ENGLISH – LITERATURE

ENGLISH LITERATURE  English prose writing began with

Alfred (848-901)
1. Anglo-Saxon or Old-English Period  Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
- begins with songs and stories of a time when  oldest historical
the Teutonic ancestors were living on the record known to
borders of the North Sea any European
- 3 Tribes nation in its own
o Jutes tongue
o Angles 2. The Anglo-Norman Period
o Saxons - Normans were originally a hardy race of sea
- conquered Britain in the latter half of the fifth rovers inhabiting Scandinavia
century, and laid the foundation of the o conquered Normandy in the 10th
English nation century
- first landing was probably by a tribe of Jutes, o conquest of Anglo-Saxon England
under chiefs called by the chronicle Hengist under William, Duke of Normandy,
and Horsa in 449 began with the battle of Hastings in
- hardy warriors and sea rovers, yet were 1066
capable of profound and noble emotions o literature was remarkable for its
- Subjects bright, romantic tales of love and
o sea and the plunging boats adventure
o battles, adventure, brave deeds - after the Normans and Saxons united, Anglo-
o glory of warriors, and the love of Saxon speech simplified itself by dropping
home most of its Teutonic inflections, absorbed
- accent, alliteration, and an abrupt break in eventually a large part of the French
the middle of each line gave their poetry a vocabulary, and became the English
kind of martial rhythm language
- poetry is earnest and somber, and pervaded - English literature is also a combination of
by fatalism and religious feeling French and Saxon elements
- 5 Striking Characteristics - 3 Chief Effects of the Conquest
o love of freedom o bringing of Roman civilization to
o responsiveness to nature, especially England
in her sterner moods o growth of nationality
o strong religious convictions o new language and literature, which
o belief in Wyrd, or Fate; reverence for were proclaimed in Chaucer
womanhood - Important Notes
o devotion to glory as the ruling motive o Geoffrey's History
in every warrior's life  valued as a source book of
- Important Notes literature
o Beowulf (great epic or heroic poem)  contains the native Celtic
and fragments of the first poetry such legends of Arthur
as "Widsith," "Deor's Lament," and "The o Arthurian legends were popularized
Seafarer” by the French writers
o characteristics of Anglo-Saxon life; o Riming Chronicles
the form of the first speech  history in doggerel verse, like
o Northumbrian Literature Layamon's Brut
 flourished between 650 and 850 o Metrical Romances
 Northumbria was conquered by  tales in verse
the Danes, who destroyed the  4 Classes
monasteries and the libraries  Matter of France
containing our earliest literature in  tales centering
867 about
 Bede – first historian who Charlemagne and
belonged to the Northumbrian his peers, chief of
school of writers which is the
 2 Greatest Poets Chanson de
 Cædmon Roland
 Cynewulf
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
 Matter of Greece and o John Wycliffe
Rome  religious reformer, who first
 endless series of translated the gospels into English
fabulous tales o Bernard Mandeville
about Alexander,  alleged traveler, who represents
and about the Fall the new English interest in distant
of Troy lands following the development
 Matter of England of foreign trade
 stories of Bevis of  Mandeville's Travels
Hampton, Guy of o John Gower
Warwick, Robin  wrote in three languages, French,
Hood Latin, and English
 Matter of Britain  Confessio Amantis
 tales having for  poem containing one
their heroes Arthur hundred and twelve tales
and his knights of  Knight Florent
the Round Table 4. The Revival of Learning
(Sir Gawain and - preparation for the Age of Elizabeth
the Green Knight) (transition period)
o Miscellaneous Literature - 3 Causes for the Low Literature Standards
 Ancren Riwle – best piece of early o long war with France and the civil
English prose Wars of the Roses distracted attention
 King Horn and the Robin Hood from books and poetry, and
songs – poetry of the common destroyed of ruined many noble
people English families who had been friends
 Orm's Ormulum and patrons of literature
 Cursor Mundi o reformation in the latter part of the
3. The Age of Chaucer period filled men's minds with religious
- 14th century questions
o remarkable historically for the decline o revival of learning set scholars and
of feudalism (organized by the literary men to an eager study of the
Normans) classics, rather than to the creation of
o growth of the English national spirit native literature
during the wars with France - noticeable for its intellectual progress
o prominence of the House of - introduction of printing
Commons - discovery of America
o growing power of the laboring - beginning of the Reformation
classes, who had heretofore been in - growth of political power among the
a condition hardly above that of common people
slavery - Important Notes
- produced five writers of note o Revival of Learning
- Geoffrey Chaucer  Humanism
o one of the greatest of English writers  Renaissance;
o Chaucer's work and Wycliffe's o 3 Influential Literary Works
translation of the Bible developed the  Praise of Folly (Erasmus)
Midland dialect into the national  Utopia (More)
language of England  Tyndale's Translation of the New
- Important Notes Testament (Tyndale)
o Geoffrey Chaucer o Courtly Makers or Poets
 The Romance of the Rose  Wyatt
 Troilus and Cressida  Surrey
 The Legend of Good Women o Morte d'Arthur
 Canterbury Tales  Malory
o William Langland  collection of the Arthurian
 poet and prophet of social legends in English prose
reforms o Miracle and Mystery Plays
 Piers Plowman
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
 most popular form of  Lylly, Kyd, Nash, Peele, Greene
entertainment in this age; but we  Marlowe
have reserved them for special  greatest of Shakespeare's
study in connection with the Rise predecessors
of the Drama  4 Plays
5. The Elizabethan Age  Tamburlaine
- age of poetry  Faustus
- regarded as the greatest in the history of  The Jew of Malta
literature  Edward II
- tremendous impetus received from the  Marlowesque
Renaissance, from the Reformation, and from  one-man type, or
the exploration of the New World tragedy of
- marked by a strong national spirit, by passion, the
patriotism, by religious tolerance, by social popular Chronicle
content, by intellectual progress, and by plays
unbounded enthusiasm o Shakespeare Successors
- development of the drama, culminating in  Ben Jonson
Shakespeare  greatest of this group
- permeated by Italian influence  Every Man in His
- literature of the Renaissance Humor
- Important Notes  Silent Woman
o rapid decline of drama  The Alchemist
o Non-dramatic Poets  2 Extant Tragedies
 poets who did not write for the  Sejanus
stage  Catiline
 Edmund Spenser  Beaumont and Fletcher
 Shepherd's Calendar  Webster
(1579)  Middleton
 first national poet  Heywood
since Chaucer's  Dekker
death in 1400 o Prose Writers
 The Faery Queen  Francis Bacon
 Thomas Sackville  most notable
 Michael Drayton  Instauratio Magna
 George Chapman (incomplete)
 completion of Marlowe's  The Advancement
poem, Hero and Leander of Learning
 translation of Homer's Iliad  Novum Organum
and Odyssey  Richard Hooker
 Philip Sidney  John Foxe
 Arcadia  Camden and Knox (historians)
 The Defense of Poesie  Hakluyt and Purchas (editors)
 earliest critical  Thomas North
essays  translator of Plutarch's
o Rise of the Drama in England Lives
 Miracle plays, Moralities, and 6. The Puritan Age
Interludes - half century between 1625 and 1675
 first play - greatest literary figure during all these years
 Ralph Royster Doyster was the Puritan, John Milton
 first true English comedy - age of tremendous conflict
 Gammer Gurton's Needle o struggled for righteousness and liberty
 first tragedy o age is one of moral and political
 Gorboduc revolution
 conflict between o overthrew the corrupt monarchy
classicand native ideals in o beheaded Charles I
the English drama o established the Commonwealth
o Shakespeare's Predecessors under Cromwell

o restoration of Charles II in 1660 is often
put as the end of the Puritan period
o overlaps the Elizabethan period on
one side, and the Restoration period
on the other
- Characteristics of Literature
o no unity of spirit, as in the days of
Elizabeth, resulting from the patriotic
enthusiasm of all classes
o somber in character; it saddens
rather than inspires us
o has lost the romantic impulse of
youth, and become critical and
intellectual
 makes us think, rather than feel
deeply
- Important Notes
o Transition Poets – Daniel
o Song Writers – Campion and Breton
o Spenserian Poets – Wither and Giles
Fletcher
o Metaphysical Poets – Donne and
Herbert
o Cavalier Poets – Herrick, Carew,
Lovelace, and Suckling
o Minor Prose Writers – Burton, Browne,
Fuller, Taylor, Baxter, and Walton
o John Bunyan
 The Pilgrim's Progress
o 3 Notable Books
 Religio Medici (Browne)
 Holy Living and Dying (Taylor)
 Complete Angler (Walton)
7. Period of Restoration
- tremendous social reaction from the
restraints of Puritanism
o suggests the wide swing of a
pendulum from one extreme to the
other
- Extreme Puritanism
o many natural pleasures had been
suppressed
- poets turned to monotonous heroic couplet
with its mechanical perfection
o playwrights turned to coarse, evil
scenes, which presently disgusted the
people and were driven from the
stage
o writers turned to realism
o learned to repress the emotions, to
follow the head rather than the heart,
and to write in a clear, concise,
formal style, according to set rules
- John Dryden
o greatest writer of the age
o established the heroic couplet as the
prevailing verse form in English poetry
ENGLISH – LITERATURE
o developed a new and serviceable
prose style suited to the practical
needs of the age
o Butler's Hudibras
- Philosophy of Hobbes and Locke
o realistic tendency
o study of facts and of men as they are
- Evelyn and Pepys
o minute pictures of social life
- transition from the exuberance and vigor of
Renaissance literature to the formality and
polish of the Augustan Age
8. Eighteenth-Century Literature
- between the English Revolution of 1688 and
the beginning of the French Revolution of
1789
o adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1689
 establishment of constitutional
government
 Great Charter (1215)
o Petition of Right (1628)
o George I (1714-1727)
 modern form of cabinet
government
o foreign prestige of England was
strengthened by the victories of
Marlborough on the Continent, in the
War of the Spanish Succession
o the country was divided into Whigs
and Tories
 the former seeking greater liberty
for the people
 latter upholding the king against
popular government
- many of the great writers were used by the
Whig or Tory party to advance its own
interests and to satirize its enemies
- rapid social development
- moral standard of the nation was very low
o emphasizes the importance of the
great Methodist revival under
Whitefield and Wesley (second
quarter of the 18th century)
- literature is complex
- 3 Classification of Literature
o Classicism
o Revival of Romantic Poetry
o Beginning of the Modern Novel
- Newspapers
o The Chronicle
o Post
o Times
- Magazines
o Tatler
o Spectator
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- prose and poetry were too frequently satiric, o The First English Novelists
and satire does not tend to produce a high  meaning and history of the
type of literature modern novel
- Important Notes  Daniel Defoe
o Augustan or Classic Age  hardly to be called a
 Classicism novelist, but whom we
 Alexander Pope placed among the
 greatest poet of the age pioneers
 Jonathan Swift  Robinson Crusoe
 the satirist  Richardson, Fielding, Smollett,
 Joseph Addison Sterne, and Goldsmith
 the essayist
 Richard Steele
 original genius of the 9. The Age of Romanticism
Tatler and the Spectator - extends from the war with the colonies,
 Samuel Johnson following the Declaration of Independence
 dictator of English letters in 1776, to the accession of Victoria in 1837
 James Boswell o overthrow of Napoleon at Waterloo in
 Life of Johnson 1815 started the French Revolution
 Edmund Burke o Reform Bill of 1832 final triumph of
 greatest of English orators democracy
 Edward Gibbon o extension of manhood suffrage
 famous for his Decline and o removal of the last unjust restrictions
Fall of the Roman Empire against Catholics
o Revival of Romantic Poetry o establishment of a national system of
 Romanticism schools, followed by a rapid increase
 Thomas Gray in popular education
 Oliver Goldsmith o abolition of slavery in all English
 famous as poet, colonies (1833)
dramatist, and novelist - literature of the age is largely poetical in
 William Cowper form, and almost entirely romantic in spirit
 Robert Burns - triumph of democracy in government is
 the greatest of Scottish generally accompanied by the triumph of
poets romanticism in literature
 William Blake - English writers produced so much excellent
 the mystic literature that the age is often called the
 Minor poets of the Early Romantic Second Creative period, the first being the
Movement Age of Elizabeth
 James Thomson - 6 Chief Characteristics of the Age
 William Collins o prevalence of romantic poetry
 George Crabbe o creation of the historical novel
 James Macpherson  Scott
 Ossian poems o first appearance of women novelists
 Thomas Chatterton  Anne Radcliffe
 originated the  Jane Porter
Rowley Papers  Maria Edgeworth
 Thomas Percy  Jane Austen
 collection the old o development of literary criticism
ballads, called the  Lamb
Reliques of  De Quincey
Ancient English  Coleridge
Poetry  Hazlitt
 translation of the o practical and economic bent of
stories of Norse philosophy
mythology, called  Malthus
the Northern  James Mill
Antiquities  Adam Smith

