CONTRIBUTION OF RABINDRANATH
TAGORE IN EDUCATION
Among the contemporary Indian Philosophers of Education
Rabindranath Tagore, holds an eminent position. He may be called as
a Humanist in the strict sense of the term. His humanist approach is
not materialistic but integral in nature. His philosophy is Cosmopolitan
Humanism and his theory of education is directly deduced from this
philosophy. Tagore was born on May 6, 1861, at Calcutta. The family
of Tagore was known for its enlightened and progressive views.

After private education, in India, he was sent to England in 1877

to study law for becoming a barrister but he soon returned to India.

Tagore becomes a world figure when his book “Gitanjali” won him
the Nobel prize in 1913. On December 22, 1921, Tagore founded the
visvabharati-an international university to bring about an
understanding between eastern and western cultures. Tagore has left
his deep impression on several facets of life i.e. artistic, cultural,
educational, intellectual, political, and social. There is no field of
literature which he has not enriched by his contribution. He was a
great artist, an educationist, a poet, a patriot, a philosopher, and
social reformer.

Tagore’s Philosophy of Life

 1. Tagore’s Humanism: Tagore observed, “He(God) is there
where the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is
breaking stone.”

2. Tagore’s Naturalism: He said, “He lives in a prison-house

whose walls are alien to him.” Tagore loved nature immensely.

3. Tagore’s Spiritualism: Tagore said, I believe in the spiritual

unity of man and therefore I ask you to accept this task from me.”

4. Tagore’s Individualism: Tagore believed that every being has

the right to shape his life in his own way.

5. Tagore’s Universalism: He wanted to break down barriers

between cultures. He said, “Before we are in a position to stand
comparison with the other cultures of the world, or truly cooperate
with them, we must base our own culture on a synthesis of all the
different cultures we have.”

6. Tagore’s Internationalism: Tagore advocated synthesis

between the East and the West.
The Visvabharati at Shantiniketan is an embodiment of his
international outlook.

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF TAGORE

Sources of Information: Apart from his several publications on

different aspects, we get valuable information about Tagore’s views
on education from the following sources relating to education.
Essays were written mostly in Bengali.

I. ‘Shiksar Herpher’ (Our Education and Its Incongruities)

2. ‘Shiksha Samasya’ (The Problem of Education)
3. ‘Abaran’ (Culture or Covering)
4. ‘Tapovan’ (Forest Colony)
5. ‘Dharmashiksha’ (Religious Education)
6. ‘Hindu Visvavidyalya’(Hindu University)
7. ‘Strishiksha’ (Women Education)
8. ‘Shiksar Bahan’ (The Vehicle of Education)
 9. ‘My School’
10. ‘Shiksar Milan’ (The Meeting of Cultures)
11. ‘A Poet’s School’
12. ‘Shiksar Vikiran’ (Diffusion of Education)
13. ‘Ashramer Shiksha’ (Education in Ashram)
14. ‘Bodher Sadhana’ (Education of the Feeling)
I5. ‘Several Convocation Addresses’

Factors Influencing Tagore’s Philosophy of Education

Tagore’s philosophy of education was influenced by the following

factors:
1. Influence of the Home Environment.
2. Influence of the School Environment.
3. Love for Nature.
4. His Extensive Visits.

TAGORE’S VIEWS ON EDUCATION

On account of the above influences, Tagore may be described as

an idealist, a naturalist, a modernist, a pragmatic, a traditionalist, and
above all a humanist and an internationalist. Following were the aims
of education according to Tagore:

1. Self Realization: Spiritualism is the essence of humanism. The

manifestation of personality depends upon the self-realization &
Spiritual knowledge of an individual.

2. Intellectual Development: By intellectual development, he

means the development of imagination, creative, free-thinking
constant curiosity, and alertness of the mind. The child should be free
to adopt his own way of learning which will lead to all-round
development.

3. Physical Development: Tagore’s educational philosophy also

aims at the physical development of the child. He gave much
importance to sound & healthy physique. Yoga, games & sports are
prescribed in Santiniketan as an integral part of the educational
system.

4. Love for Humanities: Tagore held that education can teach

people to realize the oneness of the globe. Education for international
understanding & universal brotherhood is another important aim of
his educational philosophy.

5. Freedom: freedom is considered an integral aspect of human

development. Education is a man making process, it explores the
innate power that exists within the man. It is not an imposition rather
a liberal process that provides utmost freedom to the individual for his
all-round development.

6. Co-relation of Objects: Co-relation exists with God, man &

nature. A peaceful work is only possible when co-relation between
man & nature will be established.

7. Mother tongue as medium of instruction: Language is the

vehicle of self-expression.

Man can freely express his thought in his mother tongue. Tagore
has emphasized the mother tongue as the medium of instruction for
the Childs education.

8. Moral & Spiritual Development: Tagore emphasized moral &

spiritual training in his educational thought. Moral & spiritual
education is more important than bookish knowledge for an integral
development of human personality. There must be an adequate
provision for the development of selfless activities, co-operation, and
love fellow feeling and sharing among the students in an educational
institution.

9. Social Development: According to Tagore, ‘Brahma’ the

supreme soul manifests himself through men & other creatures.
Science is the source of all human beings & creatures, so all are
equal. Tagore, therefore, said, “service to man is service to God”. All
should develop social relationships and fellow felling from the
beginnings of one’s life. Education
aim at developing the individual personality as well as social
characters which enables him to live as a worthy being.

Curriculum
Tagore recommended a curriculum for the full man satisfying the
spiritual, the creative, the aesthetic, and the vocational aims of
education. Besides providing for the teaching of ordinary schools,
Tagore developed many educational ideas, years ahead of others.
Now-a-days educationists talk so much about the educational value
of crafts, projects, music, dancing, fine arts, etc. But it is indeed very
significant to note that the poet provided for the teaching of most of
these subjects from the very beginning in his school at Shantiniketan.

Methods of Teaching
Tagore strongly criticized the bookish and examination-oriented
Teaching. He stressed the movement of the whole body in various
learning activities. He followed the activity principle and advocated
constructive and creative activities.

Children as Children
It is a mistake to judge children by the standards of grown-ups.

Adults ignore the natural gifts of children and insist that children
must learn through the same process as themselves. This is man’s
most cruel and most wasteful mistake.

Children have their subconscious mind which is more active than

their conscious intelligence.

Discipline and Freedom

Living ideals cannot be set into a clock-work arrangement. Tagore
wrote, “I never said to them. Don’t do this, or don’t do that I never
punished them”.

An Ideal School
 An ideal school is an Ashram where men gather for the highest
end of life. Tagore observed. “To give spiritual culture to our boys was
my principal object in starting my school at Bolpur.”

Role of the Teacher

In teaching, the guiding spirit should be personal love based on
human relations. In education, the teacher is more important than the
method. Tagore pointed out, “A teacher can never truly teach unless
he is learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it
continues to burn its own flame.”
 Religious Education
Tagore stressed religious education through practice. He wrote,
‘Teaching of religion can never be imparted in the form of lessons,
it is where there is a religion in living- where life is simple.”

According to Tagore, “Real training consists not in foisting moral

teachings but in making religion and morality an integral part of life.”

AN IDEAL SCHOOL

Tagore attempted to make his school at Bolpur as an ideal

institution. According to him, an ideal school should have the
following characteristics:

1. The school should be situated in natural surroundings. There

should prevail in the atmosphere of nature’s own beauty with her
varied gifts of colour and dance, flowers, and fruits, with the joy of her
mornings and the peace of her starry nights.

2. It should cultivate a love of nature among the students.

3. It should provide spiritual training to students.

4. It should educate children by providing an environment of

freedom.

5. It should impart education in the mother-tongue of the students.

6. It should provide an environment after the fashion of ancient

‘tapovans’-forest schools about which he had read so much in the
Upanishads.

7. It should be a community school where there is no distinction of

caste and creed.

8. It should teach crafts like sewing, book-binding, weaving,

carpentry, etc.
 9. It should include drawing, art, and music as an integral part of
the curriculum.

10. It should provide students adequate opportunities for choosing

their hobbies and occupations.

11. It should be a self-governing institution-has a dairy farm, post

office, hospital, and workshop. Students hold their own courts.

12. It should provide for close personal contact with the teacher.
The number of students in classes should be very small.

13. It should have a well-equipped library.

14. It should provide for manual labour.

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES STARTED BY TAGORE

Following institutions were started by Tagore to carry out his

experiments in education:

1. Sisu Bhawan (Nursery School)

2. Path Bhawan (School Section-Matriculation Examination)
3. Siksha Bhawan (Higher Secondary)
4. Vidya Bhawan (College of Undergraduate and Post-Graduate
Studies and Research)
5. Vinya Bhawan (Teachers’ Training College)
6. Kala Bhawan (College of Fine Arts and Crafts)
7. Sangit Bhawan (College of Dance)
8. Sriniketan (Department of Rural Reconstruction)
9. Siksha Satra (Rural High School)
10. Silpa Sadan (College of Industrial Training)
11. Cheena Bhawan (School of Languages, e.g., Chinese,
Tibetan, etc.) By and large, all formed part of Visvabharati University.

VISVABHARATI (WORLD UNIVERSITY)

The word Visvabharati consists of two Sanskrit words. ‘Visva’

means the world and ‘Bhararti’ means cultures. Thus Visvabharati
would mean world culture. The motto of this university is ‘Yarta
Visvam bhavari ekamidam’ i.e. where the world meets in one place.

Main Features of Visvabharati: Tagore describes these as:

I. It wants to hold before the world the ideal of the universality of

man.

2. The greatest distinction is the direct and immediate emotional

contact of pupils with their teachers and with external nature.

3. A specialty of our institution is that it wants to bring up our

pupils in an inseparable association with nature.

4. It is intended not only to be the intellectual centre of the

intellectual life of India but also to the center of her economic life.

5. It is envisaged to be the nucleus of an international university

and as one of the means of promoting mutual understanding between
the East and the West.

Growth of Visvabharati: In 1863, Rabindranath’s Tagore’s father

founded the Ashram at Bolpur. It was called Shantiniketan (Abode of
Peace). It was meant for the seekers of truth. In 1901, Tagore started
the experimental school. In 1921, it became the Vis vabharati.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF TAGORE TO EDUCATION

1. Tagore established a number of educational institutions at

Shantiniketan.

2. Tagore founded the Visvabharati.

3. Tagore was a great practitioner. He worked out his ideas and

ideals in a constructive way in a constructive way.

4. Tagore drew attention to the listless environment of the

traditional school.
 5. Tagore tried to synthesize the ancient Indian ideals of education
and the western arts and sciences.

6. Tagore pointed out the significance of providing an environment

of freedom in the school.
 EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF
MAHATMA GANDHI
INTRODUCTION

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar in

Kathiawar of Gujarat state on October 2, 1869. His father was the
prime minister of the state’s Porbandar and Rajkot. He went to
England to get a Barrister degree after completing his studies up to
matric level, on September 4, 1881. He remained there for three
years or so. He passed his Law Examination and was called to the
bar in 1891.

When we talk about Gandhi, automatically certain ideas come to

our mind i.e. truth, nonviolence, simplicity, love for all, leadership, the
dignity of labour and implementation, or practicing ideas rather than
just propagating them. These ideals or qualities reflected in the
educational philosophy of Gandhi.
Gandhiji as an Idealist: - Gandhi had very high ideals that he
followed ideals like simplicity, truthfulness, nonviolence. He had not
only their principles in mind but also plasticized them in his life.

Gandhiji as a Pragmatist:- Pragmatist is one who realistically

solves the problem. Gandhiji believed that the best way to learn is by
doing and it is believed that when you learn by doing you remember
90% and it leads to knowledge. Pragmaticism is the hallmark of
Gandhian philosophy.

Definition:-“By education I mean all-around development,

drawing out of the best in the child-man body, mind, and spirit.”

Literacy according to him is neither the end of education nor even

the beginning. It is one of the means whereby men and women can
be educated. Literacy in itself is no education.”

Gandhiji gave the concept of 3 r’s and 3 HE’s

Hand-psychomotor domain/skills
Heart-spiritual domain/skills
Head-Cognitive domain/skills

3r’s: Read, write and arithmetic

Gandhiji emphasized certain ideals, practical work, and the

potentiality of students in education. It is education through which we
can find out the potential of the students and teach them certain
ideals which will help them to be a good citizen and through practical
activities, students will be in a position to think practically and they will
be attentive and active, this will help them to mould their character.

Thus Gandhian education has been characterized as

encompassing the head, the heart, and the hands that means the all-
round development of the child. According to him education is that
which draws out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual, and physical
faculties of children. Thus Gandhiji’s purpose of education is to raise
man to a higher-order through the full development of the individual
and the evolution of a “new man.”
 Gandhiji’s Educational Experiments’
1. Gandhiji’s philosophy of life including philosophy of
education took shape in South Africa.
His educational experiences at the Tolstoy Farm at Transwal in
South Africa proved very valuable to him in formulating a new system
of education suited to the needs of masses. On the Farm, he
undertook the responsibility of educating his own sons and other
children.
The children had to devote 8 hours a day for vocational training
and only 2 hours to book learning. “Learning by doing’ and learning
by cooperation’ became the chief methods of education.

2. Gandhiji came to India in 1914

Thereafter though he was deeply involved in the freedom struggle.
He continued his educational experiments for a short time at
Shantiniketan, then at Sabarmati Ashram, and finally at Sewagram
Ashram established by him. Sewagram Ashram is located 16km from
Wardha. This place has a great significance as Gandhiji not only
formulated his scheme of Basic Education but also fought the battle
for freedom from here.

3. Gandhiji writings on Education

Important publications on education and having a hearing on
education are:
1. My experiments with truth.
2. Basic Education
3. Towards Need Education
4. True Education
5. To the students
6. Task Before Indian students
7. India of My Dreams
8. Medium of Instruction
9. Taskforce India
 Gandhiji also wrote extensively on education is ‘Harijan’-a paper
founded by him.

Aims of Education
1.Bread and Butter aim:
Bread and Butter aim refers to utilitarian aim which is an
immediate requirement. Gandhiji focused on education that provides
learning while learning. This has to be a tool with every learner. S/he
can remove unemployment keeping in mind the poverty and
unemployment of India. Gandhiji focused and suggested industrial
training and development of manual skills and handicrafts as the
subject of education which will give satisfaction to the educand of his
earning and self-reliance but also it will be proved as a support to
his/her family and nation at large.

2. Cultural Aim:-
According to Gandhiji cultural aspect of education is more
important than literacy. Culture is the foundation, the primary thing
which the girls ought to get from here. It should show in the smallest
detail of your conduct and personal behaviour, how to sit, how to
walk, how to dress etc. it is the education through which students or
everyone learn the glorious culture of the countryIndia, its incredible
arts, religions and so on. Education is the device that makes them
familiar with our great culture and it is to be taught that how do they
adapt and what is the importance of the value of our culture. Thus
Gandhiji laid much emphasis on the cultural aim of education and
recommended that Geeta and Ramayana be taught as a means of
introducing students to their rich cultural and spiritual heritage.

3. Harmonious development:-
Education should develop all the three levels i. e. 3RS- read,
write, and arithmetic. The education should help in feeling what is
taught and what happens to him and to express, what he feels and
also what he wants to do. So all the faculties of a person should be
developed. Writing and reading will make him literate and arithmetic
will help in calculating day-to-day expenses and more importantly, it
will help in logical thinking and analyzing things.
 4. Moral Aim:-
Education should make the person aware of what is right & wrong.
It inculcates in us values and manners and moulds our character.
Gandhiji focused more on character building than on literacy.
According to him the development of personality was more significant
than the accumulation of intellectual tools and academic knowledge.
And we also believed that an educand should be taught non-violence,
truth, and importance of thoughts, word, and deed.

5. Social and individual Aim:-

The aim of the education of Gandhiji is both social and individual.
He wanted individual perfection and a new social order based on
“Truth” & “Non-violence”. Education trains an individual and makes
him an ideal citizen who will help his nation. An individual learns so
many things from surrounding, culture, society, and so on and he
progresses simultaneously society progresses because the
individuals’ growth is nothing but the growth of the society and
nation.

6. Ultimate Aim:-
Self-realization is the ultimate aim of life as well as education.
Through education, everyone understands about themselves and get
the answer to the universal question who am I? It is the education
which helps them to understand their existence and its purpose. It is
spiritual education that provides knowledge of God and self-
realization. The individuals recognize their potentials or abilities and
prove them as ideal citizens of their nation via education. It is the
education that makes them familiar with spirituality and different
religious and finally every individual realizes what they are?

This is the self-realization- the ultimate aim of education. In the

words of Gandhiji- “true education should result not in material power
but a spiritual force. It must strengthen man’s faith in God and not
awaken It.” he further adds “Development of the whole-all were
directed towards the realization of the ultimate reality –the merger of
the finite being into infinite.”

Types of Education
 After the Zakir Hussain reported education Gandhiji initiated a
concept of Sarvoday Society. Gandhiji has given six types of
education under the Sarvoday society.

1.Basic Education
2. Buniyadi Talim
3. Nay Talim
4. National Education
5. Wardha Shikshan/Education
6. Life Education
 Principal features of Gandhiji’s philosophy
of life
Gandhiji s philosophy of life has a deep spiritual basis and the two
pillars of his thoughts were obviously satya and „ahimsa – truth and
„nonviolence – a happy combination of „karmayoga and gyanyoga :

1. Realization of God: Mahatma Gandhi believed in

Ekeswarabad and thought that only through the medium of God, the
manifestation of truth, love, life, and knowledge if possible. He said,
“God pervades everything. God is life, Truth, and Light.

2. Truth and Ahimsa (non-violence): Ahimsa is the only way,

Gandhiji suggested, that can lead us to the ultimate destination of life.
Satya and ahimsa are the two sides of the same coin. They are
intertwined and it is practically impossible to separate them.”
‘Satyagraha’ implies holding of truth, thorough love, and purity.

a. Service of Humanity: Gandhiji observed, “The immediate

service of all human beings becomes a necessary part because it is
the only way to see Him in his creation.”

b. Self-discipline and Self-purification: Gandhi always held the

high ideals of purity, sacrifice, and service.

c. Righteousness and truth as the highest religion: Gandhiji

was of the firm view that ‘true religion and true morality are
inseparably bound up with each other.’’

d. Ram Rajya as the Concept of a Society: He wanted to

establish Ram Rajya which he identified with justice, peace,
happiness and welfare of all.

According to Gandhiji, completion of life is attained through the

fulfillment of soul, and for this purpose a favorable society if needed.
What he sought was a spiritual society set on the foundation of
freedom, justice, equality, love, peace and non-violence.

e. Gandhiji’s view on Concept of Education: Gandhiji summed

up his ideas on education in these words, “By education I mean an
all-round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and
spirit.” “All round’ implies the harmonious development of the
individual.

Man is neither mere the gross animal body, nor intellectual and
nor the heart and soul alone. A proper and harmonious combination
of all these three is required for making the whole man. Any
programme on education which puts exclusive emphasis on one of
these aspects of the human personality is against the principle of
education.

3. The objective of Education: “The ultimate objective of

education is not only a balanced and harmonious individual but also a
balanced and harmonious society-a just social order in which there is
no unnatural dividing line between the havens and have, and
everybody is assured of a living wage and right to freedom.”

4. Education and Character: Gandhiji said, “What is education

without character, and what is a character without elementary purity?”

5. Learning by Earning: According to Gandhiji, students should

learn and side by side earn by doing some work in the school.

6. Craft Centred Education: Craft should become the source and

centre of learning. Gandhiji suggested crafts like weaving and
spinning etc. About spinning, Gandhiji said, “Just as we cannot live
without eating, so we can't attain economic ‘ independence and
banish pauperism.”

7. Self-sufficient Education: Education should be imparted in

such a way through crafts that their products/manufactured articles by
the students should meet some expenditure in running the school.
 8. The dignity of Labour: Love for work with hands should be
developed in the students.

9. The medium of Instruction: Mother-tongue should be the

medium of instruction. The foreign medium has made our children
practically foreigners in our land.

10. Discipline: The highest form of freedom comes through

humility and self-control. According to Gandhiji, discipline should not
be imposed from outside. In this view, discipline grows in the human
mind out of self-control. So he sought a favourable classroom
condition for the development of such discipline from within.

11. Women Education: For the progress of the nation women

education is essential. So the girls should be given enough
educational scope. He advocated an experimental co-education
system. Side by side, home science will be introduced.

12. Ideal Teacher: A teacher has an immense influence on his

learners. In education, learners' success depends on their teachers.
So the teacher should present himself before his learners as an
example. He said, “We must procure the best teachers for our
children, whatever it may cost parents so that they can undertake
adequately the moulding of their children.”

The Curriculum Prescribed by Gandhiji

Gandhiji regarded education as preparation of future life. He

wanted education for all, for every Indian around the corners of India.
He sought that education which would enable them to attain financial
self-reliance. He wanted to apply his basic education following these
steps:

1) He propounded activity-oriented learning. Weaving, agricultural

works, paper designing, metal works, etc. should be introduced in the
syllabus. Handicraft is an important part of his educational system. It
will serve as a bridge between rural and urban life and interest will
grow in the learners.
 2) Around these activities, other subjects will be taught simply-
another language, history, geography, mathematics, physical
education, social sciences, civics. All these subjects should be
introduced in light of the social situation of the learners and he will be
imparted education in connection with his life.

3) For the spiritual development of the learner, Gandhiji puts

stress on the practice of music, dance, art and culture, and many
other co-curricular activities.

4) For the moral development of a child, he should be inspired to

respect his elders. He will learn the lesson of honesty, simplicity,
prayer, meditation, etc.

5) There will be enough scope for the physical health

development of the child. Through physical exercise, he will learn the
lesson of self-defense.

6) For the girls, Gandhiji planned for the learning of home science.
 Gandhiji’s Teaching System
Gandhiji s teaching system is based on social science,
psychology and physiology, and the principle of activity. The principle
of correction is also used well by him informing his education-theory.
There is an obvious similarity between his ideas of basic education
and the thoughts of John Dewey.

Gandhiji s teaching system is full of the following characteristics:

1) Compulsory universal free education for the boys and girls of

the 7-14 yrs age group.

2) The mother tongue will be the medium of education. On this

level, English learning will be rejected and Hindi should be learned as
a national language.

3) Learning will be arranged centering on handicrafts in

accordance with the learner's ability.

4) Basic education is activity-oriented.

5) Individual and group effort is developed through this practice.

6) An important feature of basic education is learning with earning.

Philosophy of Basic Education

According to Gandhiji, true education means an all-round
development drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind,
and spirit. Basic education indicates such education which may help
an individual to fulfill his basic needs. The scheme of basic education
is based on the national culture and civilization of India and its main
objective are to make a child self-reliant and self-sufficient.
 According to the innate nature of a child, this e3ducation may
guide him to choose the right profession in the future.

As an educational philosopher and an experimentalist, Gandhiji

wanted to make a new social order based on truth and non-violence.
According to him, truth and education help one to reach the peak of
self-realization. He wanted a silent social revolution through basic
education which does not stand for mere technique rather it stands
for anew crafts- centered approach full of spirit and self-realization
which always seeks truth.

Proposals of Basic Education

The scheme of basic education formulates the following
proposals-

1) Free, universal, and compulsory education should be provided

for all boys and girls between the ages of 7-14 years.
2) The Mother tongue of the child should be the medium of
instruction.

3) According to the capacity of the children and the needs of the

locality, education should be crafts oriented.

4) Spinning and weaving, card-board and wood-work, leather-

work, kitchen, gardening, agriculture, and fishery were suggested as
suitable crafts in basic education.

5) Crafts oriented education has an economic view also because

the selected craft should be taught and practiced so that children can
produce articles that can be used in the school or maybe sold to
mitigate the expenditure of the school partly (Gandhi, 1951).

6) The social and scientific implications of the selected craft must

be taught.

7) All the subjects to be taught were to be integrally associated

with the selected craft.
 Principles of Basic Education
1. Free and Compulsory Education:- Gandhiji regarding basic
education or bunyadi talim, has given his views that education is i.e.
elementary education should be free of charge and all should get
educated so that they can do minute calculations of daily life
expense, read and write. This is necessary because this will make a
person live independently.

2. Mother tongue as a medium of education:- Gandhiji

emphasized the mother tongue to be the medium of instruction. The
mother tongue would enable the children to express themselves
effectively and clearly. If a student/child learns through the mother
tongue then he can easily learn ethical and moral values and the
importance of national heritage. According to him if English is to be
taught as a medium of instruction then it hinders the development of
understanding and clarity of thoughts/ideas.

