DPS 105 National Strategic Studies Module

DIPLOMA IN POLICE STUDIES
NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

MODULE
[DPS 105]
POLICE SCIENCES AND LEGAL STUDIES – NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES [NASS]
COMPILED BY
Mugwenhi A.
Nyakudzi J.
Mutanhau D.
TYPESETTING:
Rutanha T.
This work is subject to theoretical and practical criticism, corrections and adjustments.
For all the aspiring recruits of 2020 who failed to undergo police training programme due
to the Corona Virus (COVID 19) pandemic, may their wishes and ambitions be fulfilled.
“We contribute this compilation today, for the betterment of ZRP recruit training
programmes tomorrow”.
© 2021
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OVERVIEW
The Presidential Commission into Education recommended that National and Strategic
Studies should be part of the curriculum right across the education system from primary
to tertiary. NASS according to the commission should be „central to all forms of learning
as the subject deals with instructing learners in citizenship transmission and democracy‟.
It is the view of the commission that the course helps to create good citizens who have
care about their duties and responsibilities.
The course therefore is aimed at producing a national citizen whose commitment to the
country is beyond reproach. The citizens are expected to have a sense of loyalty and to be
duty bound for the goodness of their community, society and country at large. Citizens
should not always ask what the government can do for them but instead should ask what
they can do for the government.
The premise of the conceptual framework of the course is an individual‟s ability to adjust
to a specified situation and interact with other citizens in the country, region and
internationally. The course will cultivate citizens who are patriotic, with national identity
and committed to work for the country.
The industry will gain confidence knowing that all their investments will be guaranteed in
the second republic as members of the police will exhibit a behaviour that allows business
to flourish in a peaceful manner.
There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and
cherished by that society. Education is about values in other word behaviour change in all
the domains of education that is the psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A
skilled artisan or accountant with no sense of his position in society at the family level or
at work or society in general is a social misfit and a drain to national wealth. A strong
sense of belonging or identity, responsibility and accountability are the things that can be
defined as patriotism. Economic giants today and in the past are and were the most
patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of belonging has eluded both young and old and
this is due to selfishness, greed and the collapse of the extended family due to western
values. A culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary attitude pervades all sectors of
society in the banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil service hence the need to change
attitudes and the need to inculcate correct values is not only urgent but imperative now
and in the future.
Civic education is typical of and in all educational systems and is not unique to Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe was the odd case in that it did not have this kind of emphasis in its education
system.
Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the Zimbabwe
ruins as well as in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of the Second Chimurenga
war. The second Chimurenga in essence establishes our „enduring political tradition” and
ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far behind as he is able to see as far ahead.
Mathematically expressed this would be, “one is able to see as far ahead proportional to
the distance he/she is able to see as far backward.‟ History is therefore relevant not only
for today‟s events and policies, but allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of
yester -year.
NASS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the attitudes of participants with
respect to their national identity, values and translating the political gains of the Second
Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and Fourth Chimurenga.
Unit 1 looks into the Pre-Colonial History of Zimbabwe, an epoch in time when the Great
Plateau was composed of kingdoms. Unit 2 explores the Colonial History of Zimbabwe
tracing the colonialism to its precursors which include early missionary and scientific
expeditions. The unit also explores the rise of critical consciousness by the natives leading
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to the First and Second Chimurenga Wars. Unit 3 deals with Zimbabwean Post Colonial era
and Patriotism where sustainable utilisation of resources and implications of Zimbabwe‟s
indigenous knowledge systems to modern society are examined. Unit 4 dwells on National
and Strategic Policies that formed the basis of modern day Zimbabwe. Unit 5 is a cross
section of Culture and National Heritage. Unit 6 concentrates on National Interests boiling
down to the structure of our national administration. Unit 7 explores Law and Society,
examining Zimbabwe‟s Legal System. Unit 8 is on Government and Democracy which also
includes Zimbabwe‟s electoral processes. Unit 9 deals with National Identity which
involves nationalism, patriotism identity among other important aspects. Unit 10 works on
Local Languages.
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CONTENT
OVERVIEW............................................................................................................ii
UNIT 1: PRE COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE
1.0. PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE ......................................................... 1
1.1. PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES ......................................................................... 1
1.2. THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE .................................................................... 2
1.3. THE MUTAPA STATE ................................................................................... 4
1.4. THE ROZVI STATE ..................................................................................... 9
1.5. THE NDEBELE STATE ............................................................................... 10
UNIT 2: COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE
2.0. COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE .............................................................. 17
2.1. EARLY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY, SCIENTIFIC AND PHILANTHROPIC
EXPEDITIONS AS PRECURSORS TO COLONIALISM .............................................. 18
2.2. THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884-1885........................................................ 19
2.3. THE FIRST CHIMURENGA .......................................................................... 20
2.4. THE SECOND CHIMURENGA ...................................................................... 22
2.5. BSAC AND THE OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE .............................................. 28
2.6. THE OCCUPATION OF THE NDEBELE STATE [1893] ...................................... 33
2.7. THE SUPPRESSIVE ACTS ENACTED BY THE BSAC ........................................ 36
UNIT 3: POST-COLONIAL HISTORY AND PATRIOTISM
3.0. POST COLONIAL HISTORY AND PATRIOTISM ................................................. 40
3.1. ZIMBABWE‟S RESOURCES-HUMAN AND NATURAL ....................................... 41
3.2. SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF ZIMBABWE RESOURCES ........................... 42
3.3. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS ON ZIMBABWEAN
POPULATION................................................................................................... 43
3.4. ZIMBABWE‟S INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO
MODERN SOCIETY ........................................................................................... 46
UNIT 4: NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC POLICIES
4.0. NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC POLICIES .......................................................... 48
4.1. THE LAND DONOR CONFERENCE OF 1998 .................................................. 48
4.2. THE 2000 ZIMBABWEAN CONSTITUTIONAL REFERENDUM AND ELECTIONS
RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 51
4.3. LAND [AGRARIAN] REFORM IN ZIMBABWE ................................................. 52
4.4. TRANSITIONAL STABILISATION PROGRAMME ............................................. 56
UNIT 5: CULTURE AND NATIONAL HERITAGE
5.0. CULTURE AND NATIONAL HERITAGE............................................................. 58
5.1. INDIGENOUS VALUE SYSTEMS .................................................................. 59
5.2. RESPECT FOR AUTHOURITY, AGE, FAMILY AND STRANGERS/VISITORS.......... 61
5.3. MORALITY AND REIGION (CHRITIANITY, MOSLEM/ISLAM)............................ 65
5.4. NATIONAL [ZIMBABWE] HERITAGE ............................................................ 67
UNIT 6: NATIONAL INTERESTS
6.0. NATIONAL INTERESTS ................................................................................ 73
6.1. ZIMBABWE NATIONAL VISION, ETHOS AND ASPIRATIONS AS EMBODIED IN
THE SECOND CHIMURENGA .............................................................................. 73
6.2. POLITICAL SOVEREIGNTY ......................................................................... 74
6.3. THE THREE ARMS OF GOVERNMENT .......................................................... 75
UNIT 7: LAW AND SOCIETY
7.0. LAW AND SOCIETY ..................................................................................... 77
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7.1. PRE-COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEMS AND MODERN LEGAL SYSTEMS IN ZIMBABWE

78
7.2. LAW ENFORCEMENT, JUSTICE AND PUBLIC ORDER...................................... 81
UNIT 8: GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY
8.0. GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY .................................................................. 83
8.1. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DEMOCRACY AND PRE-COLONIAL GOVERNMENT
SYSTEMS. ...................................................................................................... 83
8.2. THE MAJOR ISSUES AT ALL ELECTIONS HELD IN ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980. ..... 89
8.3. ZIMBABWE‟S ELECTORAL SYSTEMS, AUTHLORITY AND THE SADC ELECTION
GUIDLINES ..................................................................................................... 91
UNIT 9: NATIONAL IDENTITY
9.0. NATIONAL IDENTITY ................................................................................. 100
9.1. IDEOLOGICAL ORIENTATION .................................................................. 100
9.2. NATIONALISM ....................................................................................... 101
9.3. PATRIOTISM ......................................................................................... 103
9.4. NATIONAL SYMBOLS/IDENTITY ............................................................... 103
UNIT 10: LOCAL LANGUAGES ............................................................................112
10.0. LOCAL LANGUAGES ............................................................................... 112
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UNIT 1
PRE COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE
CONTENT
a. Pre-colonial societies
b. Socio- Economic and Political Structures
c. The Great Zimbabwe Period,
d. Munhumutapa era,
e. The Rozvi and Ndebele Kingdoms
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the Unit students should be able to:
a. Identify and draw lessons from the Pre-colonial societies

b. Analyze the Socio- Economic and Political Structures
c. Evaluate the Great Zimbabwe Period, Munhumutapa era, the Rozvi and
Ndebele Kingdoms
1.0. PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE
1.1. PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES
Introduction
The life of a human being is characterized by ups and downs which in the
study of literature are known as vicissitudes. Similarly the history of nations
is also known for ups and downs. Nations, one time or the other, go through
cycles of great to weak and back. The history of the nation now called
Zimbabwe has its share of ups and downs. The country has had its share of
achievements and failures. This chapter describes and examines the early
states of what has now become to be Zimbabwe. The main focus will be on
achievements and failures or the problems that the people experienced as
they shaped the state. Generally, most people were peasant farmers who
depended on farming, hunting, fishing and mining activities. Their mode
trade was mainly barter trade where they would exchange for example a
bucket maize for a goat. They were mainly farming maize, millet, sorghum
just to mention a few. They also kept goats, sheep and cattle. They had their
own societal structures. The Kingdoms were comprised of Kings who were
subordinated by Headmen and village heads.
Socio-Economic and Political Structures
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Notably, in all states the royal family lived in enclosures. During that period,
it was mainly patriarchal families where the father was a supreme figure who
would fend for the family and instill discipline. As societies within a state,
people would inter-marry. Traditional marriage ceremony was characterized
by payment of Lobola to the parents of the wife to be in the form of goats,
sheep, and cattle or farm produce. They also assisted each other in farming
activities which was known as „nhimbe‟.
Their mode trade was mainly barter trade where they would exchange for
example a bucket maize for a goat. They were mainly farming maize, millet,
sorghum just to mention a few. They had their own societal structures. The
Kingdoms were comprised of Kings who were subordinated by Headmen and
village heads. In the event of any violation of societal values and norms, the
violator will be brought before the village head, Headman, and or chief‟s
court for determination taking into account the gravity of the matter.
The following were the mainly dominant states during that period; Great
Zimbabwe, Mutapa, Rozvi and Ndebele.
1.2. THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
Great Zimbabwe was one of the earliest states to emerge as a result of