o establishment of great literary
magazines
 Edinburgh Review
 the Quarterly
 Blackwood's
 Athenaeum
- Important Notes
o Poets of Romanticism
 importance of the Lyrical Ballads
of 1798
 Wordsworth, Coleridge, Scott,
Byron, Shelley, and Keats
o Prose Writers
 novels of Scott
 development of literary criticism
 life and work of the essayists,
Lamb, De Quincey, Landor, and
of the novelist Jane Austen
10. The Victorian Age
- year 1830 is generally placed at the
beginning of this period
o covering the reign of Victoria (1837-
190)
o age is remarkable for the growth of
democracy following the Reform Bill
of 1832
o spread of education among all
classes
o rapid development of the arts and
sciences
o important mechanical inventions
o enormous extension of the bounds of
human knowledge by the discoveries
of science
- 2 Great Poets
o Tennyson
o Browning
- remarkable for the variety and excellence of
its prose
- 4 General Characteristics
o literature in this age has come very
close to daily life, reflecting its
practical problems and interests, and
is a powerful instrument of human
progress
o tendency of literature is strongly
ethical
 all the great poets, novelists, and
essayists of the age are moral
teachers
o Science in this age exercises an
incalculable influence
 it emphasizes truth as the sole
object of human endeavor
 established the principle of law
throughout the universe
ENGLISH – LITERATURE
 has given us an entirely new view
of life, as summed up in the word
"evolution," that is, the principle of
growth or development from
simple to complex forms
 produced an incredible number
of books
o generally characterized as practical
and materialistic
 nearly all the writers whom the
nation delights to honor
vigorously attack materialism,
and exalt a purely ideal
conception of life
 an idealistic age
 love, truth, justice,
brotherhood – all great
ideals – are emphasized
as the chief ends of life
- Important Notes
o The Poets
 Tennyson and Browning
 Elizabeth Barrett (Mrs. Browning)
 Rossetti, Morris, and Swinburne
o The Novelists
 Dickens Thackeray, and George
Eliot
 Charles Reade, Anthony Trollope,
Charlotte Brontë, Bulwer-Lytton,
Kingsley, Mrs. Gaskell, Blackmore,
George Meredith, Hardy, and
Stevenson
o The Essayists
 Macaulay, Matthew Arnold,
Carlyle, Newman, and Ruskin
 Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, Wallace,
Tyndall, and Spencer
AMERICAN LITERATURE
1. Colonial Literature
- articulation of Puritan cultural ideas
- Captain Smith
o first American author
o A True Relation of Such Occurences
and Accidents of Noate as Hath in
Virginia (1608)
o The General Historie of Virginia, New
England, and The Summer Isles (1624)
- Early Writing
o J. Winthrop
 The History of New England
 religious foundations of
Massachusetts
o E. Winslow
 recorded a diary after the
Mayflower’s arrival
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
o I. Mather & W. Bradford  History of Eliza Wharton
 History of Plymouth Plantation  about a woman who was
o R. Williams & N. Ward seduced and abandoned
 argued state and church - W. Irving
separation o A History of New York from the
o Morton Beginning of the World to the End of
 The New English Canaan the Dutch Dynasty
 mocked the religious 4. Unique American Style
settlers - W. Irving
o E. Taylor o Salmagundi
 Preparatory Meditations o A History of New York by Diedrich
 written to prepare him for Knickerbockes
religious worship  humorous and satire works
o W. Wigglesworth - C. Bryant
 The Day of Doom o nature-inspired poetry
 described the time of - E. A. Poe
judgement o The Masque of the Red Death
o N. Noyes o The Pit and the Pendulum
 known for his doggerel verses o The Fall of the House of Usher
- Revolutionary Period o The Murders in the Rue Morgue
o B. Franklin - Cooper
 Poor Richard’s Almanac o Leatherstocking Tales
 The Autobiography of B. Franklin  about Natty Bumppo
 helped in the formation of o The Last Mohicans
budding American - R. W. Emerson
identity o formed the movement
o Paine Transcendentalism
 Common Sense - H. D. Thoreau
 The American Crisis o urged resistance to the meddlesome
 influenced the political dictates of organized society
tone - A. de Tocqueville
2. Post-independence o Democracy
- T. Jefferson  described his travels
o United States Declaration of - H. B. Stowe
Independence o Uncle Tom’s Cabin
o Notes on the State of Virginia  discussed slave’s narrative
 made him the most talented early autobiography
American writer - N. Hawthorne
- A. Hamilton, J. Madison, & J. Jay o Twice-Told Tales
o wrote Federalist essays  collection of stories
- F. Ames, J. Otis & P. Henry 5. Early American Poetry
o wrote political writings and orations - W. Whitman
3. First American Novels o Magnum opus Leaves of Grass
- T. A. Digges  depicted the all-inclusiveness of
o Adventures of Alonso American democracy
 depicted sentimental novel - E. Dickinson
tradition o Because I Could Not Stop for Death
- W. H. Brown  psychologically penetrating
o The Power of Sympathy - W. Stevens
 depicted a tragic love story o Harmonium and The Auroras of
between siblings Autumn
- S. Rowson - T. S. Eliot
o Charlotte: A Tale of Truth o The Waste Land
 later entitled Charlotte Temple - R. Frost
 seduction tale o North of Boston
- H. W. Foster o New Hampshire
o The Coquette 6. Realism, Twain and James
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) - T. S. Eliot
o Life on the Mississipi o The Waste Land
o Adventures of Sawyer  embodied a jaundiced vision of
o Adventures of Huckleberry Finn post-World War I society
 depicted real people and - K. Gibran
sounded American, using local o absorbed modernist European
dialects, newly invented words influences
and regional accents - F. S. Fitzgerald
- W. D. Howell o The Great Gatsby
o The Rise of Silas Lapham  told of the youth’s golden dreams
 represented the realist tradition to dissolve in failure and
- H. James disappointment
o Daisy Miller - W. Faulkner
 novella about an enchanting o Absalom, Absalom!
American girl in Europe o As I Lay Dying
o The Turn of the Screw o The Sound of the Fury
 an enigmatic story o Light in August
- J. Herne  showed the slave-holding era of
o Margaret Fleming the Deep South
 attempted at bringing modern 8. The Rise of the American Drama
realism into the drama - L. Hallam
7. Beginning of the 20th Century o troupe popularized minstrel shows
- E. Hemingway o Uncle Tom’s Cabin adaptation
o Edith Wharton - T. Williams & A. Milles
 scrutinized the upper-class, o integrated script, music, and dance
Eastern-seaboard society in Oklahoma! and West Side Story
o The Age of Innocence 9. Depression-era Literature
 centered on a man who chose to - J. Steinbeck
marry a conventional woman o The Grapes of Wrath
- S. Crane  told the story of the Joads, a poor
o The Red Badge of Courage and family from Oklahoma and their
Maggie: A Girl of the Streets journey to California in search of
 depicted the life of New York city a better life
prostitutes o Tortilla Flat
- T. Dreiser o Of Mice and Men
o Sister Carrie o Cannery Row
 portrayed a life of kept woman o East of Eden
- E. Bellamy - N. West’s Miss Lovely Hearts
o Looking Backward o plumbed the life of its antihero
 outlined political and social introduced a reluctant advice
frameworks of American society columnist
- U. Sinclair o The Day of the Locust
o The Jungle  which introduced a cast of
 advocated socialism Hollywood stereotype and
- H. B. Adam explored the ironies of the movies
o The Education of Henry Adams - J. Agee
 autobiography that depicted a o Let Us Now Praise Famous Men
stinging description of the  depicted the lives of three
education system and modern struggling tenant-farming in
life Alabama
- G. Stein - H. Miller
o Three Lives o Tropic of Cancer
 showed her familiarity with o Black Spring
cubism, jazz, etc.  banned because of obscenity
o was dubbed as one of the Lost but had major influence on
Generation succeeding generations of
American writers
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
10. Post-World War II - J. Ashbery
- H. Lee o Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror
o To Kill a Mockingbird - E. Bishop
 depicted the more realistic o North and South, and Geography III
modernists along with the wildly - R. Wilbur
romantic beatniks o Things of this World
- S. Bellow - J. Berryman
o The Adventures of Augie March and o The Dream Songs
Herzo - A.R. Ammon
 painted vivid portraits of the o collected poems
American society - Roethke
- J. D. Salinger o The Wakings
o Nine Stories and The Catcher in the - J. Merills
Rye o The Changing Light at Sandover
 perceived madness of the State - L. Gluckfor
of affairs in America o The Wild Iris
- A. Ginsberg - W.S. Merwin
o Howl o Carrier of Ladders
 set the tone of the movement 12. Contemporary American Literature
- J. Kerouac - T. Pynchon
o On the Road o Gravity Rainbow
 a chronicle of a soul-searching  showed the most salient literary
travel through the continent movement of postmodernism
- W. S. Burrough o The Crying of Lot
o Naked Lunch o V.
 showed his travels and o Mason and Dixon
experiments with hard drugs o Against the Day
- J. Updike - T. Marrison
o Rabbit Run o The Bluest Eye
 discussed the taboo topics such  elaborated description of
as adultery incestuous rape and explored the
- R. Ellison conventions of beauty
o Invisible Man o Song of Solomon and Beloved
 told the story of a black - C. McCarthy
Underground Man who o The Orchard Keeper
experienced racial tension o Suttree
- R. Wright o Blood Meridian
o The Man Who Was Almost a Man o All the Pretty Houses
o Native Son o The Road
 depicted his childhood and  achieved both commercial and
autodidactic education critical success, several of his
- W. Gaddis works having adapted to film
o The Recognition - D. Delillo
 portrayed forgery, capitalism, o White Noise
religious zealotry, etc  tackled the subjects of death and
- J. Hawkes consumerism
o The Lime Twig o Underworld
 addressed the themes of  chronicled American life
violence and eroticism o Libra
11. Short Fiction Poetry o Mao II
- F. O’ Connor o Falling Man
o A Good Man is Hard to Find - D.F. Wallace
o Everything That Rises Must Converge o The Broom of the System
o Wise Blood o Infinite Jest
o The Violent Bear It Away  showed futuristic portrait of
 focused on the search of truth America
and religious skepticism
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- P. King  taught in schools across the
o Girl with Curious Hair United States
o Brief Interviews with Hideous Men and - J. Diaz
Oblivion: Stories o The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao
- J. Franzen  told the story of an overweight
o The Twenty-Seventh City Dominican boy growing up as a
 centered about his native place social outcast
St. Louis - J. Alvarez
o The Corrections o How the Garcia Girls Lost Their
 about disintegrating Lambert Accents?
family o In the Time of the Butterflies
- M. Chabon - O. Hijuelos
o The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier o The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love
and Clay - C. Garcia
 told a story of two friends as they o Dreaming in Cuban
rose the ranks of the comics’ - N.S. Momaday
industry in its heyday o House made of Dawn
- D. Johnson - L.M. Silko
o Tree of Smoke o Ceremony
 about the falsified intelligence - G. Vizenor
during Vietnam War o Bearheart: The Heiship Chronicles
- L. Erdrich - L. Erdrich
o The Plague of Doves o Love Medicine
 about the tribal experience set
against the backdrops of murder PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
o The Round House
 built on the same theme 1. Early Works
13. Minority Literature - Doctrina Christiana
- M. H. Kingston o Manila, 1593
o The Woman Warrior o first book printed in the Philippines
o China Men and Tripmaster Monkey: - Tomas Pinpin
His Fake Book o Librong Pagaaralan nang mga
 fictional memoir Tagalog nang Uicang Castilla
- H. Jin  119 pages
o Waiting  printed in 1610
 a Chinese soldier who waited 18  designed to help fellow Filipinos to
years to divorce his wife for learn the Spanish language in a
another woman and worried simple way
about persecution and - Successos Felices
protracted affair o first news publication made in the
- J. Lahiri Philippines
o Interpreter of Maladies 2. Classical Literature in Spanish during the 19th
o Unaccented Earth Century
- A. Tan - Publications
o The Joy Luck Club o La Esperanza
 traced the lines of four immigrant  first daily newspaper published on
families brought together by the December 1, 1846
game Mahjong o La Estrella (1847)
- C. R. Lee o Diario de Manila (1848)
o Native Speaker o Boletin Oficial de Filipinas (1852).
o A Gesture Life o El Eco de Vigan (1884)
o Aloft  first provincial newspaper in Ilocos
- S, S. Far, T. Mori, C. Bulosan, J. Okada, H. o El Boletín de Cebú
Yamamoto  published in 1890 in Cebu
o became prominent - Spanish government introduced a system of
- S. Cisneros free public education that increased the
o The House of Mango Street population's ability to read Spanish and
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
thereby furthered the rise of an educated  held on the eve of
class in 1863 Christmas
o Ilustrado – well-informed  dramatizes Joseph's and
o Spanish Mary's search for
 became the social language of Bethlehem
urban places  Cenaculo
 true lingua franca of the  dramatization of the
archipelago passion and death of
o El Renacimiento Jesus Christ
 most influential Spanish  Salubong
newspaper published until the  Easter play that
end of the 1940s dramatizes the meeting of
 printed in Manila by members of the Risen Christ and His
the Guerrero de Ermita family Mother
- La Solidaridad  Moriones
o established by an ilustrado group  refers to the participants
based in Spain dressed roman soldiers,
o aim of promoting the autonomy and their identities hidden
independence projects behind colorful,
 Pedro Alejandro Paterno sometimes grotesque,
 Nínay wooden masks
 first novel written  The Santacruzan
by a Filipino  performed during the
 José Rizal month of May which have
 Noli Me Tangere (Touch the devotion for the Holy
Me Not) Cross.
 El Filibusterismo  depicts St. Elena's search
3. Poetry and Metrical Romances for the cross on which
- Ladino Poems Christ died
o natives of first Tagalog versifiers who  Pangangaluwa
saw print  socio-religious practice on
o highly literate in both Spanish and the All Saint's Day which
vernacular literally means for The Soul
- Corridos o Secular Drama – generally held
o widely read during the Spanish period during the nine nights of vigil and
that filled the populace's need for prayers after someone's death, on
entertainment as well as edifying the first death anniversary when the
reading matter in their leisure family members put away their
moments mourning clothes)
- Awit  The Karagatan
o corridos  comes from the
o widely read during the Spanish period legendary practice of
as entertaining, edifying, reading testing the mettle of
manner in their leisure time young men vying for a
o fabrication of the writer’s imagination maiden's hand
although the characters and the  the maiden's ring would
setting may be European be dropped into sea and
o structure is rendered dodecasyllabic whoever retrieves it would
quatrains have the girl's hand in
- Prose (Spanish Prose is mostly of didactic marriage
pieces and translations of religious writings in  The Duplo
foreign languages)  forerunner of the
o Religious Drama Balagtasan which consist
 The Panunuluyan of two teams
 seeking entrance  Dupleras or Belyakas
 Tagalog version of the (young women)
Mexican Las Posadas
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
 Dupleros or Belyakos AFRO-ASIAN LITERATURE
(young men)
 The Comedia Indian Literature
 about a courtly love
between, a prince and a The Indus civilization flourished in northern India
princess of different between 2500 and 1500 B.C.
religions. It is about a Te Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and
Christian-Muslim herders were the earliest known migrants into India.
relationship
4. Modern Literature (20th and 21st century) 1. Literary Periods
- greatest portion of Spanish literature was - Vedic Period (1500 B.C. -500 B.C.)
written during the American period o named after the Vedas
o expression of pro-Hispanic  set of hymns that formed the
nationalism cornerstone of Aryan culture
- Edad de Oro del Castellano en Filipinas  transmitted orally by priests
o period of Spanish literary production  most sacred of all literature for
o independence of Spain in 1898 they believe these to have been
- Prominent Writers revealed to humans directly by
o Drama and Essay the gods
 Wenceslao Retana - Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. –A.D.)
 Claro M. Recto o period of composition two great
o Narrative epics
 Antonio M. Abad  Mahabharata
 Guillermo Gomez Wyndham  Ramayana
o Poetry o growth of later Vedic literature, new
 Fernando María Guerrero Sanskrit literature, and the Buddhist
 Manuel Bernabé literature in Pali
- Modernismo - Classical Period (A.D. -1000 A.D.)
o predominant literary style o Sanskrit
o mixture of elements from the French  perfect speech
Parnassien and Symboliste schools  considered a sacred language
o promoted by some Latin American spoken by the gods and
and Peninsular Spanish writers goddesses
5. Notable Philippine Literary Authors  main literary language of
- Estrella Alfon northern India during this period
- Francisco Arcellana  in contrast with the Dravidian
- Carlos Bulosan languages of southern India
- Cecilia Manguerra Brainard - Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 –
- Linda Ty Casper present)
- Gilda Cordero-Fernando o Persian influences on literature were
- N. V. M. Gonzalez considerable this period
- Nick Joaquin o Persian
- F. Sionil José  court language of the Moslem
- Ambeth R. Ocampo rulers
- Alejandro R. Roces, Bienvenido Santos o directly under the British Crown in the
- Edilberto K. Tiempo 18th century until its Independence in
- Kerima Polotan Tuvera 1947
- José Rizal 2. Religions
- Francisco Balagtas - Hinduism
- Zoilo Galang o dominant religion
- Lualhati Bautista o belief of the people of India
- Genoveva Edroza-Matute o predominant faith of India and of no
- Nicanor Abelardo other nation
- Kris Astudillo o Hindus are deeply absorbed with
God and the creation of the universe
o Purusarthas (ends of man)
 Dharma

