sbifikeifn 1 1 Sift efrikat a:tikjuleifn voism sil ' gn dif0nn 1 konektid ud spitk vb] astikj —brnnaind frevel ecksent. falaizeifn prosodi reijn fooniun sa bikwnd ton bisl stop tid Porson konsonant simbl daiokritik raw hias su:prasegmentl noiz frikj{n weiv raul d3 mans pitf hed teil wstarisk okse i fort ign difOon glaid levi gwids rekognifn pasepfn risepf kwolati koran! no: susegmentl metrikl vnset veerieifn k haiettas lengwid3 ju:nivais| akarons kompavnd_freiz ilisn_difMon visla_naelatl sdi Atrons. kriOriginalmente publicado como Cuadernos de la Facultad, coleccién Monografias Tematicas N? 16, Facultad de Historia, Geografia y Letras, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educactén, Santiago de Chile, mayo de 1998. © Héctor Ortiz-Lira 1998 Se prohibe toda reproduccién ‘otal o parcial por cualquier medio escrito 0 electrénico sin autorizactén escrita del autor.FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THE THEORY Of PROMINENCE, 3.6 SIN ENGLISH SIMPLE WORDS... CONTENTS Introductio Prominence... Suess and accent Accent and prominence. Degrees of word stress. Word sess notation. Suess shin. Introduction. . Word stress and syllable patterning. Word stress and suffixation. Word stress and grammatical category Word stress in RP and American English Alternative stress patterns Word stress patierns. : Two-syllable words. ‘Three-syliable words. Four-syllable words. Five-syltabie words. Six-syllable words. Seven-syllable words IN ENGLISH COMPOUND WoRD: Introduction. Terminology zi Compound word stress and EFL dictionaries Labels for stress in compounds and coliocations..... Single stress in compounds and coilocations.. RECord player. OXford Street, DEANSgate 5.13 Miscellaneous... “ s ouble stress in compounds and collocations.. 6.1 KiTchen SIN: BOOKshop. 3 RAINdrop... 3 WIRE-tapping, TIME-consuming 3 WALKing stick, LENDing library. 3.5.6 » BLACKboard, RALDhedd.. 3 MOTH-eaten, V-shaped. 3 HOME Sick. 3.5.9 COOKbook, DAYbreak, 3 TAKE-off. 3 BACKground. 3 5. De 3.37 SENTENCE ACCENT. 4.1 Iniroduction. 42 Nuclear accent. 43° Naclearity 44 Nucleus placement theories 4.4.1 The traditional model.. 44.2 The syntactic model. 4.4.3 The semantic model. 44.4 The focal model. 44.4.1. Broad and narrow focus.. 4.4.4.2 Advantages of the focal Appiah 4.4.4.3 Newnes and givenness. 44.4.4 Nucleus placement and givenness... 4.4.4.5 Exceptions 10 LT rule... 44.4.5.1 Event sentence: 44.4.5. Nounstinfinitives. Wh-questions ending with a verb; Final relative clauses. Nouns+adjectives/participics.. ‘Transitive verbstobject+verdal particle. Indirect quesuots.. Subject+passive verb Objects of general referenes.. Final vocallves. pal reporting clauses... nal advcrbials. si 5 Other pattems in broad and narrow foc NOTES ese : REFERENCES PRACTICE MATERIAL... BAby BOY. BUCKingkam PALac: APple PIE so COMpect DISC, SECond-HAND, BRAND-NEW... i OLD-FASHioned.... HAM-FISTed, HOME-MADE. ROLLIng STONE. DARK BLUE... PeRSAbROR 5.6.10 3.6.11 3.6.12 ‘Three-word. compounds... 7 3.7.1 SECond World WAR. 3.7.2 moming AFter pille« 3.7.3 MERRY-go round,Word sess ond sentence cccnt sinracnanscsnecencsN AS Se mmnannmenenneene (7) PRESENTATION The materials contained in this booklet have been designed to meet the needs of the sudents who ave taking the last courses in English phonetics at teacher-training college level. We intend 10 offer the latest theory available in a way which is accessible 10 sudents, together with plenty of practice material for marking ‘und reading This booklet is divided into four main sections. In the first, an analysis is carried out of the basic notions related to prominence: in the second, the problem of stress in simple words is revisited; the third addresses the topic of stress in compounds, and in the fourth, postlexical (or sentence) accentuation is examined in detail. We are aware that the students’ success in matters of prosody is particularly influenced by their mother tongue, and that is why constant comparison with Spanish is made, in an effort to point out differences and similarities. A final appendix contains practice material for users to analyse and mark. This, together with the examples in the chapters, represents the largest collection of data on the subject ever published for EFL purposes. A key to the exercises together with a casseite containing the majority of the examples in the text are also available, PRESENTACION El material de este cuaderno ha sido diseftado con el fin de satisfacer las nécesidades de los alumnos de los tilimos cursos de fonética inglesa a nivel universitario. Es nuestro pro- pésito ofrecer los més recientes contenidos tedricos de una manera que reculie accesible a los alumnes, ademas de abundante material para practicar lectura y ejercitar marcacién. Eltrabojo std dividido en cuatro secciones. En la primera, se analican las nociones bésicas relacionadas con prominencia; en la segunda, se revisa el tema de la acentuacién en palabras simples; la tercera parte desarrolta ta aceniuacién de palabras compuestas, y la quarta examina en detalle le acentuacién contextual. Estamos cons- cientes de que la lengua materna ejerce particular influencia sobre tos resul- tados que logran los alumnos en ‘materia de prosodia y es por eso que, en un esfuerzo por resaltar diferencias ‘ysimilitudes entre las dos lenguas, se Tecurre a constantes comparaciones con el casiellano, El apéndice al final del texto comtiene material de préctica para ser analicado y marcado. Este, junto con los ejemplos de tos captulos, representa el mayor corpus publicado para propésitos de ensenanca. Existe una clave para los ejercicios y wa grabacisn en casete de la mayoria de los ejemplos.Word stress ond sentence occent Ante 1 Fundamental concepis of the theory of prominence Lt Intropucrion In this opening chapter we shall look al various concepts which are coniral to a theory of promincnce. This includes an analysis of notions such as stress, accent and prominence, a discussion of the thorny issue of degrees of stress, notation systems for stress and accent, and finally a re-examination of siress shill, Since we are catering for learners whose mather tongue is Spanish, constant reference to similar problems in that language is included in our discussion. 1.2 PROMINENCE The first task we must embark upon is to clucidate the distinction between the notions responsible for highlighting portions of utterance, We shall begin by analysing the most basic of the concepis, that of prominence.’ When we spoak we give more emphasis to some parts of an ultcranes than to others. We can make a syllable siand out with respect to its neighbouring syllables in a word, and in doing so the word containing that particular syllable will stand out with respect to the rest of the words in the uticrance. The clements which produce prominence at syllable level are: ()) pitch contrast, (ii) loudness, (iii) length and (iv) quality. As with all aspezts of speech, these conretates can be described and defined in articulatory, acoustic and auditory terms, i.c. from the point of view of the person (speaker) who produces prominence, from the physical viewpoint (hat i8, sound wave ochaviour), and from the listencr’s angle (ic. the way he perecives prominence). In the EPL situation acoustic criteria seem to be of limited application and consequently we shall concentratc on the production and, more particularly, on the reception stages, rather than on the transmission phase. E21 prc Differences in pitch are produced al the vocal folds: the tenser the vocal folds, the faster they vibrate, and de higher the now that is produced an articulatory characterisation. Bub ‘we cannot actually feel Our vocal folds vibrating faster or slower. What we hear is a higher or lower note. So articulatorily pitch depends mainly on the wension and consequent raie of vibration of the vocal folds. Auditorily, it is that property of a sound, in terms of which it can be placed ona scale running from high to tow. 1.2.2, Loupness From an articulatory point of view, loudness is caused by greater muscular energy and. breath force. Auditorily, it is defined as that property of a sound which enables us, using only our ears, to place iton a scale going from loud to soft. So the speaker feels this feature in one way extra cnorgy- and th: Hstoner hears it in another way ~cxtra loudness,Héctor Ortiz Lira {ARAN AB NAA NNN 1.2.3, Lunar Itis not necessary for our purposes to define length from the pointof view of the person who produces it. Auditorily, itis that property of a sound which enables us, using only our cars, to place it on a scale that goes from long to short. 1.2.4 Quantry Articulatorily, quality depends on the shape of the cavitios or resonators (mainly the mouth), whose function is to modily -sometimes amplify, sometimes suppress— the almost inauditle note produced at the vocal folds (commonly known as ‘voice’ but more appropriately, vocal fold vibration). Auditorily, quality is defined as that feature in terms of which two sounds, similarly presented and having the same pitch, loudness and length, are still perceived as different; we say that [2] and (az, for instance, differ in terms of quality. In English, syllables containing (0), (i), [u] and syllabie consonants are normally pereaived a5 weak; te vowels, 7] and [ol glay’a dual role, and the est are strong, Another way of referring to these two types of vowels is full and reduced. ‘The following table summarizes the auditory correlates of prominence. c.g. Correlates Syllables pret high 6 low LOUDNES: loud «> soft LENTIL long «short QUALITY strong weak Awe analyse the tie of this chapter from the point of view of prominence, we will most probably conclude that there are four syllables which stand out from the rest. Here we show them in small capitals, c.g. FUNdamental CONcepts of the ‘THEOTY of PROMIncnee. These four syllables are made prominent mainly because they contain strong vowel sounds produced with relatively grater loudness and, more important, with pitch movement or contrast.’ Tn sum, all four elements can play a part in making a syllable stand out over the rest. They co not all play an equally important part, though, nor are all four always present together. In the example above there are also cight non-prominent syllables. ‘These are, from Teftto right, -de-, -ral, of, the, -ry, af, -in-, -ence, all of which consist of weak vowels or, in the case of “tal, absence of vowel. There are two syllablés which are more prominent than the eight weak ones, bul less prominent than the first four we analysed, c.g. -men- und -cepts. These two contain the strong vowel [e], and il is fairly possible that in a normal reading of the utieranco, a native speaker would identify syllable-men- with some kind of a ‘thythmic beat’, i.e. a combination of extra loudness and length. The really prominent syllables arc so identified because they display the most decisive of the elements producing prominence ~pitch contrast. ‘There is a notation system called ‘interlinear tonctic’, which is a type of narrow tcanscriplion for intonation. in which cach syllable is represented by a dot; a large. Got indicates a prominent syllable; a smal! dot, @ non-prominent one. Since the upper Tine corresponds to the speaker's lop pitch range and the otiom line to his bottam pitch range, itWn i id ian oon seccmnncnonennnsitcnnn i eS a maaancemamaacny (7) follows that the pitch of cach individual syllable, prominent ard non-prominent, can be shown. In the following diagram the size and hight of cach syllable indicator represent only relative values, ¢.g.- (1.1) fandomentl konsepts ov 80 Grori av prominans 1.3. STRESS AND ACCENT ‘The labels stress and accent have along tradition in prosodic studies but it is oaly since the beginning of the seventies that the majority of phoncticians have come to agree on the notions they refer to. Whereas prominence is exclusively a phonetic notion ‘uscd to refer to the general distinctivenoss of an utterance of any length’ (Crystal, 1969: 120), stress and accent have phonological status. In this booklet we are also using prominence as blanket term which covers all phenemene related to tho highlighting of sylables in words tind Of words in longer utterances; hence the tile of the chaptor. Important differences can be established between stress and accent, In the first place, stress is a feature of the word, a lexical abstraction or a decontoxtualised form whic becomes concrete realisation only if the word gets an acceat in an uticrance; henes, accent a feature of the utterance, i.c. a concrete, contextualised category. ‘This makes accent an observable phenomenon, as opposed to stress, which is merely analytical, To sum up, stress isa potential for accent and accent is an exponent of stre: Let us explain the above in practical terms. Dictionaries give every word of two or more. syllables a stress mark; each stress pattern represents not only an entry in the dictionary but also an entry in our mental lexicon, i.c. each word is stored in our mind in the form’ of a pattom of sounds (ie. a phonemic pattern) and a pattern of prominences (i.c. a stress pattem); in more technical terms, stress is a phonological propery of words.’ Stcsscs in words, however, cannot guarantee that the word will get an accent in a particular context, since this will depend on tivo main factors —the rhythmic structure of the utterance, as will be explained in §1.7— und pragmatio-discoursel principles, which regulats accenwalion according to (i) word classes content words are much more acceatable than structural words, Gi) the information structure of the utterance (roughly, words representing. information got an accent while those conveying given information tend not to), and language specific rules which, in the case of English, assign more accents to nouns than to verbs in particular constructions. (Sce chapter 4.) Monosyilables are never shown bearing stresses in dictionaries. This docs not mean that they do not have a stress but simply that showing tho stress on the only syllable available would be redundant. This explains why an unstressed dictionary form may very well nood an accent in a given context, as is the case in STRESS and ACcent have been NEAR SYNonyms Jor a LONG Tis, where a normal reading would assign accent to four monosyliabies,Héctor Oris Lira (2) mss HHOANANANANIMANATANISH ARAL ‘The fact that words make use of pitch contrast in ultcranees in order to convey prominence -a festue they do not display al lexical, decontextualised level has made various authors differentiate between siress and accent according to which of the correlaics of prominence is the most dominant feature. Therefore, they define accent as a feature of prominence whose main perceptual component is pitch change; this has originated the tem ‘pilch accent’, widely used in modern descriptions; by way of contrast, they define stress as a feature of prominence in which the dominant perceptual component is loudness. According ‘o this view, in (1.1) the first thee prominent syllables hear stress, and the lasl, accent Followers of this view are. A.C. Gimson (1962). Crystal (1969), Lehisie (1970), O'Connor & Arnold (1973), and Cruttenden (1997) 14 Ac ENT AND PROMINENCE, As was pointed out earlier, tho most casily perceived type of prominence is pitch prominence: signalled by changes in pitch; but since pitch contrast also happens to he the main indicator of accent, the two phenomena, accent and prominence, are often confused in certain contexts, In this Section we shall attempt to point out the danger implied and clear up this confusion, There are three main places in an intonation group* where pitch prominence an be confused with pitch accent. The first occurs just aftcr the lasi (nuclear) accent, particularly if the prominent syliabl is said on a relatively high pitch, e.g. some in example (1.2), or if it performs a rising pitch movement after an accented fall, e.g. does in (1.3). In interlinear notation, prominent syllables are marked as 0, e.g. (1.2) dju wont sam (1.3) bobi daz ° Confusion between accent and prominence in this position is the most troublesome of all, since the major part of the meaning of the whole utterance is conveyed by the portion beginning at the last accent (technically known as ‘nuclear tone’). Wha is crucial in our theory is that neither of these prominent syilables is accented because they do not initiate Bitch contrat, but simply complicit some completes a rise and docs, the sing end of a all-rise. We shall say that a syllable is accented when it begins pitch contrast. As can be seen in the interlinear representation of examples (1.2) and (1.3) (Contextualised below as (1.4) and (1.5), respectively), the last accents -WAWT and BOB-— are actually beginning pit movement: the former, a movement ‘up-from’ and the latter, @ movement. ‘down- from Spanish learners often mistake prominent syllables lor accented ones at the end of utterances, Particularly when a rising tone is involved, which resulls in an unmistakable sign of foreign accent, cf. (1.4) ‘These grapes are deLicious. D'you WANT some? (*D' you went SOME?) (15) At Nobody ever WRITES to her. B: BOBby does. (*Bobby DOES.) Ambiguity between accent and prominence can also take place before the first accent inWord stress and sentence accent AEAULA Lea the intonation-group, in the stretch of utterance technically known as ‘pre-head’, and it involves. words which are of the unaccentable type and usually take weak-form pronunciations, e.g. pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, ctc., as in (1.6) tt dgast didnt oka: Here the syllables it just are prominent but unaccented. The first pilch accent is ‘step-down’ on did and the nuclear accent -cur, as a movement ‘down-from’. In normal circumstances, the first two syllables would be very near the ‘baseline’ ic. slightly above the boltom pitch. (This high, though unaccented, stretch of utterance conveys an emphatic clfect.) Examples such as There are NO possiatlities! [Sara nau posabilatizi and You'dl've THOUGHT it was FEAsible! [jud av Oo:t it waz fizzabl/ can be said with a pitch pattern very similar to that in (1.6), particularly if a protesting overtone was to be attachod; both can begin with two high (therefore prominent), unaccented syllables. Finally, ambiguity between prominence, and accent can occur when the first pitch accent, which indicates the beginning of the * head” *, and the last pitch accent, which is the nucleus, form a sequence of level tones, either high or low. The accentual status of any other prominent syllables occurring between these two accenls will be obscured by the absence of pitch contrast, as is the case of the syllahles ask- and who's in It's NO good ASKing WHO'S fo BLAME, Some authors refer to these syllables as ‘tertiary stresses’, since stresses do not involve pitch prominence. In the present analysis we shall leave the question unsolved and rofer to these syllables as either accented or prominent, Fortunately, in this position in the intonation-group, the neutralisation of the contrast does not have any practical clfect o.g. realised as a (1.7) its nev gud askin hu:z ta blerm The pitch accents in a head such as that in example (1.1), sometimes refered to as, ‘stepping head’, form a series of steps-down in which they do in fact iniGete a movement and will be considered accents In summary, (i) rotall prominent syllables are accented, and (ii) the majority of accented syllables are prominent, though given the phonological status of accent— il is periecily possibic to find accented syllables which are perceived as non-prominent and, in oxime cases, accented syllables which are hardly perceived at all, c.g. the gesture which realises the first accented syllable in Jones” much quoted utterance Thank you pronounced [kKkju] (1956: 245). The formulaic overtone implied by syllable thant siarling rising movement from a rather low pitch makes the listener perceive only the second, prominent syllable, you. (Gones said there was a subjective stress on the first double consonant.) This solution posesdct Ort ira another problem for the identification of accent, that of the ‘subjective effort” hypothesi: ‘The view is disputed by phoncticians who deny the possibility of considering syllable which are not perceived by the listener. We can think Of similar patterns in Spanish, c.g. jClarof as an answer implying the obvious, with a very low, voiccless first syllable. Th interlinear notation of the English utterance shows a prominent syllable only, c.g, (8) k kju ° The native speaker and listener do not always depend on the same clues as the foreign student for the perception of accent. When two native speakers communicate, they ant sharing the same linguistic code, and consequently will make judgements based no on what Uhy actually hear, but on what they know they should hear: From this point of view, the native lisiener’s perception of accent is subjective as it is influenced by his previous Knowledge of the language. He normally knows where accent is and will scidom confuse it with promincnce. This type of confusion may lead to ambiguity. 