3. Craft centeredness:- Learners should get exposure to learn

skills and craft like knitting, weaving, agricultural activities, cooking
which make them self-dependent because they will not only earn on
their own but also develop three domains:-

1. Physical Domain – by doing physical work like agriculture

which will give good physical exercise.

2. Psycho-motor Domain- by developing social skills- how to

behave, how to work in groups; how to co-ordinate.

3. Cognitive Domain- by developing thinking skill, analyzing,

estimating- what would be the expense to prepare craft and how
much material will be required.

Gandhiji also suggested there should be any inferiority or

superiority regarding work. We should do every work/everything with
the thinking that those words are mine and they have value whether it
is sweeping or working in an office.

4. Self-sufficiency:-Basic education should provide such training

that one can realize that immediate aim- earning- after or during basic
education. Earning for one’s self and satisfying one’s needs.

5. Co-related teaching:- Gandhiji considered knowledge as a

whole that is every subject interrelated. While doing craftwork, it
requires economical skills to buy material and to keep estimate how
much it would require. It will also require mathematical skills to
calculate the earnings and so on. As the subject should be taught
which will lead to all-round development, students should develop a
love for subjects to learn them.

6. Non-violence:-One of the aims of basic education is to prepare

ideal and responsible citizens who will develop virtues like non-
violence so that they are not attracted by violence and other anti-
social activities. If each would try to inculcate this value then there will
be peace and harmony among the citizen of India. There will not
disagreement and it will good understanding with each other.

7. Ideal citizen:- Education makes a man think from a broader

and ideal perceptive therefore Gandhiji focused on preparing ideal
citizens of the nation who are responsible and sensible to nation,
duties, and rights. Education of civics will give them civic sense-
rights and duties to the nation, how government works and it exists.
History will make them aware of golden days as well as of the bravery
of the nation, heroes who fought for the freedom of India which will lift
their nationalistic feeling.

The curriculum of Basic Education

Wardha education conference in 1937 suggested that basic
education for children between 7-14 years of age and curriculum has
also been suggested accordingly. A large emphasis was given on
general science for boys and home science for girls.
 The following are the major subjects suggested in the conference
–

1) Basic craft
(i) Spinning and weaving
(ii) Carpentry
(iii) Agriculture
(iv) Fruit and flower cultivation
(v) Leatherwork
(vi) Culturing fish
(vii) Poultry
(viii) Handloom
(ix) Any handicraft according to the local need

2) Mother tongue

3) Mathematics

4) Geography, history, and civics to be combined as social science

5) Painting and music

6) P.T., drill, and sports, etc.

7) General science comprising of physics, chemistry, botany,

zoology, hygiene and nature study, etc.

8) Home science

9) Hindi for that area in which it is not the mother tongue ( Gandhi,
1951).
 Merits of Basic Education
Merits of basic education are as follows –

1) The concept of basic education is helpful for the rapid

expansion of elementary throughout the country with minimum
dependence on the public fund.

2) Basic education helps the developing status of our country

because it has a surprising financial aspect.

3) Basic education is activity-oriented education based on learning

by doing principle which helps an individual to acquire the practical
knowledge on livelihood as well as guide him to choose the
profession in the future according to his interest.

4) As basic education is child-centric, it considers the creative and

constructive sense of children as well as the dignity of labour.

5) This educational approach is based on the principle of

correlation; it emphasizes on the basic craft chosen by an individual
and correlates entire education with the practical knowledge about
the craft. Correlation also takes place between the physical
environment, social environment, and craftwork.

6) Basic education is based upon the cultural and social heritage

of our country.

7) One of the major objectives of basic education is the

harmonious development of body, mind, and spirit.

8) This educational system inculcates social, moral as well as

democratic values like cooperation, responsibility, fellow-filling in the
minds of the students ( Soni, 1999).

The Utility of Basic Education Plan

• Introduction of free compulsory universal education.
 • This education plan will be in connection with the reformation of
the economy of the country.
• Formation of a society free from classes and torture.
• Development of national integrity.
• Building up ideal citizen through the combination of individual
and society.

Causes of the Failure of Basic Education Plan

• Basic education failed due to the lack of responsibility of the

leaders and the government and their attitude is not yet changed.
• Handicraft was not selected well in connection with the learner's
demand and the social situation.
• Lack of sufficient money for the implementation of the plan
• Lack of enough trained teachers

RELEVANCE OF GANDHIJI’S VIEWS ON EDUCATION IN

MODERN TIMES

1. The most important point in Gandhi’s scheme of education is its

emphasis on relating school education to the needs of society. He
wanted to achieve this objective through a system of ‘Learning while
earning’. He gave an important place to the learning of the craft. It will
be seen from the curriculum of the present-day schools that work
experience and socially useful productive work find an important
place.

2. His emphasis on education through the mother-tongue is the

accepted principle by all thinkers.

3. Gandhiji's stress on inculcating dignity of labour is the need of

the hour. There is the dire need to develop elements of spirituality in
our life which is dominated by materialism.
 EDUCATIONAL CONTRIBUTION OF
GIJUBHAI BADHEKA

Gijubhai Badheka (1885-1939) Life Sketch of

Gijubhai
Gijubhai Badheka was a famous patriot, devoted teacher, and an
inspiring pillar of education. He was born on 13 November 1885 in
Gujarat. His parents were religious by nature. So, it was natural for
him to inculcate religious tendencies. Gijubhai was much influenced
by the ideas of famous educationist Maria Montessori. He studied the
Montessori educational system deeply and transformed it as per the
Indian circumstances.

Education and Schooling as visualized by Gijubhai

Gijubhai Badheka is an educational thinker of high quality. He has

given a very important place for a child in his educational thought.
Gijubhai advocated child-centered education. Perhaps he was the
first great educator in India who focused his attention on the pre-
primary stage of education in India. His principles of child-centered
education were based on Education, Society, and Curriculum

Philosophical Understanding of Education

Such concepts as freedom for the child, respect for the child,
spiritual development for the child, creativity of the child, and
development of good qualities of citizenship. He emphasized on the
method of self-learning through self-dependence, self-discipline, self
expression, sense training and nature study. Education prepares the
mind of our young men and women so that they can accept the good
and life-giving elements of our culture.

According to him, the curriculum of education should be

purposeful. The curriculum or content should as such that it can meet
the aims of teaching purposes that subject Gijubhai dreamt of a
school for children that do not instill fear in their mind and a place
where they would go happily and willingly. His dream was turned into
a reality in his 'Bal Mandir' - a school which he set up for children
between two and half years to six years of age in 1920 at Bhavnagar,
Gujarat. There he devoted himself to child education fully.

At his Bal Mandir, Gijubhai conducted a new experiment. He

provided free opportunities to children for playing, singing, poetry
reciting, storytelling, gardening, nature study and the play-way
method. It gave maximum freedom to the children to develop their
potential. As a result of this, Bal Mandir became a centre of attraction
for children and Gijubhai became a great source of inspiration for
those engaged in nursery education.

Published works-

Badheka published close to 200 works including storybooks. His

topics include children, education, travel and humour. However, his
focus was books for children, parents, and educators.

Publications
 Gijubhai wrote more than 200 books - 180 books for children and
for parents and teachers. His important publications for teachers and
parents are:

1. Prathmik school mein shiksha (Education in Primary School)

2. Mata- se prashna (Questions to Parents)

3. Diva-swapna (Day-dreams) Divaswapana (D dreams) is an

Educator's Reverie. It was first published in Gujarati in 1931. It
established Gijubhai as a luminary in the field of education. It was
translated into English in 1989. Divaswapana is the imaginary story of
a teacher who rejects the orthodox concept of the teaching-learning
process. The teacher conducted several experiments in a primary
school against heavy odds-Cynical teachers, naughty students,
indifferent parents. He was able to get the approval of the
Department of Education to conduct experiments. He neglected the
traditions of teaching from prescribed books. The teacher with
untiring patience was successful.

Prof. Krishna Kumar describes the richness of the experiments

contained in Divaswapana in these words: As a reader of
Divaswapana', one is blown off in a gust of joy and curiosity leaving
behind the sadness borne out of one's knowledge of India's colorless,
out wrapped primary schools. One starts to paint the picture of the
future in which the talent imprisoned in the nation's schools will break
forth and children will enjoy the pleasure of taking stock of the world
round the classroom with their teacher".

Gijubhai is considered as one of the most important writers

of children's literature in Gujarati.
He wrote books for children keeping in view their aptitudes,
feelings, and interests. He discarded the traditional approach of
writing stories and poems which gave moral sermons. He was keen
to give ethical messages to children indirectly. He was convinced that
children's work should be so forceful that it spontaneously attracts
children. They should get joy and pleasure. Ethical messages should
come to them indirectly. His books have been translated into several
Indian languages.

The following are the important books translated and

published in Hindi.
1. Nani Ke Ghar Jane De
2. Tad Tad Tadak
3. Bhut Ka Bhai
4. Nayee Aur Poonch Kata Bagh
5. Kani Gauraya
6. Budhia
7. Mendak Ki Shadi
8. Billi Ke Gale Mein Haddia
9. Unt Ke Pair Sade
10. Moorkh Brahman

In his magazine entitled Sikshan Patrika, Gijubhai highlighted the

'World of Children by writing about the nature of the children and
teaching-learning of children. Diwa Swapna: Gijubhai's "Diwa
Swapna' written in 1931 in Gujarati, attracted the attention of
educators throughout India. Its translations were published in 1934
and 1962. It is a kind of criticism of a primary school. It presents a
glimpse of the beautiful and happy nature of the school of the future.
The whole book is written in the form of a story.

The points and events, which have become the theme of this
book, are a kind of daydream for the teachers. In his Bal Mandir,
Gijubhai experimented upon principles of psychology and principles
of teaching children. How could these principles be made practicable
in primary schools was explained in his book 'Diwa Swapna' Giubh
acknowledges that the teacher of our primary school is ignorant,
servant, greedy money-maker and he does not have self-confidence.
By reading this book the teacher may repent, feel sorry, and visualize
the daydream by raising his level of aspiration.

Teaching Of Language And Other Subjects:

 One book of Gijubhai is about teaching language in a Primary
School He discusses the method of teaching different aspects of
language to the children.

The salient features of language teaching advocated by Gijubhai

are the following:

1. Reading should precede writing.

2. Writing should start withdrawing lines.

3. Children should be taught how to hold the pen with fingers, how
to turn it. how to control it and how to reach the shape of a letter by
drawing absurd shapes.

4. Dictation helps to acquire speed and accuracy of writing after

hearing.

5. Poetry Teaching should start with teaching or folk songs. The

poems should be simple, descriptive, and based on stories. No role
learning is needed in poetry. The thrill characteristic of the poem
should be stressed. There is no need for word meaning in poetry
teaching.

6. Grammar is a part of language and should not be taught

separately. In his book on day-dreams, the teacher Lakshmi Shankar
teaches nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjective etc. through play. Children
recognize them by playing with words.

7. History is to be taught by telling stories.

8. Geography is to be taught by using the globe.

9. The Montessori method is used for teaching mathematics.

10. The drawing should be taught by asking the students to draw

the shape of things like table, mango, guava, etc.
 11. Children's books should contain the life-sketch of religious
persons. The principles of religion may be postponed at this stage.
12. Gijjubhai emphasized games. He said that children should be
allowed to play freely and enjoy the play. There is no question of
winning and losing in the games.
 Critical Evaluation
1. Gijjubhai's work was recognized by Mahatma Gandhi who said
that Gijubhai's devotion and work always attracted him.

2. Kaka Kalelkar appreciated the network of Bal Mandirs

established by Gijubhai He said that by teaching parents about the
worship of children. Gijubhai stood for child freedom and child-
welfare.

3. Tara Ben compared Gijubhai with fire. She said that wherever
he went he kindled the light.

4. Madam Maria Montessori was sad for not being acquainted

with Gijubhai who stood for child-freedom and child-happiness.

5. Kishori Lal Mashruwala saw a kind of non-violent revolution in

education in the work of Gijubhai. The impact of Gijubhai Shri
Badheka was greatly inspired by the environment of freedom under
which children were trained in the Montessori system. He was
encouraged by his co-worker Shri Nanabhai Bhatt who was the
Director of Shri Dakshinamurti Bhawan. The work of Shri Gijubhai
inspired many people in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and other States. He
also greatly influenced ladies. like Smt. Tarabai Modak was also
working for the promotion of the Montessori system in India. An
important feature of Dakshinamurti Bal Mandir is that children in
these schools belong to tribal areas also.

SHORT SUMMARY

❖ Girijashanker Badheka, generally known as Gijubhai, the

most outstanding personality in the field of pre-primary
education, was born to Bhagwanji and Sm. Kashiba of Vala in
Saurashtra at Chittal 9Saurashtra) in the house of his
maternal grandfather on 15 November 1885. He had his early
 education at a primary school at Vala and later passed the
Matriculation from Bhavnagar around 1905.

❖ He joined the Shamlals College but had to leave his studies

incomplete and go to East Africa in 1907 to earn a livelihood.
On his return in 1910, he studied law in Bombay. He started
practice in 1911 as a District Pleader and in 1912 he enrolled
himself is High Court Pleader. He, married twice, first Sm.
Hiren (19020 and after her death is. Jadiben (1906).

❖ Gijubhai’s maternal uncle Hargovind Pandya had a great

influence in moulding his mind and character. Another strong
influence was that of S. P. Stevens, a solicitor for whom
Gijubhai worked in East Africa, who taught him self-help and
reliance.

❖ Solicitude for the education of his first son, Narendrabhai (b.

February 1913), led Gijubhai to see the child education
classes conducted under the guidance of Motibhai Amin at
Vaso, Gujarat, where he was presented a Gujrati book
describing the Montessori method of education. That first
attracted him to organize child education on similar lines. In
1915 he assisted in drafting the construction of the
Dakshinamurti, then started as a hostel at Bhavnagar. In 1916
he left legal practice and joined the Dakashinamurti as
Assistant Superintendent. He drew the attention of the
Superintendent, Nanabhai Bhatt, to the fact that the boarders
had to study in old-fashioned schools.

❖ To remove this anomaly the Dakshinamurti was converted

into a teaching institution with Gijubhai as the Acharya
(Principal). Simultaneously Gijubhai trained his son according
to the Montessori system. This convinced him about the need
to begin at the very beginning, and the Dakshinamurti
Balmandir, a pre-primary school, came into being August
1920. Gijubhai’s contribution was an evolution of a system of
 child education suitable to the Indian environment, training
teachers, and the creation of suitable literature for children.

❖ Teachers and parents Gijubhai’s system liberally borrowed

from the educational philosophies of Montessori, Frobell,
Dalton, and others and oriented the admixture to fit Indian
requirements. Freedom and love were the twin principles
around which the system revolved. With the introduction of
equipment for sensory development, coupled with the use of
music, dance, travel, story-telling, and play-ground as instantly
acquired popularity with children and parents.

❖ In 1925 the first Pre-Primary Teachers’ Training College

(Adhyapak Mandir) was started at Dakshinamurti to meet the
need for qualified teachers. Gijubhai also turned his attention
to children’s literature and wrote simple short stories, nursery
rhymes, and tales of travel and adventure. He produced more
than100 works that still retain their importance and many of
them have been rendered into several other Indian languages.

❖ In 1925 Gijubhai, along with Sm. Taraben Modak, started

editing a Gujrati monthly, the Shikshan Patrika. His frank and
fearless criticism of the existing methods of education created
a sensation in Gujrat. For the propagation of the new system
of child education among the masses, conferences were
organized in 1925 at Bhavnagar and in 1928 at Ahmedabad.

❖ Gijubhai was partly responsible for the entry of Harijans into

the Dakshinamurti. He also assisted in making arrangements
for the farmer families who were abandoning their homes
during the Bardoli Satyagraha. He initiated the concept of the
‘Vanarsena’, a battalion of children satyagrahis who made life
impossible for the Government officials in the 1930 Movement.
Under Gijubhai, Nanabhai, and Harbhai, the Dakshinamurti,
located in the territory of sympathetic princes, came to be
regarded as the training-center for dedicated freedom-fighters.
Gijubhai also conducted Adult Education Campaign in 1930.
❖ In 1936 Gijubhai left the Dakshinamurti due to a difference of
opinion and started the Adhyapak Mandir at Rajkot. Constant
overwork had ruined his health, and he died on 23 June 1939.
Proverbial affection for the children earned him the title
‘Maochhali Ma’ meaning mother with whiskers.
 INTRODUCTION OF FOUR PHILOSOPHIES

1. IDEALISM
It is an old philosophy.☐ His philosophy of idealism which
represents more of ideas can better be known as idealism. ☐ Plato
conceived of ideas as the basis of his philosophy. ☐ The word
‘idealism’ signifies two terms: ‘idea’ and ‘ideal’.

EXPONENTS
❖ Tagore (1861-1950)☐
❖ William T Haris (1835-1909) ☐
❖ (1825-1883) ☐ Frobel (1732-1852)
❖ Hegel (1770-1831) ☐
❖ Kant (1724-1804) ☐

CONCEPT OF IDEALISM

To the idealist the reality is spiritual in nature rather than physical,

mental rather than material. Ideas are eternal and unchanging.☐ It
holds that mind or spirit, as each man experiences it in himself, is
fundamentally real and that the totality of the universe is somehow
mind or spirit in its essence. ☐ It deals with certain basic questions of
human life. ☐ Idealism is a philosophical position which adheres to
the view that nothing exists except an idea in the mind of man, the
mind of God or in a super or supra-natural realm.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEALISM
❖ Universe is knowable. ☐
❖ Conceptualism. ☐
❖ Normative description of the universe. ☐
❖ Emphasis upon normative and social sciences. ☐
❖ Man is central in creation. ☐
❖ Teleological explanation of the universe. ☐
❖ Mechanical explanation of the universe is inadequate. ☐
❖ The universe exists in spirit.

IDEALISM AND EDUCATION

In the words of Rusk, ‘Education must enable mankind through its

culture to enter more and more fully into the spiritual realm’.☐
Education must convert original nature of man into spiritual nature. ☐
Education, according to idealism, is a spiritual necessity and not a
natural necessity. ☐ An idealist’s concept of education is something
which leads one to the highest moral conduct and deepest spiritual
insight. ☐

Principles of Idealism
1. Two forms of the Whole World:
Idealism believes in two forms of the world (1)spiritual world
(2)material world, Idealism gives more importance to the spiritual
world in comparison to the material world. They believe that the
spiritual world is real and the ultimate truth whereas the material
world is transitory and moral.
According to Horne, “Idealism holds that the order of the world is
due to the manifestation in space and time of an eternal and spiritual
reality”.

2. Ideals are more important than objects:

According to the idealistic, knowledge of mind and soul can be
obtained through ideas only. According to Plato, “Ideas are of the
ultimate cosmic significance, they are rather the essences or
archetypes which give form to cosmos. These ideas are eternal and
unchanging”.

3. Importance of man over nature:

To Idealistic man is more important than material nature. It is
because man can think and experience about material objects and
material phenomena. According to R.R.Rusk, “The Spiritual or
cultural environment is an environment of man’s own making; it is a
product of man’s creative activity?”

4. Faith in Spiritual Values:

The prime aim of life is to achieve spiritual values. They are truth,
beauty, and goodness.

These Spiritual values are undying and permanent. According to

J.S. Ross, “Goodness, truth, and beauty are seen to be absolutes
each existing
 in its own right and entirely desirable in reality”.

5. Importance of Personality Development:

Idealists give much importance to the “Self” of the individual.
Hence, they insist upon the fullest development of the personality of
an Individual.

According to J.S.Ross, “The worth of human life at its best is

emphasized by Idealism human personality is of supreme value and
constitutes the noblest work of God”.

6. FULL SUPPORT TO THE PRINCIPLE OF UNITY IN

DIVERSITY:
They give full support to the principle of unity in diversity. They
believe that implicit in all the diversities is an essential unity. This
implicit unifying factor is spiritual. This may be called universal
consciousness or Divinity. According to Prof. H.N.Horne “An Idealistic
philosophy of education, then is an account of a man finding himself
as an integral part of universe mind”.

Idealism & Aim of Education

1. Self-realization or Exhaltation of Personality

According to Idealism man is the most beautiful creation of God.

Hence, the advocates of Idealism lay great stress on the exhaltation
of human personality. By exhaltation of human personality, the mean
self-realization. Self-realization involves full knowledge of the Self.

According to J.S.Ross, “The aim of education specially associated

with Idealism is the exhaltation of personality or self-realization the
making actual or real the highes potentialities of the self”.

2. To ensure Spiritual Development:

Idealists give greater importance to spiritual values in comparison
with material attainments.
 According to Rusk. “Education must enable mankind through its
culture to enter more and more fully into the spiritual realm, and also
enlarge the boundaries of spiritual realm”.

3. To Cultivate Truth, Beauty, and Goodness:

Idealists assert that to develop spiritual values in the individuals,
the pursuit of highest ideals namely- Truth, Beauty, and Goodness
should be encouraged more and more. The more an individual
realizes these ideals, the more spiritually developed he will become.
Hence, education should strive its utmost in developing the child
morally and spiritually so that he achieves self-realization.

4. Conservation, Promotion, and Transmission of Cultural

Heritage:
Man is the only being endowed with a keen and penetrating
intellect, intelligence, and enormous capacity of assimilating
knowledge if the world. Man’s achievement in the realm of science,
art, and culture are of great intrinsic value. His creativity is dynamic
and working Since the very early times This cultural treasure belongs
to the whole humanity and it is the purpose of education to preserve
develop and transmit it in all corners of the world The fourth aim of
education according to Idealism is to acquaint the child with the
cultural heritage so that he conserves, promotes and transmits it to
the rising generation.

5. The conversation of Inborn Nature into Spiritual Nature:

Idealists hold the view that the inborn instincts and inherent
tendencies of the child should be sublimated into spiritual qualities
and values. This is the real development of the individuality.

6. Preparation for a Holy Life:

Idealists uphold that education should create such condition and
provide an environment which is conducive to the development of
spiritual values in a child.

Froebel rightly marks-

”The objects of education is the realization of a faithful pure,
inviolable and hence holy life”.
 7. Development of Intelligence and Rationality:
The world is planned and well organized. Man can understand the
purpose as well as the plan and organization. According to Froebel-
“In all things there reigns an eternal law this all-pervading energetic,
self-conscious and hence eternal unity. This unity is God's education
should lead and guide man to face with nature and to unity with God”.

☐IDEALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Idealism has greatly contributed to the aims of education.

They are:
Exaltation of Human Personality.
Universal education.
Enrichment of cultural environment.
Cultivation of moral Values.

IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE

 Self-insight and self-analysis are the main disciplinary factors☐

Teacher should be: ☐IDEALISM AND TEACHER

❖ Priest of man’s spiritual heritage.

❖ Personification of reality.
❖ Maker of democracy.
❖ Apostle of peace and progress.
❖ Co-worker of God.
❖ Compendium of all virtues.
❖ Perfector of mind
❖ Friend, philosopher and guide

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

These experiences correspond to various activities through which

one has to acquire the highest good and inherent values.☐ Idealism
attaches great importance to those subjects which provide significant
knowledge and wisdom. ☐

Education Physical activities

Care of body Skill
Spiritual Activities
Aesthetic Religious Intellectual

IDEALISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING

❖ Lecture Method ☐
❖ Discussion ☐
❖ Questioning ☐
❖ Imitation☐

Demerits of Idealism
1. The common criticism regarding idealism is that it is an abstract
& vague doctrine. It avoids the realities.
 2. Idealism is concerned with the ultimate end of life. It avoids the
real problems in day to day living.

3. Idealism lays more emphasis on thinking and mental activities.

This increases the importance of Intellectualism unnecessarily.
4. Idealism emphasizes upon the achievement of immortal values
namely, Truth, Beauty and Goodness. These values are not absolute.

5. Idealistic education gives more importance to teacher in relation

to the child.

6. An idealistic method of teaching emphasizes cramming and

rote memory.

7. In Idealistic education humanities are given greater importance

for the spiritual development of the child while the present age of
science lays great stress upon scientific subjects in the Curriculum.

Merits of Idealism

1. Idealism has made a signal contribution.

2. Idealistic education promotes universal education.

3. Idealistic education emphasizes the inculcation of highest

values namely, Truth, Beauty, and Goodness. This will lead to the
development of the moral character of the child.