 virtue, duty, righteousness,
moral law
 Artha
 wealth
 Karma
 love or pleasure
 Moksha
 renunciation of duty,
wealth and love in order
to seek spiritual perfection
 achieved after the
release from samasara,
the cycle of births and
deaths
- Buddhism
o became extinct in India but spread
throughout Asia
o originated in India in the 6th century
B.C.
o based on the teachings of Siddharta
Gautama
 Buddha
 Enlightened One
o focused on self-awareness and self-
development in order to attain
nirvana or enlightenment
o Buddhist Scriptures
 Four Noble Truths
 life is suffering
 the cause of suffering is
desire
 the removal of desire of
suffering
 the Noble Eightfold Paths
leads to the end of
suffering
 Noble Eightfold Path
 right understanding
 right thought
 right speech
 right action
 right means of livelihood
 right effort
 right consideration
 right meditation
3. Religious and Philosophical Works
- The Vedas
o form a collection of sacred among
hymn or verse composed in archaic
Sanskrit
- Dhammapada (Way of Truth)
o anthology of basic Buddhist teaching
in a simple aphoristic style
o one of the best known books of the
Pali Buddhist canon
o contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26
chapters
ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- Upanishads
o form a highly sophisticated
commentary on the religious thought
suggested by the poetic hymns of the
Rigveda
o implies sitting at the feet of the
teacher
4. Epics
- Mahabharata
o longer and more important
o consists of a mass of legendary and
didactic material that tells of the
struggle for supremacy between two
groups of cousins
 Kauravas
 Pandavas
o traditional date for the war is 3102
B.C.
o poem is made up of the almost
100,000 couplets divided into 18
parvans or sections
o authorship is traditionally ascribed to
the sage Vsaya
o Bhagavad Gita
 The Blessed Lord’s Song
 one of the greatest and most
beautiful of the Hindu scriptures
 regarded by the Hindus in
somewhat the same way as the
Gospels are by Christians
- Ramayana
o seems to be more interesting for
modern audience
o composed in Sanskrit by the poet
Valmiki
o not before 300 B.C.
o consists of some 24,000 couplets
divided into seven books
o reflects the Hindu values and forms of
social organization, the theory of
karma, the ideas of wifehood, and
feelings about caste, honor and
promises
5. Literary Selections
- Panchatantra
o collection of Indian beast fables
originally written in Sanskrit
- Sakuntala
o Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa
o Love is the central emotion that binds
the characters Sakuntala and King
Dushyanta
- Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika)
o attributed to Shudraka, a king
o characters in this play include a
Brahman merchant who has lost his
money through liberality, a rich