development in iron technology on the Zimbabwean plateau. The state
emerged from the Gumanye culture. The dynasty of the Gumanye was one of
the first groups to settle on the plateau. The initial power of the dynasty was
based on crop cultivation and cattle herding. Later they began to control
trade in gold which increased their power leading to the formation of the
state. The state began to take shape from around 1100 near the present day
Masvingo with its centre at Great Zimbabwe buildings (the conical tower and
the Great enclosure)
The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means “house
of stones” that is “Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar “Dzimba Dzemabwe” was
built across the country for chiefs or rulers who were loyal to the “mambo” at
Great Zimbabwe.
Historical evidence
Soapstone Birds
In addition to architecture, Great Zimbabwe‟s most famous works of art are

the eight birds carved of soapstone that were found in its ruins. The birds
surmount columns more than a yard tall and are themselves on average
sixteen inches tall. The sculptors combine both human and avian elements,
substituting human features like lips for the beak and five toed feet for claws.
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Excavated at the turn of the century, it is known that six of the sculptors
came from the Eastern Enclosure of the hill complex but unfortunately their
precise arrangement can only be surmised. Scholars have suggested that the
birds served as emblems of royal authority, perhaps representing the
ancestors of Great Zimbabwe‟s rulers. Although their precise significance is
still unknown, these sculptures remain powerful symbols of rule in the
modern era, adorning the flag of Zimbabwe as national emblems.
Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the
Great Zimbabwe state. However, there is little that we normally get from the
oral traditions because the Shona‟s have no written records.
Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese

and records found in Arab writings have an account on the Changamire and
Mutapa states.
Archaeological Evidence
Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some
of the evidence including bones, copper and iron tools. These have been used
by historians to show the social economic and political activities of the people
at Great Zimbabwe.
The structure at the ruins consist of two (2) complexes “the Acropolis” or
temple area and the external enclosure which consisted of a large number of
stone buildings. Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass,
bead, and brassware, sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes. Local goods
included ivory, gold, beads, soap stones, chisels etc.
Social and Political Organization
By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize
almost the whole population to build a high surrounding wall made of granite
blocks. The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power over a number of
chiefdoms who paid tribute to the mambo at great Zimbabwe.
Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through

marriage and trade. The ruling class controlled trade.
Purpose of the stone structure
 Security
 Religion
 Prestige monument.
 Occupy slave labour
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Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State
 The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.

 There was increased immigration
 Shortage of resources i.e. salt
 Civil wars
 Declining soil fertility
 Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had
failed to succeed and left and formed the Mutapa state.
1.3. THE MUTAPA STATE
The origin
The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who migrated from
Great Zimbabwe state around the middle of the 15th century. A number of
factors led to the migration which amongst others are the following:-
a. The people at Great Zimbabwe were experiencing an acute shortage of

salt. People them moved to the north which had reports of abundant
reserves of salt.
b. The area around Masvingo was experiencing a general decline of

resources. Rich resources found around the Mavhuradonha Mountain such
as elephants, firewood and pastures attracted people at Great Zimbabwe.
c. The movement to the north was a territorial expansion, which led to the
formation of a new state.
d. The people of Great Zimbabwe moved to the north in order to control long
distance trade to the Indian Ocean via the Zambezi River.
e. Succession disputes after the death of Mutota‟s father, Chibatamatosi,

may have contributed to Mutota‟s desire to set up his own state.
Nyatsimba Mutota conquered the Tonga and Tavara people, who gave him a
praise name, Mwenemutata, which means the ruler of the conquered people.
He was able to win the support of locals by forming an alliance with
Dzivaguru a local high priest. After the death of Mutota, his son, Nyanhehwe
Matope succedded him. Nyanhehwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his
half sister Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa hence she is often
referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa Empire
stretching from the Angwa and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and
west to the Musengezi and Mukumbura Rivers.
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It was during Matope‟s reign that a policy of expanding and consolidating the
state through conquest was initiated. For almost thirty years that he was in
power the state expanded to border the Indian Ocean to the east, the
Kalahari Desert to the west, the Zambezi River to the North and Limpopo
River to the south.
Successes of the state
A strong political system was developed. The king headed the legal system,
the army and religious system. He had overall responsibility to distribute
land. Spirit mediums were an important component of religion as they were
regarded as the direct link with Mwari. Important mediums were Dzivaguru,
Nehanda and Chaminuka. Chiefs and sub-chiefs assisted the king. After the
king‟s court there were a number of officials who advised the king: the
chancellor, the army commander, head doorkeeper, court chamberlain, head
cook, queen mother, king‟s sister, nine principal wives of the king and the
chief spirit medium.
The state developed an economic system whose backbone was agriculture.

They grew a variety of crops such as millet, sorghum, rapoko and
calabashes. They also kept domestic animals mainly cattle and goats. The
state controlled the Zambezi trade route, exporting mainly gold and ivory.
The foreign traders were the Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese. People paid
tribute to the king. Mining and hunting were important for the state to
provide trading items and food. The state developed its own technology such
as construction, blacksmithing, weaving and pottery.
The state resisted religious influence of foreigners such as Christianity and

Islam. The Mutapa state was able to resist the Portuguese penetration into
the interior. For example between 1663 and 1704 Mukombwe as king of the
Mutapa initiated restoration of power of the king by disciplining and removing
the Portuguese. He sought help of Chikanga to remove the Portuguese from
the east. The Portuguese were confined to the Zambezi valley and other area
of what is now Mozambique.
Challenges of the state
The state occasionally experienced serious droughts which weakened the

economy and the political power of the king. For example the drought of
between 1823 and 1830 that devastated the Zambezi valley.
The coming of the Portuguese and their interference in the internal affairs of
the Mutapa state caused a lot of problems for the state. For example in 1560
a Portuguese missionary, father Goncalo da Silveira visited the state in order
to introduce Chritianity. Negomo Mupunzagutu was the king. The priest was
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allowed to preach. After sometime he managed to baptize the king and about
300 of his relatives and officials. The Arab traders were not happy about this
development. They secretly told the king that Da Silveira was a sorcerer who
intended to eventually take over the Mutapa state. This influenced the king
to order his people to kill the priest. The Portuguese government organized
military expedition to revenge the priest‟s murder. The first expedition had
about 2000 soldiers led by Fransisco Barreto in 1569. The Mutapa defeated
the Portuguese whose fighting ability was impeded by lack of knowledge of
the area, heavy armour they wore, fever and tropical heat. Another
expedition was led by Fernadez Homen. This expedition succeeded to take
over Chikanga in the east but most of the Mutapa state remained intact.
Succession disputes and civil wars became major problems for the state
because some claimants to the throne sought foreign assistance in order to
become kings. For example in 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help
in order to crash Maravi groups that had attacked his state. For the
assistance rendered, the Mutapa allowed the Portuguese traders free access
into the empire. Some Portuguese traders refused to pay tax. Rusere had
problems in controlling the state during his reign that lasted until 1624.
Kapararidze, Rusere‟s successor made an effort to re-assert the kings
authority by disciplining the Portuguese. This was taken advantage of by
Mavhura, an ambitious claimant to the throne. He asked for Portuguese
assistance in order to remove Kapararidze. This led to a civil war in which
Kapararidze was defeated and Mavhura became the new king. The new king
was forced to sign peace treaties with the Portuguese. One of the terms of
the treaties was that the Portuguese were no longer accountable to the laws
of the Mutapa state. Thus from 1629, the Portuguese did as they pleased in
the state: they took over land, mines and forced people to work for them.
They cohabited with African women and set up armies for their own
protection. The state was in a state of chaos. Mavhura‟s reign lasted until
1652. His successor continued with Mavhura‟s policies of accommodating the
Portuguese up to 1663. The state was then just a puppet state.
The effects of Mfecane were also felt by the Mutapa state. The Ngoni led by
Zvangendaba, Maseko-Ngoni and Xaba weakened the state during their
migration by attacking the people. The Ndebele raiders were a constant
threat to the state that was now confined to the north.
The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed the scramble for Africa as
European powers completed to colonize Africa. The Portuguese prazo holders
in the Zambezi valley were encouraged to take over as much land as possible
of the Mutapa state by the Portuguese government. Thus the weak state of
the Mutapa lost land in the Zambezi valley. The final blow to the state was
the British occupation of Zimbabwe in 1890.
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The Mutapa Language, Eschatology and Customs
The people had the same Shona language, customs and culture similar to the
peoples of the Great Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not used until
the 19th century. The Ndebele people described the Karanga the Mutapa
language and area of control as “entshona langa” which means a place where
the sun sets or a place to the west. Nowadays the term Shona is
representative of a number of related dialects (in Zimbabwe) one of which is
Karanga.
They believed in a god whom they called „Mwari‟ who is claimed to have
spoken through the spirits of the ancestors and they listened carefully to
spirit mediums i.e. the Mhondoros. Religious ceremonies were held to honour
the spirit mediums where music dancing and feasting occurred (Bira). The
senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the north east, Nehanda in the
central and Chaminuka in the west.
At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the
nucleus of society as well as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of
this arrangement was a high degree of morality with crime, starvation,
delinquency, prostitution, divorce and almost all known present day social ills
being unknown. The law was highly developed to deal with cultural issues
and less defined in terms of commerce. Criminals even murderers were
rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the injured and the culprit and
compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of murder. When a person
was murdered life had to be paid with life and invariably a young woman
from the murderers‟ family had to be given to the victim‟s family. Inevitably,
this created a bond between the two considering that at birth or death there
are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman. This
is in stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains
punitive and divisive.
The Mutapa Economy
The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its
peak it was the heart of a powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi
River trade route and received taxes from foreigners. Not only was the
economy based on trade and taxation, tribute was also part of their
economy. The people of the Mutapa provided a variety of goods for trade.
Trade made the Mutapa ruling class wealthy and the state became strong.
The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters
paid tribute in the form of tusks. The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to
do the dangerous mine work in return the miners had to sell the gold to the
Mutapa.
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He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor
gifts, people brought disputes and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for
his judgment.
The Mutapa Political Structures
They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state. Some of the
emperors‟ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and handling their
business and as members of his royal court they became very powerful.
Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and clothes
made from cotton and silk. Most people wore skin aprons.
A large army was maintained which travelled long distances, patrolling and
collecting taxes and cattle and brought new communities into the empire.
The Portuguese Factor in the Mutapa State.
When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo

Chisamarengu became king and was the first to receive a Portuguese visitor
named Fernandes who brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts. The acquisition
of more guns increased Mutapa‟s power such that he was in a position to
assist his ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.
In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He
took over Mbire province earning the praise name Munembire. He introduced
the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle fires at the
king‟s palace.
In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or