1.5 DEGREES OF WORD STRESS The question of how many levels of stress can be distinguished in English words is not without problems. The same ean be said of Spanish, for that matter. Spanish speakers are normally aware of the existence of one syllable in every word (of more than one syllable) which they identify as accented: this is the syllable carrying primary stress. The oxistence of other (secondary) stresses in relatively longer words is an aspect of Spanish phonology native speakers tend not to be aware of, and one on which linguists do not fully agree. ‘The existence of at least two degrees of stress in certain English words of «wo or more syllables is an issue more firmly settled. The traditional American school of prosody accounts for four degrees primary, secondary, tertiary and weak (e.g. Trager & Smith, 1951: 37). Chomsky & Halle (1968: 16) speak of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary or zero. In the British school, Kingdon (1958b) recognises the existence of three. Ucgrecs ~primary. secondary and weak or unstressed, The lates. version (1989) of the IPA (international Phonetic Association) alphabot provides marks for two degrees only, primary and secondary. OF the two pronouncing dictionaries published in Britain in the 90's, LPD (Wells, 1990: 683) recognizes three main degrees of siress (primary, secondary and trary) plus two further degrees, which are typical of syllables carrying no stress marks but which, have a strong vowel (fourth degree) and a weak vowel (Lifth degrec). Although EPD (Jones, Roach & Hartman, 1997: xii) recognizes three levels, it finally sticks 10 only two in order 6 avoid unnecessary complexity. Roach (1991) operates with three primary and secondary stress and prominent syllables. Lastly, GPE (Gimson & Cruttenden, 1994) distinguishes four degrees primary, secondary, full vowel and reduced vowel-, but al citation level, however, it operates with only two marks, one lor primary and one for secondary. ‘The following table shows the various levels of word stress according t9 GPE (1994), LPD (1990) and the present author:Word stress and sentence accent ALA GPE LPD This_work L primary stress, primary stress primary stress 2 secondary stress secondary stress Sccondary stress 3 fall vowel tertiary stress prominent syllable 4° reduced vowel strong vowel on-prominent syllable 5 weak vowel ‘Only two degrees of stress will be accounted for and conscquently marked in the present analysis, ‘These two stresses have phonological status, i.e. their distribution in the word, togolher with the phonemic pattern that is, each word taken asa sequence of phonemes and stresscs~ specify the phonological information with which the lexical item is recorded in the mental lexicon. The other two types of syllable, prominent and non-promineat, ar: mere i |. A syllable is prominent when it contains a sirong, vowel or displays (but does not initiate) some kind of pitch movement or performs a thythmie beat If we want to establish a correlation between degrees of stress, as a purely lexical feature, and accent, 2s a contextual feature, we can conclude that primary stresses ar the most logical candidates for nuciear accents and that secondary stresses can become nuclear accents only in utterances implying some kind of contrast. (Problems related to accentuation in contexts will be analysed in chapter 4.) This type of difference between primary and secondary stresses is, then, of a functional nature; another view would be to differentiate between them in sirictly phonetic terms and say that one is stronger (or weaker) than the other. A characterisation in perceptual terms is, however, subjective and liable to lead us into difficulty. The following diagram shows the possible correlations, starting from the least marked (i.c. ‘normal’) contexts; -> means ‘can he realised as’. c.g. Lexical level Contextual level primary stress > nuclear accent, prenuclear accent, unaecented sylluble in pre-head and tail; secondary stress > prenuclesr accent, unaecented syllable in pre-head and tail, nuclear accent in contrastive contexts; prominent syllable, ~> —unaccented syllable in pre-heaé and tail, nuclear accent in very contrastive contexts; non-prominent syllable _-> _unaccented syllable in pro-head and tail. 1.6 Worn stRess NOTATION Phoncticians have. used different notation systems to represent word stress. Some of them show primary stresses only, while others show primary and sccondary stress nolations ae of a more phonological nature, whereas others, more phorctically indicate tho pitch movement which normally accompanies siressed syllables usually a falling tone on the last, primary stress. The following are the most common types:Héctor Ort ire 1.6.1. The syllable carying primary stress is capitalised; tho secondary stress is loft unmarked, eg. PronunciAtion, BAby sitter, plum PUDding 1.6.2 The stressed syllable is underlined; cither the primary only or both, primary und ‘ondary siresses, can be shown, e.g * pronunciation, pronundation, baby sitter, plum pudding, plum pudding 1.6.3. The stressed syllables are assigned numbers, 1 for prima etc.; other numbers can be used to indicate further degrees of stress, €. 2 for secondary, baby sitter, plam pudding, brand-new car, elevator operator 1.6.4 Stress marks are placed cither before or on top of cach syllable bearing the Stress; several sub-systems can be identified, among which the system that uses " for Primary stress and , for secondary is the most widespread in BFL dictionaries and other reference books produced in the UK; these marks have been recommended hy the IPA far over 70 years. The tonetic-stress marking system invented by Kingdon (1939) continues to be the most widely used in intonation courses produced in Britain, c.g. 1.6.4.1 (‘=primary, , =secondary,. =tertiary) sdecon, tamination, ‘baby sitter, 'baby sitter, 'baby , siticr 1.6.4.2 (~ =primary, ' =secondary) 'decon'tam? nation, “baby sitter, plum pudding, ‘plum ‘pudding 1.6.4.3 (> =primary,' =secondary,, =tertiary) ‘decon, tamination, “ele, vator ‘ope.rator, “black, board ‘rubber 1.6.4.4 (“ =primary, * = secondary, * = tertiary) décontimindtion, White House, white héuse (=not a brown onc), élevAlor SperMlor 1.6.5 All syllables are accounted for in ‘inteelincar notation’ -a sort of pictorial, narrow transcription indicating steesses/accents and pitches. The conventions are as fellows! alarge tailed dot = primary stress; a large filled dol = secondary stress; a large mply dot = prominent syllable; a small dol = non-prominent syllable. ‘This transcription was originally invented o show intonation, but at this point we shall use it to indicate word siress. In (1.9), lwo words are transcribed with their citation pronunciation, which normally implies falling intonation ~first with tonetic-stress marks and then in interlinear notation, e.g. (1.9) ‘di:part'mentl ‘di:kon'tamimeit e0%) o-% 1.6.6 (@ =primary, @ = secondary, o = prominent, « = non-prominen). This notation,Wor a it tana mee SC tr eT icone (TB) sometimes referred to as ‘tadpole’, is a simplification of the inteslinear notation; it accounts for all four types of syllable with no indication of pitch movement, c.g. brand-new car © 0 ® differentiate © +6 +0 In this work we shall normally ui the tonetic stress marking system, a sort of broad transcription which fulfills two roles: it displays accenwation by prescnee and pitch movement according to the shape of the mark; as explained before, prominence is left anmarked. The pictorial nature of the notation, which makes it relatively casy 10 interpret, together with the economy represented by the small number of marks it Consists of, explain why the system has been successfully adopted in various intonation courses. ‘The use of * for primary stress shows the normal association of this stress with a falling nuclear tone, typical of citation forms. For instance, the citation pronunciation of the word departmental Pein t°mentl/ contains all four levels of prominence/stress. If we number the syllables from 1 (left) to 4 (right) we find that syllable | bears sceondary stress; syllable 2 is prominent; syllable 3 has primary stress, and syllable 4 is non-prominent. Notice, however, that in the cilation pattern of the phrase departmental meeting /'di:pa:tment! “mistig/ the syllable starting pitch contrast is no longer the third syllable, but the first. This phenomenon is explained in the next scction. 