4. The teacher is assigned a very important role.

5. Idealism leads to the development of the ‘self’ of an Individual.

6. Idealism respects the individuality of the child and tries to

stimulate his creative energies.

7. Because of the idealistic philosophy and education, the school

has grown into an important social organization.
 2. NATURALISM
Naturalism is a doctrine that separates nature from God,
Subordinates spirit to matter, and sets up unchangeable laws as
supreme. Naturalism is also termed as materialism. According to this
philosophy, the basis of the world is matters. A mind is also a form of
matter or an element of matter or synthesis of both. Naturalistic
philosophy defined life in terms of material and chemical laws and
emphasizes the relationship between power, speed, and matter as of
the nature of the causal relationship. According to naturalism only
nature is everything nothing is before and beyond it.

James Ward says, ‘Naturalism is the doctrine that separates

nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter and set up
unchangeable laws as supreme’.☐
 Dr. Premnath observes, ‘Naturalism is an attitude rather than a
specific system of philosophy’. ☐ Naturalism is concerned with
‘natural self’ or ‘real self’.

EXPONENTS
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)☐
Rousseau (1712-1788) ☐
JA Comenius (1529-1670) ☐
Bacon (1562-1626) ☐
Epicurus (341-270 BC) ☐
Democritus (460-360 BC)

CONCEPT OF NATURALISM
Naturalism believes that nature alone contains normal and the
only final answer to all philosophical problems.☐ It does not believe in
sentimentalism, spiritualism, and supernaturalism. ☐ According to
Naturalism, ‘material world is the real world’. It emphasizes ‘matter’
and the physical world. ☐ Naturalism is a distinct philosophy
according to which reality and nature are identical and that beyond
nature there is no reality.

PRINCIPLES OF NATURALISM

The role of the teacher should be that of a guide.☐

Education should be based on a child’s psychology. ☐
Negative education in early childhood. ☐
Education as the natural development of the child’s power
and capacities. ☐
Child-centered education. ☐

Principles of Naturalism:
• The universe is a huge machine. Man is also a part of this
machine and a complete machine in himself.
• Life comes out of dead matter and is a total of physical and
chemical reactions.
 • Man, because of his own nature is the supreme creation of
nature.
• The present life is real life.
• Reality is of the external natural only.
• Unchanging laws of nature explain all the events and
occurrences of the world.

Naturalism in Education
In the field of education, Naturalism means the development of a
child according to his inherent nature. Physical nature is external and
the nature of the child is internal which means the basic instincts,
impulses, tendencies, capacities, and other inborn potentialities of the
child. According to Naturalism, the external laws of nature should
correspond and co-operate with the internal nature of the child for his
full natural development.
☐CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURALISM
❖ Laws of nature are unchangeable and the whole universe is
governed by them.☐ Senses are the gateways of knowledge.
☐
❖ Man-an offspring of nature. ☐
❖ Values are resident in nature. ☐
❖ Inductive Method ☐
❖ Scientific Knowledge. ☐
❖ No distinction between mind and body. ☐
❖ Nature is the ultimate reality.

NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
❖ Naturalism gives maximum freedom to child.
❖ Naturalism gives the central position to the child.
 ❖ It rejects all authority that interferes with the spontaneous
development of children.
❖ Naturalism is against the autocratic and intellectual
pretension.

The cores of naturalistic thoughts in education are: ☐

It believes that education should be strict conformity with the

nature of the child. ☐
Naturalism may be regarded as a revolt against the
stereotyped system of education. ☐

NATURALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

1. Self-Expression- Naturalists believe that students should be

provided with an opportunity to express their ideas and talents.
2. Self-Preservation- In naturalistic point of view, self-security or
self-preservation is an unavoidable aspect in life and education
should enable the child to develop these qualities.
3. Redirection of human instincts- Naturalists believe that each
child is born with certain instincts, which are the guiding force behind
all human conduct.
4. Struggle for existence- Naturalists says that individual child
may have to face several painful and stress-laden situations in the
physical world.
5. Education according to nature- While educating the child, his
whole nature i.e, tendencies, developmental status, capacities,
instincts, likes, and dislikes should be considered.
6. Perfect development of individuality- Education should aim
at developing the child into joyous, rational, balanced useful and
mature person.

Characteristics of Naturalistic Education

1. Back to nature:
Out of three essential factors of education namely nature, man,
and objects, Naturalism gives prime importance to nature. Hence, its
call is ‘Back of Nature’. According to naturalists, the best teacher of
the child is nature. Hence to develop the child according to his nature,
education should provide natural environmental.

2. Education a natural necessity:

The naturalist regards education as a natural necessity. For them,
educational institutions are unwanted creation of men superimposed
upon Nature.

3. Education-development of natural life:

According to Naturalistic thought, education is a process of
development of natural life. As Monroe perceives it, “Education is the
process of developed into an enjoyable, rational harmoniously
balanced, useful and hence natural life”

4. Freedom of the child:

It gives a prominent place to the concept of freedom in the
education of the child.

5. Child-centered educational process:

The child occupies the central and pivotal role in the Naturalism
set-up. The child’s nature is at the forefront which all other things
such as education, the books, the curriculum, the school, are in the
background.

NATURALISM AND DISCIPLINE

There is no external discipline required.☐ Naturalism gives
freedom to the child to grow in the natural way. ☐
NATURALISM AND TEACHER

Stage setter
Able to understand nature of the child
An observer

NATURALISM AND CURRICULUM

Should be:
 Literary and aesthetic culture.☐
Study of past experiences. ☐
Focal point should be with simplicity and objectivity. ☐
No rigid curriculum. ☐

Merits of Naturalism in the field of education

• Development of child psychology.

• Scientific study of society and sociology.
• Emphasis on the experiences-centered curriculum.
• Importance contribution to the field of methods of teaching.
• Opposition to Repression in the field of discipline.
Demerits of Naturalism in the field of education
• Children’s are given over freedom and giving the most
importance to exercises.
• No importance of teachers.
• More emphasis on the present needs of the children.
 3. REALISM
Realism is the theory that holds the existence of objects is real.☐
Complete living is the aim of education and also the aim of life. ☐
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was a naturalist as a realist. ☐ It is
concerned with the existence of things. ☐Realism is also sometimes
called objectivism.

EXPONENTS

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)☐

Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) ☐
John Locke (1690-1781) ☐
Aristotle (383-322 BC) ☐

CHARACTERISTICS OF REALISM
 Relation between object and thought.☐
Objects are common. ☐
Knowledge of objects is direct. ☐
Knowledge does not affect the object. ☐
Qualities are inherent in known objects.
Existence of objects is independent of knowledge. ☐

PRINCIPLES OF REALISM

It advocates the methods and principles of physical science

for acquired knowledge.☐
Real knowledge is obtained by analysis and experiencing
sensations. ☐
It looks at man like a physical being controlled by rules and
laws. ☐
It accepts only sensory experiences of the external world as
real. ☐
It does not believe in the existence of any absolute truth. ☐
Worldly realities of everyday life are true. ☐

Following are the basic principles of realism

(1) Phenomenal world is real

There is nothing beyond this world. According to Ross, “Realism
accepts only the reality of external world. That is why; it is antithesis
to subjective idealism.

(2) Senses are the gateways of learning

According to realism whatever sensation we get while coming in
contact with objects through our senses, is the only reality. So like
naturalism, realism also lays emphasis on sense training, study of
science, diversified curricula, catering education to varied interests,
making methods of teaching interesting and basis theme on
psychological principles.

(3) Theory of Organism

 According to realism animate and manimate substances make an
organism.

(4) Man is only a part of material world

Man is only a part of material world. He becomes conscious of this
material world with the help of his senses.

(5) Emphasis on experiment

Realism emphasizes the importance of observation and
experimentation. That is the reason why realism does not believe in
the existence of any god, soul, other world etc. They consider these
worlds only to be a figment of imagination. A philosophy of education
should be based on the realities of life and it can prove its worth by
being practical. Realism is opposed to bookish knowledge.

(6) Importance of Present Life

The immediate reality of the material world is real. It is more
important than the ultimate reality of the spiritual world. Main place is
given to scientific subjects.

(7) Since we live in the world which is rapidly changing, it is

necessary that we remains prepared to adjust ourselves to any
psychological, intellectual or social changes that occur at any time.

(8) No ‘Ism’ can solve the problem of education. To be useful

education must be organized by harmoninsing values, past and
present. Similarly individual and society must be given equal
importance.

(9) Things and objects exist independently. They are dependent

on mind for their existence. For their knowledge emphasis is laid on
training of senses.

(10) Realism places more emphasis on curriculum and contents of

studies than on behaviour training like pragmatism.

(11) Unlike naturalism, realism advocates limited freedom for

child.
 (12) Regularity in the material world
This ideology accepts regularity in the material world. The change
is also due to regularity. Here this philosophy becomes different from
the physical world. It considers all the things as a part of the totality
and their forms are changing and not eternal. The development of
society also takes place according to regularity.

(13) State
Realism considers states as an institution for his welfare and
happiness. It is not a divine organization. Therefore it is obligatory for
the state to make arrangements for the means of happiness and
convenience of the citizens.
 Realism in Education
As earlier stated, realism is a revolt against traditional education.
It was born in the form of opposition to the idealistic system of
education and the development of science gave support to it.

Realism is based on reality. By realistic education is meant that

education should be able to make the life of a man happy and
successful. Realism has given emphasis to liberal education.

According to Milton, “I call a generous and complete education

that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously
all the offices both private and public, at peace and war”. They
consider education as a natural process of development.

Spencer has defined education which supports scientific realism.

According to him, “Education is the preparation of life”. Hence
realistic system of education throws light on all the aspects of
education which are as follows.

1. Preparing the child for a happy and successful life

The first aim of realistic education is to prepare the child to lead a
successful and happy life. Thus, education should be such that the
child is able to solve his problems of life successfully and lead a
happy life promoting the welfare of society as well.
2. Preparing the child for a real life
The second aim of realistic education is to prepare the child for a
real and practical life. Realists believe in the reality of knowledge of
external material world gained through senses. Thus, they wish to
prepare the child for the real life of material world.

3. Developing the physical and mental powers of child

According to Realism, mind, as well as the physical organs
together, constitute an organism composed of matter. Hence,
according to this ideology, the third aim of education is to develop the
physical and mental powers of the child so that with the help of his
developed intelligence, discrimination, and judgement, he is able to
solve all the problems of life successfully.

4. Developing and Training of senses

Realists believe that unless the senses of the child are developed
fully well, he will not be able to have full knowledge about the external
world. Thus, the fourth aim of realistic education is to develop and
train the senses of the child through varied experiences.

5. Acquitting the child with nature and social environment

According to Realism, a child is related both to the external nature
and the social environment. Hence, the fifth aim of education is to
provide the child with full knowledge of both the society and the
external nature so that he can strike a balance between the two.

6. Imparting vocational education

According to Realism, education should be a practical utility to the
child. The sixth aim of education is to provide vocational education to
the child.

REALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

Vocational activities.
☐ Vocational behaviour activities.
☐ Activities concerning race-preservation
☐ Religious activities
☐ Activities of mental health
☐ Leisure activities
☐ Ordinary social activities
☐ Citizenship activities
☐ Activities concerned with hygiene
☐ Activities concerned with language
☐ According to the American educationalist Franklin Bobit,
happiness in life may be achieved by fulfillment of human
responsibilities and obligations such as: ☐ The realistic aim of
education is a happy and integrated life. ☐
 ☐REALISM AND CURRICULM
Science and vocational subjects enjoy predominant position in
curriculum followed by arts, literature and languages.☐ It prefers
subjects and activities which can prepare children for day to day
living. According to realism curriculum should be many sided and it
should be presented to the children a rounded view of the universe.
Only those subjects be included in the curriculum which are useful to
the students and prepare them to meet the challenges of time in their
actual life.

• Nature study, physical sciences and vocational training are given

primary importance in the scheme of curriculum of realism.

Comenius divided the educational period of the child into 4 stages

and suggested curriculum and text books for each stage. He was of
the opinion that all those things which are useful to the child in his life,
the knowledge of these things must be given to the child. As the life
being lived is real he gave importance to mother tongue and
vocational subjects to be successful in life. According to him mother-
tongue is the foundation stone of the development of man and
vocational training helps one to earn one’s livelihood.

REALISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The method of teaching should change according to the
requirement of the child.☐ Realist thinkers emphasize objectivity,
knowledge of scientific facts and knowledge of the real. ☐

• Realism gives more emphasis to sense training. Lominius

emphasized the importance of sense training in education.
• Milton emphasized the importance of travelling in education.
• Locke emphasized the importance of observation and
experimentation.
• Inductive – Deductive method is also advocated by them.
‘Things rather than the words’ or ‘First objects and then their
exposition’ are their watchwords. Education should be given through
co-curricular activities.

Realism & Teacher

Realism has a balanced approach so far as the position of the
teacher is concerned. The teacher must know the subject matter and
nature of the child. He must know their needs. He must also be
conversant with the scientific and psychological methods and
techniques of teaching. He must present the objects and activities
before the child in their actual form.
For accomplishing all these, the teacher himself must be trained
and bestowed with intellectual, social, and moral qualities.

Realism & Discipline

Realism does not favour the expressionistic type of discipline
which is based on punishment, fear, and repression. The school
emphasizes the importance of discipline based on love and
sympathy.
 Like naturalism, realism also believes in ‘discipline through natural
consequences’. This school wants to provide such a physical
environment to the pupils in which they may learn to lead a
disciplined life and this, in turn, may become a part of their habit.

In this way, realism believes in impressionistic and

emanicipationastic discipline.
 Merits of Realism
1. It emphasizes practical knowledge.
Realism emphasizes practical knowledge and functional
knowledge. It is only such type of knowledge that makes a person
successful in life.

2. The aim of the development of a dynamic and adaptable

mind
The aims of education given by realism may not be very exalting
but at least they are very useful and important. To develop a dynamic
and adaptable mind to cope with life situations is a very important
aim.

3. Due importance to science and technology

Realism gives due importance to science and technology in its
scheme of curriculum.

It is only science and technology which can raise the standard of

living of teeming millions throughout the world. No nation can make
progress without the help of science and technology.

4. Progressive methods of teaching

The heuristic method, inductive-deductive method, correlation,
Dalton plan, etc. are all the gifts of realism in the arena of methods of
teaching. Each student is expected to investigate for himself rather
than to accept things dogmatically.

5. The proper concept of discipline

Realism favours impressionistic and emancipationsitic type of
discipline.
According to this school, discipline should be based upon love,
sympathy, and understanding rather than on authority.

6. Emphasis on objectivity
 Realism emphasizes objectivity. It is an account of the efforts of
the school of thought that teachers encourage students to analyze
the subject matter objectively.

7. Development of proper attitudes among the students

Realism advocates the development of proper attitude among the
students like objective thinking and rational judgment.
Love, sympathy and fellow feeling are also emphasized.

8. Physical health
Should have a definite purpose. That of improving health and not
only being the gentlemanly sport.

9. Instructions are given on a uniform scientific method.

10. Emphasis on vocational education is in tune with the modern

conditions and aspirations of society.

Demerits of Realism

There are some limitations which are as follows.

1. Emphasis on the immediate reality of the physical

World critics think that realism ignores the ultimate reality of the
spiritual
World on account of its zeal for the immediate reality of material
world. But the immediate reality as perceived through the senses and
interpreted by intellect derives its significance only from ultimate
reality and the former cannot by any logical reasoning be isolated
from
the latter. In fact, it is such an unnatural divorce of the physical
from the spiritual reality that has led to the moral and spiritual
bankruptcy of the present generation.

2. Realism ignores the importance of emotions, imaginations etc.

which are also equally important in human life.

3. No place for intuition and meditation

 According to realism, all the knowledge is derived from
observation and experimentation. It does not accept the claims of
intuition and meditation as a much superior source of getting
knowledge.

4. More importance only to scientific subjects

Realism gives too much emphasis on science and technology and
altogether ignores the importance of the non-material. Subjects like
art, culture, religion, and mortality, etc. but according to these critics,
science and technology do not by themselves have any value unless
they serve as instruments for developing our moral and aesthetic life.

5. No faith in eternal values and high ideals of life

Realism has no faith in eternal values and the highest ideals of
life. It has faith only in the harsh realistic of daily life.
 4.PRAGMATISM
It is an American philosophy typical in nature and practical in
approach.☐ It suggests an emphasis upon the practicalities of life
and the practicable is the real. ☐ Charles Pierce introduced this word
philosophy. ☐ According to James, the term ‘pragmatism’ is derived
from the Greek word ‘pragma’ which means action or practice or
activity from which in the words ‘practice’ and ‘practical’ have been
derived. ☐ Pragmatism is midway between idealism and naturalism.

Definitions of Pragmatism
“Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth of
knowledge and a theory of reality”. James B. Prett

“pragmatism is essentially a humanistic philosophy, maintaining

that man creates his own values in the course of activity that reality is
still in the making and awaits its part of completion from the future,
that to an unascertainable extend our truth are man-made products”.
J.S.Ross

Meaning of Pragmatism
Etymologically the word pragmatism is derived from the Greek
word ‘pragma’ which means activity or the work done. Some other
scholars think that the word pragmatism has been derived from the
Greek word ‘pragmatikos’ which means practicability or utility. Thus,
according to this ideology great importance is laid upon practicability
and utility.

☐EXPONENTS
Charles S Pierce☐
S Kilpatrick ☐
Williams James ☐
John Dewey
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRAGMATISM

❖ Faith in democracy.☐
❖ Man creates his own values. ☐
❖ Philosophy as theory of education. ☐
❖ Pragmatism as humanism ☐
❖ Pragmatism as experimentalism ☐
❖ Pragmatism as instrumentalism ☐
❖ Thought in subordinate to action. ☐
❖ Rejects ultimate values. ☐
❖ Pragmatism, a revolt against traditionalism and absolutism. ☐

Principles of Pragmatism
1. Truth is ever changing
Truth always changes according to time, place and situation. A
certain thing which was true to a person yesterday need not be the
same for him today or will remain the same tomorrow

2. Truth is formed by its result

Truth is not fixed and definite entity. The change in situations
brings about new problems to be solved by new thoughts and new
efforts. Truth is not absolute or predetermined for all times to come.

3. Problems are the motives of truth

Human life is a laboratory where each individual undertakes
various experiments to solve problems he confronts, in his growth
and development. The success of the experiment is a search for
truth.

4. Emphasis on social and democratic value

Man is a social being. He is born in society and all his
development takes place in society. Pragmatists uphold social and
democratic attitudes and values.

5. Opposition to fixed ideals and values

 Ideals and values are not pre-determined and fixed. Values and
ideals are man-made and they change according to changes in
circumstances, times and places. It has an indifferent attitude towards
moral and spiritual ideals and values.

6. Emphasis on the principle of utility

Any idea which is useful to us is proper and right. In case, it is of
no use it is improper, wrong and untrue.

7. Importance of man power

Man has the power to create an environment useful, beneficial
and conducive for his own development and welfare of society.

8. Importance of present and future

Man is an active being. He learns through his activities in his life.
Ideas are born out of activities.

9. Faith in present and future

The past is dead and gone. Each individual has to solve the
problems of his present and future.

10. Opposition to social customs and traditions

Old customs, traditions, restrictions and taboos are denied. It
believes in the realities of life, human intelligence and mental capacity
which results in human welfare and happiness.

11. Faith in pluralism

The ideals and values which are testified by experiences are true
and real. It believes in pluralism.

12. Reality in making

The attitude is optimistic, progressive and developing. To call the
present world as fully made up, absolutely beautiful and complete is
wrong. The world is still in the process of formation and development.

13. Faith in flexibility

The world is changing and everything is under a process of
change. Nothing is fixed and final in this world. He employs all his
mental faculties, learns from his experience and experiments to the
path of progress and development.

PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION
Education is a continuous process.
☐ Freedom and worth of the individual.
☐ Progressive education.
☐ Education as a social necessity.
☐ It gives a clear-cut concept of education based upon a close
relationship between theory and practice of education. ☐

Pragmatism in Education

Education is not the preparation of a child for his future but it is life
itself. Life is not possible without education. Life here means social
life. It is because man is a social animal. His activities are directed
and determined by the society by living there. So collective activities
are organised in the school. Participation in the collective activities
gives him knowledge of social efficiency and sociability.

1. Education as life
Traditional education is dead and lifeless. The students are
passive recipients without any dynamism and push. Real knowledge
can be gained by activity experiments and real life experiences.

2. Education as growth
Society is undergoing a process of continual change. Education
should correspond its activities to suit the changes in society.
Education should develop the inherent capacities of the child
according to his interests, inclinations and aptitudes, so that he can
create his own values to face the problem.

3. Education as continuous reconstruction of experiences

Bookish knowledge is condemned. Real knowledge is gained by
experiments and experiences. They transform the behaviour and
personality of the child.

4. Education as social process

 Education should develop desirable qualities that he is a sociable
person. An individual gains more knowledge from his interaction with
his friends, family and society rather than the books.

5. Education as the responsibility of the state

Education is the birth right of the child. The state should shoulder
the responsibility of the education of the child otherwise the whole
nation will suffer and lag behind.

PRAGMATISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

To pragmatism the aim of education is to provide dynamic

direction and guidance to the child according to his natural interests,
aptitudes and capacities in the field of academic activities that he
grows up and develops more and more and is endowed with
capacities to confront the
ever changing problems and challenges of modern life
successfully achieving a happier, a better and a richer life. For this
education should develop such a dynamic flexible and adaptable
mind which is always resourceful and enterprising and is able to
create new values for an unknown future. Following are the some of
the aim of pragmatism.

1. To reform and reconstruct the society

2. To enable the individual to adjust with the changing social
environment
3. To develop the child fully according to his interest, abilities and
needs
4. To create social efficacy in the child
5. To develop democratic values and ideals in the child
6. To provide educational opportunities to all citizens on equal
footing
7. To instil habit of experimentation in the children
8. To remove social evils and make the society a good place for
living
9. To enable the child to discover the truth himself
10. To make child self reliant

☐PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM

The curriculum must grow out of child’s interests, experiences,
impulses and needs. The curriculum must be child-centred.
Pragmatists stressed that school subjects should be woven around
the child’s activities. Lesson should begin with social topics such as
food, shelter, modes of communication, speech reading, drawing, and
modelling.

1. Ability and interest of the child

Child’s ability and his personal inclination should be kept in mind
before constructing the curriculum and nothing imposed on him.

2. Flexibility
Every society is dynamic. So curriculum should be constructed
according to the changing need of the society. Vision is required for
this purpose so that it may last long.
 3. Usefulness
Curriculum must have utility for a child. He should be taught only
what is useful for him.

4. Social efficiency
Curriculum must make a child socially efficient and democratic in
his behaviour. It should enable the students to get fully adjusted in the
society.

5. Experimental
It should develop the habit of self experience and experimentation
in the child. Different kinds of problematic situations are presented
before him and he reaches the solution to these problems through
activities and experimentation.

6. Life related
Only those subjects should be included in the curriculum which
have direct link to the lives of children. It will make them self reliant
and a productive member of the society.

Vocational subjects are preferred for this purpose. Subjects of

social sciences and humanities are also taught but only after creating
some harmony with the subjects of natural sciences.

7. Principle of integration
Curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities.
The teaching of various units should be inter-linked and co-related to
form right concept and proper understanding in children.

☐PRAGMATISM AND METHOD OF TEACHING

Whatever is to be taught to a child must be correlated with the
natural activities of the child. For this purpose following methods are
adapted:

1. Learning by doing
Child learns the best when he performs some action along with
the theoretical knowledge of a subject. Teacher guides the students
for these activities by which child develops his own natural abilities.

2. Collective approach
Children participate in these activities collectively. It develops in
them social efficiency. They are assigned various types of jobs by the
teacher and they complete them collectively.

3. Integrated approach
A subject is taught only after integrating it with other subjects as
well as life. In this way knowledge becomes compact, useful and
systematic.
4. Individual approach
Each child is unique and different from his fellow flock. Teacher
should regard individual differences and teach a child according to his
level of understanding and specific interest.

5. Purposive process of learning

A child should try to achieve some aim or goal according to his
natural interests, abilities and experiences. Self learning through self
effort is acknowledged.