Ntemba an unmarried youth, took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father Gonzalo Da‟
Silveira who wanted to convert them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the
king‟s court (vamwenyi) did not like this and plotted to kill Da‟ Silveira. They
subsequently strangled him and dumped him in a pond. Gonzalo‟s death
angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge his death, it
was defeated.
In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese‟s for assistance to fight his rival
for the leadership and in return they were given mines. The people of Mutapa
refused to tell them where the mines were because of earlier experience with
Portuguese Prazeros (land/prazo holders) who took their land. More
Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese
formed private armies and became wild and lawless.
The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State
8
The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led
the Mutapa Nyambo Kapararidze to try to expel them. He was unsuccessful
in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet Mamvura Mhande was
installed. After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who
would obey them. An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to
Mozambique where new chiefs were appointed to restore order. Chioko was
the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against the
Portuguese but was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of the
Mutapa state.
1.4. THE ROZVI STATE
The Origin
The origin of the Rozvi state was not clear. Some say the state was a
successor to the Torwa state that began at the same time as the Mutapa
state. When the Mutapa state was established to the north of what is now
Zimbabwe, the Torwa was established in what is now Matebeleland. Other
historians attribute the origin of the state to a stronger ruler, Changamire
Dombo, who was able to use his military abilities to conquer many chiefs on
the Zimbabwean plateau stretching from the eastern highlands to present
day Matebeleland. The state emerged strong at the end of the 17th century.
It was able to challenge the power of the Mutapa state and restrict its extent
to the north east.
In the 1830s, the Nguni groups attacked the state. The first to attack was
the group led by Zwangendaba, which attacked Danangombe, the main
centre, before they continued with their northward migration. The second
group was the one led by Nxaba whose attacks further weakened the state.
Many chiefs took advantage of these attacks to break away from the state.
The arrival of the third group, the Ndebele in 1838 was the final blow to the
state as this group decided to set up their state at the heart of the Rozvi
state. Mzilikazi conquered Shona chiefs who resisted and incorporated them
into his own state. Chiefs who were far away from the Ndebele state were
forced to pay tribute and were occasionally raided. The setting up of the
Ndebele state marked the end of the Rozvi state as a political entity.
Successes of the Rozvi State
a. It developed a military state that was able to defeat and incorporate

many chiefs on the Zimbabwean plateau.
b. It was able to repulse Portuguese attacks, which aimed to take over the
plateau after the Mutapa state.
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c. The Rozvi rulers kept large heard of cattle, which they mainly acquired by
raiding.
d. Tribute payment was used as a sign of loyalty and showing allegiance.
e. Mambo rulers used a lot of tricks to install fear in vassal chiefs. Eg the
rulers are said to have used magic and spies in order to control people.
The state was also into long distance trade with Arabs, Swahili and
Portuguese. But the Rozvi rulers did not allow foreign traders to enter the
state. Trade was conducted via trade agents known as „vashambadzi‟. This
was probably a way of reducing influence of foreigners within the state.
Economy of the state also included crop cultivation, mining, hunting,

gathering and craftwork.
The state was able to coerce the Portuguese to pay tribute to the king.
Sometimes the Rozvi even protected Portuguese from attacks by African
states.
Challenges of the Rozvi State
Leaders who succeeded Changamire Dombo were weak and as a result had
many problems in controlling the state.
Some chiefs stopped paying tribute at the beginning of the 19th century
which weakened the power of the rulers and the state.
Severe droughts, especially in the 1920s and 1930, weakened the state.
Decline and Collapse of the Rozvi State
Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane „or time of trouble”
caused by Nguni tribes who had fled from Tshaka or broken away from the
Zulu state in present day Natal. Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his
group and fought the Rozvi ruler Chirisamhuru. The state was further
weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and defeated the Rozvi.
Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and finished
the remnants of the Rozvi state between 1837–1840.
1.5. THE NDEBELE STATE
The Origin
The state was a result of the Mfecane, a period in history in areas south of
the Limpopo, characterized by fighting among states and the establishment
10
of large states. The founder of the state was Mzilikazi who was a trusted
chief under Zulu state led by Shaka. He was a chief of a small clan called
Khumalo. In the early 1820s, Mzilikazi had a quarrel with Shaka after he had
refused to hand over booty as required by Shaka. After a fight, Mzilikazi fled
with about 300 people and crossed the Drakensberg Mountains.
As they migrated to the north, Mzilikazi and his people fought many groups
and usually defeated them. The journey to the North was also characterized
by resting places. After fleeing from Shaka, Mzilikazi‟s first stop was at
Ekupumeleni, which means a resting place. From this place regiments were
sent to conquer surrounding people with the aim of bringing in cattle, women
and children in to reinforce his people. The resting place was however too
near to Shaka and thus Mzilikazi and his people further moved to Central
Transvaal where the conquering, assimilation and adoption of people
continued. The Ndebele were also affected by drought and attacks by the
Pedi.
The next stop was at Mhlahlandlele in Kwenaland where that raided the
Sotho and Tswana. It was at this place that Mzilikazi met and briefed Robert
Moffat of the London Missionary Society. Although their raids were
successful, the Ndebele moved from this place because of external threats
made by Dingane, the Kora, Khoisa, the Griguas and Rolong. They settled
around the Marico River with their Headquaters at Mosega in the Transvaal in
about 1832. At this point, they spent up to five years. In 1837, the Gruguas,
the Boers and Kora attacked the Ndebele. The Ndebele fought bravely but in
the end lost mainly because of the superiority of the guns.
The attacks forced Mzilikazi to move northwards. Uncertain of what lay

beyond the Limpopo River, Mzilikazi decided to split his group into two: One
group led by Mzilikazi which travelled westwards via Tswanaland; the main
group was led by a senior Induna, Gundwane Ndiweni which crossed the
Limpopo River and settled in the Rozvi country. There was little resistance by
the Rozvi who were weak as a result of attacks by other Nguni groups.
The group led by Mzilikazi travelled up to the Zambezi River where the group
was forced to return southwards because of tsetse fly and attacks by Kololo.
In 1840 the two groups were reunited. Earlier on before the reunion, the
main group decided to install Nkulumane, Mzilikazi‟s son as the new King, the
rationale of choosing the new king was based on two reasons: they never
thought Mzilikazi would come back after being away for over two years and
the time of „Ixwala‟ ceremony, supposed to be presided over by the king was
approaching so they needed someone to be in position. The installation of the
new King was regarded as an act of treason by Mzilikazi who killed all the
leaders involved. The killing of the people for the installation of Mzilikazi‟s
11
own son might appear cruel and unjustified but it may be argued it was
important as a way of keeping the state intact and for Mzilikazi to have
complete loyalty. After this bloody incident, Mzilikazi began to consolidate his
state with his capital at Inyati.
Mzilikazi died in 1868. He was succeeded by his son, Lobengula, who ruled
until 1893 when the British defeated the state.
Political Structures
King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme
commander of the army, highest judge with power over life and death. He
was a religious leader who presided over important religious ceremonies such
as Incxwala. King however didn‟t rule alone but with two advisory council,
the Mphakati and Izinkulu indicating that king was not a dictator. The
Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who had left
Natal and knew Zulu military tactics. These made the most important
decisions although they could be vetoed by the king. The Izinkulu was made
up of other chiefs especially those who were incorporated in the Ndebele
state.
The Ndebele Economy
Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases

of Ndebele economy. They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and
therefore had lots of time for raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true.
The following were the basis of Ndebele economy:
Herding
This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that Ndebele
initially were not permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndebele kept
large heads of cattle, sheep and goats. They acquired some of the cattle
along the way while others were obtained through the conquered Rozvi and
others were received in the form of tribute from the Shona while others were
obtained through raiding.
Agriculture
The Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet, sorghum,
water melons etc. Agriculture was however, not very popular with the
Ndebele because of climatic conditions.
Hunting and Gathering
12
Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their hunting ranged from
large animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species e.g. buck and
rodents. Men usually hunted while women concentrated on gathering. They
gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in the
Ndebele state as far as it supplemented organized agriculture.
Trade
They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the
Shona.
The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron,
jewellery, beads etc.
Mining
The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited

extent. They traded gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly in
winter after harvest when people didn‟t have much work in the field.
Tribute
They received tribute in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent
women from those tribes under their control.
Raids/plunder
They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women, young men and
grain.
However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn‟t always raid the Shona.
Only those who lived near Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such
as the Shona in the Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru and Kwekwe areas.
Ndebele- Shona Relations
The Myths and Realities
Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona
and that the Shona were on the verge of extinction when settler colonialists
came to Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse to influence the British
government to colonize this country and the missionaries used this argument
more than the ordinary settlers.
13
The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy

and destroy the Ndebele Kingdom was because they had failed to convert a
single Ndebele man.
The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona
and the Ndebele had the occasional raid as a common feature of this
relationship.
In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement for example from 1840–1870
were pre-occupied with their own security, internal problems such that they
could not always fight the Shona.
It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to
1890 especially those Shona people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were
major targets for raids. Ndebele raids did not interfere with the economy of
those Shona chiefs who paid tribute and moreover some Shona chiefs aided
the Ndebele and some stole or raided the Ndebele to recover stolen cattle.
The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of
inter-marriage.
The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “Mwari”/Umlimu‟ and followed the
Shona traditions of ancestral worship.
The state was divided into 3 district social groups based on history namely:
Composition of the Ndebele State
Abezanzi
These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They
formed the aristocratic ruling class. These were the original Khumalo who
had left Natal and constituted about 15% of Ndebele population ie. the
Hadebes, Khumalos, Mkwananzi.
Enhla
These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were
Sotho and Tswana who joined the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe. They
occupied important military positions in the Ndeng state and they constituted
about 25% of Ndebele population.
Amahole
14
These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of
the Kalanga and other Shona speaking people who were conquered and
absorbed by the Ndebele and made up 60% of Ndebele population.
However, the hole who proved themselves in battle also occupied important
military posts in the Ndebele economy. Due to continued inter-marriage most
of these groups lost their identities ie the Moyos, Sibandas, Ncubes, Gumbos.
SUMMARY
The pre-colonial states of Zimbabwe were described with emphasis on

successes and failures. The four states Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa,
Rozvi and Ndebele helped to shape present day Zimbabwe.
ACTIVITY
a. Name the early States of Zimbabwe?

b. Describe the origin of each early state
c. Explain problems experienced by early states of Zimbabwe.
d. What were the successes of early states of Zimbabwe?
e. What were the factors which led to the collapse of each early
state?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
a. Outline factors which led to the demise of the Great Zimbabwe.