courtesan in love with a poor young
man, much description
resplendent palaces, and both
comic and tragic or near-tragic
emotional situations
- Gitanjali
o Rabindranath Tagore
- Taj Mahal
o poem by Sahir Ludhianvi
o about the mausoleum in North India
built by the mogul emperor Shah
Jahan for his wife Mumtaz-i-Mahal
- Essay by Santha Rama Rau
o illustrates the telling effects of
colonization on the lives of the
people particularly the younger
generation
6. Major Writers
- Kalidasa
o Sanskrit poet and dramatist is
probably the greatest Indian writer of
all time
o known as India’s Shakespeare
- Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 1941)
o son of a Great Sage
o a Bengali poet and mystic who won
the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913
- Kamala Markandaya (1924)
o concern the struggles
contemporary Indians with
conflicting Eastern and Western
values
o Nectar in a Sieve
 most popular work is about an
Indian peasant’s narrative of her
difficult life
- R.K. Narayan (1906)
o one of the finest Indian authors of his
generation writing in English
- Anita Desai (1937)
o English-language Indian novelist and
author of children’s books, she is
considered India’s premier imagist
writer
o Clear Light of Day
Japanese Literature
1. Classical Literature (794–1185)
- Genji Monogatari
o written by Murasaki Shikibu
o considered the pre-eminent
masterpiece of Heian fiction and an
early example of a work of fiction in
the form of a novel
- Kokin Wakashū (905)
o waka-poetry anthology
- Makura no Sōshi
ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- Sei Shōnagon
of o as an essay about the life, loves, and
pastimes of nobles in the Emperor’s
court
- Taketori Monogatari
o an example of proto-science fiction
o Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the
Moon who is sent to Earth for safety
during a celestial war, and is found
and raised by a bamboo cutter
o later taken back to her extraterrestrial
family in an illustrated depiction of a
disc-shaped flying object similar to a
flying saucer
- Konjaku Monogatarishū
o collection of over a thousand stories
in 31 volumes
o volumes cover various tales from
India, China and Japan
2. Medieval Literature (1185–1603)
- The Tale of the Heike (1371)
o epic account of the struggle
between the Minamotoand Taira
clans for control of Japan
- Kamo no Chōmei’s Hōjōki (1212)
- Tsurezuregusa (1331)
o written by Yoshida Kenkō
- Renga
of o linked verse
o Japanese collaborative poetry in
which alternating stanzas
- Noh
o major form of classical Japanese
dance-drama that has been
performed since the 14th century
o developed by Kan'ami and his son
Zeami
o oldest major theatre art that is still
regularly performed today
3. Early-Modern Literature (1603–1868)
- Chikamatsu Monzaemon
o jōruri and kabuki dramatist
o known as the Japan’s Shakespeare
- Matsuo Bashō
o wrote Oku no Hosomichi (1702)
 a travel diary
- Hokusai
o most famous woodblock print artist
o illustrated his famous 36 Views of
Mount Fuji
- Jippensha Ikku
o Japan’s Mark Twain
o wrote Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige
 a mix of travelogue and comedy
- Ihara Saikaku
o gave birth to the modern
consciousness of the novel and
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
mixed vernacular dialogue into his - Kyōka Izumi
cautionary tales o disciple of Ozaki
- Tsuga Teisho, Takebe Ayatari, and Okajima o pursued a flowing and elegant style
Kanzan and wrote early novels
o instrumental in developing the  The Operating Room (1895)
yomihon  The Holy Man of Mount Koya
 historical romances almost (1900)
entirely in prose, influenced by - Tōson Shimazaki
Chinese vernacular novels o carried Mori Ōgai translated poems
 Three Kingdoms to its height
 Shui hu Zhuan o Myōjōand Bungaku-kai
- Ueda Akinari  magazine in early 1900s
o wrote Ugetsu Monogatari and o shifted from Romanticism to
Harusame (yomihon) Naturalism
- Kyokutei Bakin  The Broken Commandment
o wrote Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (1906)
 extremely popular fantasy/  Katai Tayama’s Futon (1907)
historical romance o Watakushi-shôsetu
- Santō Kyōden  hatched from Naturalism
o wrote yomihon mostly set in the gay  “I Novel”
quarters until the Kansei edicts  describes about the authors
banned such works themselves and depicts their own
o turned to comedic kibyōshi mental states
4. Modern Literature (1868–1945) - Natsume Sōseki
- Natsume Sōseki o often compared Mori Ōgai
o Wagahai wa neko de aru (I Am a o wrote I Am a Cat (1905) with humor
Cat) and satire
o Botchan o depicted fresh and pure youth in
o Kokoro (1914) Botchan (1906) and Sanshirô (1908)
- Shiga Naoya o pursued transcendence of human
o god of the novel emotions and egoism in his later works
- Mori Ōgai  Kokoro (1914)
o instrumental in adopting and  Light and Darkness (1916)
adapting Western literary - Kafū Nagai, Jun’ichirō Tanizaki, Kōtarō
conventions and techniques Takamura, Hakushū Kitahara
o brought Romanticism through his o led Neo-romanticism which came
anthology of translated poems (1889) out of anti-naturalism
 The Dancing Girl (1890) - Saneatsu Mushanokōji, Naoya Shiga
 Wild Geese (1911) o founded a magazine Shirakaba in
- Ryūnosuke Akutagawa 1910
o known especially for his historical o shared a common characteristic
short stories (Humanism)
- Ozaki Kōyō, Kyōka Izumi, and Ichiyo Higuchi - Ryūnosuke Akutagawa
o represent a strain of writers whose o highly praised by Soseki
style hearkens back to Early-Modern o Rashōmon (1915)
Japanese Literature o represented Neo-realism in mid-1910s
- Fukuzawa Yukichi - Takiji Kobayashi, Denji Kuroshima, Yuriko
o authored Enlightenment Literature in Miyamoto, and Ineko Sata
the early Meiji period (1868 –1880s) o comprised the proletarian literary
- Tsubouchi Shōyō and Futabatei Shimei movement during the 1920s and
o brought Realism in the mid- Meiji (late early 1930s
1880s–early 1890s) o produced a politically radical
- Ozaki Kōyō, Yamada Bimyo and Kōda Rohan literature
o brought Classicism - Jun’ichirō Tanizaki
- Ichiyō Higuchi o Japan’s first winner of the Nobel Prize
o wrote short stories on powerless for Literature
women of this age
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- Yasunari Kawabata o Manga
o considered a master of psychological  comic books
fiction  penetrated almost every sector
- Ashihei Hino of the popular market
o wrote lyrical bestsellers glorifying the
war Chinese Literature
- Tatsuzō Ishikawa 1. Periods
o attempted to publish a disturbingly - Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.)
realistic account of the advance on o people practiced a religion based on
Nanjing the belief that nature was inhabited
5. Post-war Literature by many powerful gods and spirits
- Osamu Dazai o bronze working, decimal system, a
o The Setting Sun twelve-month calendar and a system
 soldier returning from Manchukuo of writing consisting 3,000 characters
- Shōhei Ōoka - Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.)
o won the Yomiuri Prize for his novel o longest of all dynasties
Fires on the Plain o China suffered from severe political
 Japanese deserter going mad in disunity and upheaval
the Philippine jungle o known as the Hundred Schools period
- Yukio Mishima because of the many competing
o well known for both his nihilistic writing philosophers and teachers
and his controversial suicide by o Lao Tzu – Taoism
seppuku o Confucius – Confucianism
o began writing in the post-war period - Chin Dynasty (221 B.C. – 207 B.C.)
- Nobuo Kojima o China saw unification and the
o The American School strengthening of central government
 portrays a group of Japanese o roads connecting all parts of the
teachers of English who, in the empire were built and the existing
immediate aftermath of the war, walls on the northern borders were
dealt with the American connected to form the Great Wall of
occupation in varying ways China
- Kenzaburō Ōe - Han Dynasty (207 B.C. – A.D. 220)
o A Personal Matter in 1964 o most glorious eras of Chinese history
o Japan’s second winner of the Nobel o marked by the introduction of
Prize for Literature Buddhism from India
- Kōbō Abe - Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618 – 960)
o Woman in the Dunes (1960) o golden Age of Chinese civilization
o showed the Japanese experience in o fine arts and literature flourished in this
modern terms without using either period
international styles or traditional o invention of gun powder and the
conventions block printing
- Shizuko Todo - Sung Dynasty (A.D. 960 – 1279)
o Ripening Summer o characterized by delicacy and
o captured the complex psychology of refinement although inferior in literary
modern women arts but great in learning
- Haruki Murakami o practice of Neo-Confucianism
o Norwegian Wood (1987) proliferated
o The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994– 2. Philosophy and Religion
1995) - Chinese literature and all of Chinese culture
o portrayed genre-defying, humorous has been profoundly influenced by three
and surreal works great schools of thought
- Banana Yoshimoto o Confucianism
o Kitchen  provides the Chinese with both a
 about love, friendship, and loss moral order and an order for the
showed “manga-esque” style of universe
writing  not a religion but it makes
individuals aware of their place in
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
the world and the behavior - symbolized by the Yin and Yang each
appropriate to it contains a “seed of the other‟
 provides a political and social o Yin
philosophy  passive and feminine force
 Confucian ethics is humanist o Yang
 Confucian tenets  active and masculine force,
 jen 3. Philosophical Works
 also known as ren - The Analects (Lun Yu)
 human o one of the four Confucian texts
heartedness o sayings range from brief statements
 set men above to more extended dialogues
the rest of the lie between Confucius and his students
on earth o instructs on moderation in all things
 measure of through moral education, the
individual building of a harmonious family life
character and and the development of virtues such
such as loyalty, obedience and a sense of
 goal of self- justice
cultivation - The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of
 li Power)
 refers to ritual, o believed to have been written
custom, propriety, between the 8th and 3rd centuries
and manner B.C.
 a person of li is a o presents a way of life intended to
good person restore harmony and tranquility to a
o Taoism kingdom racked by widespread
 illustrated by Lao Tzu during the disorders
Chou Dynasty - Chuang Tzu
 beliefs and influences are an o philosophical work of Lao Tzu‟s most
important part of classical important disciple, Chuan Tzu
Chinese culture o written in a witty, imaginative style,
 “Tao” or “The Way” means the this book consists of fables and
natural course that the world anecdotes that teach the Taoist
follows philosophy and questioned the
 to follow the “Tao” or to go with principles of Confucianism.
the flow is both wisdom and 4. Literary Selections
happiness - The Book of Songs (Shih Ching)
 unhappiness comes from parting o compiled around the 6th century B.C.
from the “Tao” or from trying to o oldest collection of Chinese poetry
flout it o consists of 305 poems, many of which
o Buddhism were originally folk songs, focusing on
 imported from India during the such themes as farming, love, and
Han dynasty war
 stresses the importance of ridding - The Book of Changes (I Ching)
oneself of earthly desires and of o one of the Five Classics of Confucian
seeking ultimate peace and philosophy and has been primarily
enlightenment through used for divination
detachment - Record of a Journey to the West
 with its stress on living ethically o foremost Chinese comic novel written
and its emphasis on material about 1500-82 by the long-
concerns, Buddhism appealed to anonymous Wu Chengen
both Confucians and Taoists o based on the actual 7th century
- Chinese religions are based on the pilgrimage of the Buddhist monk
perception of life as a process of continual Xuanzang (602-664) to India in search
change in which opposing forces, such as of sacred texts
heaven and earth or light and dark, balance
one another