Role of Teacher
The teacher works as friend, philosopher and guide to the
students

1. He should have the capacity to know the interests of the

students.
2. He should understand the conditions and situation of changing
society.
3. He puts forth problems for the students to be solved according
to their interests.
4. He also creates situations to develop social interests, attitudes
and habits for welfare of the society.
 School
According to pragmatism, school is a laboratory for experiments to
be done by children.

The school is a social institution where child gains real

experiences of actual life. It develops a social sense and duty
towards society and nation. The school is a miniature society where a
child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his
interests, aptitudes and capacities.

PRAGMATISM AND DISCIPLINE

Pragmatism condemns enforced discipline. It advocates social
discipline based on child’s interest, activities and a sense of
responsibility. Self discipline is learnt by the students in the proper
democratic and social environment of the school. They participate in
collective activities and learn cooperation and control. Child is given
full freedom to develop his natural abilities.

Teacher does not consider himself superior to the child. He works

in the class as a supervisor only. He also takes the individual
difference among children into account.
The merging of play and work will develop interest in the child. It
will enhance a sense of purpose to do the work with joy and
eagerness without interfering others. This mental condition will
develop self confidence, self reliance, cooperation, sympathy and
fellow feeling for others.

He will develop a social discipline and moral obligation towards

self and others. It develops a social responsibility to become a true
citizen of the country.

Merits
1. Construction of project method
A child, who indulges in various activities, is able to solve
problems which cater to his natural progress and development.
 2. Importance of child
Child centred education where a great emphasis is laid in the
development of the child’s individuality by his own efforts.

3. Emphasis on activity
Pragmatism emphasizes upon activity rather than ideas. ‘Learning
by doing’ is the method followed here.

4. Values in applied life

Education should prepare the child for the practice of values in life
in an effective manner.

5. Social and democratic education

It induces a spirit of freedom, initiative, equality and also a sense
of responsibility in relation to rights and duties of a citizen. It develops
a love for democratic values and social efficiency which brings
harmonious adjustment and development of personality.

6. Infusion of new life in education

It has revolutionized the process of education and infused a new
life and zest in education. The concepts of New Education,
Progressive Education and Activity Centred curriculum are the
contributions of pragmatism.

7. Progressive and optimistic attitude

Pragmatism is a way of living which opposes old doctrines of
Idealism and Naturalism, inspires the individual to look ahead and
create new values for a better and happier life. It develops a dynamic,
flexible and adaptable mind which gives direction to new purpose to
education.

Criticism
1. Difficulties of not accepting truth to be permanent.
Pragmatist philosophy does not treat truth as permanent and
objective. Instead for pragmatists all truth is relative to time and
space. No philosophy is always true or correct.
 It has its utility only in a particular set of circumstances. And utility
is the final criterion of truth. In actual practice pragmatic philosophy is
fairly useful, but when its own principles are applied to its own
theories, the latter also becomes relative to time and space and thus
has only a limited utility. Hence the principle of pragmatism itself
becomes only true because it does not accept truth as something
permanent. Truth changeable with time and space may prove very
dangerous for the society.

2. Materialistic bias.
Pragmatism was born out of reaction to idealism, and
consequently it manifests a distinctly materialistic bias, in
contradiction of the spiritual bias of idealist philosophy. At the same
time, pragmatists realize democratic ideals of freedom, equality and
fraternity through education. But it is difficult to understand how this
can be done unless they accept an idealistic basis of his system of
education.

3. Absence of any aim of education.

According to pragmatists, education is life itself and it is not
possible to determine any objective for its continuous change in the
pattern of living. This idea is also unbelievable. Changes do take
place immediately but they take time. Specific aims of life must be
there before the changes occur.

4. Excessive emphasis upon individual difference.

Modern educational psychology accepts in principle that the
curriculum of education must take into account the individual
difference of children and that children must be educated according
to their individual and unique interests and inclinations both in respect
of curriculum and also of the method of teaching. While in theory this
is quite acceptable any attempts to apply it in practice lead to
immediate complications. It is completely impossible to provide a
separate educational plan for every individual child in the school.

5. Limitations of learning through doing.

There is no doubt that the child should learn by actually doing
things. But the theory has its limitations too. Many facts known to an
individual are acquired from another person. It is almost impossible
for one individual to experience every fact known to him.

6. Pragmatists want to improve the world by experimentation.

They reject the experience of others and believed in self experience
of man.

7. Pragmatists reject the experience of others and believed in self

experience of man.

Pragmatists advocated full freedom for the child who may spoil his
career because of his immaturity and lack of experience.

Impacts on Modern Education

1. Inculcation of democratic values and social responsibilities

have been included in the aims of education today.
2. Activity and self-experience methods of teaching are very much
recognized today.
3. Special emphasis on vocational and professional courses
4. Organization of co curricular activities in the school
5. Updating of curriculum after every five years according to the
changing needs of the society.
6. Promotion of self discipline
7. Respect for democratic values
8. Promotion of free and compulsory education from 6 to 14.
9. Proposes universalisation of elementary education.
****
 UNIT 03
SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is the study of groups. According to many sociologists,
sociology studies man as a member of the -group and as a
participant in culture. Man is never an individual in isolation. It has
been said that the group is the datum of sociology, not the individual
human being. Sociology studies human beings in their group
relations, human behaviour in terms of groups and groupings.

Definitions of Sociology
❖ ‘Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena -
L.F. Ward
❖ The subject-matter of sociology is the inter-action of human
minds’. -L.T. Hobhouse
❖ ‘Sociology is the study of human inter-action and interrelation
their conditions and consequences’. -M. Ginsberg
❖ Sociology is the science that deals with social groups; their
internal forms or modes of organisation, the processes that
tend to maintain or change these forms of organisation and
relations between groups’. -H.M. Johnson
❖ ‘Sociology is a special social science concentrating on inter-
human behaviour, on processes of sociation, on association
and dissociation as such.’ -Von Wiese
❖ ‘Sociology is the study of the relationships between man and
his human environment.’ -H.P. Fairchild
❖ ‘Sociology may be defined as a body of scientific knowledge
about human relationships.’ -J. F. Cuber
❖ ‘Sociology is a body of learning about society. It is a
description of ways to make society better. It is social ethics, a
social philosophy. Generally, however, it is defined as a
science of society.’ -W. F. Ogbum
❖ ‘Sociology asks what happens to men and by what rules they
behave, not in so far as they unfold their understandable
individual existences in their totalities, but in so far as they
form groups and are determined by their group existence
because of inter-action.’ -Simmel
❖ ‘Sociology is the science of collective behaviour’. -R. E. Park
and F. W. Burgess
❖ ‘General sociology is on the whole the theory of human living
together.’ -Ferdinand Tonnies
❖ ‘Sociology is a body of related generalizations about human
social behaviour arrived at by scientific method.’ -Lundberg, G.
A.
❖ ‘Sociology in its broadest sense may be said to be the study
of interactions arising from the association of living beings.’
❖ ‘Sociology deals with the behaviour of men in groups.’ –
Kimball Young
❖ ‘Sociology is the scientific study of the structure of social life.’
-Young and Mack.
❖ Sociology is the name applied to somewhat inchoate mass of
materials which embodies our knowledge of society.’ -Arthur
Fairbanks.
❖ ‘Sociology is the synthesizing and generalising science of
man in all his social relationships.’ -Arnold Green
❖ ‘Sociology is a science for scientific social development. -G.
Duncan Mitchell
❖ ‘Sociology is the scientific study of social relationships, their
variety, and their forms, whatever affects them and whatever
they affect.’ -T. Abel
❖ ‘Sociology is the science of the structure and functions of
social life.’ -John W. Bennel
❖ ‘Sociology is a generalizing science of socio-cultural
phenomena viewed in their generic form, types and manifold
interconnections.’ -P. A. Sorokin
❖ Sociology is being defined differently by our sociologists and
other’s each one of course, has its own news about the nature
 and scope of the subject, as he conceives it.
❖ According to Ward “Sociology is science of society”.

❖ George Simmel opines that it is a subject which studies

human inter-relationship.

❖ Giddins is of the view that “Sociology is scientific study of

society”.

❖ Max Weber has viewed sociology as “Science which attempts

imperative understanding of social actions”.

❖ Ogburn has said that, “Sociology is concerned with the study

of social life and its relations to the factors of culture, natural
environment, heredity and group.”

❖ Durkheim while defining sociology has said that, “It is the

science of collective representation.”

We may thus conclude these definitions with the definition of E.S.

Bogardus when he says that, “Sociology may be defined as the study
of the ways in which social experiences function in developing,
maturing and repressing human beings through inter-personal
stimulations.”

From all these definitions it becomes clear that sociology is

concerned with social relationships and studies society, human
interactions, inter-personal and intra-personal relations. It tries to
study scientifically social institutions, organizations and systems.
These definitions also make it amply clear that sociologists view the
subject differently and that there is no unanimity in this regard.

Sociology Background
• Man are living with other of their kind called societies and
general sociology task is to discover these constants to describe
them with economy of concepts and to delineate their inter-relations.
 • No other science endeavors to study it in its entirety, it is the
focus of the interest that distinguish sociology from other sciences-
Science of the society
• Treated as Social philosophy, or philosophy of history later,
Sociology emerged as an independent social science in the 19th
century.

Meaning of Sociology
• Auguste Comte the founding father of the sociology, defines
sociology as the science of social phenomena “subject to nature and
invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation”.
Auguste Comte.

The word Sociology came from two prominent languages of early

advanced civilization. “Socious”, a Latin word, meaning, companion,
or society and from the Greek word “logos”, meaning to study. From
this coined words, it could be further deduced that, sociology is the
study of society and human behaviour.

❖ Harry M. Johnson writes,” Sociology is the science that deals

with social groups: their internal forms or modes of
organisation, the processes that tend to maintain or change
these forms of organisation, and the relations between
groups.”

❖ Sociology is the study of social relationships. Small defines

sociology as “the science of social relations”.
❖ According to R.E. Park and F.W. Burgess, “Sociology is the
science of collective behaviour. Sociology may be defined as a
body of scientific knowledge about human relationships, says
J. F. Cuber.

❖ “In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human

interactions and interrelations, their conditions and
consequences”, says Morris Ginsberg.
 ❖ According to Maclver and Page “sociology is ‘about’ social
relationships, the network of relationship we call society”.

❖ F.H. Giddings defines sociology as “the science of social

phenomena”

❖ Max Weber defines Sociology as “the science which attempts

the interpretative understanding of social action in order
thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its cause and
effects”.

A careful examination of definitions shows that sociologist differ in

their opinion about the definitions of sociology. However, we may find
following views about its definitions.

1. Sociology is a science of society.

2. Sociology is the study of groups or social system.
3. Sociology is the study of social relationships.
4. Sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations,
their conditions and consequences.
5. Sociology is the study of social action.
6. Sociology is the study of social phenomena.
Sociology is the scientific study of human social life and groups. It
is study of societies, giving special emphasis on modern societies.
Sociology is the systematic study of social institutions; their nature,
functions and interactions, sequences of continuity and change.

Nature of Sociology According to Robert Bierstadt:

Sociology is the branch of knowledge and it has its own

characteristics. Sociology has different nature in society. It is different
from other sciences in certain respects.

The following are the main characteristics of sociology as enlisted

by Robert Bierstedt in his book ” The Social Order” and they are as
follows:-
 1) Sociology is an independent science:- Sociology has now
emerged into an independent science. It is not treated and studied as
a branch of any other science, like philosophy or political philosophy,
or history. As an independent science is has its own field of study,
boundary and method.

2) Sociology is a social science not a physical

science:- Sociology belongs to the family of social sciences, and not
to the family of physical science. As a social science, it concentrates
its attention on man, his social behaviors, social activities and social
life. As a member of the family of social sciences it is intimately
related to other social science like history, political science, economic,
philosophy, anthropology etc. The fact that sociology deles with the
social universe distinguishes it from astronomy, physics, Chemistry,
Geology, Mathematics and others physical sciences.

3) Sociology is a categorical and not a normative

discipline:- Sociology “confines itself to statements about what is,
not what should be or ought to be”. As a science, sociology is
necessary silent about question of value. It does not make any kind of
value-judgment. Its approach is neither moral nor immoral, but
amoral. It is ethically neutral, but does not mean that sociological
knowledge is useless serves no purpose it only means that sociology
as a discipline can’t deal with problems of good and evil, Right and
wrong, and moral or immoral.

4) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science: –

A distinction is often made between pure sciences and applied
sciences. The main aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of
knowledge and it is not bothered whether the acquired knowledge is
useful or can be put to use on the other hand, the aim of applied
science is to apply the acquired knowledge into life and to put it to
use. Each pure science may have its own applied field. For example
Physics is a pure science and engineering is it’s applied field.
Sociology as a pure science has its applied field. Such as
administration diplomacy, social work etc. Each pure science may
have more than one application. Sociology is a pure science,
because the immediate aim of sociology is the acquisition of
knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge.

5) Sociology is relatively an abstract science not a concrete

science:- This does not mean that sociology is an art and not a
science. Nor does it mean, it is unnecessarily complicated and unduly
difficult. It only means that sociology is not interested in concrete
manifestations of human events. It is more concerned with the form of
human events and there patterns. For example sociology is not
concerned with particular war and revolutions but with war and
revolution in general, as social phenomena as types of social conflict.
Similarly, Sociology does not confine itself to the study of this society
that particular society, or social organization, or marriage, or religion,
or group and so on. It is in this simple sense that sociology is an
abstract not a concrete science.

6) Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing or

Individualizing Science:- Sociology tries to find out the general laws
or principles about human interaction or situation, about the nature,
From, Content, and structure of human group of societies. It does not
study each and every event that takes place in the society. It is not
possible also. It tries to make generalization on the basic of the study
of some selected events. For example, a sociologist makes
generalizations about the nature of secondary groups. He may
conclude that secondary groups are comparatively bigger in size, less
stable, not necessarily specially limited and so on. This he does not
by examine all the secondary group but by observing and studying a
few.

7) Sociology is a general Science and not a special Social

Science:- The area of inquiry of sociology is general and not
specialize. It is concerned with human interaction and human life in
general other social sciences like political Science, History, Economic
etc, also study man and human interaction, but not all about human
interaction. They concentrate their attention on certain aspects of
human interaction and activities. Accordingly Economic specializes
itself in the study of economic activities. Political science
concentrates on political activities and so on. Sociology, of-course
dose not investigate Economic, Religious, Political, Legal, Moral or
any other special kind of phenomenal in relation to human life and
activities as such. It only studies human activities in a general way.

8 ) Finally, Sociology is both a Rational and an Empirical

Science:- There are two broad ways of approach to scientific
knowledge. One, Known as Empiricism is the approach that
Empiricists experience and the facts that result from observation and
experimentation. The other, known as rationalism stresses reason
and the theories that result from logical inference. The Empiricists
collects fact; the rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. Theories
and facts are required in the construction of knowledge. In
Sociological inquiry both are significant. As Immanual Kant said,
“Theories without facts are empty, and facts without theories are
blind”. All modern sciences, there-for avail them-self of both Empirical
and Rational Sciences. Sociology is not an exception.

Scope of Sociology
Scope means the subject matter or the areas of study. Every
science has its own field of inquiry. It becomes difficult to study a
science systematically unless its boundary or scope is determined
precisely. Sociology as a social science has its own scope or
boundaries. But there is no one opinion about the scope of Sociology.
However, there are two main schools of thought regarding the
scope of Sociology: (1) The Specialist or Formalistic school and
2) the Synthetic school.
There is a good deal of controversy about the scope of Sociology
between the two schools. The supporter of first school believe that
Sociology is a specific science and the scope should be limited
whereas others believe that it is a general science and its scope is
very vast.

(1) Specialistic school:

The supporters of this school of thought are George Simmel,

Vierkandt, Max Weber, Vonwise, and F. Tonnies. The main views of
the school regarding the scope of Sociology are –
 (i) Sociology is a specific, pure and independent social science.
(ii) Sociology studies the various forms of social relationships.
(iii) Scope of Sociology is very narrow and limited.
(iv) Sociology deals with specific form of human relationship.
(v) Sociology need not study all the events connected with social
science.
(vi) Simmel believes that it is a specific social science and it
should deal with social relationships from different angles.

Criticism:

(i) Sociologist alone does not study the forms of social relationships.
Other social scientists also do that.
(ii) The distinction between the forms of social relations and their
contents is not practicable.
(iii) Thirdly, the formalistic school has narrowed down the scope of
Sociology.
(iv) Finally, the conception of pure Sociology is imaginary.

(2) Synthetic school:

The supporters of synthetic school are the sociologists like
Ginsberg, Durkheim, Comte, Sorokin, Spencer, F. Ward, and L.T.
Hobhouse.

According to this school-

(i) Sociology is a general and systematic social science.
(ii) Scope of Sociology is very vast.
(iii) Sociology needs help from other social sciences.
(iv) It is a synthesis of social science.
(v) Sociology is closely related with other social sciences.

Conclusion:
From the above discussion, we come to know that formalistic
school believes in the study of the parts, which makes up the society
and synthetic school advocates the study of the whole society.
However, both the schools complement to each other. They are not
opposed to each other. Thus, Sociology is a general science of
society and specialized discipline. Sociology is a growing science.
Therefore, it is neither possible nor desirable to restrict its scope.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIETY AND EDUCATION

Society refers to a fairly large number of people who live in the
same territory, are relatively independent of people outside it and
participate in a common culture.

Society is a group of individuals who share common culture

and territory.
Society is a relatively self-sufficient and self-sustaining group
of people who are united by social relationships and who live
in a particular society.
Society is a group of people who interact within a limited
territory guided by their culture.
Society is a group of people living in a specific geographical
territory who share a culture which forms the basis for the
rules that guide their behavior.
Society refers to a fairly large group of individuals who have
common objectives of life and who co-operate one another
for the realization of these objectives.
Society means a group of people who depend on one
another for the fulfillment of their needs.
Society refers to a group of people who live a specific
territory, independent of external pressures, for the
realization of common interest.

The relationship between education and society can be described

in the following lines :-

❖ Education is the representative of society :

❖ Education is a social process which strives for the fulfillment
of the desires of society. Education determines its destination
in the light of social objectives. The desires of society are the
ultimate aims of education. Education formulates such
programs which pave the way to the fulfillment of social
 aspirations. Education is the representative of social desires.
Education is nothing but a reflection of the needs of society.

❖ Society provides a line of action to education :

❖ Education cannot decide its objectives by itself. This is the
competency of the society to determine the objectives of
education. The needs and desires. of the society are, in fact,
the aims of education. For the realization of these aims of
education, a comprehensive educative process is carried out.
If the society does not exist, there would be no concept of
aims of education. This is the Society which determines the
ultimate aim of. education. For the realization of the objectives
of education, the educational institutions are established in the
society.

❖ Education teaches social role :

❖ Every society intends to teach the values and traditions of the
society so that the, individuals may turn into useful citizens.
Education is held responsible to make the individuals
understand the social values so that they may play their social
role. Education is the only means of imparting the social
fabrics to the present and future generations. In this regard,
education runs the whole structure of society which is
necessary for its stability and growth.

❖ Education maintains social stability :

❖ The people lead their lives according to their social values in
a stable and prosperous society. When the people follow the
social values and traditions, it leads to the social stability and
integrity. The survival and growth of the social values largely
rest on the individuals who apply them on their daily life affairs.
The social values can only be livened up when they become
the part of the personality of the individuals. This is education
which teaches the students their social role for the
maintenance of Social stability.

❖ Education transmits values :

❖ Education is the only means through which social values are
preserved and transmitted to the next generations. If
education does not function in this fashion, the social valued
would have lost their identity and survival. If education
suspends, it will lead to the suspension of social growth. In the
presence of the educative process, it can be hoped that the
social values are become the part of personality of the youths.

❖ Education causes social growth :

❖ As education depends on society for its existence, social
development largely rests on society. No society can touch the
height of prosperity without promoting the educative process.
The process of social
 SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
In all societies people differ from each other on the basis of their
age, sex and personal characteristics. Human society is not
homogeneous but heterogeneous. Apart from the natural differences,
human beings are also differentiated according to socially approved
criteria.

So socially differentiated men are treated as socially unequal from

the point of view of enjoyment of social rewards like status, power,
income etc. That may be called social inequality. The term social
inequality simply refers to the existence of socially created
inequalities.
 Meaning
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All
societies arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and
equality. Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation
whereby some people come to rank higher than others.

In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according

to some commonly accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of
status levels based upon the inequality of social positions, social
stratification occurs. Social stratification means division of society into
different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups.
Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a
similar life style.

The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification

system. The society in which divisions of social classes exist is
known as a stratified society. Modern stratification fundamentally
differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social stratification
involves two phenomena (i) differentiation of individuals or groups on
the basis of possession of certain characteristics whereby some
individuals or groups come to rank higher than others, (ii) the ranking
of individuals according to some basis of evaluation.

Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social

differences but also with their social evaluation.
 Definitions:
1. Ogburn and Nimkoff:
‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more
or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”

2. Lundberg:
“A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences
among people that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and
“higher”.

3. Gisbert:
“Social stratification is the division of society into permanent
groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of
superiority and subordinations”.

4. Williams:
Social Stratification refers to “The ranking of individuals on a scale
of superiority-inferiority-equality, according to some commonly
accepted basis of valuation.

5. Raymond W. Murray:
Social stratification is horizontal division of society into “higher”
and “lower” social units.”

6. Melvin M Tumin:
“Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or
society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to
power, property, social evaluation and psychic gratification”.

Origin of Stratification:

Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given.

(i) According to Davis, social stratification has come into being

due to the functional necessity of the social system.
 (ii) Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to
inherited difference in environmental conditions.

(iii) According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the
emergence of different social strata, i.e. social stratification.

(iv) Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social

stratification is to be found in the conquest of one group by another.

(v) According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon

scarcity which is created whenever society differentiates positive in
terms of functions and powers.

(vi) Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also leads to

stratification.

Types of Social Stratification:

Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we

find different type of stratification.
The major types of stratification are
(i) Caste
(ii) Class
(iii) Estate
(iv) Slavery

(i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a

person’s rank and its accompanying rights and obligations are
ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular group. For example-
Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra Caste.
(ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern
society. In this, a person’s position depends to a very great extent
upon achievement and his ability to use to advantage the inborn
characteristics and wealth that he may possess.

(iii) Estate system of medieval Europe provides another system of

stratification which gave much emphasis to birth as well as to wealth
and possessions. Each estate had a state.
 (iv) Slavery had economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his
master to whom he was subjected. The master’s power over the
slave was unlimited.

Characteristics of Social Stratification

On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by

eminent scholars, social stratification may have the following
characteristics.

(a) Social stratification is universal:

There is no society on this world which is free from stratification.
Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It
is a worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently
organized groups are stratified.”

(b) Stratification is social:

It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority
and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength
often contribute as the basis on which statues are distinguished. But
one’s education, property, power, experience, character, personality
etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence,
stratification is social by nature.

(c) It is ancient:
Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small
wondering bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the
differences between the rich and poor, humble andpowerful existed.
During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given to
political, social and economic inequalities.

(d) It is in diverse forms:

The forms of stratification is not uniform in all the societies. In the
modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of
stratification. In India a special type of stratification in the form of
caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into four varnas: the
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks
were divided into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were
divided into the particians and the plebians. So every society, past or
present, big or small is characterized by diversed forms of social
stratification.

(e) Social stratification is Consequential:

Social stratification as two important consequences one is “life
chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only
affects the “life- chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”.

The members of a class have similar social chances but the social
chances vary in every society. It includes chances of survival and of
good physical and mental health, opportunities for education,
chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce
etc.

Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular

social status. Life-styles include such matters like the residential
areas in every community which have gradations of prestige-ranking,
mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress, the kinds of
books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may
be viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another
within the frame work of a commonly shared over-all culture.

Features of Socialization
Socialisation not only helps in the maintenance and preservation
of social values and norms but it is the process through which values
and norms are transmitted from one generation to another
generation.

❖ Inculcates basic discipline:

❖ Socialisation inculcates basic discipline. A person learns to
control his impulses. He may show a disciplined behaviour to
gain social approval.

❖ Helps to control human behaviour:

❖ It helps to control human behaviour. An individual from birth
to death undergoes training and his, behaviour is controlled in
numerous ways. To maintain the social order, there are
 definite procedures or mechanism in society. These
procedures become part of the man’s/life and man gets
adjusted to society. Through socialisation, society intends to
control the behaviour of its-members unconsciously.