b. Why was the Mutapa state able to survive for so long?
c. Is it fair to blame Lobengula for the occupation of Zimbabwe by
the British settlers?
REFERENCES
1. Beach, D.N. (1974) Ndebele Raiders and the Shona Power in Hopkins,
A.C. (Ed) Journal of African History, xv, 4.
2. Beach. D. N. (1980) The Shona and Zimbabwe 900-1850. Gweru, Mambo
Press
3. Bhebe, N. (1979) Mzilikazi in Saunders, C. (Ed) Black leaders in Southern
African History. London, Heinemann.
4. Garlake, P.S. (1973) Great Zimbabwe, London Thames and Hudson.
5. Mufuka, K. (1983) Dzimbabwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age (1100-
1500). Harare, Harare Publishing House.
6. Rasmussen, R. K. (1978) Migrant Kingdom: Mzilikazi‟s Kingdom in South
Africa. London, Rex Callings.
15
16
UNIT 2
COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE
CONTENT
a. Early Christian missionary, their scientific and philanthropic expeditions

as precursors to colonialism.
b. The Berlin Conference, The First Chimurenga and The Second
Chimurenga.
c. The BSAC and the occupation of Zimbabwe (1894-1923)
d. The suppressive acts enacted by the BSAC
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit students should be able to:-
a. Identify Early Christian missionary, their scientific and philanthropic

expeditions as precursors to colonialism.
b. Explore the Berlin Conference, The First Chimurenga and The Second
Chimurenga.
c. Elucidate the BSAC and the occupation of Zimbabwe (1894-1923)
d. Identify and discuss the suppressive acts enacted by the BSAC
2.0. COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE
Introduction
It is also important to highlight the lifestyles of Zimbabweans in the pre-

colonial era and how the country was colonized. Furthermore, it outlines the
early resistance waged by the Shona and Ndebele people through uprisings
in the 1890s. Also encapsulated in the handbook are the brutal colonial
experience and the ethos of the armed liberation struggle that the oppressed
black majority had to fight in order to regain their freedom and independence
from nearly a century of oppression.
Furthermore, the black majority remained mindful that the attainment of

political independence in 1980 did not guarantee ownership of the country‟s
natural resources and means of production. Hence, the irreversible land
reform and economic empowerment exercises were embarked on.
17
2.1. EARLY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY, SCIENTIFIC AND

PHILANTHROPIC EXPEDITIONS AS PRECURSORS TO
COLONIALISM
Before the arrival of missionaries, early societies in Zimbabwe had their own
way to worship God whom they called, „Musikavanhu or Mwari, or
Umkhulukhulu‟. They would conduct rain making ceremonies guided by the
spirit mediums (Masvikiro). However, as days unfold, missionaries started
mushrooming which then slowly diluted our way of worshipping God. History
tells us that arrival of Christianity back dates to the 16th century by
Portuguese missionaries such as Fr. Gonsalo Da Silveira of the Roman
Catholic Church. Christianity is embraced by the majority of the population.
Their aim to conquer Africans was enveloped in the façade of preaching the
word of God. This was a well calculated move meant to spy out lands suitable
for colonization, or worked alongside them as they carried out the whole
colonization project.
When the Portuguese heard about the fabulous gold riches of our country,
they sent one Fernandes to check out the authenticity of the gold riches.
Fernandes established that there was a lot of gold in Zimbabwe but that was
all.
Therefore, the Portuguese did not benefit much from Fernandes‟ journey,
hence decided to send out a missionary to do a thorough job and in the end
provide a „soft landing‟ for the colonial settlers who were to follow.
The missionary sent out was one Gonzalo Da Silveira who arrived in Mutapa
state which was then ruled by the Mutapas. Silveira made a huge impact by
converting Mutapa and his entire family to Christianity. A lot of natives were
also converted to Christianity. This enabled a number of Portuguese to come
and get a lot of gold out of our country.
Silveira was, however, later killed by the locals when he violated some of the
state‟s sacred laws. On hearing this, the Portuguese sent an army for
revenge and that army had its chief intelligence officer, one Father Monclaro,
a missionary. It is interesting to note the Portuguese colonial projects
collapsed after the death of Silveira. When the Boers of Jan Van Riebeck had
landed at the cape, some poor map they had indicated that the kingdom of
Monomotapa, our beloved state Zimbabwe with all its gold riches, was not
very far off into the interior. The Boers decided to colonize the Kingdom of
Monomotapa. They sent out parties of ordinary people to look for
Monomotapa‟s Kingdom, but that yielded very little. The missionaries took
over. These missionaries in the end opened up South Africa itself to further
18
colonisation. They crisscrossed the whole South Africa setting up mission

stations and converting locals to Christianity.
2.2. THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884-1885
Prior to the conference, European countries had interest with Africa because
of its vast huge mineral resources such gold, diamond, silver etc. in order to
avoid clashes, they decided to hold a conference in Berlin Germany. Their
main aim was to partition Africa. One of the glaring negative aspects of this
conference is that no representative from Africa was involved.
The Berlin Conference of 1884 – 1885, also known as the Congo Conference
(Germany) or West Africa Conference regulated European colonization and
trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period and coincided with
Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. The conference was
organized by Otto Von Bismarck, the first chancellor of Germany. Its
outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, can be seen as the
formalization of the Scramble for Africa which eliminated or overrode most
existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance.
Otto Von Bismarck, the chancellor of Germany, called on representatives of

13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin
Conference in 1884 to work out joint policy on the African continent.
The conference was opened on November 15, 1884, and continued until it
closed on 26 February 1885. The 13 representatives per nation who attended
the Berlin Conference signed the subsequent Berlin Act. Uniquely, the United
States reserved the right to decline or to accept the conclusions of the
Conference.
The General Act fixed the following points:
a. To gain public acceptance the conference resolved to end slavery by

African and Islamic powers. Thus, an international prohibition of the slave
trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European
members.
b. The 14 signatory powers would have free trade throughout the Congo
Basin as well as Lake Malawi and east of it in an area south of 5° N.
c. The Principle of affectivity was introduced to prevent powers from setting
up colonies in name only.
d. Definition of regions in which each European power had an exclusive right
to pursue the legal ownership of land.
Principle of Effective Occupation
19
The principle of effective occupation stated that powers could acquire rights
over colonial lands only if they possessed them or had "effective occupation":
if they had treaties with local leaders, flew their flag there and established an
administration in the territory to govern it with a police force to keep order.
The colonial power could also make use of the colony economically. European
powers in numerous instances later claimed rights over lands in the interior
without demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation, as articulated
in Article 35 of the Final Act.
That principle, along with others that were written at the conference, allowed
the Europeans to conquer Africa but to do as little as possible to administer
or control it. The principle did not apply so much to the hinterlands of Africa
at the time of the conference. This gave rise to "hinterland theory", which
basically gave any colonial power with coastal territory the right to claim
political influence over an indefinite amount of inland territory. Since Africa
was irregularly shaped, that theory caused problems and was later rejected.
Portugal–Britain: The Portuguese government presented a project, known as

the "Pink Map", or the "Rose-Coloured Map", in which the colonies of Angola
and Mozambique were united by co-option of the intervening territory (the
land later became Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Malawi). All of the countries
attending the conference, except for Britain, endorsed Portugal's ambitions,
but just over five years later, in 1890, the British government, in breach of
the Treaty of Windsor and the Treaty of Berlin itself, issued
an ultimatum that demanded for the Portuguese to withdraw from the
disputed area.
One of the major decisions made at the Berlin Conference was that European
powers would occupy those areas where they already had considerable
influence based on missionary, traders or explorer‟s activities.
2.3. THE FIRST CHIMURENGA
After the Berlin conference, Zimbabwe was colonized by Britain and the
settlers came in 1890. Just six years after the occupation, the colonialists
soiled everything that was truly Zimbabwean from the land, culture,
traditional philosophies and practices, rules, norms and obligations to the
desecration of religion and fundamental beliefs (Chihuri 2015). This angered
the spirit mediums, the Ndebele and the Shona people who revolted because
of the following reasons:-
 Forced labour in farms and mines

 Ill- treatment
 Seizure of cattle
20
 Drought and famine

 Rinderpest
 Cultural denudation
 Deprivation of land
 Jameson Raid 1895
 Taxes levied
The 1896-1897 uprisings signalled different outlooks for the two contenting
groups, the rightful owners of the land and the colonialist invaders who had
robbed the land. The spirit mediums organized and led the first Chimurenga
uprising that hinted the black national consciousness. Nehanda was one such
spirit medium who coordinated with other spirit mediums such as Mkwati to
provide purpose and direction to the revolution and bringing the Ndebele and
the Shona into the rebellion. The collective efforts of the locals to get rid of
the British colonialist were initiated by spirit mediums Mkwati and Mwabani in
Matebeleland in May 1896, Nehanda and Kaguvi in Mashonaland in October
the same year. The uprisings were also ably supported by munitions
rendered in by defecting native policemen.
The Ndebele warriors under the leadership of its Indunas such as Umlugulu
Khumalo and Mpotshwawana Ndiweni fought numerous running battles with
the invaders at various places such as Umguza, Fort Rixon and Matopo. The
British sent troops to crush the uprisings of the Ndebele and the Shona
people. The settlers were determined to eliminate all the spirit mediums
namely Mwabami, Kaguvi, Mkwati and Nehanda. Strenuous efforts were
directed towards getting the spirit mediums or disrupt the link of the fighting
forces with their spiritual leaders. Failure to dislodge Ndebele warriors
compelled Major General Fredrick Carrington and Cecil John Rhodes to
negotiate with the Ndebele chiefs. The rebellion was over by 22 October
1897.
In Mashonaland area, religious leaders such as Kaguvi and Mukwati were

active in leading the uprisings. They were assisted by various traditional
leaders like Chief Mashayamombe, Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke.
The Shona uprisings quickly spread and a number of settlers were killed. On
25 June 1896 the BSAP beefed up its fighting force with a regiment led by
Colonel Edwin Alderson which had arrived in Beira originally earmarked to do
battle in Matebeleland. They targeted all the Shona pockets of resistance and
logistical supplies in order to weaken the fighting forces. Various other
battles were fought between the invaders and the indigenous warriors led by
Chiefs Makoni, Mashayamombe, Mangwende, Seke, Gatsi and Mapondera
among others.
21
In July 1896, the BSAP attacked Chief Mashayamombe‟s place and spread
the attacks to Mazoe area. Motivated by the outcome of the Ndebele
uprising, the colonizers focused their attacks on the spirit mediums. Pursuant
to the adoption of this strategy, the attacks at Mazoe led to the surrender of
the spirit medium Kaguvi. Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana refused to
surrender. The colonialists continued search for Nehanda whom they knew
brought cohesion and spiritual power to the fighting men. The settlers used
dynamites to force the natives out of the caves so that they could expose
them to the ravaging power of their superior weapons. Nehanda was,
however, captured and hanged together with Kaguvi marking the end of the
First Chimurenga.
2.4. THE SECOND CHIMURENGA
Causes of the Second Chimurenga
1. Entrenchment of White Minority Rule.
British rule became more entrenched from the period 1923 to 1980 when
Zimbabwe attained Independence.
People were to be kept under bondage by the use of the following;
The use of brutal force to subjugate the Africans who were the majority
2. The forceful occupation by Europeans
The Europeans perpetuated a state of oppression and exploitation. They

carried out crimes against blacks by developing institutions of coercion.
These were through the repressive Police Force, Army and Colonial
Judiciary system. Oppressive sentences in the form of heavy prison and
fine sentences were imposed.
3. Cultural denudation aimed at defiling and where possible obliterating the

cultural heritage of Africans was promoted. This involved the denigration
of languages, crafts, customs and music.
4. Division was fostered among the blacks in a bid to encourage racisms,

tribalism, class, status and regionalism.
5. Land imbalances: Following the enactment of the Land Apportionment