17 STR SHIFT By definition, a syllable bearing primary stress is the one. which normally initiates pitch contrast; a secondary stress is less likely to be pitch contrast initiator, but it can certainly play that role. when the. rhythmic pressure of the context (ic. the neighbouring prominences) causes the redistribution of stresses called ‘stress shift’. This change of roles is the result of the tendeney in English to separate strong, primary stresses by weak, unstressed syllables. AA similar tendency is not unknown in Spanish. The problem is that there is still fairly amount of research to be done in order to identify the accentual behaviour of double-siresscd items which reverse their stress patterns in a way similar to English when used in connected speech. This would explain why a word such as 'veinti “cuatro, wilh two potential stresses, becomes ‘veiniicuatro “mil, and why the question ¢Estds de ‘acuerdo? can cither got the answer Abso ‘luta* mente or Abso ‘lutamente de acuerdo. This tendency towards stress shilt scemis more noticeable in English than in Spanist. The pressure exerted by adjacent stresses jn Spanish, for instanco, would make an English speaker say the names “Ivan, “Torres and ‘Fidel ° Castro, rather than the normal Spanish pattems [ ‘van “Torres and Fi ‘del “Castro. Other patiems, of the BBC type "bi: bi: ‘si, "be be “se/—are the same in both languages, eg. JVC, KLM, FBI, etc. Stress shift in English affects both simple and compound words whose citation pattem consists of a secondary siress followed by a primary stress in the same word. This double- stress pattern, however, accommodates {0 the pattem of stresses which procede and follow in the text, in such a way thal stresses on consecutive (or almost consecutive) syllables art avoided. For instance, tne accentuation of the phrase preconceived ideas comes from the citation patterns ‘precon’ceived +i deas. The resulting pattem is, however, ‘preconceived ideas, in which syllable pre-, originally carrying secondary stress, becomes the only pitch movement initiator in the word, and the original primary Stwess, -ceived, becomes a mere rhythmic beat for which there is no mark available in’ our system, 7 (In other notation systems a mark is provided for these. prominent syllables.) This stress pattern reflects theHéctor Onis Lig attributive function of the adjective, ic. the adjective premodilics the head of the NP. In Your i 'deas are precon*ceived the adjective is predicative, ic. itis part of the predicate, and consequently it is the secondary stress on pre- which is lost. Othor examples’ with double~ stressed simple words aro, 0.g. (1.10) citation forms: ‘atmos “pheric, ‘audio “visual, ‘auto°matic awibutiveuse: ‘Let's di 'scuss ‘atmospheric “pressure ‘Why not ‘use ‘audiovisual “aids We 'made the ‘rip on ‘automatic > Predicative use: The ‘music was ‘highly atmos “pheric The ‘system we use is audio ‘visual The ‘process is ‘fully auto‘ matic Double-stressod compounds can also be subject to stress shift when used as adjectives or advorbs, cither atributively or predicatively, c.g. (111) citation form: ‘double “decker attributive use: 'Double-decker ‘buses are ‘typically ~British predicative uso: 1 love double-“deckers (1.12) citation form: 'second-"hand attributive use: I'm ‘talking about ‘second-hand ‘furniture predicative use: The ‘books were ‘bought second-hand (113) citation form: —yetl-"formed aunbutive use: This is an e 'xample of a ‘well-formed ~sentence predicativeuse: Sentences ‘must be well-formed Similarly, proper names and names represented by initials can also undergo stress shift in the same conditions, e.g, (1.14) citation form: ‘Pica “dilly auributive use: Let's ‘go to ‘Piccadilly Circus predicative use: She ‘lives near Piccadilly (1.15) citation form: 'C SD aliributive use: The ‘new ‘version's on 'CD “Rom predicative use: I ‘have iton C*D Stress shift also affects phrasal verbs, the citation pattems of which consist of two stresses, ¢.g. (1.16) citation form: "come ‘out altributive use: The ‘pictures ‘came out “wellMord sens and sntence accent momannnrnnsnnnacn Ett tt enamtnanencncanne (17) predicalive use: The ‘pictures ‘didn't come “out A small group of single-, latc-suressed adjectives, exhibit a similar wndency. Their predicative pattem is the same as their citation pattem *, c.g. (1.17) citation forms: excess, compact, di “rect alributiveus: We ‘had to ‘pay ‘excess “baggage I'd ‘like to ‘buy her a ‘compact “disc A ‘transitive ‘verb takes a ‘direct “object (1.18) predicative use: I'ma 'fraid he ‘smokes to ex°cess The ‘new ‘flat is 'very compact We ‘went 10 the ‘beach direct The above ulso ozcurs in a number of single-siressed place names, c.g (1.19) citation forms: Ber “in, Bel fast atitutive use: ‘When was the ‘Berlin “Wall knocked down? He ‘ives on ‘Belfast “Avenue predicative use: We ‘went through ‘East Ber” lin The ‘capital of ‘Northern ‘Ireland's Belfast Finally, short phrases containing two stresses and which combine with further stressed material can also be affected by stress shifi, c.g. (1.20) ‘very “warm + "welcome = a ‘very warm “welcome (21) Mairly “new + ere*ation = a \jairlynew ere “ation (1.22) 'good “night + kiss = a 'goodnight ~kiss (1.23) a 'hard “day + night = = a ‘hard day's (1.24) a "lot “more + rain = a ‘iotmore “rain (1.25) a ‘lot “less + *money = a lot less “money (1.26) 'not “very + much = ‘not very “much (1.27) ‘much “more + at™ention = ‘much more at*tention (1.28) Yor “less +ex°citing ‘far less exciting (1.29) ‘quire a ~bit + “older = ‘quite a bit “older (1.30) ‘very “little + time ‘very little “timeHéctor Ort Lice ‘suman ee goes dll nn ANNES 2 Stress in English simple words 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The first thing that necds to be clarified is to state what we understand by simple word. Strictly speaking, a simple word is onc which is made up of a single grammatical unit called scm, ¢.g, photograph, judge. Derivatives such as photography, photographic and pre- Judgement are not, technically speaking, simple words, but complex, becituse they contain alfixes (cithor prefixes andior suffixes). For EFL purposes, howover, it will be better 0 consider all three cxamples as simple words. Stress in compounds will be dealt with in chapter 3 The second aspe (© the way in which Spanish speakers can Icam English stress patiems. The two main views on the subject are that () ke rules that govern English stress placement in words are so complicated, that students had beuer lear the patiern of cach word as they learn the word itself; (ii) the Icamor should keop in mind the most common nukes that predict stress placement in words and apply thom whenever necessary: these are phonological rules, which establish relationships between phonemic palteming and stress (in §2.2 stress is related to English vowols), and morphological rules, which indicate the relationship between suffixes and stress (sec §2.3) end also between grammatical class and stress, ¢.8. “progress (noun)~ pro “gress (verb; sce §2.4). A further rule, which has to do with etymology, predicts stress placement according to whether the word is, for instance, of Germanic, Greck or Latin origin. However, given that our students of English arc, on the whole. not familiar with dizchronic studies, we shall not take up this analysis. Finally, a special difficulty is met with stress variation —the stress patiem of a few words depends on British vs. American preference and, furthermore, RP speakers sometimes vary in the strss pattern they use. the result being that a few words have altemative patterns (sc §2.5 and §2.6, respoctively.) Spanish speakers are recommended to make use of as many different types of information as possible in order to predict stress placement in simple words. They should also beaware of the large number of exceptions to the rules. Rules and main exceptions are analysed in the next scetions.” 2.2 WORN STRESS AND SYILAQLI: PATTERNING The English phonological yowel system may be said to consist of two separate subsysicms, ‘strong and weak, cach one corelating with syllable siress. ‘Thus, whercas stressed syllables can only have sirong vowels, unstressed syllables can be made up of either Suong or weak vowels. In the table below, the column ‘stressed’ indicates what vowel Phonemes can gei a siress in English syllables; the last two columns indicate what vowels make syllables either ‘prominent’ or ‘non-promineat’. The following conclusions may be drawn from the table: (| Any vowel apart from /2, i, w/—the so-called ‘unstressable vowels’ may occur with either a primary or sccondary stress, /i, u/ are not to be confused with fiz, ud, c.g. bikini for kivnil. The rest of the vowels may be siresscd or unstressed.Word suees ond sentence accent onmcrcennecmsmnaa te mance (ii) All long vowels and certain short vowels always make syllables prominent; this means that thoy arc inherently prominent. (iil) A, v/ belong to both subsystems. For instance, in the word minimum /'minimam/, Jv plays the part of a strong vowel in syllable 1 and a weak vowel in the next syllable. Syllables containing /i, u/ arc prominent if they are stressed; this is because thesc vowels do not have inherent prominence. The last four types of syllables are always considered non- prominent. prominent _non-prominent Strong vowels (long): is . . a: : : o . . ur . . 3 . . all diphthongs . . Strong vowels (short): 1 ° . ‘ « : . ¢ * . v ® o 5 ‘ Z Weak vowels: i a j . o 2 a . 