- Dream of the Red Chamber
o novel by Cao Zhan thought to be
semiautobiographical
o generally considered to be the
greatest of all Chinese novels
- The Injustice Done to Tou Ngo
o play by Guan Han-Cheng, a Yuan
dramatist
o tells the story of the poisoning of Old
Chang by his own son but the
conviction of Tou Ngo
5. Major Writers
- Chuang Tzu
o 4th century B.C.
o most important early interpreter of
the philosophy of Taoism
o appears as a quirky character who
cares little for either public approval
or material possessions
- Lieh Tzu
o 4th century B.C.
o Taoist teacher who had many
philosophical differences with his
forbearers Lao-Tzu and Chuan Tzu
o argued that the sequence of causes
predetermines everything that
happens, including one’s choice of
action
- Lui An
o 172 – 122 B.C.
o Taoist scholar, the grandson of the
founder of the Han dynasty
o Prince of Haui-nan
o produced a collection of essays on
metaphysics, cosmology, politics,
and conduct
- Ssu-ma Chien
o 145 – 122 B.C.
o greatest of China’s grand historians
who dedicated himself to
completing the first history of China
the Records of the Historian
- Po Chu-I
o 772 – 846
o wrote many poems speaking bitterly
against the social and economic
problems that were plaguing China
- Li Ching-chao
o A.D. 1084 – 1151
o regarded as China’s greatest woman
poet and was also one of the most
liberated women of her day
o many of her poems composed in the
tzu form celebrate her happy
marriage or express her loneliness
when her husband was away
ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- Chou-Shu-jen
o 1881 – 1936
o called the Father of the modern
Chinese short story because of his
introduction of Western techniques
o known as Lu Hsun whose stories deal
with themes of social concern, the
problems of the poor, women and
intellectuals
- Mao Tun
o pen name of Shen Yen-ping
o an exponent of revolutionary realism
o author of a half-dozen
African Literature
1. Oral Literature
- orature
- may be in prose or verse
- prose is often mythological or historical and
can include tales of the trickster character
- storytellers in Africa sometimes use call-and-
response techniques to tell their stories
- poetry is often sung
o narrative epic
o occupational verse
o ritual verse
o praise poems to rulers and other
prominent people
- praise singers, bards sometimes known as
"griots", tell their stories with music
2. Pre-colonial Literature
- "Epic of Sundiata" composed in medieval
Mali
- "Epic of Dinga" from the old Ghana Empire
-
3. Colonial African Literature
- Ethiopian Literature
o there is a substantial literature written
in Ge'ez going back at least to the 4th
century AD
o best-known work in this tradition is the
Kebra Negast, or "Book of Kings"
- trickster story
o small animal uses its wits to survive
encounters with larger creatures
 Anansi
 spider in the folklore of the
Ashanti people of Ghana
 Ijàpá
 a tortoise in Yoruba
folklore of Nigeria
 Sungura
 a hare found in central
and East African folklore
 ENGLISH – LITERATURE
- Timbuktu Literature  Anthology of the New Black and
o estimated 300,000 or more Malagasy Poetry in the French
manuscripts tucked away in various Language
libraries and private collections  Anthologie de la nouvelle
o mostly written in Arabic but some in poésie nègre et
the native languages namely Fula malgache de langue
and Songhai française
- Swahili Literature  preface by the French
o draws inspiration from Islamic existentialist writer Jean-
teachings but developed under Paul Sartre
indigenous circumstances o writers in this period wrote both in
o most renowned and earliest pieces of Western languages (notably English,
Swahili literature is Utendi wa French, and Portuguese) and in
Tambuka or "The Story of Tambuka" traditional African languages such as
4. Colonial African Literature Hausa
- best known in the West from the period of o Wole Soyinka
colonization and the slave trade  in 1986 became the first post-
- Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative independence African writer to
of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789) win the Nobel Prize in literature
o primarily slave narratives o Albert Camus
- Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford (1911)  Algerian
o also known as Ekra-Agiman of the  awarded the 1957 prize
Gold Coast (now Ghana)  African literature has become
o published what is probably the first powerful compared to pre-
African novel written in English, colonial Africa
Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race - The Noma Award for Publishing in Africa
Emancipation o begun in 1980
 moves between fiction and o presented for the outstanding work of
political advocacy the year in African literatures
 publication and positive reviews
in the Western press mark a
watershed moment in African
literature
- African plays began to emerge
- Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo (1935)
o South Africa
o The Girl Who Killed to Save:
Nongqawuse the Liberator
 first English-language African play
- Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o (1962)
o Kenya
o wrote the first East African drama
o The Black Hermit
 cautionary tale about "tribalism"
 racism between African tribes
- African literature in the late colonial period
o between the end of World War I and
independence
o increasingly showed themes of
liberation, independence, and
(among Africans in French-controlled
territories) négritude
o Léopold Sédar Senghor
 President of Senegal
 published the first anthology of
French-language poetry written
by Africans

LINGUISTICS
1. Structuralists
- believe that language can be described in
terms of observable and verifiable data as it
is being used
- describe language in terms of its structure
and according to the regularities and
patterns or rules in language structure
- language is a system of speech sounds,
arbitrarily assigned to the objects, states, and
concepts to which they refer, used for
human communication
o Language is primarily vocal
 language is speech, primarily
made up of vocal sounds
produced by the speech
apparatus in the human body
 primary medium of language is
speech
 written record is but a secondary
representation of the language
 writing is only the graphic
representation of the
sounds of the language
 most languages have
writing systems
 a number of languages continue
to exist in the spoken form only
without any written form
 Linguists claim that speech is
primary, writing secondary
 speech has a priority in
language teaching
o Language is a system of systems
 language is not a disorganized or
a chaotic combination of sounds
 sounds are arranged in certain
fixed or established, systematic
order to form meaningful units or
words
 words are arranged in a
particular system to generate
acceptable meaningful
sentences
 language is a system of
structurally related elements or
“building blocks” for the encoding
of meaning
 phonemes (sounds)
 morphemes (words)
 tagmemes (phrases and
sentences/clauses)
 language learning entails
mastering the elements or
building blocks of the language
and learning the rules by which
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
these elements are combined,
from phoneme to morpheme to
word to phrase to sentence
o Language is arbitrary
 there is no inherent relation
between the words of a
language and their meanings or
the ideas conveyed by them
 there is no one to one
correspondence between the
structure of a word and the thing
it stands for
 selection of words in the
languages is purely an accident
of history that native speakers of
the languages have agreed on
 relationship between the words
and the ‘things’ they denote is
merely conventional
o Language is a means of
communication
 important means of
communicating between
humans of their ideas, beliefs, or
feelings
 gives shape to people’s thoughts,
as well as guides and controls
their activity
2. Transformationists/Cognitivists
- believe that language is a system of
knowledge made manifest in linguistic forms
but innate and, in its most abstract form,
universal
o Language is innate
 presence of the language
acquisition device (LAD) in the
human brain predisposes all
normal children to acquire their
first language in an amazingly
short time, around five years since
birth
o Language is creative
 enables native speakers to
produce and understand
sentences they have not heard
nor used before
o Language is a mental phenomenon
 not mechanical
o Language is universal
 universal in the sense that all
normal children the world over
acquire a mother tongue but it is
also universal in the sense that, at
a highly abstract level, all
languages must share key
features of human languages,
such as all languages have
sounds

 all languages have rules that form
sounds into words, words into
phrases and clauses
 all languages have
transformation rules that enable
speakers to ask questions, negate
sentences, issue orders, defocus
the doer of the action, etc.
3. Functionalists
- believe that language is a dynamic system
through which members of speech
community exchange information
- language is a vehicle for the expression of
functional meaning such as expressing one’s
emotions, persuading people, asking and
giving information, making people do things
for others
4. Interactionists
- believe that language is a vehicle for
establishing interpersonal relations and for
performing social transactions between
individuals
- tool for creating and maintaining social
relations through conversations
- language teaching content, according to
this view, may be specified and organized by
patterns of exchange and interaction
LANGUAGE THEORIES
1. Behaviorist Learning Theory
- derived from a general theory of learning,
the behaviorist view states that the language
behavior of the individual is conditioned by
sequences of differential rewards in his/her
environment
- regards language learning as a behavior like
other forms of human behavior, not a mental
phenomenon, learned by a process of habit
formation
- learning a language is achieved by building
up habits on the basis of stimulus-response
chains
- emphasizes the consequences of the
response and argues that it is the behavior
that follows a response which reinforces it
and thus helps to strengthen the association
- According to Littlewood (1984), the process
of habit formation includes
o the child imitates the sounds and
patterns which he hears around him
o people recognize the child’s
attempts as being similar to the adult
models and reinforce (reward) the
sounds by approval or some other
desirable reaction
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
o to obtain more of these rewards, the
child repeats the sounds and patterns
so that these become habits
o in this way the child’s verbal behavior
is conditioned (shaped) until the
habits coincide with the adult models
- 3 Crucial Elements of Learning
o Stimulus
 serves to elicit behavior
o Response
 triggered by the stimulus
o Reinforcement
 serves to mark the response as
being appropriate (or
inappropriate) and encourages
the repetition (or suppression) of
the response
2. Cognitive Learning Theory
- Chomsky argues that language is not
acquired by children by sheer imitation and
through a form of conditioning on
reinforcement and reward
- all normal human beings have an inborn
biological internal mechanism that makes
language learning possible
- cognitivists/innatists claim that the child is
born with an “initial” state‟ about language
which predisposes him/her to acquire a grammar
of that language
- they maintain that the language acquisition
device (LAD) is what the child brings to the
task of language acquisition, giving him/her
an active role in language learning
- one important feature of the mentalist
account of second language acquisition is
hypothesis testing
o a process of formulating rules and
testing the same with competent
speakers of the target language
3. Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981)
- most often cited among theories of second
language acquisition
- considered the most comprehensive, if not
the most ambitious
- 5 central Hypotheses:
o acquisition/ learning hypothesis
 claims that there are two ways of
developing competence in L2
 acquisition
 subconscious
process that
results from
informal, natural
communication
between people
where language is
a means, not a