Act, Animal Husbandry Act and other land related acts, the blacks were
placed in total bondage and disadvantaged in the ownership of land.
6. Labour conditions: the Settlers enacted pieces of legislation such as the

Industrial Conciliation Act that banned all work related demonstrations
22
and the other reason centred on the discriminatory working conditions

where there were separate pay rates.
7. Educational opportunities: The Blacks were discriminated against

educational advancement and opportunities.
After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898, Zimbabwe was ruled by

the British through the BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control
and since company rule was increasingly becoming inadequate and incapable
of running the country, the British gave the settlers two options to either join
South Africa or to establish responsible self government. In a referendum in
1923 the settlers chose the latter. The more the settler regime became
repressive the more the African spirit of resistance blazed. Early resistance
took crude forms such as jamming of factory machines or refusing to work
on farms and in mines. More refined resistance took the form of strikes and
between the 1st and 2nd World Wars the vehicle for political agitation among
blacks were the trade unions. The African Railway Workers Union and the
Reformed Commercial and Industrial Workers Union were the first and most
effective and they also were non tribal.
Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political
activity originating and directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called
a strike that paralyzed the whole network from Mutare to Ndola in Zambia‟s
copper belt. In 1948 a general strike led by workers organizations which
included the Federation of Bulawayo African Workers Union, the African
Workers Voice Association and the Reformed Industrial and Commercial
Workers Union paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all cities in
the country.
The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesia and
Nyasaland (Southern and Northern Rhodesia, for example‟ Zimbabwe,
Zambia and Malawi) and by the early 1950s this absorbed the attention of
the natives since there were many false promises associated with the
creation of the federation. The federation was eventually created in 1953 and
its major features were the following;
Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern

Rhodesia.
The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern

Rhodesia with the Federation railways and airlines being headquartered in
Southern Rhodesia
23
The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern
Rhodesia.
The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed

to rid Southern Rhodesia of all its native blacks and Trans locating them in
Northern Rhodesia and replacing them with what were perceived as docile
migrant labourers from Zambia and Malawi.
White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing

any hopes of early self determination for all the members of the federation as
long as the federation existed.
In 1955 the city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely
workers movement operating in the urban areas. Church leaders also
sympathized with their black congregations‟ political aspirations. Some
churches criticized the settlers in their sermons and hymns. However, there
were many racists‟ church leaders who used religion or Christianity to subdue
and indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a subservient role. These
racist apologists were happy to continue with the policies of segregation in
church, politics and the economy and the result was a proliferation of many
independent African churches.
In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and
it was a merger between the old ANC and the City Youth League led by
Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule. It co-opted the rural peasantry
and organized mass resistances against the Land Husbandry Act (1951) and
it urged the peasants not to cooperate with the government. Garfield Todd,
the federation premier (1953-1957) who was a liberal, argued for
accommodation of African demands but the avowed racists in his cabinet
called for repression of all African political activity. As a result Todd was
deposed in an internal coup for giving in to black demands and David
Whitehead became premier and in 1959 SR-ANC was banned and hundreds
of black nationalists thrown in jail.
In 1959 to 1965 a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;
 The Native Affairs Act 1959

 The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959
 The Preventive Detention Act 159
 The Emergency Powers Act 1960
 The Law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960
24
Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more

repression and the nationalists resorted to pressure Britain to reign in the
settlers and to give independence to blacks but Britain refused. In January
1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SR-ANC.
Joshua Nkomo was elected president and the leardership of the party
consisted of Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet Chitepo, Robert Mugabe, Bernard
Chidzero, George Silunduka, Jason Moyo, Leopold Takawira, Josiah
Chinamano, Dumbutshena and others and it was banned in 1961 and the
same year ZAPU was formed in December.
In December 1962 the Rhodesia Front elected a premier in Southern

Rhodesia and the party represented the hard core white racists determined
to wipe out all resistance to colonialism and Winston Field was then premier
and in the same year in September ZAPU was banned.
In August 1963 ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of
tolerance and accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole
Leopold Takawira was the vice President and also it included Robert Mugabe,
Herbert Chitepo and Nathan Shamuyarira just to name a few. In 1964 saw
the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many acts of
sabotage. Of note is the action by self styled General Chedu who led 100
youths calling themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation Army. The same year
ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to colonialism and the
Crocodile group drew first blood when they attacked a police station and
killed a white farmer in Chimanimani (Melsetter).
In 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government. Smith‟s
naivety and arrogance gave him the false belief that all politicking by the
African nationalists was just a nauseating phase that was to pass as soon as
he unleashed the rollercoaster of his well oiled machinery, the BSAP and
Rhodesian Army to clip the wings of these tinkering black mongrels
(dickheads). He then declared Rhodesia an independent state through the
Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) on 11 November 1965.
Rhodesia was then placed under sanctions by the United Nations. This made
the country an illegal state and although Britain still claimed to be the
legitimate ruler they failed to bring to justice the settler regime. At about the
same time the little Island of Aquila in the Pacific made a UDI and Britain did
not hesitate to reign in the rebels.
UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain
self determination and the Smith regime went on an all out campaign to stifle
African aspirations and institutionalized apartheid or racial segregation as the
system of governance and social and economic life. The same year a state of
emergency was declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending
25
some or all civil liberties and allows the state to take extra judicial measures
to deal with the crisis. What followed were many years of state terrorism
and murder to which the Africans responded by intensifying the armed
resistance - the second Chimurenga war.
By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African

countries like Egypt, Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed wings.
ZANU‟S armed wing became the Zimbabwe National Liberation Army
(ZANLA) and ZAPU‟s armed wing became known as the Zimbabwe People‟s
Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Training also took place outside Africa in places
like Cuba, China, and Russia.
In 1966 at Chinhoyi, the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed

with the security forces and all seven members of the group were killed.
In 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress‟s
armed wing Umkhonto Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20 combatants each
group. The majority of combatants were killed in and around Wankie district.
Rhodesia Air force began to violate Zambian airspace and another larger
group was deployed by the alliance and again was decimated. The South
African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the Smith
government passed the Law and Order Maintenance Amendment Bill (LOMA)
on 7 September 1967. The law provided for a death sentence on anyone
caught with arms of war.
Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the Liberation of Mocambique fighting the
Portuguees in Mocambique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more
experience they provided training and logistical support which proved
invaluable and led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass mobilization
became the preferred tool of the armed resistance and met with great
success. Rhodesia and Portugal began joint operations in 1968.
In 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm
Centenary. In 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the Keeps or
Cantonments were introduced in all war fronts to deprive the fighter‟s food
and other support. In 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza
deposed the premier Salazaar and brought immediate independence to
Mocambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.
In 1974 John Vorster South Africa‟s Boer premier initiated Détente, a policy
of accommodation designed to neutralize the armed struggle by promoting
internal reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe. This stalled and almost
derailed the armed struggle especially with the death /assassination of
Herbet Chitepo on 18 March 1975 in Zambia. Chitepo became the chairman
26
of Dare reChimurenga an organization formed after the banning and jailing of

the nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the war while
the leadership was in prison.
In 1975 ZANU held a meeting at Mgagao in Tanzania where it was declared

that the DARE provisionally endorsed the Chairmanship of Robert Mugabe as
the interim leader of ZANU and the party spokesman in all forms. It was also
declared that Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole ceases with immediate effect to
be the party leader and spokesperson. The party also noted that guerrilla
warfare was a genuine expression of the peoples armed struggle and the
most adequate form of waging and developing revolutionary warfare. The
meeting was known as The Mgagao Declaration.
On 28 October 1976, Geneva Conference was convened. The conference

sought to enable the exiled nationalists to meet with ZANLA and ZIPRA
guerrillas namely Josiah Tongogara, Rugare Gumbo, Rex Nhongo and others
who had been detained in Zambia upon the assassination of Herbert Chitepo.
The Geneva Conference failed after the bombing of rear guerrilla bases in
Chimio, Nyadzonya and Tembwe.
Banking on the alliance they had established amongst themselves through

the creation of the Patriotic Front, the military wings ZANLA and ZIPRA
spread their tentacles in the military zones covering from the Mozambican,
Zambian and Botswana borders.
After realizing that Rhodesians were fighting a losing battle against the
guerrillas, Smith forged a coalition with the likes of Ndabaningi Sithole, Chief
Jeremiah Chirau and Bishop Abel Muzorewa some well known traitors who
had abandoned and betrayed the struggle. ZANU (PF) and PF-ZAPU were
against the coalition and did not participate in the formation of the
settlement. Later Ndabaningi Sithole and Abel Muzorewa formed their army
which was to fight alongside Rhodesians. The leaders of the internal
settlement held their own elections in April 1979 and Abel Muzorewa became
the Prime Minister and Rhodesia was named Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. It was
during this period that some of the most gruesome murders were
perpetrated against refugees and the armed resistance with the authority
and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa‟s government.
South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in
Rhodesia pressured Smith for a negotiated solution. In October 1979 the
British under international pressure convened the Lancaster house talks. The
parties to the talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front (ZANU
and ZAPU) and the internal group Muzorewa‟s ANC and Smith‟s Rhodesia
front. The talks could not reconcile the demands of the parties especially on
27
land but both groups hoped against hope that they would win and be able to
maintain their claims and positions from a legalized position.
On 1 March 1980 internationally supervised elections were held. Muzorewa

failed to win a single seat in parliament, Smith only got his reserved 20
Whiteman‟s seats, ZANU (PF) swept the board with 79 seats and ZAPU (PF)
got 20 seats from all of Matebeleland and ZANU–Ndonga got one seat.
On April 18, 1980 Zimbabwe became an Independent State with Robert

Mugabe as premier. The new Prime Minister offered Joshua Nkomo the titular
Head of State position but he declined to accept although several ministries
were headed by his other fellow ZAPU colleagues. The position was, however,
taken by Canaan Banana. Independence saw many unrepentant whites
emigrating to New-Zealand Australia Britain etc. where they continue to
reminisce nostalgically about the war and how Britain sold them out.
2.5. BSAC AND THE OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE
The occupation of the country now called Zimbabwe was part and parcel of
imperialists policies of western countries spelt at the Berlin conference in
1884. At the conference the major European powers interested in the
occupation of countries agreed to a systematic occupation of countries in
Africa without conflict amongst themselves.
Factors of colonization.
1. They wanted raw materials
2. They wanted to secure markets for their finished products
3. They wanted to occupy areas with the hope of getting precious minerals
like gold, diamond or iron
4. They wanted to invest surplus capital
5. They wanted to spread their civilization, commerce and Christianity