5 . syllabic consonants : Other rules help predict stress in words depending on the phonological structure of the. syllable involved. For instance, in the verbs supply, prefer, explain, vtc., the stress coincides with a long vowel, whereas in vary, differ, ctc., the final short vowels. are unstressed. Something similar occurs with the’ nouns control, desire, debate, on the onc hand, and with story, metre, apricot, on the other. Still other rules are based on the number of syllables and final consonants a word has. This type of information is probably the mostHéctor Ore Lire complicated to remember, but experience has shown that the meaningful element is brought into the discussion. For instar Kk is made if a more 2 comparison of long Spanish cognate words with the corresponding English forms may help learners fix stress patterns in their minds, e.g. English vorb forms ending in -ate(d), and Spanish forms in -ar, -ado, ctc. bring out marked differences, as in (2.1) “complicate, “complicated compli car, compli” cado decorate, “decorated deco rar, deco” rado “modify, ‘modified modifi car, modifi cado “satisfy, “satisfied satisfa” cer, satis “fecho | “organize, organized organi” zar, organi *zado i realise, realised realizar, reali” zuclo ify (ified), ‘ise(d), cw. In general, English three-syllable words have a strong tendency to bear stress on the =antepenultimate syllable. '° In the next section, the influenee of suffixes on word stress is Jooked at in greater depth 2.3. WORD STRESS AND SUFFIXATION Word siress is partly predicted from morphology. This means that the addition of suffixes will determine stress placement according to whether the suffix leaves the stem pattern unaliered, or whether it attracts stress towards itself, or shilts it to the preceding syllable. The following are among the most productive examples: 2.3.1 SUBFIXES NOT AFI ECTING STEM STRESS -able,-ible _re“ly, reliable; “notice, ‘noticeable; di” vide, divisible ful “plenty, “plentiful; for “get, forgetful less colour, “colourless; re*gard, re “gardless -by ‘passionate, ‘passionately; “separate, “separately -ment “manage, “management; develop, de “velopment -ness de“ cisive, decisiveness; “arbitrary, “arbitrariness Exceptions: admire, “admirable; Elect, eligible; neglect, “negligible. Also in ielligible 2.3.2 SUMMIXES ATTRACTING STRESS “ee address, caldress" ee; “interview, ‘interviewee ~ese journal, journal “ese; Japan, Japan ese ete disc, di~skeite; “laundry, ‘launder ette 2.3.3 SUPPIXES REJECTING STRESS ‘The following suffixes reject “ic artist, aF tistic; economy, ‘eco? nomic: -ion © blige, ‘obli*gation; inspire, ‘om pare, “comparable; prefer, “preferable ress to the immediately preceding syllable, cg.Word stress ond sentence accent sececnnacnncsicnsunn SE et et Set cmaamnmacnenanecae (2) sity “curious, ‘curiosity; “solemn, solemnity Exceptions: - “Arab, “Arabic. Also arithmetic, “catholic, “lunatic, politic, “rhetoric: Leamers are well-advised to pay attention to the rules governing the so-called ‘stress alternations” resulting from the addition of affixes to stems so as to form relatsel words. ‘Tho application of phonological rules may cause changes in both the pattern of phonemes and stress placoment. An examination of the correspondence between phoneme and spelling reveals that vowels vary with stress. ‘These rules may provide students with futher clues to predict stress patterns. In the following cxamples. the tadpole notalions da not indicate prominent, unstzessed vowels, as in diplomat /*diplamaet/, c.g. 22) (+) Ger) © @ms diplomat diplomacy diplomatic photograph —__photogrophy photographic benefit beneficence beneficial democrat democracy democratic polities political politician competence competitor competition. (2.3) (w) * ©: explain explanation compete competition incline inclination derive derivation repeat repetition invite invitation 2.4 WORD STRESS AND GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY Stress placement may distinguish between certain nouns and adjectives, on the one hand. and verbs, on the other, most of which are two-syllablo words with identical spellings and identical or similar phonemic patiers. This is one of the easiest rules for the prediction of stress placement which learners can put into practice. All they have to remember is: that nouns and adjectives take stress on the first syllable and verbs on the second. Notice that @ similar rule operates in the Spanish noun “rérmino and we adjective “wiliime and the corresponding verbs ter mino, termi°né, ul Yimo, ulti ~mé. In this Section we shall examine 40 of the most common pairs. In the majority of cases, the unstressed syllable of the verb contains a weak vowel (¢.g. suspect /Sa°spekU/, contest /kan test, bul this tendency is not So strong with nouns and adjectives, since the unstressed syllables of these words ary prominent, c.g. /kontest/, /sAspekt/, as can be soon it (24) accent annex attribute conduct conflict contest —_comtruct contrast convert convict decrease defect. — desert —estort exploit export extract frequent object perfect permit pervert present produce ‘progress project protesi_—_ rebel record subject survey suspectHéctor Ortiz Lira Ina few cases it is only the stress pattern which distinguishes bewween noun and ver, as in the pair /impoit/ (n.) ~ fim post (¥.). Similarly: (2.5) dictate digest discount — increase — insult torment " transport 2.5 WORD STRESS IN RP AND AMERICAN ENGLISH ‘There is noticeable variation in stress placement between British and Ami particularly in words of French origin. In general, the tendency here place the primary stess on the last syllable, following a more ‘French’ pronunciation, $0 to speak, whereas the British prefer an carly stress. The following is a list containing the most, common examples of two-, three-, and four-syllable words. They are mostly nouns, with a few adjectives, e.g. 2.5.1 TWOSYLLABLE WORDS RP ~ AmE wo ce) hallet, beret, brochure, café, cliché, collage, coupé, crochet, debris, detail, gateau, glacé, paté, plaiea, précis, premiere, sacket, vaccine; (®) (o>) Verbs in -aie: dictaie, donate, locate, migrate, vibrate, cte.; moustache, stewardess, trachea; 2.5.2 TUREE-SYLLABLI worDs fw) (@+@) attaché. fiancée): ee) (e+e) cabaret emigré, matings, protégé, resumé: (@re) (H+) cigarette, magazine, margarine, souvenir 2.5.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS. (665+) (eer) advertisement (Fee) (wees) laboratory enw Gee) aluminium A further difference hetween British and American English involves. Presence or absence of vowel reduction in the suffix of a few words ending in -ary, -ery, -ory, -ony, -berry with primary stress cither on the antepenultimate or earlier syllable. Whereas the British version favours clision of schwa, the American version prefers a strong vowel, which some views identify with socondary or tertiary stress, We shall say the difference does not imply siress but merely prominence. e.g 2.6) RP - AmE secretary, library Psekeatei,“latbri Psekroteri, “larbreri/ monastery, cemetery fmonastri,"sematri/ _ /'monasteri, “semateri/ord sve ond sentence ecco saunrnaninananananinna Se mmnannunanomnnnnn (3) territory, category teratsi, “keetagrif Pterata:ri, “kactagaxri/ testimony, matrimony [testimani, “maetrimani/ /testimouni, “metrimouni/ strawberry, blackberry Pstratbri, blaekbri! ——_Pstra:beri, “blekberi/ 2.6 ALTERNATIVE STRESS PATTERNS There are a number of words with optional stress patterns, the most common of which students should be aware of, in order not to discard the options they have not adopted as correct. In most cases preference is due to generation differences among RP speakers. ‘The list below contains some of the most representative examples, with the mcommended option firsi, following the information given in the current pronunciation dictionaries. The following notations do not account for prominent syllables, e.g. 2.6.1 TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS (@) ~ Ge) adult, brochure, bureau, contact (v.), decade, defect (n.), detail, finance, meanwhile, mishap: Gm) - @) bouquet, elsewhere, ice cream, regime, research, terrain, weekend; 2.6.2, THIREE-SYLLABLE WORDS: (we) - wey dispurant, exquisite, uprising; (@ +9) = (9) sonorous, uprising: (ere) ~ (+9) registrar, souvenir, submarine; (w+) ~ (ese) caravan, discothéque, kerosene: 2.6.3 FOUR-SYLLABLEWORDS (ery) ~ wm Gee) - @ controversy, exigency, formidable, kilometre: applicable, contribute, demonstrable, despicable, disputable, explicable, hospitable, metallurgy nomenclature; +e) television @: 2.0.4 FIVE-SYILABLE WORDS, (ere 24) ~ ees) momentarily, necessarily 2.7 WORD STRESS PATTERNS ‘The main stress pattems in their citation forms are illustrated in the next section, The following principles are worth mentioning, c.g. (i) Every word has one, and only one, primary stress. (ii) Secondary siresses (normally one, less frequently two) always precede, and neverHéctor Ortiz Lira 4) wm srrsn nnn Sieh fansanaMNNRNmRGAMANENANHARES Follow. primary stresses in words. (Soe §1.6 and §3.3 for other views). Ther is a strong terdency in English for secondary and primary siresses 10 be separdicd by. unstreeeed syllables. Therefore, consecutive siresses ~secondary and primary— are relatively unusual. They derive mostly from prefixation, eg. redo rif du, unlike [an laik/ cle, (i) hance syllable word with a primary stress on the lust syllable has a secondary stress on the antepenultimate syllable, ¢ p. magazine /'maego'zitn; in u few cases where Ike Pera, Suess Hs on the penultimate syllable, the secondary may occur on the previous syllable, c.g. remarry 'ri:*merif. A four-syllable word with 4 primary stress on the penultimate syllable has a secondary stress on the first syllable, v.g. conversation /'konva “Seif: if iLhas the primary stress on the last syllable, then the sceondary strcos nal ‘normally bbe on the first syllable, e.g. misunderstand 'misands'stzend/ (iv) Five. and six-syllable words with the primary stress on the fourth syllable from the left take the secondary siress cither on the first syllable. ¢.g. organisation /'o.ganarzeifn/, or on the second, e.g. consideration /kan'stda'reift/. Similarly, irritability Prita-balat, responsibility /1'sponsabilati/. (©), English derivatives do not always follow the stress patter of the roois they come Ca i Person | psisnl, personification Jpo'soniti “Keifnl; compare: kat “peal, comparable Pkomprabl, (vi) Primary stresses usually separate vowels occurring Produced, rather than the conesponding i phonology would prefer), c.g. variation /'veati et), Wes tjeifn, grav dgweifn, We shall use the so-called "tadpole" notation to acount for syllables (see § 1.6.6). ce. 2.7.1 TWOSYLLABLE WoRDS 2.7.1.1 Primary siress-tunstressed syllable (w +) Senate, mountain, chocolate, preface, island, cireus, colour 2.7.1.2 Primary stress+prominent syllable (@ 0) contrast, access, contact, empire, expert, aspect, climat Unstressed syllabic¢primary stress (+ # ) again, fatigue, career, caress, patrol, offence. remark 2.7.1.4 Promi 1 syllable+primary stress (ow ) canteen, cartoon, champagne, augment, shampoo, technique 2.7.1.5 Secondary stress+primary stress (@ w ) unknown, Chinese, farewell, eighteen, mayonnaise, rebuild, defrost 