focus nor an end,
in itself
 learning
 conscious process
of knowing about
language and
being able to talk
about it, that
occurs in a more
formal situation
where the
properties or rules
of a language are
taught
 language learning
has traditionally
involved grammar
and vocabulary
learning
o natural order hypothesis
 suggests that grammatical
structures are acquired in a
predictable order for both
children and adults, that is,
certain grammatical structures
are acquired before others,
irrespective of the language
being learned
 when a learner engages in
natural communication, then the
standard order below will occur
o monitor hypothesis
 claims that conscious learning of
grammatical rules has an
extremely limited function in
language performance
 a monitor or editor that
checks output
 the monitor is an editing device
that may normally operate
before language performance
 editing may occur before the
natural output or after the output
o input hypothesis
 Krashen proposes that when
learners are exposed to
grammatical features a little
beyond their current level those
features are ‘acquired’
 acquisition results from
comprehensible input
 made understandable
with the help provided by
the context
 if learners receive
understandable input, language
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
structures will be naturally
acquired
 ability to communicate in a
second language “emerges”
rather than indirectly put in place
by teaching
o affective filter hypothesis
 filter consists of attitude to
language, motivation, self-
confidence and anxiety
 learners with favorable attitude
and self-confidence may have a
‘low filter’ which promotes
language learning
 learners with a low affective filter
seek and receive more input,
interact with confidence, and are
more receptive to the input they
are exposed to
 anxious learners have a high
affective filter which prevents
acquisition from taking place
PHONOLOGY
Definition
- studies the combination of sounds into
organized units of speech, the combination
of syllables and larger units
- describes the sound system of a particular
language and distribution of sounds which
occur in that language
- classification is made on the basis of the
concept of the phoneme
Phoneme
- smallest unit of sound of any language that
causes a difference in meaning
- a phone segment that has a contrastive
status
- basic test for a sound’s distinctiveness is
called a minimal pair test
- minimal pair consists of two forms with distinct
meaning that differ by only one segment
found in the same position in each form
o sip and zip (/s/ /z/)
- distinctive, contrasted sound unit, e.g. / m /,
/ æ /, / n /
- enter into combination with other sounds to
form words
o e.g. /mæn/ ‘man’
Allophones
- variants or other ways of producing a
phoneme
- phonetically similar and are frequently found
in complementary distribution

o variations of /t/
Consonant Sounds
o produced with some restriction or
closure in the vocal tract as the air
from the lungs is pushed through the
glottis out the mouth
o airflow is either blocked momentarily
or restricted so much that noise is
produced as air flows past the
constriction
o described in terms of physical
dimensions
 place of articulation
 manner of articulation
 voicing
1. Place of Articulation
- (vocal tract is constricted at one of the
following points)
o Bilabial
 bi ‘two’ + labial ‘lips’
 primary constriction is at the lips
 /p, b, m, w/
o Labiodental
 labio ‘lip’ + dental ‘teeth’
 primary constriction is between
the lower lip and the upper teeth
 (/f, v/)
o Interdental
 inter ‘between’ + dental ‘teeth’
 between the tongue and the
upper teeth
 th sounds (/θ, ð/)
o Alveolar
 alveolar ridge
 between the tongue and the
alveolar ridge
 /t, d, s, z, n, l/
o Palatal
 palate
 between the tongue and the
palate
 /š, ž, č, ǰ, r, y/
o Velar
 velum
 between the tongue and the
velum
 /k, g, ŋ/
o Glottal
 space between the vocal cords
 constriction is at the glottis
 /h/
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
2. Manner of Articulation
- vocal tract is constricted in one of the
following ways
o Stops
 2 articulators (lips, tongue, teeth,
etc.) are brought together such
that the flow of air through the
vocal tract is completely blocked
 /p, b, t, d, k, g/
o Fricatives
 2 articulators are brought near
each other such that the flow of
air is impeded but not completely
blocked
 air flow through the narrow
opening creates friction, hence
the term fricative
 /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, š, ž, h/
o Affricates
 articulations corresponding to
affricates are those that begin like
stops (with a complete closure in
the vocal tract) and end like
fricatives (with a narrow opening
in the vocal tract)
 /č, ǰ/
 because affricates can be
described as a stop plus a
fricative, some phonemic
alphabets transcribe
 /č/ as /tš/ and /ǰ/ as /dž/
o Nasals
 nasal articulation is one in which
the airflow through the mouth is
completely blocked but the
velum is lowered, forcing the air
through the nose
 /m, n, ŋ/
o Liquids and Glides
 describe articulations that are
mid-way between true
consonants and vowels, although
they are both generally classified
as consonants
 cover term for all l-like and r-like
articulations
 /l, r/

Vowels
- produced with little obstruction in the vocal
tract and are generally voiced
- described in terms of the following physical
dimensions
o tongue height
o frontness
o lip rounding
o tenseness
- different parts of the tongue may be raised
or lowered
- lips may be spread or pursed
- passage through which the air travels is never
narrow as to obstruct the free flow of the
airstream
- vowel sounds carry pitch and loudness
- one can sing vowels
- may be long or short
Suprasegmentals
- prosodic properties that form part of the
makeup of sounds no matter what their
place or manner of articulation is
- variations in intensity, pitch, and timing
1. Stress
- property of a syllable rather than a segment
- cover term for a combined effect of pitch,
loudness and length
o result of which is vowel prominence
o refers to the relative prominence of
syllables
- syllable that receives the most prominent
stress is referred to as primary stress
- to produce a stressed syllable, one may
change the pitch (usually by raising it), make
the syllable louder, or make it longer
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
2. Pitch
- auditory property of a sound that enables us
to place it on a scale that ranges from low to
high
3. Intonation
- rise and fall of pitch which may contrast
meanings of sentences
- pitch movement in spoken utterances is not
only related to differences in the word
meaning, but serves to convey information of
a broadly meaningful nature such as
completeness or incompleteness of an
utterance
- refers to the pitch contours as they occur in
phrases and sentences
4. Juncture
- refers to the pauses or breaks between
syllables
- refers to the transition between sounds
- lack of any real break between syllables of
words is referred to as close juncture
- plus juncture or open juncture is used to
describe a break or pause between syllables
in the same word or adjacent word
o nitrate vs. night rate
o why try vs. white rye
o black bird vs. Blackbird
MORPHOLOGY
Definition
- studies the patterns of forming words by
combining sounds into minimal distinctive
units of meaning called morphemes
- deals with the rules of attaching suffixes or
prefixes to single morphemes to form words
- study of word formation
- deals with the internal structure of words
- studies the changes that take place in the
structure of words
o ‘go’ changes to ‘went’ and ‘gone’ to
signify changes in tense and aspect
1. Morpheme
- short segment of language that meets three
criteria
o a word or part of a word that has
meaning
o cannot be divided into smaller
meaningful parts without violation of
its meaning or without meaningless
remainders
o recurs in different words with a
relatively stable meaning
2. Allomorphs
- morphs which belong to the same
morpheme
 ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
- are variants of a morpheme that may be 6. Derivational Morphemes
phonologically or morphologically - added to root morphemes or stems to derive
conditioned new words
o /s/, /z/ and /əz/ in /kæts/ ‘cats’ - usually change the form class of the words to
/bægz/ ‘bags’ and / bΛsəz/ ‘buses’ which they are attached
o {-en} in oxen and children - open-ended
3. Free Morphemes - potentially infinite number of them
- can stand on their own as independent o actual + {-ize} = actualize
words o help + {-ful} = helpful
- can also occur in isolation o {un-} + lucky = unlucky
o {happy} in unhappily 7. Morphophonemic Processes
o {like} in dislike - processes that produce a great deal of
o {boy} in boyhood linguistic variability
o {happy} o assimilation
o {like}  process that results from a sound
4. Bound Morphemes becoming more like another
- cannot stand on their own as independent nearby sound in terms of one or
words more of its phonetic
- always attached to a free morpheme or a characteristics
free form  process in which segments take
- also called affixes on the characteristics of
o {un-}, {-ly}, {dis-} {-hood} neighboring sounds
o {con-}; {de-}, {per-}  probable – improbable
o {-ceive} as in conceive, deceive,  potent –impotent
perceive  separable – inseparable
5. Inflectional Morphemes  sensitive – insensitive
- never change the form class of the words or o dissimilation
morphemes to which they are attached  process that results in two sounds
- attached to complete words becoming less alike in articulatory
- cap the word or acoustic terms
- closed-ended set of morphemes  process in which units which
- 8 Inflectional Morphemes occur in some contexts are ‘lost’
o –s in others
 third person singular present  ‘library’ instead of ‘library’
 She stays at home.  ‘govenor’ for ‘governor’
o –ed o deletion
 past tense  process that removes a segment
 She stayed at home. from certain phonetic contexts
o –ing  occurs in everyday rapid speech;
 progressive  [blaɪn mæn] ‘blind man’
 She is staying at home. o epenthesis
o –en  process that inserts a syllable or a
 past participle non-syllabic segment within an
 She has eaten at home. existing string of segment
o –s  [plæntɪd] ‘planted’
 plural o metathesis
 She wrote novels.  process that reorders or reverses a
o –‘s sequence of segments; it occurs
 possessive when two segments in a series
 Marie’s car is new. switch places
o –er  ask – aks
 comparative  ruler – lurer
 This road is longer than  violet – viloyet
that.
o –est
 superlative
 This is the longest road.