(3CCC)
6. They wanted new areas to settle excess population, for example the
troublesome workers causing trouble for industrial owners as a result of
poor working conditions
7. They wanted to occupy strategic areas, for example the Cape or Egypt,
which were important for the sea route to India. The Ndebele state was
on the way that would open inland areas for the grand plan of the Cape to
Cairo railway line
28
8. They were interested in hunting
9. Explorer, traders, adventurers or missionaries also influenced their

countries to occupy areas where they worked.
The Boers and the British tried to outwit each other by fraudulently obtaining
land and mineral rights from the Ndebele Kings. Ultimately, the scramble for
Africa led to the signing of the following treaties and concessions.
The Moffat Treaty [1836]
This treat was entered into and agreed between Mzilikazi and Robert Moffat.
It was merely a treaty of friendship but it marked the beginning of
submissiveness and docility of the Ndebeles into believing that all
arrangements were genuine.
Grobler Treaty (1887)
The treaty was signed between King Lobengula and Piet Grobler and the
following were the terms of the treaty;
1. Transvaal was to have a representative at Lobengula‟s court
2. The Ndebele will assist the Boers when involved in a war
3. Lobengula not to sign any other treaty without the knowledge of the
Boers
4. The two states to live in peace.
5. Lobengula was recognized as an independent friend of the Boers
6. Lobengula would extradite criminals running away from Transvaal
7. Lobengula to allow anyone with a pass from Transvaal to hunt or trade in

the Ndebele state.
When the British at the Cape led by Cecil John Rhodes heard about the
Grobler treat they were worried that their aims had been jeopardized.
Rhodes sent J.S Moffat a missionary whose father had a long standing
friendship with Ndebele to negotiate with Lobengula to cancel the Grobler
treaty
Moffat Treaty (1888)
The treaty was signed between JS Moffat and Lobengula in March 1888. The
aim of the treaty was to reverse the Grobbler treaty and bring Matebeleland
29
into the British‟s sphere of influence. King Lobengula was to refrain from
entering into any correspondence or treaty with any foreign state or power to
sell, alienate, cede permit or countenance any sell, alienation or cession of
the said Amandebele country under the chieftainship without the previous
knowledge of Her Majesty the High Commissioner of South Africa
Implications of Moffat Treaty
A closer scrutiny of the treaty portrays the fact that it turned Lobengula and
his people into subjects of the Transvaal because it was now the President of
Transvaal who was to decide who was to hunt or trade with Matabeleland.
This is the reason why Lobengula is disputed to ever signing such a
document because no man in his sober senses could accept a document with
such suicidal terms.
The treaty does not specify who the interpreter was for Lobengula to
understand its complexity.
This treaty left the British the sole group with access to land in Matebeleland.
Rudd Concession (1888)
The Moffat agreement was not strong enough to enable Rhodes to sent
people to occupy the country. He sent a team of well chosen experts for
example:-
 Charles Rudd ho was the protagonist in the treaty and an emissary of

Cecil John Rhodes who financed all the activities.
 Reverend Charles Helm who was a missionary and staying at Lobengula‟s

kraal
 Thompson who was fluent in Ndebele language who also acted as an

interpreter
 Rochford Maguire who was a lawyer so that whatever was done would
appear genuine and legal.
Rudd‟s negotiation with Lobengula resulted in the signing of the Rudd

Concession in October 1888. The terms of the written agreements were;
Lobengula to receive:-
1. A sum of hundred pounds a month
2. One thousand riffles
30
3. 100 000 rounds of ammunition
4. A gunboat to be stationed at Zambezi river or 500 pounds
In return BSC would receive:-
1. Exclusive mineral and metal rights in Lobengula‟s dominions excluding

Matabeleland.
2. Have full power to do all things that they may deem necessary to win or
procure the same.
3. To hold, collect and enjoy the profits and revenues
4. In addition to the written agreement there was also the verbal

agreement;
5. Only ten men would come to dig only one hole
6. To dig other holes separate agreement would have to be signed
7. Weapons of people coming would be left at Lobengula‟s court.
For an interpretation of the written terms of the treaty Lobengula relied on

missionaries. Lobengula was reluctant to sign but was persuaded by C Helm,
a missionary and some of his Indunas, like Lotshe. When the treaty had been
signed and gone, some whites then explained to Lobengula the meaning and
implications of the concession. Lobengula was worried and made efforts to
repudiate the treaty. He suspended the treaty. He sent three advisers to
British high commissioner in Botswana but they never arrived. He sent other
advisers to London to see the Queen the reply he got from the Queen
contained a statement which worried him; „A king gives a stranger an ox, not
his whole heard of cattle.‟ Lobengula continued to argue that he had not
given his whole country to the whites but had merely allowed only ten men
to mine one hole. The King was so angry that he took drastic measures. He
killed Lotche and his whole family for his role in influencing him to sign the
treaty. He signed another treaty with a Germany agent, Lippert treaty.
Unfortunately for him the treaty was sold to Rhodes.
The Royal Charter (1889)
While Lobengula was making frantic efforts to stop the implementation of the
Rudd Concession, Rhodes was taking further steps towards the occupation of
the country. He went to London to get power and authority from the British
government to occupy the country. The British government was reluctant to
be involved in the occupation because of financial implication but changed
31
their attitudes when Rhodes assured them that he had enough money to
finance the occupation of the country. He was given the Royal Charter that
gave him authority to occupy the country on behalf of the British. The Royal
Charter Rhodes was signed on 29 October 1889 paving way for the
occupation of Zimbabwe and it gave the BSAC which was formed by Cecil
John Rhodes the right to administer Zimbabwe.
The Pioneer Column
In order to get people interested in occupying Lobengula‟s dominions,

Rhodes advertised in newspaper asking people to apply. More than two
thousand applications were received. Two hundred were chosen. They were
promised 15 gold claims and 3000 acres of land on arrival. A company the
British South Africa Company had the responsibility of occupation and
administration of the land occupied. The two hundred people formed a core
of the group that became known as the Pioneer Column. In addition to the
recruited people, the column consisted of the following groups that had
specific tasks;
1. The British South Africa Police numbering 500 were to protect the
expedition and to maintain law and order when they arrive in
Mashonaland.
2. Khama‟s people, a back up group were responsible for making the road,
look for cattle, horses and wagons.
3. Bechuanaland, Border Police to act as a force of emergency for the

pioneers. It remained on the border.
4. Pennefather was the leader of the group. Star Johnson was Rhodes‟
representative. Colquhoun was to be first administrator. Selous was the
Guide.
After all the preparations had been made the pioneers moved into present
day Zimbabwe avoiding Matabeleleland. They did not want any clash with the
Ndebele who were angry about what was happening and how they had been
cheated. Ndebele soldiers wanted to fight the pioneers but were restrained
by Lobengula who knew the power of the gun. It was an organized march,
which took them from Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria (Masvingo), Fort Charter
(Chivhu), and finally Fort Salisbury (Harare). The pioneer column arrived at
Fort Salisbury on the 13 September 1890 and raised their flag as a sign that
the country was under the British. The settlers now moved in different
direction to peg the promised farms and mines. It is important to note that
the Shona did not fight the British settlers when they arrived. They were
32
used to the coming of foreigners (Arabs, Swahili, and Portuguese) into their
land.
2.6. THE OCCUPATION OF THE NDEBELE STATE [1893]
The settlers and their administrators wanted to settle down before engaging
the Ndebele. The RUDD Concession was used to occupy the Mashonaland,
Manicaland, Masvingo and parts of Midlands but it could not be used to take
over Matabeleland. Lobengula had repudiated it and made it known that he
was cheated. So other means had to be found to take over the Ndebele
state. This came in the form of a war, the Anglo-Ndebele of 1893. A number
of reasons led to the war;
Lobengula and Rhodes had different interpretations of the RUDD Concession.

Different interpretations resulted in conflict as soon as the treaty was signed
and people began to give it meaning. For Rhodes, the treaty gave him power
to bring in settlers. For Lobengula, the treaty had cheated him as he kept
referring to the verbal treaty agreement and not the written agreement
which he could not read. Therefore the concession was a source of trouble
right from the beginning.
Before the arrival of the settlers, the Ndebele had control over the Shona
especially those near their state. Occasional, the Ndebele would raid Shona
chiefdoms for cattle, young men, women and grain. Some of the Shona
chiefs voluntarily paid tribute to the Ndebele King to show their allegiance.
The arrival of the settlers was a big problem: who then would control the
Shona? The settlers regarded the Shona as their source of labour. A raid
would disrupt their business ventures. For Lobengula ending raids would
mean a complete change of their lifestyle as the basis of their economy and
political power was founded on the raiding system. A number of incidents
showed conflict between the two groups. Chief Nemakonde was killed in
1891 by Lobengula‟s soldiers for failing to pay tribute. Chief Chivi was also
killed for the same reason. Chief Bere used Lobengula‟s cattle which were
under his custody to pay for telegraphic wire stolen by some of his people.
Although the settlers returned the cattle after protest by Lobengula, the
incident further strained relations between the Ndebele state and the
settlers. When Jameson, as the settler administrator protested to Lobengula
about these incidents Lobengula‟s attitude was why the white should be
worried if no whites were killed.
The British South African Company‟s policy towards the Shona also strained
relations between the Ndebele and whites. For example, when local people in
Mazowe killed a white man, the white administrators sent soldier to arrest
the culprits. During the arrest Masvingo, Chief Mugabe raided another chief.
33
The victimized chief asked for company assistance to repulse the raid. When
Chief Mugabe refused to submit to the authority of whites, he was killed and
his home burnt. In a third case in Mangwende‟s area, property of a white was
stolen which resulted in the killing of a chief and his son. Such acts caused
tension between Lobengula and the white settlers.
The boundary imposed by the company between the Ndebele and areas
occupied by the settlers caused hostility between the two societies.
Lobengula did not recognize the boundary, as doing so would have ended his
control over the Shona. When the settlers occupied areas to the east of the
Ndebele state, Lobengula continued to exercise his authority as if the settlers
did not exist. This cause conflict between the two groups.
The incident that sparked the war was the Victoria incident in Masvingo.
Lobengula was told that chief Bere had stolen some of his cattle. He sent
soldiers to punish Bere. The Ndebele soldiers were instructed not to fight the
whites. A word was also sent to inform whites about the purpose of the raid
and that they were not to be affected by the raid. The Ndebele force under
Manyao and Umgandan raided the people near Fort Victoria for a week.
Although the whites were not attacked the raid disturbed them as it affected
their workforce and business ventures. Jameson then issued an ultimatum
that the Ndebele should retreat across the Shashi River within an hour,
failing which force would be used. After an hour a force led by captain Lendy
was sent to see if the ultimatum was taken heed of. Some of the Ndebele
soldiers had not yet crossed the Shashi River. Conflict started which resulted
in the death of ten Ndebele soldiers including Umgandani. The two sides
began to prepare for war.
The settlers under Jameson met on July 21 1893 and agreed that the war
was necessary in order to destroy the Ndebele state. Their argument was
that the state was a hindrance to the development of their newly found
settler state. They strongly believed the second rand, they had failed to find
in Mashonaland might be in the Ndebele state. Some were attracted by the
large heard of cattle the Ndebele people had. White volunteers were
recruited to join the armed forces. They were promised 6 000 acres of land
and twenty gold mines/claims if they succeeded in destroying the Ndebele
state. Jameson wrote to Rhodes asking him to approve his plan for war. In
his reply, Rhodes asked Jameson to read Luke 14 verse 31 which says,
“Or what king, going to encounter another king in war, will not sit
down first and take counsel whether he is able with ten thousand to
meet him who comes against him with twenty thousand”
34
Jameson read the verse and replied, “I read Luke and it is alright
understood”.
Lobengula also began to prepare for war but also made efforts to avoid war.
He showed his anger by refusing to accept the monthly allowance of 100
pound. He recalled 6 000 of his soldiers from Barotseland. They made
sandals in preparation for war. Despite these preparations, Lobengula still
wanted to make peace with the whites. He sent three advisers accompanied
by a trader Dawson, to the Cape for discussion with the High Commissioner.
The mission was a failure because at Tati, Dawson failed to convince the
whites at the station about the purpose of their mission. The advisers were
arrested. Two were killed when they tried to escape and one of them
managed to escape to Bulawayo.
The war started around September 1893 with the white forces advancing
towards Bulawayo. On the way, they fought several battles with the Ndebele.
For example
1. The Shangani River battle where the Ndebele put a spirited fight but were
forced to retreat.
2. The Bembezi River battle on 31 October 1893 where the Ndebele fought
fiercely but were defeated.
3. Singuesi River battle on 2 November 1893. Ndebele soldiers attacked the