❖ Socialisation is rapid if there is more humanity among

the- agencies of socialisation:
❖ Socialisation takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of
socialisation are more unanimous in their ideas and skills.
When there is a conflict between the ideas, examples, and
skills transmitted in-home and those transmitted by school or
peer, socialisation of the individual tends to be slower and
ineffective.

❖ Socialisation takes place formally and informally:

❖ Formal socialisation takes through direct instruction and
education in schools and colleges. Family is, however, the
primary and the most influential source of education. Children
learn their language, customs, norms, and values in the family.

❖ Socialisation is continuous process:

❖ Socialisation is a life-long process. It does not cease when a
child becomes an adult. As socialization does not cease when
a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture continues
from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself
through the internalisation of culture. Its members transmit
culture to the next generation and society continues to exist.

Types of Socialisation
Although socialisation occurs during childhood and adolescence,
it also continues in middle and adult age. Orville F. Brim (Jr)
described socialisation as a life-long process. He maintains that
socialisation of adults differ from childhood socialisation. In this
context it can be said that there are various types of socilisation.

❖ Primary Socialisation: Primary socialisation refers to

socialisation of the infant in the primary or earliest years of his
 life. It is a process by which the infant learns the language and
cognitive skills, internalizes norms, and values. The infant
learns the ways of a given grouping and is moulded into an
effective social participant of that group.

❖ The norms of society become part of the personality of the

individual. The child does not have a sense of wrong and right.
By direct and indirect observation and experience, he
gradually learns the norms relating to wrong and right things.
The primary socialisation takes place in the family.

❖ Secondary Socialisation:
❖ The process can be seen at work outside the immediate
family, in the ‘peer group’. The growing child learns very
important lessons in social conduct from his peers. He also
learns lessons in the school. Hence, socialisation continues
beyond and outside the family environment. Secondary
socialisation generally refers to the social training received by
the child in institutional or formal settings and continues
throughout the rest of his life.

❖ Adult Socialisation:
❖ In the adult socialisation, actors enter roles (for example,
becoming an employee, a husband or wife) for which primary
and secondary socialisation may not have prepared them fully.
Adult socialisation teaches people to take on new duties. Adult
socialisation aims to bring change in the views of the
individual. Adult socialisation is more likely to change overt
behaviour, whereas child socialisation moulds basic values.

❖ Anticipatory Socialisation:
❖ Anticipatory socialisation refers to a process by which men
learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that
group. As a person learns the proper beliefs, values and
norms of a status or group to which he aspires, he is learning
how to act in his new role.
 ❖ Re-socialisation:
❖ Re-Socialisation refers to the process of discarding former
behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of a
transition in one’s life. Such re-socialization takes place mostly
when a social role is radically changed. It involves the
abandonment of one way of life for another which is not only
different from the former but incompatible with it. For example,
when a criminal is rehabilitated, he has to change his role
radically

What are the important stages of socialization?

Socialization is a gradual process of learning. The newborn child

is not taught all the things about social life at once. It proceeds from
simplicity to complexity. During the early stages of life (infancy and
childhood) socialization takes place within the ‘simple’ limited social
world. Gradually this social world becomes broader and broader and
the child is confronted with several things to learn and to adjust.

Socialization means the child’s learning to participate in social

roles. Hence, the main objects to be internalized by the child are the
social roles themselves. To perform any social role adequately, one
must ‘know’ the other social roles in the same social system. Hence
the child must internalize the roles that he is expected to perform by
himself and also the roles of the other persons with whom he
interacts. The internalization of roles is almost the same thing as the
growth of personality. At each stage of socialization, the child
internalizes a system of roles, not just one role.

Socialization consists of four stages from infancy to adulthood.

They are- (1) The oral stage, (2) The anal stage, (3) The oedipal
stage, and (4) Adolescence.

1. The First Stage- The Oral Stage

The stage begins with the birth of the child and continues up to
the completion of one year. Before birth, the child remains in the
mother's womb is in the foetal form and is warm and comfortable. At
birth, the little infant must breathe himself, to be and he must be
protected from cold, wet, and other discomforts. For everything, the
child cries a great deal. Through crying, the child establishes its oral
dependency. The child here develops some definite expectations
about the feeding time. The child also learns to give signals for his felt
needs. In this stage, the child is involved in himself and his mother.
For the other members of the family, the child is little more than a
possession. If the father or some other person is providing the proper
care for the child, that person will also be performing the role of
mother.

It is difficult to say whether the child internalizes two roles-the

roles of the mother and his own role at this stage. Freud called this
stage-the stage of primary identification. It means the child merges
his identity with that of the mother. The child only tries to establish
some control over the hunger drive.

2. The Second State-The Anal Stage

The second stage normally begins soon after the first year and is
completed during the third year. It is here that the child learns that he
cannot depend entirely on the mother and that he has to take some
degree of care for himself. Toilet training is the main focus of new
concern. The child is taught to do some tasks such as toileting,
keeping clothes clean, etc.

The child in this stage internalizes two separate roles-his own

roles and that of his mother. The child receives the care and also
loves from the mother and learns to give love in return. The child is
enabled to distinguish between correct and incorrect actions. The
correct action is rewarded and the incorrect action is not rewarded or
punished.

In this second stage the socializing agent, which is the mother

plays a dual role. She participates in the interaction system with the
child in a limited context and she also participates in a larger system
that is the family. The dual role of the mother helps the child to
participate in a more complex social system. Thus, the mother
represents the larger social system about the smaller. Further, the
mother as a socializing agent mediates between the subsystem and
the large system. Sometimes yielding to the child demands and some
other times resisting its tendencies.

3. The Third Stage-The Oedipal Stage

The third stage mostly starts from the fourth year of the child and
extends up to puberty (the age of 12 or 13 years). It is in this stage
the child becomes a member of the family as a whole. It is where the
child has to identify himself with the social role ascribed to him based
on his sex.

According to Freud, the boy develops the ‘Oedipus complex’-the

feeling of jealousy towards father and love towards mother. In the
same way, the girl develops the “Electra complex”- the feeling of
jealousy towards the mother and love towards the father. Freud
believed that the feelings are aiming sexual. But most of the writers
do not subscribe to this opinion. They say that the child of four, five,
or six rarely has a clear knowledge of sex or sexual function.

In this stage, sufficient social pressures are brought on the child to

identify with the right sex. Boys begin to be rewarded for behaving
like boys and girls are rewarded for acting like girls. After the age of
sex, the child can understand the sexual difference. The boy tries to
identify himself with the father and the girl with the mother. When the
children go to school or mix with other children they prefer to join their
respective playgrounds. In this period interest for learning various
begins skills.

In this stage the boy makes three kinds of identification- (1) He

identifies with his father and brothers (sex-role identification), (2) He
identifies with all his siblings (role of the child in the family), and (3)
He identifies with the whole family as a member.

Thus, in this stage, the child internalizes his role, the role of the
father, mother, and siblings of each sex (brother and sister). He also
realizes that the father has a dominant role in the family, more
dominant than that of the mother. The parents help the children to
make proper sex identification. The father helps the son by showing
him, how to do things. For example, the Eskimo father shows the boy
how to shoot. In Baili Island, the father helps the boy to learn the art
of dancing. When once the boy has learned the goal of being like
men, he will tend to imitate men especially the lather and so is the
case with the girl who will lend to imitate the mother.

4. The Fourth Stage-The Stage of Adolescence:

The four-stage starts with the period of adolescence. Due to the

physiological and psychological change, that takes place within the
individuals this stage assumes importance. During this stage, the
boys and girls try to become free from parental control. At the same
time, they cannot completely escape from their dependence on their
parents. Hence, they may experience a kind of strain or conflict in
themselves. They want to be free in doing various activities. But the
parents continue to control many of their activities. This is particularly
true of sexual activity.

In modern society, the parents intend to give more freedom to the

boys and girls to do some of their activities independently. The
parents try to lessen the open expression of their emotional
attachment towards the adolescent children. They encourage them to
select their line of education, their occupation, and their life-partners.
They expect the adolescent child to accept responsibility and learn
new roles assigned to them. The adolescents thus learn new roles
and new behavior patterns and internalize new social norms
associated with them. Hence, in modern society, the transition from
the adolescent stage to the adult stage is more difficult than in
traditional societies. In traditional societies, all such life decisions are
mostly made by parents.

Top 5 Mechanisms Used in the Process of Socialization

The top five mechanisms involved in the process of socialization.

The mechanisms are 1. Role-Play 2. Imitation 3. Identification 4.
Internalization 5. Empathy & Sympathy.
 Mechanism # 1. Role-Play:

The reader as a child must have undoubtedly imagined at some

time that he was a doctor, sometimes a teacher, sometimes a bus
conductor, sometimes a policeman and sometimes a father. While
imagining himself to be one or the other of the above, he must have
also acted as he perceived them, or saw them behave.
This process of imagining and visualizing oneself as someone
else and acting like that person is generally described as ‘role-play’.

Cine actors play the role of different characters. Psychologists

have emphasized that such role-play is of crucial importance in the
process of socialisation. While playing such roles, the individual can
get a ‘feel’ of others, and suitably modifies his responses.

It gives him the vicarious experiences of others. As the individual

grows, his capacity for playing roles increases both in variety and
complexity. The increasing ability contributes very much to the
process of socialisation. In fact, in many training programmes
designed to improve the ability to understand other interpersonal
relations, role-play is used as a technique. Role-play as a mechanism
is employed in many training programmes.

Mechanism # 2. Imitation:

Imitation is another mechanism that has been employed in

explaining social learning. Even early instinct psychologists like
Gabriel Trade employed the concept of imitation to explain the
acquisition of social behaviour. According to Trade, every human
being has a basic instinctive tendency to imitate, and he explains the
acquisition of social behaviour as a result of the operation of this
instinctive tendency. But, later psychologists while discarding the
concept of the instinct of imitation have however found it profitable, to
use the concept of imitation to the development of human behaviour.

According to them, imitation is a mechanism and not an instinct.

The reader may recall that while discussing social behaviour among
animals, it was pointed out that even animals have the capacity for
imitating or mimicking the behaviour of other animals. It was
mentioned that in many species, such imitative behaviour of an elder
member of the species or those just proximate was found to prevail.
Many psychologists have emphasized the role of imitation in the
process of socialisation.
The reader may wonder about the difference between imitation
and role-playing. Imitation is a more mechanical process of
responding to a stimulus by repeating it. If ‘A’ bangs the table, ‘B’ also
bangs the table. The interaction closes there. It is imitation. But role-
pay goes much beyond. Role-play is not a simple, stimulus-response
process.

Here, the individual in the absence of a stimulus creates a

situation in his imagination and acts as another character. Role-play
involves abstraction and elaboration while imitation does not. For
example, role-play is not found among animals or very young
children.

Mechanism # 3. Identification:

A third mechanism that helps in the process of socialisation is the

mechanism of identification. Identification is the mechanism that
brings about the difference between imitation and role-plays. The
process of identification implies that for the time being the individual
imagines that he is somebody else and not himself.
Psychoanalytic theory has assigned a very prominent role in the
mechanism of identification and elaborated on its role in both normal
and abnormal social development. Psychoanalytic formulations are
very emphatic that without the operation of the mechanism of
identification, normal social development is not possible.

But if such identification goes beyond certain limits then the result
will be abnormal behaviour. In role-play, such identification is
temporary, but if a child permanently identifies himself with a
particular character, it can have adverse effects. Though the concept
of identification was originally formulated and developed by Sigmund
Freud, subsequently some of the social learning theorists like Sears
and Bandura have employed the concept of ‘identification’ in studying
and analyzing and evaluating the process of socialisation or social
learning’s.

Mechanism # 4. Internalisation:

Another important mechanism that plays a crucial role in the

process of socialisation is ‘internalization’. Internalization is a process
by which what we observe, experience, or learn is retained, and
made a part of one’s own behavioural system or psychological
system. Thus, most of our values are just not learned but internalized.
If they are not internalised, then they will not influence our
behaviour. Much of our behaviour is governed by certain values. This
is possible because of the mechanism of internalisation.
Internalisation gives relative permanence to what we perceive and
learn, and helps in arriving at an integrated psychological or
behavioural system.

Most of us internalise certain values like not criticising elders, not

offending others, etc. We may well imagine the nature of social life if
the capacity for internalisation is not there. Internalisation gives
stability, continuity, and consistency to social behaviour and even
spontaneity.

Mechanism # 5. Empathy & Sympathy:

Empathy is the process by which we can feel exactly like another

person. For example, while watching a boxing game, we find some
people suddenly standing up and repeating the moves of a particular
boxer. Similarly, while watching an athletic event like high jump, some
people start jumping themselves. This is seen in role-playing.

This process also plays a role in the process of socialisation.

Sympathy is another mechanism that helps in the process of
socialisation. Altruism and helping behaviour involves the operation of
sympathy. The difference between empathy and sympathy is that
while empathizing we lose our identity temporarily and behave like
the other character with whom we are empathizing.
 When sympathy comes into operation, the identity is not lost. In
empathy, there is a total substitution of identity while in sympathy it is
only an extension of feelings. For example, while watching a movie
we often shed tears if somebody is shown to be suffering excessively.
In sympathy, we feel for another person, while in empathy we feel like
another person.

On the other hand, in football when a player jumps up after

scoring a goal, some spectators also jump up. This is empathy. Thus,
it can be seen that the process of socialisation is made possible
because of the operation of a number of psychological processes and
mechanisms. The processes of perception, learning and motivation
are basic while mechanisms like imitation, internalization,
identification, sympathy, and empathy are secondary and come into
operation later.
 SOCIAL MOBILITY
Meaning of Social Mobility
Mobility stands for shift, change and movement. The change may
be of a place or from one position to another. Further, change is value
free i.e it cannot be said that change is for good or bad. When we
prefix ‘social’ along with mobility it would imply that people or
individual occupying a social position, move to another position or
status.

In the social ladder this movement may be upward or downward

or it may be inter-generational or intra-generational. In short, social
mobility stands for change in the position of an individual or a group
of individuals from one status to another.
On mobility Sorokin was the first sociologist who wrote a book
“Social and Cultural Mobility”. He was of the opinion that there is no
society which is closed (Caste System in India) and no society which
is completely open (Class System). He further contended that no two
societies are exactly same in the amount of movement allowed or
discouraged. Further the speed of movement or change may differ
from one period of time to another. The rate of change depends upon
the level of modernization of a given society.

As defined by Barber, social mobility refers to movement, either

upward or downward between higher or lower social classes; or more
precisely, movement between one relatively full time, functionally
significant social role and another that is evaluated as either higher or
lower.

This movement is to be conceived as a process occurring over

time, with individuals moving from one role and social class position
to another because of what has happened to them in various kinds of
social interaction. Mobility arises in social interaction, as each
individual reacts to others in a changing series of social roles.
 In this sense, mobility “provides the individual with more or less of
the benefits which his economy and society have to offer.” A rickshaw
puller’s son becomes a lawyer; a clerk’s son becomes a doctor. In
each case, a change in role between father and son provides the
latter with more of the good things of life.
The roles of lawyer, doctor and engineer require initiative, training
and self- sacrifice. Persons are motivated according to a complex
variety of factors to work toward new roles, with their higher status
and greater rewards. The good things of life are scarce and
individuals must compete, conflict and cooperate with others to gain
them.
 Types of Social Mobility
Social mobility can take different forms, and people can
experience different types of mobility in different stages of their lives.
The type of mobilities is now independent of one another and can
often overlap. They are only distinguished for the purpose of analysis.

❖ Horizontal mobility
❖ It occurs when a person changes their occupation but their
overall social standing remains unchanged. For example, if a
doctor goes from practicing medicine to teaching in a medical
school, the occupation’s changed but their prestige and social
standing remains the same. Sorokin describes horizontal
mobility as a change in religious, territorial, political, or for
family and other horizontal shifts with no change in the vertical
position.

❖ Vertical mobility
❖ It refers to a change in the occupational, political, or religious
status of a person that causes a change in their societal
position. An individual or social object moves from one social
stratum to another. Vertical mobility can be ascending or
descending.

❖ Ascending involves an individual moving from a group in a

lower stratum to a higher one or the creation of a similar group
with a higher societal position, instead of side by side with its
existing group. Descending mobility occurs for example when
a businessman incurs losses in his business and is forced to
declare bankruptcy, resulting in a move to a lower stratum of
society.

❖ Upward mobility
❖ It is when a person moves from a lower position in society to
a higher one. It can also include people occupying higher
positions in the same societal group. However, upward
 mobility, while seen as a good thing, can also come at a cost
for individuals.

❖ When a person moves upwards, they need to leave behind

familiar surroundings such as family and places. They may
also need to change their way of thinking and behavior. The
individual will need to adapt to the new environment as a
result of their upward movement and adopt different behaviors
in the new society.

❖ Downward mobility
Downward mobility takes place when a person moves from a
higher position in society to a lower one. It can occur when
someone is caught performing a wrongful act that can result in
the loss of the position they currently hold.

Downward mobility can be extremely stressful for people who

face a rapid decline in their social status; they may find it hard to
adapt to the new environment as it is not similar to the standard
of living they are used to. Downward mobility is an example of
the extent to which a society values equal opportunity and
structure.

❖ Inter-generational mobility
❖ Inter-generational mobility happens when the social position
changes from one generation to another. The change can be
upward or downward. For example, a father worked in a
factory while his son received an education that allowed him to
become a lawyer or a doctor.

Such societal change also causes the generation to adopt a

new way of living and thinking. Inter-generational mobility is
affected by the differences in the parents’ and their offspring’s
upbringing, changes in population, and changes in occupation.

❖ Intra-generational mobility
 ❖ The intra-generational change in societal position occurs
during the lifespan of a single generation. It can also refer to a
change in position between siblings. One way is when a
person climbs up the corporate ladder in their career. For
example, an individual starts their career as a clerk and
through their life moves on to a senior position such as a
director. One sibling may also achieve a higher position in
society than their brother or sister.

Factors Responsible for Social Mobility:

The following factors facilitate Social Mobility:

Motivation
Each individual has a desire not only to have a better way of living
but also wants to improve upon his social stand. In open system it is
possible to achieve any status. This openness motivates people to
work hard and improve upon the skills so that one can attain higher
social status. Without such motivation and efforts on the part of the
individual social mobility is impossible.

Achievements and Failures:

Achievement here refers to extra ordinary, usually unexpected
performance, which attracts the attention of a wider public to the
abilities of a person. Not all achievements will result in social mobility.
Achievements affect status only if they are remarkable. For example,
a poor man who has acquired wealth or an unknown writer who has
won a literary prize will improve his status.

Failures and misdeeds have a similar effect on downward mobility.

Fraudulent bankruptcy will remove a member of the upper classes
from blue books; he will receive no dinner invitations from his peers
and he will become ineligible as a marriage partner. If he is already
married, his wife may divorce him. He will have to resign from his
clubs and all positions he holds. But he will not become a member of
the lowest stratum, although it will be difficult for him to find new
association.
 Education
Education not only helps an individual to acquire knowledge but is
also a passport for occupational position for higher prestige. To
become a doctor one has to have education in science subjects.
Similarly, to appear in a competitive examination of I.A.S., one has to
be at least graduate.

It is only after acquiring minimum formal education that individual

can aspire to occupy higher positions. It is through education that in
modern India the members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes are not only able to change their traditional occupation but
have also started occupying jobs of higher prestige. In the modern
industrial society in which statuses can be achieved, education is
basic requirement.

Skills and Training:

Each society makes provision to impart skill and training to the
younger generation. To acquire skill and training one has to spend a
lot of time as well as money. Why these persons spend money and
time? The reason being that society gives incentives to such persons.
When they complete their training, they are entitled to high positions,
which are far better than those positions which they might have taken
without such training.

Society not only assigns higher social status but also gives higher
economic rewards and other privileges to those persons who have
these training. Keeping in view these incentives people undergo
these training with a hope to move up in the social ladder. In other
words, skills and training facilitate in improvement of the position, this
leading to social mobility.

Migration:
Migration also facilitates social mobility. People migrate from one
place to another either due to pull or push factors. A particular place
may not have opportunities and facilities to improve upon. Hence,
people are forced to migrate to other places to earn their livelihood.
At new places, where they migrate, may have different openings and
opportunities.
 These persons avail of these opportunities and improve upon their
social position. We can take the example of people belonging to the
Scheduled Castes of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, who migrate to the
States of Punjab and Haryana to earn their livelihood. Here they
become farm labourers.

After acquiring an accumulating money they go back to their

villages and buy land. They till their own land and become owner
cultivators. Hence, from traditional work of Chamars or scavengers,
they improve their status and become owner cultivators. Similar is the
situation with regard to Asians who migrate to various European
countries and the United State of America.

The pull factors attract the people because they do not have those
facilities at their place of residence and the new place attracts them
by providing these facilities, so that after acquiring new skills and
knowledge they could occupy better positions.
People migrate from villages to cities because urban centres have
institutions of higher status as well as opportunities for jobs. People
come to urban areas to acquire education and skills and occupy
higher positions than their parents and brothers who continue to live
in villages. In this way we find that both push and pull factors lead to
migration which subsequently facilitates social mobility.

Industrialization:
Industrial Revolution ushered in a new social system in which
people are given status according to their ability and training. No
importance was given to their caste, race, religion and ethnicity.
Industrialization, resulted in mass production at cheaper rate. This
forced the artisans out of their work. In search of jobs they migrated
to industrial towns.

They acquired new vocational training and got jobs in industries.

With experience and training they moved up in the social ladder. In
the industrial society, the statuses are achieved, whereas in the
traditional society like India, the statuses are ascribed according to
birth. Hence industrialization facilitates greater social mobility.
 Urbanization:
In the cities there are more people, they have formal relations.
People do not know each other intimately. Urban centres are marked
by anonymity. People are close to their friends and relatives only.
Urban settlements provide secrecy to individual’s caste and
background. Individual’s position is largely dependent upon his
education, occupation and income rather than his background.

If an individual has higher education, income and is engaged in

occupation of higher prestige, he occupies high social status
irrespective of his caste. Urbanization facilitates social mobility by
removing those factors which hinder social mobility.

Legislation
The enactment of new laws can also facilitate social mobility.
When Zamindari Abolition Act was passed, most of the tenant
cultivators became owner cultivators which indicates improvement in
their status i.e. from tenants to owner cultivators. Similarly, the legal
provision for reservation of jobs and promotion for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes has also helped in social mobility.
Reservation with regard to admission in professional colleges, job
reservation and promotions have a large number of individuals from
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to improve upon their
status. When V.R Singh Government accepted the Mandal
Commission report it provided job reservation for the other Backward
Classes (OBCs) also.

Similarly, the judicial system by passing certain judgments may

also facilitate social mobility. Hindu Marriage Act in different ways has
enhanced the status of women. Similarly, Hindu Succession Act has
given equal rights to the daughter in the family property. Racial Anti-
Discrimination Act of America has facilitated social mobility of
persons of Black race as well as women. In this way we find that legal
provisions also facilitate social mobility.

Politicisation:
With education and greater exposure to mass media of
communication as well as greater contacts have made people aware
about their rights. The political parties also educate the people about
their rights. To achieve their rights people unite and force the
authority in power to accept their demands. These persons may use
agitations, strikes etc. as methods of attaining the desired goals.

The political party to get votes provides a number of concessions.

With the help of these new concessions and provisions, they improve
upon their social status. A few persons may become political leaders,
Ministers, Cabinet Ministers or Chief Minister of a State.

Many such examples can be found in the present day Indian

polity. This has resulted into upward social mobility for them. Similarly,
with greater political awareness with representatives in State
assembly and Parliament they can (once the government to enact
certain laws helping the lower segments of the society.

Modernization:
The process of modernization involves use of scientific knowledge
and modern technology. It also refers to rationality and secular way of
life. With the improvement in technology, people engaged in
occupations of low prestige like scavengers discard their traditional
occupations and take up occupations which are not dirty and have no
polluting effects.

In this way, they change their position upward. Similarly, the level
of development of a country also facilitates or hinders social mobility.
The less developed and traditional societies continue with old system
of stratification and with accretive statuses.

Whereas the developed and modern societies paved the way for
greater opportunities and competition, it is only in the developed
countries that there is a greater possibility of achieved statuses. In
other words, modernization facilitates social mobility.

Aspirations for moving upward also results in frustration and

different mental and psychological problems. An individual is given to
understand that he can achieve any status. But in reality this does not
happens, his social background, birth in a race, ethnicity, facilitate or
hinder his chances of social mobility. Similarly, the nations which do
not have avenues for social mobility also suffer from stagnation and
lack of development. In short, social mobility has both positive and
negative consequences.