SYNTAX
Definition
- deals with how words combine to form
phrases, phrases combine to form clauses,
and clauses conjoin to make sentences
- study of the way phrases, clauses and
sentences are constructed
- system of rules and categories that underlies
sentence formation
- involves the description of rules, of positioning
of elements in the sentence such as noun
phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases,
etc.
- attempts to describe how these elements
function in the sentence
o noun phrase “the student” has
different functions in the following
sentences:
 subject – The student is writing a
new play.
 indirect object – The teacher
gave the student a new play.
Syntactic Structures
1. Structure of Predication
- a subject and a predicate
o The seagull flies.
o The water level rose abruptly.
o The trial has begun
2. Structure of Complementation
- a verbal element and a complement
o disturbed the class
o rendered service
o be conscientious
3. Structure of Modification
- a head word and a modifier
- meaning serves to broaden, qualify, select,
change, or describe, or in some way affect
the meaning of the head word
o responsible officers
o trusted friend
o impartially conducted
4. Structure of Coordination
- equivalent grammatical units and joined
often but not always by a coordinating
conjunction
o bread and butter
o peace not war
o neither extrovert nor introvert
SEMANTICS
Definition
- deals with the level of meaning in language
- attempts to analyze the structure of meaning
in a language
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
o how words are related in meaning
- attempts to show these inter-relationships
through forming ‘categories’
- accounts for both word and sentence
meaning
1. Lexical Ambiguity
- refers to a characteristic of a word that has
more than one sense
o the English word fly is ambiguous
because it has more than one
meaning
2. Syntactic Ambiguity
- refers to the characteristic of a phrase that
has more than one meaning
o English literature teacher can mean
‘a teacher of English literature’ or ‘a
literature teacher who is from
England’
3. Synonymy
- refers to words having the same sense
- they have the same values for all of their
semantic features
o happy and glad
o reply and respond
o hastily and hurriedly
4. Hyponymy
- a characteristic of a word that contains the
meaning of another word
- contained word is known as the
superordinate
- word whose meaning contains all the same
feature values of another word, plus some
additional feature values
o sampaguita contains the meaning of
flower therefore, sampaguita is a
hyponym of the superordinate flower
5. Antonymy
- refers to the characteristic of two words
which are different both in form as well as
meaning
- conveys the opposite sense (binary
antonyms)
- words whose meanings differ only in the
value for a single semantic feature
- gradable antonyms are words that describe
opposite ends of a continuous dimension
6. Homonymy
- refers to sense relation in words with the same
phonetic form but different in meaning
o bat meaning ‘a nocturnal animal’
and bat meaning ‘an equipment
used in baseball or softball’
7. Coreference
- refers to the sense relation of two expressions
that have the same extralinguistic referent
o ‘Mercury is the nearest planet from
the sun’

o Mercury and the nearest planet from
the sun are coreferential because
they both refer to the same
extralinguistic object – the planet
Mercury in the solar system
8. Anaphora
- linguistic expression that refers to another
linguistic expression
o “The tsunami killed thousands of
people. It was devastating.”
o “it” in the second sentence is used
anaphorically (to point backwards)
to refer to ‘the tsunami’
9. Deixis
- refers to the characteristic of an expression
that has one meaning but can refer to
different entities within the same context of
utterance
- deictic expressions have a ‘pointing
function’
o you, I, she (personal pronouns)
o here, there, right, left, (expressions of
place)
o this, that, those, these
(demonstratives)
o now, yesterday, today, last year (time
expressions)
10. Entailment
- also called paraphrase
- proposition (expressed in a sentence) that
follows necessarily from another sentence
- a sentence entails another if the meaning of
the first includes the meaning of the second
o ‘Raul had a fatal accident’
o ‘Raul died’
11. Presupposition
- refers to a proposition (expressed in a
sentence) that is assumed to be true in order
to judge the truth or falsity of another
sentence
- refers to the truth relation between two
sentences; one sentence presupposes
another if the falsity of the second renders
the first without a truth value
o ‘The King of Canada is dead.’
o ‘There exists (is) a King of Canada.’
 first sentence presupposes the
second sentence because if the
second sentence is false, then the
first sentence has no truth value
PRAGMATICS
Definition
- deals with the contextual aspects
meaning in particular situations
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
- study of how language is used in real
communication
- distinct from the study of sentences,
pragmatics considers utterances
o uttered or said by speakers of a
language
1. Speech Act Theory
- every utterance of speech constitutes some
sort of act (promising, apologizing,
threatening, warning, etc.)
- every speech act consists of three separate
acts:
o locutionary act
 act of saying something
 description of what a speaker
says
 I promise to return your
book tomorrow.
o illocutionary act
 act of doing something
 what the speaker intends to do by
uttering a sentence
 I promise to return your
book tomorrow. (speaker
has made an act of
promising)
o perlocutionary act
 an act of affecting someone
 effect on the hearer of what a
speaker says
 I will return your book
tomorrow (the hearer may
feel happy or relieved
that he will get the book
back)
2. Categories of Illocutionary Acts
- proposed by John Searle
- group together closely related intentions for
saying something
o declaration
 an utterance used to change the
status of some entity
 includes acts of appointing,
naming, resigning, baptizing,
surrendering, excommunicating,
arresting
 Foul! (uttered by a referee
at a basketball game)
o representative
 an utterance used to describe
some state of affairs
 includes acts of stating, asserting,
denying, confessing, admitting,
notifying, concluding, predicting
of  Recession will worsen in
Europe in the next five
years.

o commissive
 an utterance used to commit the
speaker to do something
 includes acts of promising,
vowing, volunteering, offering,
guaranteeing, pledging, betting
 I’ll meet you at the library
at 10:00 a.m.
o directive
 an utterance used to try to get
the hearer to do something
 includes acts of requesting,
ordering, forbidding, warning,
advising, suggesting, insisting,
recommending
 Review thoroughly for the
exams.
o expressive
 an utterance used to express the
emotional state of the speaker
 includes acts of apologizing,
thanking, congratulating,
condoling, welcoming,
deploring, objecting
 Congratulations for
topping the board exam!
o question
 an utterance used to get the
hearer to provide information
 includes acts of asking, inquiring
 Searle treated questions as a
subcategory of directives but it is
more useful to treat them as a
separate category
 Who won the presidential
election?
3. Conversational Maxims
- rules that are observed when
communication takes place in a situation
where people are co-operative. When
people communicate, they assume that the
other person will be cooperative and they
themselves wish to cooperate
- in the “Cooperative Principle” the following
maxims or rules govern oral interactions:
o Maxim of Quantity
 a participant’s contribution
should be as informative as
possible
 “Give the right amount of
information, neither less nor more
than what is required.”
 Are you attending the
seminar?
 Yes, I am.
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
o Maxim of Quality
 a participant should not say that
which is false or that which the
participant lacks evidence
 “Make your contribution such
that it is true; do not say what you
know is false or for which you do
not have adequate evidence.”
 Who did you see enter the
room last?
 The janitor
o Maxim of Relation
 a participant’s contribution
should be related to the subject
of the conversation
 “Be relevant.”
 Why did you come late?
 I had to take my son to
school.
o Maxim of Manner
 a participant’s contribution
should be direct, not obscure,
ambiguous, or wordy
 “Avoid obscurity and ambiguity;
be brief and orderly.”
 Are you accepting the
position?
 Yes, I am. Thank you for
your trust in me.
METHODS AND APPROACHES IN SECOND
LANGUAGE TEACHING
Teacher-Oriented Methods and Approaches
1. Grammar Translation Method
- puts emphasis on the intensive study of
grammar for the purpose of enabling
students to translate sentences from and into
the target languages
- purpose of the method was not to make
students speak the language, but to achieve
a reading proficiency in the target language
o Sample activities in the Grammar
Translation Method are provided by
Villamin, et al. (1994: 5-6):
 Students are asked to translate,
for example, the Spanish poem
“Adios Patria Adorada” by Dr.
Jose Rizal into English or into the
native language, or vice versa
 Students answer questions in the
target language based on their
comprehension of a story read
 Students are directed to find
synonyms and/or antonyms of
given words in an essay

2. Direct Method
- disallowed the use of the students’ own
language in the classroom and, instead,
advocated the sole use of the target
language
- used a lot of drills in listening and speaking
- no memorization was done, but extensive
drills were executed through imitation
ostensibly in order to bring the target
language closer to the learners
o Direct Method may be actualized
through the following sample
classroom activities (Villamin et al.
1994: 7):
 Students read aloud a passage
on a historical event in the
Philippines.
 Using a map, students point out
places where the event took
place before recounting it.
 The teacher asks questions in the
target language about the
passages read, to which the
students reply in complete
sentences; or the students ask
questions to which the teacher or
other students give the answers.
 The teacher corrects grammar
errors made by the students and
briefly explains why such
corrections are necessary.
 Students work on exercises using
the prepositions taught in the
lesson.
3. Situational Language Teaching
- insistence on the use of the concept of
situation in the teaching of all sorts of
language items
- teaching of patterns was characterized by
the use of real objects, gestures, and
situations
4. Audiolingual Method
- known as the Army Method
- its history can actually be traced to the
military campaign of the United States during
and after World War II
- special funding from the US military, courses
for teaching aural (listening) and oral
(speaking) skills were developed into what
came to be known as the Army Specialized
Training Program (ASTP)
- heavily oriented towards oral exercises like
rigorous drills in pronunciation and structural
patterns as well as practice in conversation
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
Learning-Oriented Methods and Approaches
1. Series Method
- major features include the teaching of
language without the aid of translation and
without the use of grammatical rules and
explanations
- without translation, the mode of teaching
was direct
- without grammar, the approach of teaching
was conceptual
- teach in a series of sentences (not isolated,
but connected, sentences) which could
easily be perceived by the learners such that
associations between sentences and
experiences could be much more easily
established
2. Total Physical Response
- (TPR) Method was developed by James
Usher from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s.
- one of several ‘humanistic ‘methods
developed in the 1970s, making this decade
a vibrant one for language teaching
methodology
- methods are humanistic in the sense that
they supposedly treat learners primarily as
human beings whose affective (emotional)
and cognitive qualities need to be factored
into the equation of language teaching
- also called ‘naturalistic’ in the sense that they
prefer that foreign language teaching mirror
the ‘natural’ way of learning a language,
such as when young children start to learn
their first language
- distinguished by its focus on teaching
language through physical action
3. Silent Way
- aims to develop in the learners a cognitive
map of the target language without
recourse to repetition exercises and mimicry
- develop in the learners’ self-awareness such
that they will ultimately make the necessary
cognitive connection between colored rods
(and their various combinations) and the
meanings of words and sentences that they
produce
4. Community Language Learning
- manifested in its insistence on creating a
classroom environment where the affective
or emotional needs of learners are
considered a necessary precondition of
successful foreign language learning
- first thing that needs to be done in the
classroom is to provide learners the
opportunity to engage in a sort of group
dynamics where they are allowed to talk to
each other in their first language