2.7.2. THREE-SYLLABLE WoRDS 2.7.21 os Jortunate, lunatic, catholic, literature, necessary, comfortable2.7.2.2 27.2.3 2724 2.7.2.6 2.7.2.7 AGRA. 2.7.2.9 Word stress ond sentence accent ® actuate (+0) corridor, absolute, catalogue, caravan, handicap, paragraph (oy subtitle, pullover, cucumber, triangle, rectangle, corpuscle Ges) advantage. determine, develop, consider, horizon, abandon (ows) ambition, fantastic, authentic, optician, transmission, partition Geo distribute, tomato, recipient, attaché, coniribute, flancée, tobacco ws) substandard, non-fiction, scientific, subconscious, prejudgement (erm) guarantee, seventeen, cigarette, magazine, refugee, recommend 2.7.3 FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS: 2.7.3.1 2.73.2 2735 2.7.3.6 273.7 2.73.8 (mre) category, accuracy, arbitrary, delicacy, eligible, ceremony, irritable (m +0) commentator, calculator, architecture, operator, centimetre, interlanguage (+0) characterize, systematize, automobile, capitalize, regulurize, counterattack (s@ es) obligatory, demonstrative, laboratory, certificate, advertisement —< Gero) appreciate, enthusiast, preoccupied, apologize, similitude, economize (oa-s) ‘authority, morality, diamerer, orthography, antiquity, bicarbonate (erm) — variation, circulation, elemental ; conversation, idiotic, interference (ows «acceptation, departmental, importation, conurbation, retardationHéctor Ortiz Lira 2.7.3.9 (orm) superimpose, underemployed, hypercorrect, interconnect, interrelate 2.7.3.10 (© w+) 2.7.4 FIVE-SYLLABL 27.4.1 2.74.2 2.743 2.7.44 2.7.4.5 2.7.4.6 2.7.4.7 2748 uncountable, subcontinent, mismanagement, posigraduate, couuhoring WORDS way ‘figuratively, capitalism, qualitatively, cannibalism, speculatively Garey) inevitable, inadequacy, communicative, vocabulary, catholicism (@-0% acceleraior, sophisticated, refrigerator, embusiasm, collaborator (erm) curiosity, university, pedagogical, capability, possibility, inexplicable (e+e +0) differentiate, underestimate, rehabilitate, decontaminate, counterespionage (orem) classification, characteristic, Mediterranean, qualification, organization Gaem) continuation, consideration, appreciation, pronunciation, association (ee-m:) predisposition, devaluation, prefabrication, revaluation, miscalculation 2.7.5. SIX-SYLLABIE WORDS 2.7.5.1 2.7.5.2 2.7.5.3 2.7.5.4 (eres) unexceptionable, indistinguishable, unimaginative, individualism istically, discontinuity, unsystemaiically, irritability (eeemes) familiarity, availability, inferiority, responsibility, impossibility Gere electrification, experimentation, personification, exemplificationWord ses and sentence accent sennnmnnn nemmcnmmanenanunnsr 215.5 (0 «) differentiation, mispronunciation, recapitulation, individualistic 2.1.6 SEVEN-SYLLABLE WORDS 2.7.6.1 (corewes) intelligibility, inevitability, invulnerability, impracticability 27.6.2 (@ wes) irresponsibility, unconventionality, superficiality, unrealiabilityHéctor Onis Lie 3. Stress in English compound words 3.1 INTRODUCTION Stress in English compounds, with its varying position, is a real stumbling-block for Spanish-speaking leamers due mainly to the rather fixed occurrence word stress has in Spanish. Two types of phenomena are meant by variation: first, the primary stress of English compounds may go on either the first or the second clement in the citation patiern and, secondly, this may also vary according to context. On the other hand, all citation patterns of Spanish compounds have the primary stress on the second clement, irrespective of internal structure and meaning. e.g. saca’corchos, cuatro-cientos, canta’ tor, mercado negro, radio ré'loj, ct. This section offers the learner a simplified taxonomy of the main classes of compounds and collocations, illustrated with a fairly modern corpus. Rather than commit each particular item to memory -an impossible task students are recommended to memorize the strc assignment rules and put them into practice every time they come across a new compound. ‘Associations between patterns and meanings as well as constant comparison between similar structures producing contrasting pairs of the type “walking stick —'rolling “stone, cc. will help identity ‘normal’ examples and exceptions. Students are also advised to check word stress in dictionaries whenever they are in doubt and say the words out loud a number of times so as to help fix them in their memory. 3.2 TERMINOLOGY Quirk ctal. (1985: 1567) define compound as ‘a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and scmantically as a single word." No account for stress is present in this definition, but later on, at pp. 1592-1593, they characterize compound nouns as generally taking the primary stress on the first clement, and although they acknowledge the existeace of a smaller number of compounds with the primary stress on the second clement, they also admit that ‘in some cases we may be in doubt as to whether we should regard sequences with this stress paticm as compounds or as free syntactic phrases’. Now, if we leave aside stress placemont as the basic criterion of analysis and take Ute semantic aspect as the decisive factor to identify compounds (i.e. the degree of cohesion between the clements), we will also come across certain word combinations whose compound status might be in doubt. For instance, how should we consider relatively common two-clement constructions which frequently co-oceur, such as slim chance and feeble hope, none of which arc given as individaal or even subordinate cntsics in dictionaries? Furthermore, should we rely on dictionary status for a two-clement lexical unit to be considered a compound? Notice that a third criterion, that of spelling, has not been brought into tho discussion, due to the fact that a fairly degree of variation ean be found in the way compounds are written ~as ono single word, or as (wo words, cither separaud by a space or a hyphen. We shall bypass the difficalty posed by compounds by.acknowledging the existence of other word combinations which the learner would also do well to incorporate into his mental lexicon, irrespective of the fact that they may not conform fully to the category of compound.aaseniruanosanon Word stress and sentence accent ®) Following Carey (1991: 1) we shall take into consideration the notion of collocation, which he conveniently defines in phonological terms: “Any frequently curring two-clement Structure [_] for which a stress pattern may be predicted.” “This category includes Sallecations which can be found in EFL dictionaries of a gencral kind ~not necessarily Specialist pronunciation ¢ictionaries-, c.g. viral reality. naional curriculum, ete. plus & fow others which have not gol (and probably will never get) dictionary status, &.g- insufficient evidence, A random examination of the two standard pronunciation dictionaries, LPD (Wells, 1990) and EPD (ones, Roach & Hartman, 1997) reveals interesting differences in the corpus offered, as the following sample of two-clement collocations shows, eg. artificial insemination artificial intelligence * artificial kidney . catificial respiration . tus bar us boy bus conductor busnan “ bus shelter : bus station ‘ bus stop : ‘good afiernoon . good book . goodbye : good day : good evening . Good Friday . ood grief! ‘ Good Heavens! . good looker : good looks . goodman : good morning good night good office good Samaritan goodwife goodwill ‘good-hearted good-humoured ‘good-looking good-natured sgoord-remperedHéctor Ortiz Lira "AMIAAANAAAANAAAAINUNANANN MNO 4.3 COMPOUND WORD STRESS ANDETL DICTIONARIS All EFL dictionaries can be of help in matters of information about stress. The main differences between them lic in the notation system they usc to show primary and secondary stresses, in the corpus they include and, occasionally, in the patterns they show, ¢.8. OALD comer'shop uscr-lriendly Third ‘World "Home Office CIDE corner Ishop Guscr-Ifricndly Third World IHome Office CCED cosner shop user-ftiendly Third World Home Office LDCE ynser-lfriendly* Third 'World+ ‘Home Office LPD —_comer'shop user-friendly ‘corner shop ‘hird World 'Home, Office EPD — comer'shop juserliriondly {Third ‘World ‘Home Office ‘home page (stress shift) (Notes to the abbreviations: ALD : Oxford Advanced Leamer’s Dictionary, 1995. CIDE : Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1995. CCED : Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, 1995. LDCE:: Longman Dictionary of Conremporary English, 1995. LPD : Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 1990. EPD : English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1997.) ‘These examples show that: ( CCED is the only dictionary which does not use the stress marks ' and , to indicate primary and secondary stresses, respectively. CIDE uses two systems, stross marks in the main dictionary and black and white rectangles in the Phrase Index. Gi) LPD records altemative sires paticras whenever they are in common educated use, as shown by.corner shop. EPD does 80 less {requently. Gii) Only LDCE and LPD indicate the possibility of stress shift (by means of the wedge sign +) all the time; EPD does so only oocasionally, with the phrase ‘sires shift! (iv) Whereas the majority of dictionaries indicate the existence of an extra stress aller the primary (0.g, socondary for SPD and tertiary for LPD), a few ignore that possibility. {y) EPD probably contains the most up-dated corpus, as shown by the inclusion of a term such as home page. ‘As with simple words, we shall use the tonetic-stress marking system, of generalized use in the British school of prosody, which indicates stressed syllables by means of * (Secondary stress) and ~ (primary stress), following Kingdon (19586), Windsor Lewis (1969), Finch & Oniz (1982) and Gimson & Cratenden (1994). These are distributed in words in such a way that only onc primary stess may occur in a compound word, and theWord stress and sentence accent Smee primary stress is always the last stress; the secondary stress always precedes the primary and never the other way round. Thus, some