Role of Education in Bringing Social Mobility

In the present-day world, a major key to social mobility is
education. Education is regarded as the primary channel of mobility.

Education facilitates social mobility. High educational achievement

enables one for upward mobility.

Education is highly correlated with income and occupation. The

higher the educational level, the more prestigious the occupation,
leading to higher annual income. This in turn is associated with
property, prestige, social status and power.
Education acts as a mechanism for upward social mobility. In this
case, access to education is the key in determining the extent of
mobility an individual can aspire in society.

It is through education that in modern India the members of

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are not only able to change
their traditional occupation but have also started occupying jobs of
higher prestige.
However, it should be noted that education is a sufficient but not a
necessary condition for upward mobility. Besides, education as a
facilitator for upward mobility is possible if everyone gets an equal
chance for education.
 Social Change
Change means differentiation in anything observation over
sometime. If we feel that there's come alteration we call it changes. It
this change is in contest to social structure, institution etc, i.e. social
context then it is social change.
According Fictor "Change means variations from previous state
or mode of existence".

Change is an universal phenomena i.e. it is a law of native.

There's always a change in nature. Society is a part of nature & so
society also changes & static society is unthinkable. Society is on the
wheel of change, which may occur due to various factors (like
demography, ideas etc. If there is any change in Technology etc
there's change in society) out the change varies in speed & farm.
 In some places the change is rapid whereas in other places it may
be slow. These days due to industriation & urbanization the change is
rapid as compared to earlier times. The form may be economic,
political, social (instriation) religious (instriation), change in any part of
society affects all the other parts of society. E.g. An individual is the
fundamental unit of society & there's change in the life of the
individual which is called evolutionary process of social change (birth
to death).

This is a slow process.

According to Morris Ginsberg, “social change is a change in the

social structure.”

Auguste Comte the father of Sociology has posed two problems-

the question of social statics and the question of social dynamics,
what is and how it changes. The sociologists not only outline the
structure of the society but also seek to know its causes also.

Social change is a concept in sociology which talks about a

change in the established patterns of social relations, or change in
social values or change in structures and subsystems operating in the
society. The term social change is used to indicate the changes that
take place in human interactions and interrelations.

Definition of Social Change

Social change may be defined as the process which is discernible

in the alteration of the structure and functioning of a particular social
system. It is a term used to describe variation in, modifications of, any
aspect of social processes, social patterns, and social interaction
within a social organisation. Usually social change refers to a
significant change in social behaviour or a change in social system
rather than minor changes within a small group.
 Gillin and Gillin, “Social changes are variations from the
accepted modes of life; whether due to alternation in geographical
conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the population or
ideologies and brought about by diffusion, or inventions within the
group.

Morris Ginsberg, “By social change, I understand a change in

social structure, e.g., the size of the society, the composition or the
balance of its parts or the type of its organization”.

Lundberg, “Social change refers to any modifications in the

established patterns of inter-human relationship and standard of
conduct.” ☐

Ginsberg (By social change I understand a change in the social

structure).
 Kingsley Doris "By social change is meant only such alternations
as occur in social organization i.e. the structure & functions of
society".

Merril & Elbridge "Social change means, that large no. of

persons are engaging in activities that differ from those which they or
their immediate fore-fathers engaged in some time before."

Gillin & Gillin "Social changes are variations from the accepted
mode of life, whether due to alteration in geographical condition, in
cultural equipment, composition of the population. Or ideologies &
whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group."

Jones' "Social change is a term used to describe variations in or

modification of any aspect of social process, social patterns, social
interaction or social organization."

M.D.Jenson – Describes –Social change as "modification in ways

of doing & thinking of people."

Characteristics of Social change

1. Social change is universal or it is an essential law.

2. Change with diff. in speed & form simple society … change
was slower.
3. Change is unpredictable in general Revolt is a process of
social change. What speed & in what form the change takes
place is not easily predictable.
4. Social change is change in community
5. Social change generally changes in direction. There are 3
patterns of social change.
1. linear failure change generally leads to progress
(change for good) can't cycle –car – train –plain
2. Fluctuating change – the change may be upward &
downward. The demographic change is such also
economic change,
3. Cyclical change – the change is in a cycle.
Fashion, sometimes also in economical aspect
 (Karl max gave this idea. He says earlier there was
no private property & we may go back to it).

Factors of Social change

Biological

1. Demographic factors – Population plays an important role

in society it there is change in the composition of pop there
is change in society by composition we mean the structure
i.e. sex ratio. For balance in society the sex ratio should be
1:1 and if there is change in the ratio there is change in
society if there are more females than the status & position
goes down (because in Polygene more wives & the hubby
now their status goes down). In the other case the females
position rises. The bride –price increases (in the tribunal
society).
2. Age group – childhood, adulthood, old age. If the population
of children is most then increase of population will be slower.
If adults more than there will be rapid change in society
cause they are the most regulative. In case of old more
there is conflict in society they don't wish for change.
3. Marital status in production of children. If girls are
married young there will be over population & he health is
also in danger. Status of women becomes lower. And if at
too late a stage – a girl is married fertility is less. Changes in
demography – Birth rate & Death rate. Higher birth rate
creates a lot of problems. Malthus theme of population –
Economics. Over population-poverty unemployment
increases. Death – rate – man – power decreases.
4. Immigration & Emigration – 1 is coming into country, 2 –
going out of the country. Causes cultural problems leads to
over population. 2 – Brain – drain is the problem.
5. Natural factors – now native affect society – National
calamities, floods, epidemics affairs society in its social
relationships (i) structure. People become selfish as during
scarcities they are more bothered feeding themselves.
6. Technological factors
 7. Mechanization & social change – machines bring about this
gave women the chance to work gave rise to women's tib.
1. Unemployment & such problems arose these affected
cottage industries. Urbanization – changed job
opportunities. Transport gave rise is social contacts.
Communication gives rise to greater awareness & is
beans of recreation too.
2. Atomic Energy & change

Cultural Factors
Write about concept of cultural tag by w.f
Ougbourn book – social change brings change. He says material &
non – material change. Usually non-material can't cope up with
material changed & gives rise to cultural lag.

Change in values ideas & custom's changes

society (Habits).
In handbook of Sociology, he said if may so
happen that material behind education, unization etc., too brings
change in marriage system etc.

1. ‘Development’, ‘evolution’ and ‘progress’ are the different

modes of change and whenever we speak of social change
the importance of each of these modes has to be assessed,
for the changes brought about by each of these processes
will have distinct impressions upon the functioning’s of social
phenomena.➢It has been understood that social change as
a term shall signify such changes as affect the nature and
structure of social groups and institutions and the social
relations between the individual, the group and the
institutions in a society.
2. External sources of social change are events that originate
outside of a society to bring about change to social
institutions or structures➢ Internal sources of social change
are those factors that originate within a specific society that
singly or in combination with other factors produce
 alterations in social institutions and social structure. ➢
Social change can originate from either within a society, or
from outside of a society. ❖

Characteristics of Social Change:

(1)Change is Social
(2)Universal
(3)Continuous
(4)Inevitable
(5)Temporal
(6)Degree or rate of change is not uniform
(7)Social Change may be planned or unplanned
(8)Social change is multi-causal
(9)Social change creates chain-reactions
(10)Prediction is uncertain

(1) Change is Social: Social change means a change in the system of

social relationship. Social relationship is understood in terms of social
process, social interactions and social organizations. In any variation
of social process, social interactions and social organizations social
change-takes place. In another instance it is found that society is like
an organization, which never dies. New civilizations and societies
come up by replacing old societies and thereby retaining some of its
elements in its change. Thus social change is different from individual
change. Its cause and consequences are always social which make it
social.

(2) Universal: Social change is universal. Because it is present in all

societies and at all times. No society remains completely static. The
society may be primitive or modern, rural or urban, simple or
complex, agrarian or industrial, it is constantly undergoing change.
The rate or the degree of change may vary from society to society
from time to time but every society keeps on changing. A changeless
society is an unreality.

(3) Continuous: Social change is a continuous process but not an

intermittent process. Because the changes are neither stopped nor
the societies are kept in museum to save them from change. It is an
on- going process without any break. In the process of change every
society grows and decays, where it finds renewal and accommodates
itself to various changing conditions. The sources, direction, rate and
forms of change may vary time to time but it is always continuous.

(4) Inevitable: Change is inevitable. It is the human nature that

desires change and also it is his tendency to bring change and to
oppose or accept change. Human wants are unlimited which always
keep on changing. To satisfy these wants social change has become
a necessity not only to him but also to the society.

(5) Temporal: Social change is temporal. Change in anything or

any object or in a situation takes place through time. Sometimes
some social changes may bring about immediate results while some
others may take years to produce results. Similarly, some social
changes spread rapidly and also disappear rapidly. Movements, style,
fashion and cults are the examples of this type

(6) Degree or rate of change is not uniform: Though social change

is an ever-present phenomenon, its degree or rate or what we call the
speed is not uniform. It varies from society to society and even in the
same society from time to time. Sometimes the degree of change is
high and sometimes low depending upon the nature of society like
open and close, rural and urban and traditional and modern etc. For
example, in the rural social structure the rate of change is slower
because the rate of change is not governed by any universal law,
whereas it is quick in the urban societies.

(7) Social Change may be planned or unplanned: Social change

takes place sometimes with planning and sometimes without
planning. Social change which occurs in the natural course is called
the unplanned change. The unplanned changes are spontaneous,
accidental or the product of sudden decision. Usually the change
resulting from natural calamities like flood; drought, famines, volcanic
eruption, etc. are the instances of unplanned changes. Here in this
unplanned change there is no control on the degree and direction of
social change. It is the inborn tendency of human beings that they
desire change. So sometimes plans, programmes and projects are
made effective by them to bring change in the society. This is called
planned change. As it is consciously and deliberately made, there is
every possibility to have control on the speed and direction of
change. For example, the five years plan made by the government.

(8) Social change is multi-causal: A single factor may cause a

particular change but it is always associated with a number of factors.
The physical, biological, demographical, cultural, technological and
many other factors interact to generate change. This is due to mutual
interdependence of social phenomenon.

(9) Social change creates chain-reactions: Social change

produces not a single reaction but chain-reactions as all the parts of
the society are inter-related and interdependent. For example, the
economic independence of women has brought changes not only in
their status but also a series of changes in home, family relationship
and marriages etc.

(10) Prediction is uncertain: We can see some elements for

prediction in social change. But the prediction we make is uncertain.
It is because of three reasons. They are:
(a) There is no inherent law of social change,
(b) The forces of social change may not remain on the scene for
all times to come, and
(c) The process of social change does not remain uniform. Apart
from the above characteristic features it may be said that social
change can be qualitative or quantitative. It is a value free term as it
does imply any sense of good or bad, desirable or undesirable. It is a
concept distinct from evolution, process and development which are
regarded as key concepts in the literature of social change.

Main factors of Social Change:

Demographic Factors: Demography plays an important role in

the process of social change. The term “demography” has been
derived from two Greek words, ‘Demos’ and ‘Graphs’ meaning the
“people” and to “draw” or “write” respectively which means scientific
study of human population, primarily with respect to their size,
structure and their development. In the study of social change
demographic factors have been viewed from two different angles.
They are the qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitatively speaking it refers to physical potentialities, mental

abilities etc. that are determined by genetic order, though the
hereditary quality of successive generation play some role in cultural
determination, it cannot be ascribed the place of a deterministic
cause of social change. But the demographic factor in its quantitative
aspect has been playing the most decisive role in causing social
change.

Biological Factors: Accordingly biological factor plays an

important role in the causation of social change. An ordinarily
biological factor refers to those which are concerned with the genetic
constitution of the human beings. Human beings use animals, birds,
plants and herbs according to the direction of his own culture. At the
same time human beings protect themselves from different harmful
elements. If there is increase or decrease of these animals, birds,
plants etc. it will bring a number of changes in human society.

Rapid population growth influences our environment causes

poverty, food shortage and multiple health problems and thereby
brings changes in society. Migration accelerates the process of
urbanization. Urbanization creates multiple problems like slum,
quality of health and life style. Similarly the nature and quality of
human beings in a society influences the rate of social change.

Cultural Factors: In sociology the word ‘Culture’ denotes

acquired behavior which are shared by and transmitted among the
members of the society. Man learns his behavior and behavior which
is learnt is called culture. Singing, dancing, eating, playing belong to
the category of culture. It includes all that man has acquired in the
mental and intellectual sphere of his individual and social life. It is the
expression of our nature, in our modes of living and thinking, in art, in
literature, in recreation and enjoyment.
 The basic elements of culture like language, religion, philosophy,
literature, faith and values will take long time to change due to the
influence of another culture. The co-existence of two different cultures
for a long period can cause cultural diffusion leading to changes in
both. India, for example, discarded age long customs like Sati and
Child marriage because of her contact with the Europeans.

Technological Factors: The technological factors also play

important role in causing social change. It implies an appropriate
organization and systematic application of scientific knowledge to
meet the human requirements. Technology is a product of utilization.
When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems of life, it
becomes technology. Technology is fast growing. Modern age is the
“Age of Technology”. Technology changes society by changing our
environments to which we In turn adopt. This change is usually in the
material environment and the adjustment that we make with these
changes often modifies customs and social institution initiates a
corresponding social change. Developments in the field of
transportation and communication reduced the social distance which
gave momentum to cultural diffusion and thereby to social change.

Environmental Factor: Due to floods, earthquake, excessive

rain, drought, change of season etc.. We can find imbalance in
population which directly affects the social relationship and these are
modified by such natural occurrences. Variation in the availability of
water resources and mineral resources can also affect social change.
If we think about a person or an individual who is growing under the
roof of a particular society and he lives among different kinds of
people. So, the environment of society affects himself and as we
know that an individual is a part of society who brings social change.
Thus environment factor bring social change.

Psychological factors: Some writers notice a psychological

process in the formation of society and, according to them, human
relations based on the considerations of the individual mind and the
group mind shape and mould social systems. Therefore, when
physical forces like floods, earthquakes and epidemics are
considered as factors causing social change, the importance of the
psychological factor in that regard cannot be ignored. Change in
attitude of society towards family planning, dowry, caste system,
women's education etc. which brought about radical changes in
society are primarily psychological in nature.

Other factors: In addition to above mentioned factors other

elements such as wars, ethnic tensions, competition for resources,
trade unionism, banking system, human rights movement, enhanced
environmental awareness etc. have resulted in wide spread social
variation and modification.

Necessity of Social Change

In a rapidly changing world there is a growing awareness that we
are facing fundamental problems. In spite of all the economic growth
of the last forty years, the gap between the richest 1.5 billion and the
majority of the world’s people is actually growing, with over a billion
people in deep poverty and many hundreds of millions more living on
the margins. In such an era of an increasingly constrained and
divided world the need for progressive social change is obvious.
Indeed, unless we can adapt creatively and compassionately, then
prospects for a peaceful and stable world will rapidly fade.
 CULTURE AND EDUCATION
Culture is a complex term. It has different meanings. It is a way of
life that is vital for the survival of a specific group or people living in a
specific society. It includes the way we dress, the way we behave, the
way we talk, the type of music, food and so on.

Culture is the characteristic way of life inspired by fundamental

values in which people live. It is the sum total of the values expressed
through art, religion, literature, social institutions and behavior.

According To (K.M. Munshi) - Culture is understood as a

system of shared beliefs, values, customs and artifacts that the
members of a society use. These are transmitted from
generation to generation. Culture has a key role in determining
the course of social change and the history of a nation.
 Definition of Culture:
Culture is defined by various personalities in a number of
ways:

According to E.B. Taylor, “culture as that complex whole

which includes knowledge belief, art, morals, law, custom
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society”.
MacIver defines, “Culture is the expression of own nature in
our modes of living and of thinking in our everyday
intercourse in art, in literature, in religion, in recreation and
enjoyments”.

According to Bierstadt, “Culture is that complex whole that

consists of everything we think, do and have as members of
society.”

Ellwood defines, “Culture includes on the one hand the

whole of man’s material civilization tools, weapons, system
of industry, and on the other„ all the non-material or spiritual
civilization such as language, literature.,-art, religion,
morality, law and government.”
 Thus, culture includes all forms of human behaviour which
epitomizes his life. It represents material and non-material aspects of
life.

Components or Elements of Culture

A culture has various elements or components. They are:

1. Behaviour patterns of group such as mores, folkways, customs,

traditions, laws, morals, stereotypes, taboos, legends, fashion, myth
etc.

2. Literature including prose, poetry, drama, story, etc.

Art includes music, dance, sculpture, paintings, architecture,

photography etc.
 4. Religion includes worship, observance of rituals, sacrifice,
prayers etc.

5. Ethics.

6. Educational and recreational institutions like library, museum,

school, cinema, theatre, cultural clubs.

7. Socio-economic and political institutions.

8. Commerce, industries and transport.

Characteristics of Culture:
1. Culture is the sum total of acquired traits which man acquires
by socialization process. Thus, culture comprises good behaviour
patterns of people in the society.

2. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation. Each

generation is free to modify the cultural heritage and then transmits it
to the next generation.

3. Culture is a social heritage of man. It represents group’s

expectations. Man cannot create it bereft of group’s influence.
Therefore, it has not its individual connotation.

4. A culture which does not meet the recurring needs and

demands of mankind is obsolete and outmoded. As such, a culture is
good if it gratifies the social and ethical needs of man.

5. Culture is not static but dynamic. It receives good things from

other cultures. Thus, there is a cultural synthesis or integration. As a
result, culture gets refined and influences the life styles of individuals.
It is subject to change and grow. So, culture is adaptative in nature.
Culture changes as civilization changes.

6. Culture has the quality of becoming integrated. Various parts of

culture are integrated with each other. It welcomes new element to be
incorporated in it.
 7. Culture is the manifestation of individual’s mind in different
environments and circumstances. Man is interwoven with cultural
mainstreams and becomes part and parcel of it.

8. Culture is idealistic as it stands for ideals, norms and patterns

of behaviour.

9. Culture is diffused among various groups. As a result, there is

seen how one group accepts another’s culture in their styles of living.

10. Culture is modified and renewed in the light of new

experiences.
Types of Culture:

According to Ellwood, culture is of two types viz. material and non-

material culture. The former includes all sorts of man- made objects
and things that have been evolved over ages for man’s well-being
and comforts such as clothes, utensils, homes, roads, ornaments,
T.V., radio, machines, gadgets and various means of transport and
communication.

Non-material culture includes all those ideals, attitudes and values

which modify the behaviour of an individual— language, literature,
art, music, religion, customs, tradition, morality, law, poetry. Famous
sociologist Ogburn also finds out two types of culture—material and
non-material culture—one progresses and other recedes. So, there
persists a wide gap between the two types of culture.

Culture and Education

When a child born in society he becomes the part of our society.

Culture is the main aspect of any society that teaches to live with a
mutual corporation with each other. Culture is the social behavior of
any society which has their own trends and values. Every society has
its own way of living life and lifestyle. Culture focus on the knowledge
of ethics, norms, traditions etc. The success of any culture is based
on modern inventions of the society. It plays a very important role in
the development of the culture; both inter connected with each other.
Education teaches about the social and cultural values.

Education helps in the establishment of the schools, colleges, and

universities. Education prepares the students for deals with cultural
ethics and norms. There are many institutes and best education sites
in India, which are focusing on culture development of education.
Various elements of culture help the individual in adopting natural and
social environment in a positive way. Each person of the society has
his or her own behavior attitude qualities and mentality to perceive
the world around. Education changes the perspective of the individual
toward different modes of community.

Purpose of Culture:

Culture always being used at a wide range in any society by

the group of different people.
Culture always tell about to live the life happily without any
fear.
Culture progress when the time change and keep forward
with the passage of the time.
Culture always try to fulfill the needs of all people.
 Culture give equal chance and opportunities for all the
member of the society.

Change in Culture:
Culture is the social change of any character in society. When the
child is born in any society after his birth, he learns the teachings of
his parents and adopts it with the passage of time. Culture is
transmitted from one generation to another generation because a
child always learns the behavior of their elders. Culture is one of the
most authentic that is learned in society.

Advancement of Culture Development:

After the advancement of modern inventions and technology, day-
by-day new scientific methods are being used in the transmission of
culture. Being the part of culture people need machinery, good
clothes, transport for going one place to another.

Culture also includes art music, customs, values, and the old
tradition of our elders. And because of this advancement and
invention, culture is changing and adopting new ideas to survive in
the society. Culture also increase the economy and growth of the
country.

Influences of Education on Culture

This article throws light upon the seven influences of education on

culture. The influences are:
1. Preservation of Culture
2. Transmission of Culture
3. Promotion of Culture
4. Equips Man to Adapt to Changing Cultural Patterns
5. Moulding the Personality
6. Restoring Unity of Mankind through Diffusion of Culture
7. Removing Cultural Lag.

Influence # 1. Preservation of Culture:

Culture is the blood vein of a society, which needs to be
conserved. It is an important function of education to help in the
preservation of culture or social heritage.

Education, through its specialized agencies, tries to inculcate the

traditions, customs, values, arts, morals etc. into the tender minds of
pupils.
T.P. Nunn has emphasized this aspect in his views on education.
Our first prime minister, Pt. J.L. Nehru viewed, “Education must
help in preserving the vital elements of our heritage”.

Influence # 2. Transmission of Culture:

In addition to preservation of culture, it is a task of education to
maintain the continuity of culture by handing down the existing
cultural experiences, values, traditions, customs etc. from one
generation to another through its various programmes and practices.
Without this transmission, the nation’s survival may be the toughest
task and the progress of mankind can be stifled. Society reels in utter
chaos and confusion.

Men will become savages and human relationship will be broken

into pieces. Therefore, the substance of unity in any society is its
precious culture. The famous sociologist, Ottaway writes, “The
function of education is to transmit the social values and ideals
to the young and capable members of society”.

Influence # 3. Promotion of Culture:

Besides preservation and transmission, another vital function of
education is to modify the existing cultural patterns in the light of
changes visible in the needs and demands of the society. These
changes are heightened owing to cross-cultural variables. Thus, new
cultural patterns are formed by replacing and reorienting the old
outmoded cultural forms to suit the changing needs of time and man.
Therefore, society makes ostensible progress. This part of education
is called progressive function of education. As such, education
performs by constantly reorganizing and reconstructing human
experiences for the promotion and enrichment of culture.

Influence # 4. Equips Man to Adapt to Changing Cultural

Patterns:
 It is an admitted fact that every generation after generation
modifies the old and archaic cultural forms and adds new ones to the
best advantage of theirs. This is possible through educational means
and method. Moreover, education equips the individual to adjust
himself or herself to the changing cultural forms and patterns for
better and successful living.
Influence # 5. Moulding the Personality:
It is an universal element of culture that personality is shaped and
moulded by education. An individual’s personality goes on developing
when he or she continues to forge a web of relationship with other
members of society.
This form of interaction is made possible by education according
to the behavioural patterns or culture of the existing society. In simple
words, culture is an informal agency of social control which helps in
moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individuals in a desirable
way.

Influence # 6. Restoring Unity of Mankind through Diffusion

of Culture:
It is a dire necessity of the civilization that unity of mankind is to
be restored. It is to be made possible through education which assists
in diffusion of culture in an effective manner. Education should treat
human culture as a whole like a full-blossom flower whose different
petals represent different groups.
Education, further, helps in disseminating the modern cultural
values like co-operation, unity, mutual understanding, brotherhood of
men, love and appreciation for others etc. to the mankind for its
enduring survival.

Influence # 7. Removing Cultural Lag:

The concept of cultural lag is attributed to the famous sociologist
Ogburn. When there exists a difference between material culture and
non-material culture, there emerges this lag concept. As it is seen,
material culture is advanced due to the rapid strides in science and
technology and people adopt the modern life styles ignoring non-
material part of culture.
 Therefore, non-material culture lags behind the former. This
situation is cultural lag which needs to be eliminated by education
through its various programmes and myriad activities. Cultural is
antithesis to social change and progress of the civilization.

From the foregoing discussion, it is crystal clear that there exists a

close relation between education and culture. Education socializes an
individual in one hand and it preserves, transmits and promotes the
culture of a society on the other. In brief, education and culture are
mutually interwoven, complementary and supplementary in all their
aspects. It is education which reifies the culture.
 CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA
Heritage means what we inherit from our ancestors and from our
past. India is a land of varied cultures and traditions. People from
numerous castes, religions, and creeds reside in our country. Each
ethnic group in our country has its own tale of origin and its set of
unique traditions and culture. They have all contributed to the making
of Indian history and culture. Nature has made India into a distinct
geographical entity.