white soldiers but were repulsed.
4. Company forces arrived in Bulawayo on November 3 1893. They found

the city in flames. Lobengula and some of his people had fled northwards.
The whites in Bulawayo were left unharmed.
A patrol under Forbes and Raaf was sent to follow and capture Lobengula.
The patrol followed Lobengula up to Shangani River where they saw a sign of
an abandoned camp indicating that the group was not far. Lobengula was
indeed not far away. It is said that he sent a bag of gold asking for peace but
it never got to the leaders of the patrol. Some junior soldiers kept the gold
and never passed the message of peace to Forbes and Raaf. Unaware that
Lobengula wanted to surrender, a group of eighteen (18) soldiers under Allan
Wilson was sent to locate the Ndebele and return before night fall. The group
did not return but instead sent a message that Forbes group should advance
quickly to join them. Forbes decided it was too risky to move at night.
Instead he sent thirty men to reinforce Wilsons patrol. The following day the
Shangani River was in flood so the main group could not cross. This left
Wilson‟s group to fight alone. The group fought to the last men. There were
35
no survivors. Forbes decided it was too risky to pursue Lobengula. He

returned to Bulawayo.
Lobengula was not captured. He continued with his northward fight. It is not
clear what happened to Lobengula. Some say he committed suicide. Some
say he asked one of his aides (Indunas) to kill him. But what is known is that
Lobengula died to the North near the Zambezi River. Thus Lobengula and the
Ndebele State came to an end. The whole of what is now Zimbabwe was now
under the British.
2.7. THE SUPPRESSIVE ACTS ENACTED BY THE BSAC
After the first Chimurenga, the settlers put forward a series of well calculated
policies. The intention of such policies and laws was to induce black people to
provide cheap labour and to remain perpetual labourers for the settlers.
Some of these evil legislations included:-
The Morris Carter Commission: 1925.
Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from
the highest rainfall region 1 to the lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were
translocated to regions 4 and 5.
The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.
In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 million acres of

prime land while blacks who numbered one million were allocated 28 million
acres of the worst land in regions 4 and 5. The translocation of blacks was
accompanied with untold violence and starvation and malnutrition became
endemic. More government officials were employed countrywide and effect
white rule and these included native commissioners and policemen. A land
policy after 1905 was effected which started to impoverish the blacks and to
keep them politically ineffective. Africans were also excluded from
government through strict qualifications e.g. the right to vote was given to
males over 21 years with an annual income of 50 000 pounds or with
property worth 75 pounds. The Land Apportionment Act of 1930 confirmed
and legalized the displacement of Africans that had been ongoing earlier.
Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia‟s agricultural produce

came from black farmers and many whites did not like this state of affairs. As
a result, the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) stopped blacks from
competing with whites and between 1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres of the
best land was taken from blacks and given to whites. New boundaries were
created to exclude fertile high rainfall areas from newly created reserves. The
latter were located in semi arid areas. Blacks in regions 1, 2 and 3 were
36
made to pay higher grazing fees and taxes. Since many could not pay they
were removed and settled in reserves which were situated far away from
markets and rail and tarred motor roads. By the 1920s, 65% of the black
population had been forced into reserves. This led to cycle of poverty among
Africans which still persists.
The Maize Control Act: 1935.
The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production.
2 grades of maize were made, A grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A
grade fetched a higher price while B fetched a lower price. Whites also paid
less for maize they bought from blacks.
The Cattle Levy Act: 1934.
Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks. The
government paid more to whites for their cattle.
This system impoverished the blacks who were losing out through this
fraudulent commercial arrangement. As the lacks became poorer in the
reserves they migrated or translocated to towns.
Industrial Conciliation Act: 1934.
Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions. Higher paying jobs were
reserved for whites, that is, skilled and semi-skilled job. The act was later
amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.
Racial Discrimination Act: 1934.
The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an
offence for a white to share a toilet with a black man or to mix in schools,
hospitals, or hotels even cemeteries.
The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.
The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle
or eight acres of land in the communal lands.
The Tribal Trust Land Act: 1965.
The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black
areas. Natives could only occupy land in communal lands without holding title
to it. In Towns natives could only lease property and no black man could own
a house in town until after 1980.
The Land Tenure Act: 1969.
37
The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 million
acres as European land and shared among the 250 000 whites and the worst
45 million acres was designated as native land to be shared by the 5 million
blacks. The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race‟s
land.
Pass Laws
All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any
white man or police officer of any race could demand at anytime anywhere.
This restricted black freedom of movement from place to place.
SUMMARY
The unit has described the occupation of Zimbabwe from the Grobler
Treaty, Moffat Treaty, Rudd Concession, Royal Charter and Pioneer
Column. The Ndebele War and the suppressive act enacted by the settlers
were also described.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. What were the aims of the Early Christian missionary, their scientific
and philanthropic expeditions as precursors to colonialism?
2. What were the aims of the Berlin Conference?
3. What were the causes of The First Chimurenga and The Second
Chimurenga?
4. What were the reasons of the BSAC and the occupation of Zimbabwe
(1894-1923)?
5. What were the effects of the suppressive acts enacted by the BSAC?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the factors which led to the occupation of Zimbabwe.

2. Compare the written terms and the verbal terms of the Rudd
Concession.
3. Why did it become increasingly difficult for the Ndebele State and the
white settlers to coexist between 1890 and 1893?
REFERENCES
1. Birmingham, D. (1981) Central Africa to 1970. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge.
38
2. Huffman, T.N. (1972) The Rise and Fall of Zimbabwe. Journal of African
History, X Ill, 3, 353-366.
3. Garlake, P.S. (1973) Great Zimbabwe. London, Thames and Hudson.
4. Mason, P. (1958) The Birth of a Dilemma- The Conquest and Settlement
of Rhodesia. London, Oxford University Press.
5. Mufuka, K. (1983) Dzimbabwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age 1100-
1500. Harare, Harare Publishing.
39
UNIT 3
POST-COLONIAL HISTORY AND PATRIOTISM
CONTENT
1. Zimbabwe‟s resources - human and natural and explain their

importance to the country's economy.
2. The sustainable exploitation of Zimbabwe‟s resources
3. Social, economic and political implications on Zimbabwe population.
4. Zimbabwe‟s indigenous knowledge systems and their relevance to
modern society.
OBJECTIVES
1. Identify Zimbabwe‟s resources - human and natural and explain their

importance to the country's economy.
2. Scan the sustainable exploitation of Zimbabwe‟s resources
3. Discuss social, economic and political implications on Zimbabwe
population.
4. Evaluate Zimbabwe‟s indigenous knowledge systems and their
relevance to modern society.
3.0. POST COLONIAL HISTORY AND PATRIOTISM
Introduction
The beauty and wealth of any nation lies in its natural resources.
Safeguarding, exploitation and use of these resources is of paramount
importance. Sustainable practices in exploitation of these natural resources
must be practiced to avoid social, economic and political implications on the
country‟s population. Hence, the need to practice indigenous knowledge
systems.
One of the major drivers for the occupation of Zimbabwe was its mineral
resource riches as proved by the early trade with the Portuguese and the
discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa. In view of this, one of the
authors, Mukanya [2001:90] says that, “When gold was discovered on the
Rand in 1896, speculations became rife that there were other Rands north of
Limpopo River.” This led to the occupation of the country to exploit these
resources.
40
3.1. ZIMBABWE’S RESOURCES-HUMAN AND NATURAL
Natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable, and ecosystem

services are a part of the real wealth of nations. They are the natural capital
out of which other forms of capital are made. They contribute towards fiscal
revenue, income, and poverty reduction. Sectors related to natural resources
use provide jobs and are often the basis of livelihoods in poorer communities.
Owing to this fundamental importance of natural resources, must be
managed sustainably.
Government plays the essential role in putting into place policies that ensure
that resources contribute to the long-term economic development of nations,
and not only to short-term revenue generation. High-quality institutions in
the present, and planning for the future, can turn the so-called resource
curse into an opportunity. The raising demands to establish institutions that
reconcile economic and environmental objectives of natural resources use in
a way that does not marginalize the poor was the starting point for
developing this document.
Such laws are being put into place in countries around the world, and
typically involve the creation of a fund that receives resource revenues and
that is overseen by a specialized administrative unit. Such funds allow
countries to invest wisely when commodity prices are high, and supply funds
when commodity prices, and therefore government revenues, fall. Oversight
bodies should operate transparently and protect resource revenues from
short-term political interests. Knowledge, social and economic conditions are
in constant flux, which means that institutions and policies are more likely to
succeed over the longer term if they are able to respond and adapt. An
adaptive approach governing natural resources treats management
interventions and policies as experiments subject to both positive and
negative outcomes. Monitoring and evaluating the outcomes of management
practices and policies is essential in ensuring that objectives are met and
mid-course corrections can be made. Managing resources sustainably is an
ongoing process, one that becomes less ad-hoc and more intelligent when
the capacity for learning and adapting is built in from the start.
Managing natural resources sustainably allows resource rich countries to

establish the foundation for long-term development and poverty alleviation.
The wealth embodied in natural resources makes up a significant proportion