of the examples above would be marked as fellows: “Home Office ‘Tertiary and further degrees of stress will be ignored. The following patiems show the distribution of stresses in polysyllabic compounds, c.g. ‘user-friendly "Third ‘World LPD EPD This work com,muni'cations, satellite communi'cations satellite conti nental ‘breakfast continental ‘breakfast communi cations satellite ‘continental “breakfast 3.4 LABELS FOR STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS ‘The stross patiems of English compounds and collocations have beon given different labels in the literature. Most of them describe the placement of the main, primary stress; these are shown in (a). There is a set of labels wich refers to the member of stresses and is given in (b), eg. “woman doctor gineediogo) “English teacher (=profesor(a) de inglés) (@) carly stress initial stress. compound stress E2 stoong-weak "woman “doctor (=doetora) 'Bnglish teacher (=profesor(a) inglés(a)) late stress. final stress phrasal stress, El weak-strong (b)___ single stross__double stress @ The labels ‘early’ and ‘late’, which refer t the fact that it is the first clement that has ‘more steess* than the second, arc found in Wells (1990: 150). Gi) ‘Initial’ and ‘final’ stress are the names used by Fudge (1984: 134-137). (iii) The labels ‘compound’ ys. ‘phrasal’ (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) are misleading because the pattern consisting of « primary stress on the second clement (which is typical of noun phrases such as en incredible blonde) can also be found in many compounds, as will be shown in the word-lists that follow; a characterization of compounds in terms of stress placement is, then, unsatisfactory. (iv) Tn the labels E-2 and B-1 (Poldauf, 1984: 106), E stands for ‘element’, or participating word, and the numbers denote position, starting from the right; therefore, E-1 stands for the word on the right, and F-2, for the word on the leftHéctor Ortiz Liro AAALAC (wi The categories strong-weak (sw) and weak-strong (ws), of rhythmic nature, mécax: the relative prominence of the two ‘sequences ~a basic notion in metrical theory, as expressed, for instance, by Ladd (1996) and, in general, by all supporters of the metrical- amicsegmental theory. {vi) The reasons for the labels ‘single’ vs. ‘double’ ones, 1956; Kingdon, 1958b; Finch & Ortiz, 1982) arc that (a) by virtue of a generally agreed principic, a primary stress is also considered the last siress in an uulcrance; (b) a late primary stress “i.e. main stress on the second lexical item can be (and normally is) preceded by a secondary siress on the first element. In this work we shall use the tcrms ‘single’ and ‘double’ in order to emphasize the role of secondary stresses in processes such as stress shift. For EFL purposes, compounds can be organised according to the type of stress pattern =eg._ single (arly) vs. double (late), i.e. a phonological classification— or according to the function of the resulting collocation c.g, nouns vs. adjectives, ic. a syntactic-functional taxonomy. Hore we will take the former criterion as the basis for the organisation of the corpus, and will indicate the Function of the resulting patiern. The patterns exemplified here are all citation forms, i.e. the patterns of compounds and coliocations said in isolation. 3.5. SINGLE STRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS 3.5.1 ‘record player (Noun L+noun 2 (NIHN2), where NI (record) is the direct object of the action of the agent N2 (player). The resulting collocation functions as noun, i) The agent usually ends in -er, -or , and can be either human or non-human. Gili) Sometimes the direct object relationship between NI and N2 is less obvious, as can be seen in (b), eg. () ballet dancer bandleader blood donor bookkeeper bricklayer bullfighter cabinet-maker cash dispenser cement mixer cassette recorder dishwasher dressmaker eggbeater food processor forture-teller glue-sniffer goakeeper hairdresser hairdryer hholidaymaker housekeeper landowner lavi-breaker lawnmower lie detector mine detector moneylender newsreader newsvendor painkiller paperhanger park kee proofreader purse-snatcher screwdriver shareholder shock absorber shopkeeper skyscraper slide projector songwriter stallholder tape recorder taxpayer taxi driver tin opener tongue mister video recorder windscreen wiper word processor (b) babysitter chain-smoker churchgoer ‘coat hanger cradle-snatcher drug dealer fishmonger Geiger coumer grasshopper housebreaker hunger striker pressure cooker scaremonger schoolteacher screenwriter slum dweller stockbroker theatregoer vacuum cleaner (© Exceptions: stage manoger, school governorWord stress and sentence accent Me ccc 3.5.2 “bookshop (Noun I4noun 2 (NI+N2), where NI (book) dclimits the meaning of N2 (shop), by stating ‘what type of thing’ itis. The resulting compound usually functions as noun, Gi) Single stress is the commonest patter in N1+N2 collocations. In many other examples, an N1 with more specific reference favours double stross, as in ‘kitchen “sink (Sve §2.6.1). Similarly, whereas ‘school “secretary has specific reference, “schoolboy has not. In other pairs this criterion does not seem t6 operate very clearly. og. uni ‘versity “lecturer vs.'schoo! teacher. (Gli) Single vs. double stress can be responsible for changes in moaning, as in (b) (a) access road address book advice column aircraft airhostess airletter airline airmail airport air terminal amusement arcade animal kingdom apron strings aptitude test backache ballot box bank account bar code bedbug bedelothes bedroom bedspread bedrime bicth certificate birth control birthday cared birthday party birthplace birthrave blockhead blood bank bloed group bloed presure blood relation bled transfusion loved vessel bloodhound book club book token bookcase. bookmart bookstail bookworm boyfriend bread box buffet car cal box cash card child abuse Christmas card. clothes brush clothesbasket clothesline clothespeg coffee bur coffee break coffee cup coffee table credit card crime rate cupboard love daylight daytime death penalty death rate death squad deposit accoumt disabled access dish towel drug abuse drug addict earphones football footnote {footpath footstep girliriend ‘guidebook hairpin hairstyle handbag headache headlamp headline headphone heartattack =| heart failure heat wave hunchback hunger strike identity card key ring keyboard ladybird laptop library card license plate life insurance love affair ‘money order motorbike motorcar motorcycle ‘mountain bike mountain range nail scissors nail varnish newsagent newsletter newspaper newsstand night shift nightclub nighttime ozone layer panda car paper clip paperback paperwork penalty area phone book phone box phonecard iooto album pocket money pocketbook police force police officer police station post office postcard press conference price ag problem child ‘punctuation mark puppy dog question mark question tag raincoat rainstorm recordlibrary roadblock road tax road works room service rulebook rush hour safety belt safety pin saludbar sandwich course saviigs account schoolgirl schoolmaster schoolmate SchoolmistressHéctor Ortiz Lira schoolwork seafood sea level seagull seaman ‘seaport seashell seashore sexappeal shock treament shoelace shoeshop shop assistant slot machine ‘sound effects soup plate Soup spoon space-age spacecraft spacelab space suit sports car sports jacket stamp collection store detective sunglasses sunroof supply teacher surface mail systems analyst table manners tablecloth table tennis tea bag teabreak tea party tea towel teamwork teapot tear gas teaspoon teatime + time bomb time limit time signal timetable toilet roll toothache toy shop video arcade watercolour watermelon watermal! waterpower waterproof wheelchair wind insirument window seat windstorm word order wristwatch . (b). “family name (=surname) fumily “name (=family reputation) “toy factory (=whore toysare made) "toy “factory (Lor a child to play with) “party line’ (shared phone line) ‘party *line'(=political view) 3.5.3 “raindrop Noun J4noun 2 (NI+N2), whero NI (rain) is usually a mass noun indicating the material N2 (drop) is made of. Scmantically, the collocation exprosses an ‘unintentional accumulation’ rather than an ‘in tended construction’, c.g. breadcrumb dunghill dustheap sand dune sawdust snowflake soap bubble soap flake waterfall 3.5.4 “wire-tapping, “time-consuming (. Nounsverb |-ing] (N4Vling]), where N is the object of V, ic. ‘X taps wire’, as in (a); in other examples, the role of the noun as object is loss obvious, as in (bh). Gy Some resulting collocations can function mainly as nouns, .g."wire-tapping, or mainly as adjectives, eg, “time-consuming. (a) bookbinding bookkeeping beekeeping breathiaking childbearing dressmaking {fee-paying fire fighting hairdressing hair-raising hair-splitting heartbreaking horseracing housekeeping labour-saving language teaching mind reading money laundring——_-moneylending painstaking proofreading role playing shareholding sidesplitting sightseeing surfriding thought-provoking time-consuming timesaving troublemaking troubleshooting typawriting weightlifiing wind surfing window dressing ward processing wrongdoingWard etrece and sentence accent ‘cc (b) air-conditioning brainstorming handwriting hang-gliding housewarming kerb crawling food poisening law-abiding ail painting pony-trekking shoplifting Ski jumping. ap dancing window-shopping (© Exceptions: family planning zebra crossing 3.5.5 ‘walking stick, “lending library @_ Vorb [-ing}4+noun (V[ing]+N), where N is not in subject relation to V. Thus, in “walking stick, the noun does not do the walking itself: the meaning is rather ‘a stick for walking’. The noun sometimes represents the place or time for the action of the verb, as in * shopping centre and” freezing point ; these examples arc listed in ( Gi) In lending library the noun does perform the action indi library lends books’, but the action is nar in (0). Gii) Contrasting examples due to single vs. double stress can be found ia (¢). ted by the verb, ic. “the