What do you mean by cultural heritage? Cultural heritage is an

expression of the ways of living developed by a community and
passed on from generation to generation. Cultural heritage includes
tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books,
works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore,
traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including
culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity).

Mahatma Gandhi on India’s Cultural heritage

 “It stands for synthesis of the different cultures that have come to
stay in India, that have influenced Indian life, and that, in their turn,
have themselves been influenced by the spirit of the soil. This
synthesis will naturally be of the spirit of the soil. This synthesis will
naturally be of the Swadeshi type, where each culture is assured its
legitimate place, and not of the American pattern, where one
dominant. Culture absorbs the rest and where the aim is not towards
harmony, but towards an artificial and forced unity'' - M.K. Gandhi

Indian Heritage: A Gift from the Older Generations

Indian heritage and culture are vast and vivid because of the large
number of religious groups residing in our country. Every community
has its own set of customs and traditions which it passes on to its
younger generation.
However, some of our customs and traditions remain the same
throughout IndiaOur traditions teach us to inculcate good habits and
make us a good human being. Our cultural heritage is thus a beautiful
gift from our older generation that will help us become a better human
being and build a harmonious society.

Respect for our Indian Heritage

The elders should take responsibility to invoke love for the Indian
heritage in the younger generations. This must be done from the very
beginning only then we can preserve our rich heritage. It is the duty of
the elders to invoke love for the Indian heritage in the younger
generations.

This must be done from the very beginning only then we can
preserve our rich heritage. Schools must teach students about Indian
heritage and how it has survived for centuries. They must also share
the importance of preserving it. This would help in invoking a feeling
of pride in them and they would be inspired to continue the tradition
and also pass it on to the new generation. This needs a collective
effort by the teachers as well as parents.

Our Literature
Indian literature is as rich as its culture. We have various books
written on many topics since ancient times. We have the Vedic
literature, epic Sanskrit literature, Classic Sanskrit literature and Pali
literature among other kinds of Indian literature. Many of our books
are being translated to other languages to provide access to a greater
number of readers so that more and people can benefit from the
knowledge. Such a wonderful and rich literature must be preserved at
any cost.

Beautiful Geological Structures

Numerous beautiful geological structures found in different parts
of India. Best of the splendid geological structures that form a part of
our country include Lonar Crater Lake, Siachen Glacier, Jammu and
Kashmir, Pillar Rocks, Kodaikanal, Barren Island, Andamans,
Magnetic Hill, Leh, Columnar Basaltic Lava, Udupi, and Toad Rock.
All these structures are true wonders of nature. A lot of tourists every
year from around the world especially visit these places just to catch
a glimpse of these marvelous creations of God.

UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites in India

The below geological places have been enlisted in UNESCO

World Natural Heritage Sites. These sites include:

1. Home for the rare one-horned rhinoceros, Kaziranga National

Park, in 1985.
2. Home for numerous species of beautiful birds, Keoladeo
National Park, in 1985.
3. A beautiful wildlife sanctuary, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, in
1985.
4. The biggest mangrove forest, Sundarbans, in the year 1987.
5. Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Park, in 2004.
6. The Western Ghats, in 2012.
7. The Great Himalayan National Park was declared a UNESCO
World Heritage Site in the year 2014.
 ESSAY ON CULTURAL HERITAGE
India has a rich cultural tradition. There is a harmonious blend of
art, religion and philosophy in the Indian culture. They are so
beautifully interwoven in the fabric of Indian way of life and thought
that they are inseparable.

Indian culture is actually an outcome of continuous synthesis and

has absorbed many external influences in the course of long jurney of
history. The first stirring of civilisation occurred amongst the people of
India some 4,000 years before the birth of Christ.

From those ancient times till recent past, we were exposed to

unbroken sequence of civilisations. It is only the dynamism and the
flexibility of Indian culture that enabled it to survive these foreign
invasions and retain its originality and traditional character even after
imbibing the best of these external influences.

Indian people, by nature tolerant and fatalists, did not at any time
ridicule the traditions of foreign civilisations.

On the other hand, Indian mind has assimilated much of the

thinking of the other cultures, thus enriching it and thereby becoming
unique in its character. Today, it is the uniqueness which attracts the
Western societies to the Indian culture. Disillusioned with their
materialistic lives, they turn to India for solace and peace.
The wisdom of our ancient epics like the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata serves as a beacon light to the seekers of spiritual
bliss.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna tells how every human being
can come to live the subtle philosophical principles laid down in our
scriptures in the actual day-to-day life. Lord Buddha taught us to
follow the ‘Middle Path’ by exercising control over the passions. One
has to admit that Indian sages and philosophers had started
pondering on great issues more than 200 years ago which have been
raised in the West only in the last century.

Indian art was influenced by the religious beliefs and the

philosophical trends of the times. The temples of the south, the caves
of Ajanta, Ellora and Khajuraho are living testimony to the artistic
excellence achieved by the Indian artists, sculptors and architects in
those gone by days. Foreign tourists experience a spiritual
reawakening on visiting these temples.

Indian music is remarkable because of the continuity in its growth.

Long before the Christian era, it had developed not only definite laws
of theory and practice, but even comprehensive theories of
appreciation.

Like Indian dance, it is built on the concepts of ragas and fast.

Each raga is regarded as appropriate to certain emotions a certain
mood suitable for certain time of the day or night.

There are two major schools of classical music—the Hindustani

and the Karnataka. Both derive their rules from the classical treatises
Natya Shastra of Bharata and Sangeet Ratnakarby Sarangdeva.
There are about 250 ragas commonly used in north as well as south.
Indian music has had great impact on the Western music. Great
maestros like Pandit Ravi Shankar, Zakir Hussain, etc. have made
valuable contribution towards popularising and promoting Indian
music abroad.
The background of Indian dance is infinitely rich and varied, as
varied as the land itself, yet with the same underlying unity which
binds the people of the country together.

The dances of India, whether folk or classical, are an eloquent

expression of an ancient civilisation, whose timeless wisdom
continues to evoke the passionate search of man for conscious
identity with God. Folk and tribal dances of India are of innumerable
types.
 But they all express its people’s natural gaiety, sense of abandon
and rhythm. The origin of classical dances is attributed to the Hindu
temples. It was in the temples that they were first conceived and
nourished. It was also in the temples that they attained their full
stature. While it is true that dances were also performed in courts,
and on festive occasions, etc. yet the impulse that gave them birth
was religious.

There are four major systems of classical dances in India—

Bharat Natyam, Kathak, Kathakali and Manipuri. Other prominent
dances are Kuchipudi of Andhra, Odissi of Orissa and Mohiniattam of
Kerala. As in all Indian performing arts, so in dance the concept of
rasa holds the central place.

In dancing the rasa is conveyed through bhava or expression,

through the technique of abhinaya. One of the latest developments in
the field of dance is ballet, which has brought about a synthesis of the
lyricism, grace and pictorial quality of Indian dance forms—classical
and folk—combined.
Since independence, Indians themselves have become
increasingly keen to promote their sense of national identity and
cultural unity and in consequence there has been a revival of interest
in indigenous folk arts, especially in the realm of music and dance.

Now, it is up to our educational institutions to ensure that the

younger generation imbibes the right values and tries to uphold the
torch of spiritual and cultural renaissance for the rest of the world to
see and emulate and not get carried away by the materialistic
ideology of the West, where man has achieved astounding success in
unraveling the -mysteries of nature but feels alienated and rootless in
his own community and society.

We must ensure that modern India does not at any stage forget its
rich cultural heritage—a legacy of our ancient seers, philosophers
afid sages.

The success with which ‘Festivals of India’ have met with in the
U.S.A., France and Russia proves the interest of foreigners in our
cultural traditions.

At home too, the government’s efforts to promote a revival of

interest in our folk arts, music and dance have met with tremendous
public response.

The classical theatre has a tradition of more than 2000 years.

These were mainly performed on platforms raised in temple
courtyards and palaces. The choice of themes was mainly taken from
folk stories, epics and religious texts; it was an elaborate affair and
combined dance, acting and music.

Historically speaking, with the passing of early Hindu kingdoms—

under whose patronage the arts had flourished in India—and the
Muslim invasion of the North, the dramatic tradition almost died in the
North. However, south of India retained a remarkable continuity of its
cultural heritage virtually because of its geographical position, where
the foreign invaders did not meet with much success.

It goes to the credit of the Indian people’s tenacity and ability that
they were able to retain their essential traditional outlook despite
fierce onslaughts by invaders.
The British Raj to a certain extent was responsible for the revival
of intellectual curiosity. A deep interest was taken in the story of
India’s past and to preserve the country’s rich cultural heritage.

It was a sign of maturity and foresight on the part of the British to

leave the people to follow their faith and beliefs of which they were
not aware. All these are attempts to keep our cultural heritage alive
and transmit it to the younger generations.

Conclusion
India is an ancient country. We are blessed with a beautiful
heritage. We are solely responsible to preserve the same so that our
future generations also get to see and experience the same.
 Unity in Diversity
Unity in Diversity is a concept which signifies unity among
individuals who have certain differences among them. These
differences can be on the basis of culture, language,
ideology, religion, sect, class, ethnicity, etc. Furthermore, the
existence of this concept has been since time immemorial. People
have consistently shown this praiseworthy behavior almost
everywhere on Earth. The concept has certainly resulted in the
ethical and moral evolution of humanity.

Advantages of Unity in Diversity

❖ First of all, following Unity in Diversity implies an interaction
between many types of individuals. These individuals will
probably have certain differences among them. This would
occur also in workplaces, schools, public places, etc. Most
noteworthy, working with diverse people provides an
opportunity for exposure. Furthermore, this interaction would
build up a tolerance in people. Hence, people would respect
the opinion of others.

❖ Unity in Diversity certainly enhances the quality of teamwork.

This is because of the development of trust and bonding
among people. As such the coordination and cooperation
becomes very efficient. Consequently, the rate of completion
of projects significantly increases.
 ❖ In the world of business, a new principle is being followed.
This principle is to think global and act locally. The reason for
using this principle by companies is different social and
cultural traditions. This principle is certainly a victory for the
concept of Unity in Diversity. Also, more and more companies
are doing business in different regions of the Worlds.

❖ The concept of Unity in Diversity is effective in solving

various social problems. This is possible as diverse people
tend to know each other. Consequently, this increases mutual
respect among the people.
❖ Unity in Diversity is very useful for a diverse country. Above
all, the concept allows people of different religions, cultures,
castes, to live together peacefully. The belief of Unity in
Diversity certainly reduces the chances of riots and
disturbances.

Essay on Unity in Diversity in India

Geographical Unity:
Geographically India may not be a united by itself but from times
immemorial India has been considered as-one country. The single
name Bharatvarsha given to this country emphasis this unity.

According to the authors of ‘Advance History of India’, this name

and the sense of unity which it denotes, “was ever present before the
minds of the theologians, political philosophers and poets who spoke
of the thousand yojans (leagues) of land that stretches from
Himalayas to the sea as the proper domain of a single universal
emperor.”

During the medieval times the Muslim rulers also considered it as

one country and made efforts to capture all parts. The nature has
also bestowed a geographical unity by providing Himalayas in the
North and Ocean in the other three sides of the country, and thereby
completely separating India from other countries.
The rivers of India have also been responsible for giving a sense
of unity in the country. Some of the rivers are ascribed divine origin
and are considered sacred by every Indian. For example, Ganga is
worshipped in all the Tour direction of the country.

Pilgrims from all over the country continue to visit the various holy
places situated on its banks. Other rivers like Yamuna and Saraswati
are also considered sacred by people all over the country. In short we
can say that in spite of the geographical diversity the country has
enjoyed a typical unity.

Racial Unity:
No doubt, the people of India belong to different races but they
are so much absorbed in the Hindu fold that they have virtually lost
their separate entity. It is a well-known fact that the people of India, to
which ever race or region they might belong, are known as Indian or
Hindustani. This is a clear proof of the underlying racial unity of the
people.

Linguistic Unity:

Although India possesses a variety of language, but she has

enjoyed a linguistic unity from the earliest times. In the 3rd century
B.C. the Prakrit served as the common language of the people.
According to Dr. Ray Chaudhri, “Prakrit was the one single
language sufficient to bring the message of a royal missionary
to the doors of his humblest subject throughout this vast
kingdom.” After Prakrit, Sanskrit became the common language of
the masses.

The other local languages which subsequently gained prominence

originated out of Sanskrit. Some of the prominent Indian languages
which owe their origin to Sanskrit include Hindi, Gujarati, Telgu and
Tamil. In fact Sanskrit served as the lingua franca during the ancient
times.

During the Medieval times also though the Sanskrit language was
not extended royal patronage by the Muslim rulers, the rulers in the
South continued to patronize it and it continued to flourish. With the
coming of British, English became lingua franca. After independence
this role has been taken over by Hindi.

The script of the various languages used in India also possess a

certain amount of uniformity. In fact almost all the scripts are based
on the Brahmin script. The literature produced in different Indian
languages also possess an element of unity.
Most of the literature in Indian language drew inspiration from the
Sanskrit literature and maintained the unity. No doubt, certain local
pieces of literature like Vedas, Puranas, Dharma Sastras and
Upanishads were written in Sanskrit and are regarded as the
common treasure by the people all over the country.

Religious and Social Unity:

In the religious sphere also despite the manifold diversity a sort of
unity has prevailed amongst the various religious sects in the country.
India was primarily a Hindu country and its culture was based on
Varna Ashram Dharma Vya-vastha, i.e. caste, Ashrams and Dharma.

People in all the four corners of the country followed these

principles. The people also worshipped the same Hindu gods all over
the country, although they were assigned different names in different
regions. The Hindu religious works Ramayana and the Mahabharata
were also popular throughout the country and Indians both in the
north and the south as well as east and west attach great importance
to these works.
Similarly, the Vedas, Puranas and other religious scriptures are
given due regard by the people from all parts of the country. Again,
every Indian irrespective of his caste, creed and race believes in the
doctrine of transmigration of soul, monotheism, immortality of the
soul, re-incarnation karma, deliverance or Moksha etc.

The people staying in different parts of the country followed the

same religious rites and rituals. Even the religious places of the Hindu
like Ayodhya, Avantika, Mathura, Gaya, Kashi, Sanchi, and Puri are
located in the four directions of the country.
 Hindu festivals like Holy, Diwali are also celebrated in all the
regions of the country. In fact, people from all religions participated in
these festivals. Thus we find that in spite of the religious diversities
there has been an undercurrent of cultural unity which to a large
extent nullified the peculiar effects of various religions.

Dr. V.A. Smith says, “The essential fundamental Indian unity

rests upon the fact that diverse peoples of India have developed
a peculiar type of culture and civilization, utterly different from
any type in the world and that civilization may be summed up in
the term of Hindustani.”

He further observes, “Her type of civilization has many features

which differentiate it from that of all other regions of the world, or
rather sub-continent in a degree sufficient to justify its treatment as a
unit in the history of the social, religious and intellectual development
of mankind.”

The religious and cultural unity has also led to unity in the social
sphere. The people belonging to various religions have been
following common customs both with regard to the dress and eating
habits.

Political Unity:
In the political sphere, the unity of the country has been one of the
greatest goal which most of the Indian rulers cherished. No doubt,
India was divided into a number of small principalities but the
powerful rulers were always keen to bring all these areas under their
control. They were keen to assume the title of Chakravarti. According
to Kautilya, Chakravarti kings domain extended from Himalayas to
the seas.
In other words, according to Kautilya, the king was considered to
be a Chakravarti only when he succeeded in extending his power or
supremacy over the whole of the country. Usually such titles were
assumed by the king after due performance of rites and sacrifices.

In the ancient times Chandra Gupta Maurya, Ashoka and

Samudra Gupta carved out all India Empires. During the medieval
times also kings like Ala-ud-Din Khilji and Aurangzeb made efforts
and succeeded in establishing their control over the entire country.

These Muslim rulers have been provided similar system of

administration, uniform laws and customs, common coinage etc. and
thus imparted a type of political unity to the entire country. Thus we
find that despite the variety of religion, cultures, languages,
geographical diversity etc., India has enjoyed some sort of the unity.
 Important of Unity in Diversity
Unity in Diversity is very important for any country in the following
ways as mentioned below:

FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION:

❖ Unity in Diversity is very important for a country because it is
very easy to disintegrate people with different views and
ideologies.

❖ If there is unity among the people despite their differences, it

will always be impossible for a force to disintegrate the nation.

❖ The unity of citizens plays a very important role in maintaining

peace and prosperity in a country.

FOR DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH:

❖ Unity in diversity plays an important role in the development
of the country because the country which is integrated will
always move on the path of development.

❖ It will face fewer internal issues than a country that is socially

unstable and divided on different terms.

FOR GLOBAL RECOGNITION:

❖ A country that is diverse, but still united, not only adds value
to the nation but is also respected on international platforms.

❖ It sets an example globally by displaying the values and

morals of the citizens of a country who respect and support
each other despite being from different backgrounds and
cultures.

FOR PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE:

❖ Diversity can also be the cause of internal conflicts but unity
in diversity plays a very important role in maintaining peaceful
 co-existence with people with diverse culture and
backgrounds.

❖ It helps them stay united despite their disagreements.

Difference between Unity and Diversity:

There is a feeling of togetherness and integration in unity. It is the
spirit that holds people together and a bond that connotes a sense of
fairness.

Unity stands for relations between different groups that bind them
into a single unit.

It can also be defined as the absence of differences between people

belonging to diverse classes based on religious, linguistic or racial
aspects.

In dissimilarity, diversity refers to difference or differentiation. It can

be defined as the collective differences of different groups based on
religion, race or language etc.

It is a diversity of classes and groups living in different regions, with

different cultures, traditions and backgrounds.

Diversity is a natural phenomenon that helps to bring different

views, experiences and acceptance among people.

Unity is a state of being while diversity is a state of being separate or

different.

A family may have people with different views, interests or

preferences who show their diversity in many aspects, but as a family,
they demonstrate a sense of unity among them.
 Advantages of Unity in Diversity:
1. Unity in diversity increases the morale of people in the
workplace, organization and community.
2. It helps to increase coordination, relationships, teamwork
among people, thus improving performance, work quality,
productivity and lifestyle.
3. This makes communication effective even in poor
conditions.
4. Keeps people away from social problems and helps in
managing conflicts easily.
5. Improves healthy human relationships and protects equal
human rights for all.
6. Unity in diversity provides a source of tourism in India.
People from diverse cultures, traditions, cuisines, religions
and clothing attract more visitors and tourists from all over
the world.
8.
7. This, despite being diverse in various ways, leads to the
habit of national unity among the people of the country.
9. It strengthens and enriches the country’s rich heritage as
well as India’s cultural heritage.
10. It helps to enrich the agricultural sector through various
crops and thus the growth of the economy.
11. Source of skilled and advance professionals in various areas
of the country.
 Disadvantages of Unity in Diversity:
1. This can give rise to various social tensions between
different states and people of linguistic origin.
2. It causes corruption and illiteracy in many areas of the
country.
3. Due to underdeveloped infrastructure, power shortage,
roads etc. it can be the cause of poor lifestyle in various
rural areas.

History of Unity in Diversity:

The prehistory of India, according to the available evidence, can
trace the second interglacial period between 4 lakh and 2 lakh BC,
when the use of stone tools is recorded.
Other archaeological evidence includes cave paintings, burial
sites, skeletal remains, jeweller, pottery and bone tools and
megalithic remains with the use of iron, even gold as well as their
skeletons with spiritual views of the ancient and Contains relics found
around habitat sites.

PROTO-HISTORY OF INDIA:

The Indus Valley Civilization in the western border market is the

beginning of India’s proto-historical cultures.
It was an advance of civilization that flourished between 2,500–
1,500 BC.

The Indus Valley Civilization is known for its town planning,

dockyards, agricultural practice, training of animal implements and
textile weaving, jeweller, use of metals, use of wheel utensils etc.

THE VEDIC PERIOD:

❖ The advent of the Vedic Era began with orientations in India.

They were nomadic villagers who also practice agriculture to
 meet their basic needs.

❖ They did not bring any civilization with them, but owned a
strong culture rooted in their beliefs, practices and crops and
had a penchant for poetry philosophy and art.
❖ He composed in praise of his gods, was racist and
considered himself superior to other indigenous inhabitants of
India.

❖ To whom they refer by derogatory names, they practised

endogamy and brought the concept of purity and pollution to
India for the first time.

❖ This led to the rise of Varna and caste system in India and
laid the foundation for the first structural and practical social
system in India.

❖ Indian history of unity in diversity the influence of other

cultures on the Indian population can be seen in the following.

❖ A long history of migration, ecological diversity, cultural

philosophy.

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO UNITY IN DIVERSITY:

1. Geographical unity: It means unity around the geographical

boundaries of the country.
2. Religious Unity: It means unity among various religious groups,
such as Hindu, Muslim, Christian etc.
All these religions have the same principles like kindness, honesty,
the value of life, belief in invisible power etc.
3. Language Integration: If there are many languages across the
country, having a link language solves the plurality of languages.
4. Cultural unity: It means unity among various castes, sub-castes
and communities. Despite the vastness, most ancient cultures have
unity.
5. Political unity: A democratic system of politics that calls for
political alliances at all its levels.
6. Emotional unity: This means that there should be an emotional
bond and they should be close to each other.

UNITY IN DIVERSITY IN INDIAN SOCIETY:

❖ India has been the best example to prove this concept for
many years.

❖ More than 1,000,650 languages and tongues are spoken in

India. People from different religious cultures and traditions
live here.

❖ They follow different religions of their choice because India is

a secular country.
❖ Being related to different cultures, languages and religions,
people here respect each other and live with a feeling of love
and brotherhood.

❖ India, 5000 years old civilization is a land of diversities, be it

religion, caste, race, culture or language, there are many
variations in the country.

❖ There are about 29 states and each state has its own
culture, tradition and language.

❖ Every year more than 30 grand festivals of various

communities are celebrated in the country.

❖ Despite such a difference, the people of India demonstrate a

genuine sense of unity among themselves which reflects the
concept of unity in diversity.

Unity in India’s diversity culture is considered unique in the

world which surprises the global community.
❖ This is due to the age-old tradition of India which has taught
people the importance of morality, values, respect and
tolerance.

❖ Although people belonging to diverse cultures and

communities, they share the bond of humanity, love, respect
and are bound by the same strand of nationalism.
❖ People in all parts of this country join with the faith of
brotherhood.

❖ Unity in diversity is a great feature of our nation because

people of different religions have been in a bond of humanity
for many years.

❖ If we are not united then we will surely fall which means

“united we stand and divided we fall”.

❖ The Constitution of India has also given every citizen the right
and freedom to live their life with dignity and respect, without
any interference.

THE MAIN REASONS FOR UNITY IN DIVERSITY IN INDIA:

❖ India has witnessed a history of experimenting cultures giving

rise to new forms, whose diversity can be felt in the number of
cultural groups, religions, languages, occupational units and
social-political groups.

❖ This diversity can be readily attributed to the past comprising

of years of migration, intermixing, inventions and compared to
isolation through the natural geographical boundaries.

❖ The period of change and in the current scenario standing

with a total population of 1.33 billion.

❖ India presents the scope of different cultures and traditions,

we see the rise of faith, going from the pre-historic period to
 the Vedic period.
❖ Although it was in the recipient of the form, it differed from
one region to another, then with the arrival of the Aryans,
different tribal communities had different values and different
legacies of organized values giving rise to similar heritage
fewer generations.

❖ Hierarchical systems were common everywhere, it differed

from region to region.
❖ Therefore Hinduism emerged but not as a religion, but as a
single ideology of different practices.

❖ Along with the immigration of other strong religious

communities in India, especially Islam and Christianity which
persisted for a long time in India.

❖ The merger of customs and the development of teachings,

the development of tolerance and solidarity in which the land
of India is.

❖ Religions like Judaism which came from other countries of

the world confined themselves to small pockets of the Indian
subcontinent.

❖ While other religions such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism

developed in India restricted themselves to heal the region
and did not make much difference.
❖ The same effect of migration was seen when people
belonging to different ethnic groups immigrated to India.

❖ They mix it up, adopting their social biological characters with

local population exchanges and expressing new forms of
customs and social designs, resulting in diverse physical
forms and lifestyles.