5. Suggestopedia
- superlearning
- introduced and developed by Bulgarian
psychologist Georgi Lozanov
- based on a general theory of learning which
claims that learning achieves its maximum
success when the mind is at its most relaxed
state
- given the ‘right’ learning conditions, human
beings are capable of absorbing an
incredible amount of material, knowledge, or
information
6. Natural Approach
- premised on the belief that the best way to
learn a language other than your own is
through a simulation in the classroom of the
contexts and conditions of first language
acquisition
Learner-Oriented Methods and Approaches
1. Communicative Language Teaching
- treated language as a form
communication that enables speakers to
accomplish multiple tasks in the world
- knowledge of forms is not enough to know a
language
- neither is it enough to know what forms
perform particular functions
- Dell Hymes
o sociolinguist 1979
o language teaching and learning
need to take into account rules of use
because, without them, rules of
grammar are useless
o questions Chomsky’s idea
competence because it assumes
that all it takes for us to know a
language is to know its grammar
o Hymes proposes a ‘broad theory of
competence’ the theory
communicative competence
- 4 Competences in Second Language
Teaching
o grammatical competence
 knowledge of grammar and
vocabulary of language
o sociolinguistic competence
 knowledge of how to use
language appropriately
different situations
o discourse competence
 knowledge of how to use and
respond to different types of
speech acts
o strategic competence
 verbal and non-verbal strategies
to handle breakdown
ENGLISH – LINGUISTICS
communication or enhance
effective communication
2. Cooperative Language Learning
- based on a more general theory of
collaborative learning
- hopes to make full use of the cooperative
potential of activities like group and pair work
- traditional structures of classroom interaction
where the teacher controls almost
everything, promotes competition rather
than cooperation
- students and teachers cooperate with one
another that learning is maximized
3. Content-Based Instruction
- deals with the teaching of language through
content
- language is taught indirectly through
content or subject matter which students are
expected to know in learning the target
language in the first place
- believes that language learning is best
of facilitated when learners are taught the
content of language, and not language per
se
4. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)
- organized around the concept of tasks as
the central unit of language planning,
teaching and use
- what learners accomplish tasks inside and
outside the classroom and both are needed
for efficient language learning
- views language as primarily a process of
making meaning and a system of structures
and functions that organize interaction
of
of
in
in
 ENGLISH – STYLISTICS
STYLISTICS - government officials’ refusal to answer
questions requiring classified information
1. Foregrounding 3. Faced with clash, speaker may break one maxim
- emphasis on a textual feature or another
- may be achieved through unusual or strange 4. Speaker may ostentatiously flout a maxim, so
collocations, meaningful repetitions, that it is apparent to his interlocutors
contrast, deliberate deviation from the
norms/ rules/ conventions SPEEACH ACT
2. Collocation
- co-occurrence of certain words Speech act is a theory that “many utterances
3. Reference vs. Representation are significant not so much in terms of what they say,
- reference but rather in terms of what they do” (Sullivan, 1994)
o indexical function of language,
pointing to different aspects of reality 3 Conditions
- representation 1. Introduction of context or the preparatory and
o manipulating language to stand for sincerity conditions
an experience/ situation - I promise to return the book next week.
4. Diegesis and Mimesis 2. Marking of clear social relationships
- telling/ narrating - Normally, a servant cannot threaten a
- mimesis is showing master.
5. Co-operative Principle 3. Observance of felicity conditions before and
- According to Grice post speech event
o people can engage in meaningful - “From Waiting for Godot‖ by Samuel
extended conversation because, Beckett”
under normal conditions, the Vladimir: Well, shall we go?
interlocutors observe certain Estrogen: Yes, let’s go.
principles, which he calls the four (They do not move).
conversational maxims
- According to Pratt 1977 COMMON WAYS OF INTERPRETING LITERARY TEXTS IN
o maxim of quality upholds the value of STYLISTICS
truth/ sincerity
o maxim of manner refers to the Systematic Grammar in Literary Analysis (Halliday,
avoidance of obscurity of expression 1970)
and ambiguity, and to be orderly 1. Ideational Function
- concerned with cognitive meaning
4 Convention Maxims in Carrying Out a o Transitivity Function
Conversation  illustrate how stylistics may profit
from applying a grammatical
1. Maxim of Quantity model to analyze a literary text
- make your contribution as informative as is  process
required  represented by
- don’t give too much or too little information the verb
2. Maxim of Quality  Alex watered the
- make your contribution one that you believe plants.
to be true  participants
3. Maxim of Relation  roles of persons
- be relevant and objects
4. Maxim of Manner  Alex watered the
- avoid unnecessary prolixity, obscurity of plants.
expression and ambiguity, and be orderly  circumstantial function
 in English typically
4 Cases When Maxims Are Violated the adverbials of
time, place, and
1. A speaker may unostentatiously violate a maxim manner
- this accounts for lies and deceits
2. Speaker may opt out of the co-operative
principle

2. Interpersonal Function
- describing the relations between persons
- questions and answers, positive and
negative forms, are part of this function
3. Textual Function
- process enabling the speaker or writer to
construct texts as a logical sequence of units
Meaning Beyond the Sentence (Chapman, 1973)
- kernels of meaning in long-winding
sentences, particularly in the stream-of-
consciousness technique, may be derived by
listing them down to create a discourse or
arrive at meaning
1. Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adjectives
- however, but, furthermore, nevertheless
o In Dapitan, Rizal engaged in farming,
sculpture, poetry-writing and other
useful activities, but life there proved
routine until Josephine Bracken came
to his life.
2. Pronominal Linkage with a Preceding Noun
- “For an hour and a half he wondered
aimlessly up and down side streets, immersed
in solving some problem – chess, of course –
the meaning of which suddenly had
become the meaning of his whole existence
on earth.” – Leonid Leonov’s “The Wooden
Queen”
3. Repetition of a Keyword or Proper Name
- identically or in a different grammatical form
o "He was a formidable player; few
dared play with him for his stakes
were so high and reckless.” – Hesse’s
Siddhartha
4. Use of Synonyms or Related Word or Phrase
- “For they sometimes, perhaps even on the
majority of occasions, waited for their squires
to grow old, and then when they were
cloyed with service, having endured bad
days and worse nights, they conferred upon
them some title, such as count, or at least
marquis.” – Cervantes’s Don Quixote
5. Deictic Words
- pointers like the, this, that
- either governing a noun or referring back to
the whole sentence
o “Is that the way they do things where
you’ve been,” he asked. ―– for the
ladies to escort the gentleman
home?” “That was a nasty hit for
Eleseus; he turned red...” – Hamsun’s
Growth of the Soil
6. Repetition of Opening Structure
- We work when the sun rises,
We rest when the sun sets.
We dig wells for drink,
ENGLISH – STYLISTICS
We plow the land for food.
What has the power of the Emperor to do
with us?
– Shih Shing (Book of Songs)
7. Class-Member Relationships
- relationships of the parts of referent to the
whole
o “They were friends, yet enemies; he
was master, she was mistress; each
cheated the other, each feared the
other, each felt this and knew this
enemy time they touched hands...” –
Virginia Woolf’s “Duchess and the
Jeweler”
8. Loosen Semantic Connection without Repetition
of Items
- “I had soon realized I was speaking to a
Catholic, to someone who believed – how do
they put it? – in an omnipotent and
omniscient Deity, while I was what is loosely
called an Agnostic.” – Graham Greene’s
“The Hint of an Explanation”
9. Clear Sequence of Events
- “Those were the happiest years of my life, my
friendship with Lojzik and stamp-collecting.
Then I had scarlet fever and wouldn’t let him
come to see me, but he used to stand in the
passage and whistle so that I could see him.”
– Karel Capek, “The Stamp Collection”
Pedagogical Stylistics (Carter, 1996)
- more extensive and integrated study of
language and literature which are better
given as pre-literary, linguistic activities
1. Predicting
- how the narrative will develop after omitting
the title, or after reading the first paragraph
- can be done by paired group
o lyric poems or texts which evoke
descriptive states do not benefit from
this activity
o texts with a strong plot component
o even the best narrative could make
students read back and project
forward
2. Use of Cloze Procedure (technique in which
words are deleted from a passage according to
a word-count formula or various other criteria)
- focus on individual words/sequence of
words, rather than on stretches of texts
- do some lexical prediction during the act of
reading/ after a story is read
- show careful/close reading
- do reasonable and supportable predictions
to be alerted to the over-all pattern of the
story
 ENGLISH – STYLISTICS
3. Summarizing Strategies uncertain, melts the
- limit the summary, from 25-40 words to: ask - give, Artic.
o re-structure, delete, re-shape their accept -
word to meet the word limit decline,
o focus on structure and shape of the capable -
narrative incapable)
- compare and criticize alternative summaries Emotional
- I’m worried
4. Forum: Debating Opposing Viewpoints Attitudes
about my
- mobilize discussion and debate
term papers.
- do small-group activity (surprise,
- USec. Puno
- provide counter-examples from other groups hope, fear,
intends to Expressive
to listen worry,
resign.
- use their prior knowledge and the text in preference,
- Make my
question gratitude,
coffee
5. Guided Re-writing intention,
black.
- recognize the broader discourse patterns of want, desire)
texts and styles appropriate to them Moral
- re-write stretches of discourse to change its - I appreciate
Attitudes
communicative value your help. Expressive
- rewrite a set of instructions, as a description, - He regretted – states joy,
(apology,
or turning a lecture transcript into academic his decision. disappointment,
approval,
discourse - The mother likes, dislikes,
appreciation,
- specify clearly information about abandons etc.
regret,
audiences/purpose the baby.
indifference)
- rewrite one style into another to explore Suasion - Hand in your
connections between styles and meaning, assignments.
particularly juxtaposing literary and non- (suggest, - Watch out
literary texts request, for falling Directive
- focus on varied ways in instructing invite, debris! – makes a
information for readers in different texts instruct, - The doctor request to be
- infer more on semantic overlaps, degrees of advice, suggests complied with
information supplied to a reader, even the warn, offer) that Ana
omission of certain expected propositions lessen her
assigned thematic significance sugar intake.
Socializing - Hi, Larry,
Pragmatic Stylistics (Hatch, 1992) how are
(greet, take you?
Kind of Speech Act Directive
Examples leave, - You made it!
Exchange Equivalent – (i.e., Tell me
introduce, I’m happy
Factual - The IIRC how you are.)
propose, for you.
Information report inflicts congratulate, - See you
many. Representative etc.) tomorrow!
(identify, ask, - The plane – judged for
report, say, departs at truth value, may
think) 7:10. either be
- Is Sunshine hedged or
Corazon a aggravated
threat to Lea
Michelle?
Intellectual - These
Information arguments
are correct.
(agree - - Sorry, I can’t
Representative
disagree, attend the
remember - meeting!
forget, - Global
certain - warming