progress; other examples of this Lype are those (@ baking powder balancing act bathing costume —__boardinghouse boarding school bowling alley breathing space building block building society carving knife changing room climbing frame closing time cooking apple chewing gum dancing lesson dialling ione dining car dining room drinking water driving licence driving seat driving test eating apple filing cabinet {filling station finishing school fishing rad “rying pan housing estate hearing aid icing sugar insulating tape ironing board knitting needle launching pad living room meeting point melting point parking light parking lot parking meter playing field polling station purchasing power reading matter reading room recording studio rowing boat selling point shaving cream shopping bag shopping list shopping mall singing lesson sitting room skipping-rope sleeping bag sleeping car sleeping pill spending money stepping-stone stumbling block swimming pool swimming trunks teaching hospital teething troubles. tracing paper juning fork waiting list waiting room washing powder whopping cough — writing paper (b) answering machine cleaning woman humming bird mincing machine nursing home operating system —_ printing press publishing house rocking chair rolling pin sealing wax sewing machine soldering iron sparking plug spinning wheel steering wheel sticking plaster teaching practice training college training course travelling expenses vending machine washing machine watering can ©) “moving van (=a removal van) ‘moving ~van (=a van actually maving) “sleeping parmer (=concubine) ‘sleeping “parmer (inactive business partner)Hctoe Ort tie 3.5.6 “blackboard, “baldhead @) _Adjectivesnoun (A+N) collocations are 4 very common type of construction in English. They usually take double stress by default, as if they were phrases. (Cf. NI+N2 compounds in §3.5.2, which ar considered to take single stress by default) There is, however, another group of A+N collocations with a more specialised’ meaning whieh take Single stress; some of these can be considered 10 be long-established compounds. The number of adjectives participating in these constructions is relatively small; they are generally one- or two-syllable long and are of low scmantic specialisation, c.g. black, free, hard, high, cic. On the whole, A+N compounds with single stress are much more restricted than N14N3. compounds with single siress (i.e. those in §3.5.2), (ii) In some eases there is a potential contrast between the specialised meaning of the Compound (with single steoss, as in “biackboard) and the phrase consisting of the same two clements (with double stress, us in "black “board, as shown in (©). (ii) In summary, the main points regarding A+N collocations are: (AHN collocations functioning as nouns normally have double stress, €.g. a "omic “energy: (2) Some A+N coltocations functioning as nouns have a specialised meaning and take single stress, c.g. “blackberry and the rest of the examples in (a); (3)Some A+N collocations functioning as nouns and taking single stress arc called “bahuveihi’ /"bahur vrishi / compounds. They are used io designate a person by specifying a physical or mental characteristic, e.g. a man who has a grcy beard is a “grevbeard. Others designate objects, c.g. a book with a hard cover is a “hardback, etc.; sce examples in (b): @) after effects anybody anyone anyplace anything blackberry blackboard blacklist Black people blacksmith black spot bluebell bluebird Christian name coldcream comic strip commonplace current account darkroom deadline deadlock dry dock everybody evervone everything sist name freehand freehold freelance reephone freeway funny bone given name igranclchild ‘grancelaughter ‘grandes grandmother grandpa grandson grandstand green belt greengrocer greyhound grey matter: hardboard hardware highbrow high jump highlight high-rise high schoo! high season high street highway hothouse hotline Aotplate lastname lowbrow lowland 7 low season madhouse ‘middle man middle name middle school old boy old girt open day quicksand real estate right angle shoribread shortcake shorthand short list sickbay sick leave sick pay smallpox small talk soft spot sofware special school strongbox stronghold strong point sweetcorn sweetheart sweetshop whiteboard whitewash wholesale wildeat wild flower wildlife wise guyWord stress and sentence accent MR (b) Bad-mouth big-mouth ‘greenback hardback Iazybones Joudmouth redhead redskin smartarse thickhead (©) “blackbird (=Sp. mirlo) “blackboard (=writing surface) bluebell (=Sp. jacinto) common room (=college staft room) erassword (=type of word puzzle) ‘funny man (=a comedian) darkroom (=for processing films) English teacher (teacher of English) greenhouse (=glass building for plants) “Greenland (=8p. Groeniandia) > grey matter (=brains) heavyweight (=hcaviest type boxer) “howplate (=part of @ cooker) special school (=for cisabled children) “White House (=US President's residence) 3.5.7 ‘moth-eaten, V-shaped busybody fathead hardop heavyweight paleface redbrick sleepyhead slowcoach "black “bird (=any bird which is black) "black “board (=any board whieh is black) ‘blue “hel! (=any bell which is blue) ‘common “roam (=one used jointly) ross “word (=an angry word) ‘funny “man (=a strange man) ‘dark “room (=a room which is dark) ‘English teacher (=twachet who is English) "green “house (any house which is green) ‘green “land (=any land which is green) ‘grey “matter (anything grey) ‘heavy “weight (=a weight whieh is heavy) ‘hot “plate (=a plate which is hot) ‘special “school (=out of the common) ‘white “house (=any house which is white) () Noun¢participle (N+P) in which N is usually the subject of P, ic. moths have eaten X; more oxamples are those in (a). Gi) The relationship between N and P is more complex in (b): in “corpus based we understand “based on a corpus’, in “foilet-trained, “trained to use a toilet’, and in “egg- shaped, ‘shaped like an ogg.” Gii) The function of the resulting collocation is adjectival and the carly-stress pattern of the citation form does not vary when the compound is used cither attributively or ively, og, citation form: attributive use: predicative use: “moth-eaten (a) action-packed ——_ coin-operated hearfelt hen-pecked ‘moonlit snowbound sunburnt sunlit weather-beaten weather-bound (b) air-conditioned heartbroken star-spangled blue-coloured oval-shaped a 'moth-eaten “sweater "Those ideas can be de ‘scribed as “moth-eaten. flee-bitten horror-stricken snow-capped terror-stricken frostbitien Tandlocked star-crossed time-honoured. windswept bederidden cigar-shaped pear-shaped red-coloured white-washedHct Or te 3.5.8 “homesick A very short inventory of noun-agjeetive (N+A) compounds have single stress. The Paticrn remains unaltered in postmodilying positions, e.g. J Yelt very “homesick, e.g accident-prone —colour-blind poverty-stricken _sireetwise 3.5.9 “cookbook, daybreak (9 Verb+noun (V-+N) result in compounds functioning mainly as nouns and Sometimes as adjectives; they are illustrated in (a). Main exception: 'stop ‘press. Gi), Noun-+verb (N+-V) collocations function as nouns; sec (b). (@) breakneck call girl carryeot catchword cease-fire chat show cutthroat oda Aninvear dnow-all pickpocket playboy pushchair vatilesnake spendibrift stopgap swearword talk show relliale (b) corkscrew fire escape ——_fireft landslide rolleall sunrise sunset sunshine 3.5.10 “take-off Verb-tparticle (V+Pe), originating double-siress phrasal and prepositional verbs, take single stress when functioning as nouns, e.g. to ake “offis nominalised as a “take-off, soe examples in (a), V+Pe can also function as adjective, as in a “breakaway faction. backup blackout breakdown breakthrough breakup brush-up ckeckin checkout comeback countdown cutback cutout fallout flashback go-ahead handout hangover hideaway kickoff knockdown knockout letdown letup lookout playback play-off press-up pullover push-up rip-off roll-on runaway see-through shoot-out sit-down sitin spin-off standby stopover tailback takeaway turnover” write-off write-up 3.5.11 “background Adverb-+noun (Adv+N) originale compounds whieh fun ion, mainly as nouns, 6. aftereffect Antichrist crossroads forearm foreground foreman foresight (foretaste in-patient infrasirucrure ‘outlaw overcoat overdose overheads overtime pestscripti a ence te iia a a ci (a) subsection supermarket anderclothes underground 3.5.12 “Oxford Street, Deansgate ‘The nouns sireer and gate do not tke stress in s the paticrns singlo-stres ssed (s00 §3.6.3), cg. eet name collevations, which makes |. On the contrary, all other words denoting thoroughfares: are Bond Street Downing Street Fleet Street Princess Street Regent Street Bishopsgate Deansgate Fishergate Southgate Westgate 3.5.13 Miscellaneous 3.5.13.1 Verbtadverh originate nouns, «.g, get-together know-how standstill Verb+verb originate verbs, nouns and adjectives, c.g. touch-type (v.) make-believe (n.) slapdash (adj) 3.5.13.3 Abbreviation+noun originate nouns, ¢.g. A-level Olevel L-driver T-bone T-junction U-turn V-neck 3.6 DOUBLIZS TRESS IN COMPOUNDS AND COLLOCATIONS 3.6.1 ‘kitchen “sink Noun I+noun 2 (NI-+N2), where N1 has specific reference, as in ‘kitchen ~sink sink of the kitchen). In some cases, NI may represcntan organisation, a location, or a time, as in (a). NI can also be a value, as in (b). Noun-genitive cases are included in (c). In all .ses the resulting compound functions as noun, c.g. (@) academy award bank holiday bay window bedroom slippers bedroom window block letters bottam drawer camp bed city centre daylight robbery diningroom table district nurse family allowance family doctor family planning family tree fellow citizen fellow creature (girl Friday girl guide ground floor group therapy hall porter headmaster Tawn tennis life expectancy life imprisonment lump sum . ‘mass production morning paper mother tongue night watchman office party pedestrian precinct platinum blonde Saturday night school hall school uniform ‘school year shop window town hall trade union twin beds zebra crossing (b)doliar bill peso coin pound note