❖ People’s involvement with such a diverse language family

proves to be the strength of India’s cultural roots. Equal
 distribution is still prevalent in India’s tribal diversity.

❖ Some of which are still far from the present world of

urbanization and modernization.

❖ Our country goes through phases of cultural development

following their ancient traditional values.

❖ Hence it exceeds the spirit of nature and the ancestors

worship one of the following religious teachings.
❖ Despite the difference in our social structural formulation, the
complexity of the caste system has led to the pain of
preaching.

❖ We need acceptance, tolerance and adjustment at its core.

❖ Our Constitution also gives us the status of a sovereign,

secular, socialist and democratic republic, which we all enjoy
with pride and joy.

UNITY IN DIVERSITY EXAMPLES:

❖ Once in the beautiful lake of different fish, all the fish were
proud of their beauty, so they did not talk to each other.

❖ And once a shark came to the lake in search of food and he

started eating fishes, some survived for their lives.

❖ They later learn that they have to unite and when the shark
returns, the fish join hands against the shark.

❖ Due to the unity of the fishes, the shark did not return to the
river. To be united, we must respect each other’s unity in
diversity.
 Conclusion of Unity in Diversity:
Unity in diversity teaches us that although we are from different
caste, creed or race, these differences cannot keep us apart and we
are always united for the betterment of our nation.

This is the most unique event which is shown in our country, It not
only makes the nation unified and strengthened but it also keeps us
alive in the old centuries, the tradition of co-existence with love,
peace, honour and respect.

The difference in culture, customs, festivals, music and dance

makes the country of vibrancy and makes an incredible country in the
world.
 UNIT 04
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

What is the Preamble of the Indian

Constitution?
The Preamble is a brief introductory statement of the Constitution
that sets out the guiding purpose, principles, and philosophy of the
Indian Constitution. In a Constitution, it presents the intention of its
framers, the history behind its creation, and the core values and
principles of the nation.

The 42nd amendment of the Constitution effected in 1976

amended the preamble to determine India as a Sovereign, Socialist,
Secular and Democratic Republic.

The ideals behind the Preamble to India’s Constitution were laid

down by Jawaharlal Nehru’s Objectives Resolution, adopted by the
Constituent Assembly on January 22, 1947.

Although not enforceable in court, the Preamble states the objects

of the Constitution and acts as an aid during the interpretation of
Articles when language is found ambiguous.
 The Preamble:
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to
constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship;
EQUALITY of status and opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the
unity and integrity of the Nation;
 Keywords in the Preamble:
Sovereign: India is an independent authority and is not the
dominion of any external power
Socialist: Achievement of the socialist ends through
democratic means
Secular: All religions in India get equal respect, protection,
support from the state
Democratic: The authority of the will of the people
expressed in an election
Republic: Head of the state elected directly or indirectly-
Prime Minister, President

What do the keywords in the Preamble stand

for?
The words, “We, the people of India…” indicate the ultimate
sovereignty of the people of India. Sovereignty means the
independent authority of the State, not being subject to the control of
any other State or external power.

The text declares India to be a “Republic” — indicating a

government by the people and for the people.

It states “social, economic, and political justice” as an

objective.
Nehru had said in 1956, “Democracy has been spoken of chiefly
in the past, as political democracy, roughly represented by every
person having a vote. But a vote by itself does not represent very
much to a person who is down and out, to a person, let us say, who is
starving and hungry. Political democracy, by itself, is not enough
except that it may be used to obtain a gradually increasing measure
of economic democracy, equality, and the spread of good things of life
to others and removal of gross inequalities.”
 “Liberty”, “equality”, and “fraternity” have also been made
ideals.
Dr. B R Ambedkar, in his concluding speech in the Constituent
Assembly, had said, “Political democracy cannot last unless there lies
at the base of it social democracy. What does democracy mean? It
means a way of life that recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity
which are not to be treated as separate items in a trinity. They form a
union of trinity in the sense that to divorce one from the other is to
defeat the very purpose of democracy. Liberty cannot be divorced
from equality, equality cannot be divorced from liberty. Nor can liberty
and equality be divorced from fraternity.”
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution, passed in 1976,
replaced the words “sovereign democratic republic” to “sovereign
socialist secular democratic republic”. It also changed the “unity of the
nation” to “unity and integrity of the nation”

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS IN EDUCATION

1.RTE 2009 Right to Education (Arts. 21-A)

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted
Article 21-A in the Constitution of India to provide free and
compulsory education of all children in the age group of six to
fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as the State
may, by law, determine.
 The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE)
Act, 2009, which represents the consequential legislation envisaged
under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to full-time
elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal
school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.
What is the Act about?

1. Every child between the ages of 6 to 14 years has the right

to free and compulsory education. This is stated as per the
86th Constitution Amendment Act via Article 21A. The Right
to Education Act seeks to give effect to this amendment
2. The government schools shall provide free education to all
the children and the schools will be managed by School
Management Committees (SMC). Private schools shall
admit at least 25% of the children in their schools without
any fee.
3. The National Commission for Elementary Education shall be
constituted to monitor all aspects of elementary education
including quality.

Main Features of Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009

Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the

6 to 14 age group.
No child shall be held back, expelled or required to pass a
board examination until the completion of elementary
education.
If a child above 6 years of age has not been admitted in any
school or could not complete his or her elementary
education, then he or she shall be admitted in a class
appropriate to his or her age. However, if a case may be
where a child is directly admitted in the class appropriate to
his or her age, then, in order to be at par with others, he or
she shall have a right to receive special training within such
time limits as may be prescribed. Provided further that a
child so admitted to elementary education shall be entitled to
free education till the completion of elementary education
even after 14 years.
Proof of age for admission: For the purpose of admission to
elementary education, the age of a child shall be determined
on the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance with
the Provisions of Birth. Deaths and Marriages Registration
Act 1856, or on the basis of such other document as may be
prescribed. No child shall be denied admission in a school
for lack of age proof
A child who completes elementary education shall be
awarded a certificate.
Call need to be taken for a fixed student–teacher ratio.
Twenty-five per cent reservation for economically
disadvantaged communities in admission to Class I in all
private schools is to be done.
Improvement in the quality of education is important.
School teachers will need adequate professional degree
within five years or else will lose job.
School infrastructure (where there is a problem) need to be
improved in every 3 years, else recognition will be cancelled.
Financial burden will be shared between the state and the
central government.
 10 things you need to know about the RTE
Act
1. Compulsory and free education for all
It is obligatory for the Government to provide free and compulsory
elementary education to each and every child, in a neighbourhood
school within 1 km, up to class 8 in India. No child is liable to pay fees
or any other charges that may prevent him or her from pursuing and
completing elementary education. Free education also includes the
provisions of textbooks, uniforms, stationery items and special
educational material for children with disabilities in order to reduce
the burden of school expenses.

In 2013, Oxfam India critiqued Right to Education (RTE) Forum’s

Stocktaking Report 2013, which evaluated the three year progress of
the Right to Education Act since its enactment in 2009. While
considerable progress was made on aspects like primary level
enrolment rates, launching new schools, appointment of new
teachers and ensuring safe drinking water and toilet facilities for
children, the overall delivery did not live up to the expectations.
Oxfam India in its policy brief recommended five solutions to rectify
gaps and loopholes in order to enhance implementation and
effectiveness of the Right to Education Act 2009.

2. The benchmark mandate

The Right to Education Act lays down norms and standards
relating to Pupil-Teacher-Ratios (number of children per teacher),
classrooms, separate toilets for girls and boys, drinking water facility,
number of school-working days, working hours of teachers, etc. Each
and every elementary school (Primary school + Middle School) in
India has to comply with these set of norms to maintain a minimum
standard set by the Right to Education Act.

3. Special provisions for special cases

The Right to Education Act mandates that an out of school child
should be admitted to an age appropriate class and provided with
special training to enable the child to come up to age appropriate
learning level.

4. Quantity and quality of teachers

The Right to Education Act provides for rational deployment of
teachers by ensuring that the specified Pupil-Teacher-Ratio is
maintained in every school with no urban-rural imbalance
whatsoever. It also mandates appointing appropriately trained
teachers i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic
qualifications.

In 2018, Oxfam India analysed the nine year progress of the Right
to Education Act since its enactment in 2009. The observations
highlighted significant lack of allocation of resources to education in
general and elementary schools. This was far from satisfactory and
needed immediate amends in order to improve overall learning
outcomes of children. Oxfam India in its policy brief recommended
seven ways to address this problem.

5. Zero tolerance against discrimination and harassment

The Right to Education Act 2009 prohibits all kinds of physical
punishment and mental harassment, discrimination based on gender,
caste, class and religion, screening procedures for admission of
children capitation fee, private tuition centres, and functioning of
unrecognised schools.

The Right to Education (RTE) Forum’s Stocktaking Report 2014

suggested that across the country, less than 10 percent schools
comply with all of the Right to Education Act norms and standards.
While enactment of the Right to Education Act 2009 triggered
significant improvements, concerns regarding privatisation of
education remains. Educational inequalities have held a strong
ground in India for many years. While the Right to Education Act
offers the first step towards an inclusive educational system in India,
effective implementation of the same still remains to be a challenge.
Oxfam India in its policy brief suggested several ways to improve
implementation of the Right to Education Act 2009.
 6. Ensuring all round development of children
The Right to Education Act 2009 provides for development of
curriculum, which would ensure the all-round development of every
child. Build a child’s knowledge, human potential and talent.

Oxfam India is supporting Samarth Foundation, since 2013, in 24

schools in 19 Gram Panchayats in two blocks Kurara and Maudaha
of Hamirpur district. Together, they aimed at bringing back children to
schools by building a child-friendly environment in schools, and
engaging the community by strengthening School Management
Committees (as mandated under the RTE Act). During this period,
SMCs appointed 45 new teachers; a few of them were felicitated for
their pedagogic intervention.

7. Improving learning outcomes to minimise detention

The Right to Education Act mandates that no child can be held
back or expelled from school till Class 8. To improve performances of
children in schools, the Right to Education Act introduced the
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) system in 2009 to
ensure grade appropriate learning outcomes in schools. Another
reason why this system was initiated was to evaluate every aspect of
the child during their time in school so that gaps could be identified
and worked on well in time.

8. Monitoring compliance of RTE norms

School Management Committees (SMCs) play a crucial role in
strengthening participatory democracy and governance in elementary
education. All schools covered under the Right to Education Act 2009
are obligated to constitute a School Management Committee
comprising of a head teacher, local elected representative, parents,
community members etc. The committees have been empowered to
monitor the functioning of schools and to prepare school development
plan.

Since 2015, Lokmitra and Oxfam India have been working in 30

government schools in three blocks — Rahi, Salon and Raebareli
Municipality of Raebareli district, Uttar Pradesh. They have been
working towards ensuring proper implementation of the RTE Act
2009, increasing student retention, and increased community
participation in monitoring and management of schools. Lokmitra’s
innovative participatory pedagogy methods and involvement of
parents through SMCs at the block and district level have shown
positive results. Regular trainings and meetings have empowered
these SMCs to monitor and manage the schools better and advocate
for its improvement.

9. Right to Education Act is justiciable

The Right to Education Act is justiciable and is backed by a
Grievance Redressal (GR) mechanism that allows people to take
action against non-compliance of provisions of the Right to Education
Act 2009.
To ensure all schools follow this mandate, Oxfam India in
collaboration with JOSH filed a complaint at the Central Information
Commission (CIC) in 2011 evoking Section 4 of the Right to
Information Act (RTI Act) 2005. Section 4 of the RTI Act is a proactive
disclosure section mandating all public authorities to share
information with citizens about their functioning. Since schools are
public authorities, compliance to Section 4 was demanded.

10. Creating inclusive spaces for all

The Right to Education Act 2009 mandates for all private schools
to reserve 25 per cent of their seats for children belonging to socially
disadvantaged and economically weaker sections. This provision of
the Act is aimed at boosting social inclusion to provide for a more just
and equal nation.

Importance of fundamental rights: Rights mean that

freedom which is essential for personal good as well as the good of
the community. Fundamental rights are guaranteed by part III of the
Indian constitution as these basic rights are needed by every citizen
for the development of the citizens.

Fundamental right guarantees civil liberties such that all Indians

can lead their lives in peace and harmony as citizens of India. The
fundamental rights are defined as basic human freedom which every
Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for the proper and harmonious
development of personality. These rights universally apply to all
citizens, irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste, creed,
color, or gender.

Fundamental rights for Indians have also been aimed at

overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices.
Specifically, they have also been used to abolish untouchability and
hence prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste,
sex, or place of birth. They also forbid trafficking of human beings and
forced labor.

Fundamental rights also protect the cultural and educational rights

of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their
languages and also establish and administer their own education
institutions. Fundamental rights are indeed very essential for the well
being of every citizen. We also know that people have always
struggled against injustice, exploitation, and inequality for the creation
of better surroundings, better living conditions, and preservation of
human dignity. Efforts to avail such rights to all human beings have
been made at the international level also by recognizing various
rights which are popularly known as human rights.

Rights assure dignity to an individual. An individual can truly

achieve only when he is a free atmosphere. Rights accord this free
atmosphere to an individual. Education is related to emancipation…
emancipation from traditional shackles imposed by the caste system
or by stratification due to gender, class, and other such barriers. By
assuring every individual of the same rights the Constitution offers a
level ground for everyone irrespective of differences as sex, caste,
and class. Any individual who feels that his/her rights are encroached
upon can always approach the court of law. The right to seek
constitutional remedies will ensure that justice is done in such a case.
Cultural and educational rights are significant because they help to
propagate one’s culture even if one is in a minority. One of the
important functions of education is cultural functions.

Thus Cultural rights help to preserve and transmit one’s culture

which includes language, script, and traditions. The milestone in the
history of rights was the Right to Education. Flagship programmes
like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, RMSA have helped to make this right a
reality and one sees a sharp drop in the number of out of school
children”. This is clear proof that rights in India are not made but they
are translated to reality through our endeavors. India prohibits the
employment of children below 14 years. While we may not have
eliminated child labour completely, the right against exploitation
ensures that no individual be exploited.

2.Article 15 in The Constitution Of India 1949

Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste,
sex or place of birth

(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds
only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them
(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth or any of them, be subject to any disability, liability,
restriction or condition about
(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and palaces of
public entertainment; or
(b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of
public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or
dedicated to the use of the general public
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any
special provision for women and children
(4) Nothing in this article or clause ( 2 ) of Article 29 shall prevent
the State from making any special provision for the advancement of
any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

3.Right to Education
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted
Article 21-A in the Constitution of India to provide free and
compulsory education of all children in the age group of six to
fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as the State
may, by law, determine. The Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the
consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that
every child has a right to full-time elementary education of
satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies
certain essential norms and standards.

Article 21-A and the RTE Act came into effect on 1 April 2010. The
title of the RTE Act incorporates the words ‘free and compulsory’.
‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a child who has been
admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by
the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or
charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing
and completing elementary education.

‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate

Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission,
attendance, and completion of elementary education by all children in
the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights-
based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and
State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as
enshrined in Article 21A of the Constitution, under the provisions of
the RTE Act.

The RTE Act provides for the:

Right of children to free and compulsory education till

completion of elementary education in a neighbourhood
school.
It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of
the appropriate government to provide free elementary
education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance
and completion of elementary education to every child in the
six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be
liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which
may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing
elementary education.
It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted
to an age appropriate class.
It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate
Governments, local authority and parents in providing free
and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and
other responsibilities between the Central and State
Governments.
It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to
Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure,
school-working days, teacher-working hours.
It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring
that the specified pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each
school, rather than just as an average for the State or
District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural
imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition
of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other
than decennial census, elections to local authority, state
legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.
It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers,
i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic
qualifications.
It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment;
(b) screening procedures for admission of children; (c)
capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running
of schools without recognition,
It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with
the values enshrined in the Constitution, and which would
ensure the all-round development of the child, building on
the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the
child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of
child-friendly and child centred learning.
 4.Article 24
1. States Parties recognize the right of persons with
disabilities to education. To realize this right without discrimination
and based on equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an
inclusive education system at all levels and lifelong learning directed
to:

a. The full development of human potential and sense of dignity

and self-worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights,
fundamental freedoms, and human diversity;
b. The development by persons with disabilities of their
personality, talents, and creativity, as well as their mental and
physical abilities, to their fullest potential;
c. Enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a
free society.

2. In realizing this right, States Parties shall ensure that:

a) Persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general
education system based on disability, and that child with disabilities
are not excluded from free and compulsory primary education, or
from secondary education, on the basis of disability;
b) Persons with disabilities can access an inclusive, quality and
free primary education and secondary education on an equal basis
with others in the communities in which they live;
c) Reasonable accommodation of the individual’s requirements is
provided;
d) Persons with disabilities receive the support required, within the
general education system, to facilitate their effective education;
e) Effective individualized support measures are provided in
environments that maximize academic and social development,
consistent with the goal of full inclusion.

3. States Parties shall enable persons with disabilities to learn life

and social development skills to facilitate their full and equal
participation in education and as members of the community. To this
end, States Parties shall take appropriate measures, including:

a) Facilitating the learning of Braille, alternative script,

augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of
communication and orientation and mobility skills, and facilitating
peer support and mentoring;
b) Facilitating the learning of sign language and the promotion of
the linguistic identity of the deaf community;
c) Ensuring that the education of persons, and in particular
children, who are blind, deaf or deafblind, is delivered in the most
appropriate languages and modes and means of communication for
the individual, and in environments which maximize academic and
social development.

4. To help ensure the realization of this right, States Parties shall

take appropriate measures to employ teachers, including teachers
with disabilities, who are qualified in sign language and/or Braille, and
to train professionals and staff who work at all levels of education.
Such training shall incorporate disability awareness and the use of
appropriate augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats
of communication, educational techniques, and materials to support
persons with disabilities.

5. States Parties shall ensure that persons with disabilities are

able to access general tertiary education, vocational training, adult
education and lifelong learning without discrimination and on an equal
basis with others. To this end, States Parties shall ensure that
reasonable accommodation is provided to persons with disabilities.

5. Article 39 in The Constitution Of India 1949

Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State: The State
shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing

(a) that the citizens, men, and women equally, have the right to an
adequate means to livelihood;
(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the
community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good;
 (c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in
the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common
detriment;
(d) that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and
women;
(e) that the health and strength of workers, men, and women, and
the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not
forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their
age or strength;
(f) that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in
a healthy manner and conditions of freedom and dignity and that
childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and moral and
material abandonment.

6.Free and Compulsory Education:

The Constitution makes the following provisions under Article 45
of the Directive Principles of State Policy that, “The state shall
endeavour to provide within ten years from the commencement of
this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children
until they complete the age of fourteen years.”

The expression ‘State’ which occurs in this Article is defined in

Article 12 to include “The Government and Parliament of India and
the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all
local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the
control of the Government of India.” It is directed in

Article 45 of the Constitution that the provision of Universal,

Free and Compulsory Education becomes the joint responsibility of
the Centre and the States.

In the Constitution it was laid down that within 10 years, i.e., by

1960 universal compulsory education must be provided for all
children up to the age of 14, But unfortunately, this directive could not
be fulfilled. Vigorous efforts are needed to achieve the target of 100
percent primary education. The Central Government needs to make
adequate financial provisions for the purpose. At the present rate of
progress it may, however, be expected that this directive may be
fulfilled by the end of this century.

7.Article 51A(k): who is a parent or guardian to provide

opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward
between the age of six and fourteen years.

8.Education of Minorities:
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution relates to certain cultural and
educational rights to establish and administer educational institutions.

It lays down:
(i) All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have
the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice.

(ii) The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,

discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is
under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or
language.

9.Language Safeguards:
Article 29(1) states “Any section of the citizen, residing in the
territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script
or culture of its own, hall have the right to conserve the same.” Article
350 B provides for the appointment of a special officer for linguistic
minorities to investigate all matters relating to safeguards provided for
linguistic minorities under the Constitution.

10. Education for Weaker Sections:

Article 15, 17, 46 safeguards the educational interests of the

weaker sections of the Indian Community, that is, socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens and scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes. Article 15 states, “Nothing in this article or in clause
(2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state from making any special
provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally
backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and the
scheduled tribes.”

Under Article 46 of the Constitution, the federal government is

responsible for the economic and educational development of the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

It states. “The state shall promote with special care the

educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the
people and in particular, of the Scheduled castes and Scheduled
Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation.” It is one of the Directive Principles of State Policy.

11. Secular Education:

India is a secular country. It is a nation where spirituality based on

religion, had always been given high esteem. Under the Constitution,
minorities, whether based on religion or language, are given full rights
to establish educational institutions of their choice. Referring to the
constitutional provisions that religious instructions given in institutions
under any endowment or trust, should not be interfered with even if
such institutions are helped the State.

Article 25 (1) of the Constitution guarantees all the citizens the

right to have freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practice,
and propagate religion.

Article 28 (1) states, “No religious instruction shall be provided in

any educational institution if wholly maintained out of state fund.”

Article 28 (2) states, “Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an

educational institution which is administered by the State but has
been established under any endowment or Trust which requires that
religious instruction shall be imparted to such institution.”

Article 28 (3) states, “No person attending any educational

institution by the state or receiving aid out of state funds, shall be
required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imported
in such institutions or to attend any religious worship that may be
conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto
unless such person or, if such person a minor, his guardian has given
his consent thereto.”

Article 30 states, “The state shall not, in granting aid to

educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of
State funds, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any
of them.”

12.Instruction in Mother -Tongue:

There is diversity of languages in our country. After the dawn of
Independence, Mother- Tongues have received special emphasis as
medium of instruction and subjects of study. In the Constitution of
India, it has been laid down that the study of one’s own language is a
fundamental right of the citizens.

Article 26 (1) states, “Any section of the citizens, residing in the

territory of India or any part thereof, having a distinct language, script
or culture of its own, shall have the right to converse the same.”

Article 350 A directs, “It shall he endeavour of every state and

every local authority to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the
mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging
to linguistic minority groups.”

Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 recommended that

the mother tongue or the regional language should generally be the
medium of instruction throughout secondary school stage subject to
the provision that for linguistic minorities, special facilities should be
made available. Kothori Commission, 1964-66 has also said that at
college and university stage, mother-tongue should be the medium.
The medium of instruction at school level is already mother-tongue.
This is not a new proposal.

13. Promotion of Hindi:

 The Indian Constitution makes provision for the development and
promotion of Hindi as national language. Article 351 enjoins the
Union, the duty to promote the spread of the Hindi language.

Hindi accepted as the Official Language of India as laid down

by the Constitution in following words:
“It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the
Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of
expression of all the elements of the composite culture of India.” In
practice, Hindi is already largely in use as a link language for the
country. The educational system should contribute to the acceleration
of this process in order to facilitate the movement of student and
teacher and to strengthen national Unity.

14. Higher Education and Research:

Parliament has the exclusive rights to enact legislation in respect
of institutions and Union Agencies mentioned in entries 63, 64, 65,
and 66 of List. The entries which give authority to the Government of
India in education are mentioned below:

Entry 63 of the Union List:

The institutions known at the commencement of this Constitution
as the Banaras Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim and the Delhi
University, and any other institution declared by Parliament by law to
be an Institution of National importance.

Entry 66 of the Union List:

Co-ordination and determination of standards in an institution for
higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions.

15. Women’s Education:

One of the unique features of Modem Indian Education is the
tremendous advancement of Women’s Education. The education of
the girls is considered to be more important than that of the boys.

The Constitution makes the following provisions under

different articles:
 Article 15(1) provides that the State shall not discriminate against
any citizen on groups only of sex.

Article 15 (3) reads: ”Nothing in this article shall prevent the State
from making any special provision for women and children.”

The well-known National Policy on Education was concerned

about the status and education of women in the country. It envisages
that education would be used as a strategy for achieving a basic
change in the status of women. It opined that the national system of
education must play a positive role in this direction.
The Policy states, “Education will be used as an agent of basic
change in the status of women. To neutralize the accumulated
distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived edge in favour of
women.”

16. Education in the Union Territories:

Article 239 of the Constitution states, “Save as otherwise provided
by Parliament by law, every Union Territory shall be an administrator
by the president acting to such extent as he thinks fit through an
administrator to be appointed by him with such designation as he
may specify.”

17. Educational and cultural relations with foreign countries:

Entry 13 of the Union List reads. Participation in international
conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing
decisions made there at.
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