of the wealth of most nations, often more than the wealth embodied in
produced capital, therefore making natural resources management a key
aspect of economic development (World Bank, 2006).
41
Natural resources and intact, functioning ecosystems provide safety net for
the poor, particularly in times of financial crisis, providing food in the form of
plant and animal wildlife and fertile soils for subsistence agriculture, and fuel
wood. In order to benefit be able to rely on such safety nets the poor must
have access to resources and should also be involved in resource
management decision-making, thereby gaining a stake in using resources
sustainably and avoiding tragedies of the commons.
Value of Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services are the services provided by the functioning of natural

systems that we often take for granted, but that provide much of the
necessary foundation for the economy and society. Properly functioning
ecosystems provide a range of services that include waste absorption, water
and nutrient cycling, seed dispersal and pollination, controlling agricultural
pests and providing food and habitat for species. These services allow
ecosystem goods otherwise known as natural resources - to be produced and
maintained. Timber, fish and wildlife, clean water and air, and agricultural
production all require the provision of ecosystem services.
Human capital resides in people themselves and is comprised of the various

competences and capacities that individual people have. Human capital is
increased by investments in education, health, worker safety and so on. In
contrast to human capital, which is embodied by the individual, social capital
is comprised of the various connections and bonds between people.
3.2. SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF ZIMBABWE RESOURCES
Zimbabwe is endowed with abundant natural resources that include rich

mineral deposits, wildlife, arable lands, forests, and surface and groundwater
resources. However, the country faces multiple environmental challenges,
including biodiversity loss, poor waste management, pollution, and land and
forest degradation.
In addition, this country is heavily affected by climate change in the form of

droughts, floods, cyclones and uncontrolled wildfires. Zimbabwe is
particularly vulnerable because the national economy is largely agro-based
and the majority of the population depends on climate sensitive livelihoods
such as rain fed agriculture and livestock.
In order to promote sound management and use of the environment, natural

resources and land to promote sustainable development and support
Zimbabwe in achieving its national development goals, the country has
articulated its support around one main outcome that is the environment
42
management, energy and climate change policies and systems developed

and implemented.
This outcome will contribute to progress towards the achievement of the

Millennium Development Goals, specifically MDG 7: ensure environmental
sustainability.
To address this challenge, the country will focus on national and trans-
boundary natural resource governance (water, land, energy and
biodiversity), covering policies, laws and institutions at the regional, national
and sub-national levels to promote the right of all citizens to a clean
environment which takes into consideration the needs of future generations.
The Environmental Management Agency (EMA) in conjunction with other law
enforcers superintend laws enacted to monitor the sustainable exploitation of
the country‟s natural resources like reducing emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation fund, as well as increased collaboration with bilateral
and multilateral donors. For example Larfarge cement near Mabvuku to give
a monthly report to government on emissions from their plant and for them
to practice social responsibility in areas around their plant..
Support to climate change response is particularly significant given its impact

on other outcomes concerning food and nutrition security as well as safe
water and sanitation. Climate change has the potential to exacerbate the
current food deficits, cholera outbreaks and high malaria prevalence. A more
collaborative approach through increased joint programming initiatives on
climate change will be sought.
3.3. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS ON

ZIMBABWEAN POPULATION
Zimbabwe is undergoing a number of social, economic, political and

technological changes that have a bearing on the country‟s forest resources.
Some of these changes are as follows:-
Socio-Economic Factors
The growing population structure poses great challenges to the country‟s

biodiversity as the demand for natural resources continues to increase. This
is worsened by the fact that most of the country‟s population lives in rural
areas where because of poverty. People tend to rely on natural resources
such as forests for their survival. This has led to greater exploitation of
natural resources through the opening of large tracts of land for cultivation
and increased demand on forest goods and services in the former areas. The
opening up of forest land for agricultural expansion is in fact the major
reason for the loss of the country‟s forest biodiversity including grazing land.
43
Similar negative impacts of population concentrations on natural resources

are evident in areas around urban and rural service centres. The rampant
land degradation that results from such activities are contributing to the
siltation of the country‟s major water sources. such as the Save River.
Projections into the future indicate that these trends are likely to continue
with an automatic increase in the demand for forest resources and enhanced
land degradation.
Social and Cultural Issues
Some of the traditional values that have assisted in the sustainable use of
natural resources in Zimbabwe include the following:-
Traditional rules and regulations that forbid the cutting of fruit trees and
other "sacred" tree species for uses such as firewood and construction; and,
the use of one side and position of a tree to harvest roots or bark for
traditional medicines. This deterred people from exploiting the same tree
before it had sufficiently regenerated. Unfortunately some of the above
conservation sensitive traditional beliefs and customs are breaking down.
Poverty
Poverty levels are on the increase. Given the foregoing high poverty levels in
the country, people are venturing into unsustainable livelihood strategies
such as cultivation of marginal areas and tree cutting for timber and non
timber products. These activities are contributing to increased environmental
degradation and have become part of the poverty cycle whereby people are
unable to take proper care of the environment.
Changes in Energy Use
Rural households depend on firewood for their daily cooking as well as for
water. Firewood is purchased from rural markets and not directly gathered
from the forest areas. On the other hand, use of household fuels in the urban
and peri-urban areas is mixed between, electricity and firewood. Natural
forests and woodlands are the major source of firewood for rural and low
income urban households. In urban areas, most of the firewood sold by
vendors from indigenous woodlands that are within the urban centre.
On the other hand, the use of solar panels has been limited to institutions
and middle and high income families, largely due to the high costs of
purchasing and installing the solar panels and the cooking stoves and other
end use equipment.
44
With respect to coal, there are currently some technological limitations to its
use as a household fuel as it is generally not user friendly and not readily
available in rural areas.
The country‟s electricity is imported therefore more urban households have

access to this energy source compared to the rural areas. Because a
significant proportion of the electricity is imported, it is expensive and
beyond the reach of most poor households. The same situation applies to
petroleum fuels which are also imported. Given the current foreign currency
shortage and the devaluation of the local currency, the cost of these energy
sources is likely to rise further and hence became more inaccessible to the
poor. The latter are then forced to increase their dependence on firewood.
The foregoing increasing dependence on firewood is contributing to increased
deforestation.
Infrastructural and Technological Developments
Zimbabwe continues to prioritise infrastructure development for economic

growth than biodiversity conservation per se. Consequently, the rapid
population growth and the related urbanisation is exerting pressure on
habitats and eco-systems surrounding cities, towns and rural service centres
through the provision of infrastructural services such as houses, factories and
roads. This is confounded by the drive to attract foreign investment with
tourism, agriculture and mining being the most lucrative sectors. Such
investments result in infrastructural developments that can crowd out various
biological species from their habitats. For example, unless developments in
the Victoria Falls area are controlled, they could destroy the ecosystem on
which the very existence of the tourism industry depends.
Technological Changes
As the demand for timber is increased, considerable pressure is placed on the

slow growing indigenous tree species resulting in the need for research on
fast growing exotic tree species for plantation development. This led to the
establishment of a series of forest stations in the eastern part of the country
and the sourcing, evaluation and subsequent improvement of pine and
eucalyptus for production under Zimbabwean climatic and conditions.
Efforts to encourage tree planting in communal areas for uses such as fire
wood and fruit supply have had some impact on the country‟s re-greening
efforts. There is considerable potential of using biotechnology in forestry
development. For example, micro-propagation techniques which facilitate the
rapid multiplication of planting material can help alleviate the problem of
limited availability of tree seedlings. Micro propagation of orchards and other
woodland products such as mushrooms is being carried out at Africa
45
University in response to a survey that showed a decline in the biodiversity of

traditional mushrooms in line with decreases in symbiotic indigenous forest
tree species. The remaining local mushroom varieties are being collected and
propagated using water hyacinth, maize cobs and other local compounds as
substrates.
3.4. ZIMBABWE’S INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND THEIR

RELEVANCE TO MODERN SOCIETY
Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that people in a given community

have developed overtime, and continues to develop. It is based on the
experience, often tested over centuries of use, adapted to local culture and
environment, dynamic and changing.
People have an intimate knowledge of many aspects of their surroundings

and their daily lives. Over centuries, people have learnt how to grow food
and to survive in difficult environments. They know what varieties of crops to
plant, when to sow and weed, which plants are poisonous, which can be used
for control of diseases in plants, livestock and human beings.
Indigenous knowledge is passed from generation to generation usually by

word of mouth and cultural rituals, and has been the basis for agriculture,
food preparation and conservation, health care, education, and a wide range
of other activities that sustain a society and its environment in many parts of
the world for many centuries. The indigenous knowledge comes as a
significant resource that could contribute to the increased efficiency,
effectiveness and sustainability of the development process.
It highlights indigenous knowledge as the basis for community level decision

making in areas pertaining to food security, human and animal health,
educational resource management and other vital economic and social
activities. This valuable and sophisticated knowledge is validated over time in
a way that is different to western empirical system. The use of indigenous
knowledge in sustainable development comes without cost or damage to the
environment.
46
SUMMARY
The pre-colonial history and patriotism in safeguarding the Zimbabwean

natural resources was extensively outlined focusing more on exploitation
of these resources and the implications on the country‟s population.
ACTIVITY 3.1
1. What are the natural resources found in Zimbabwe and their

importance to the country‟s economy?
2. What are the ways of exploiting our natural resources?
3. Describe the implications as a result of the exploitation of our natural
resources?
4. What do you understand by the indigenous knowledge systems and
their relevance to modern society?
47
UNIT 4
NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC POLICIES
CONTENT
1. The Land Donor Conference of 1998 and subsequent events.

2. The 2000 Constitutional Referendum and Election results
3. The Agrarian Reform
4. Transitional Stabilisation Programme
OBJECTIVES
1. Account for the Land Donor Conference of 1998 and subsequent

events.
2. Analyse the 2000 Constitutional Referendum and Election results
3. Examine the Agrarian Reform and the Transitional Stabilisation
Programme.
4.0. NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC POLICIES
Introduction
The Lancaster agreement was very faulty in that it maintained and sought to
legalise the criminal gains of colonialism with respect to social and economic
privileges of former colonisers at the expense of the native Africans
especially with respect to land. The willing seller, willing buyer clause in the
agreement together with the non compulsory acquisition of land for twenty
years clause not only limited but it also restricted and proscribed the
legislative competency and sovereignty of the new state. After the Lancaster
house Agreement which came with Zimbabwe‟s independence on 18 April
1980, the issue of land was hanging. Our colonisers remained clinging on the
land in contrast to agreement brought about by the Lancaster House
Conference. This led the Government of Zimbabwe to embark on an offensive
Land Donor Conference, the Agrarian Reform and the Transitional
Stabilization Programme.
4.1. THE LAND DONOR CONFERENCE OF 1998
The International Donors' Conference on Land Reform and Resettlement in

Zimbabwe was held in Harare, Zimbabwe from 9 to 11 September, 1998.
48
The Conference was convened by the Government of Zimbabwe in order to

inform donors on land reform and resettlement issues and to mobilize
support for the Land Reform and Resettlement Programme.
The Conference was attended by Representatives of Donor Countries and

International Organizations as well as Representatives of Government, local
institutions, non-government organizations, civic leaders and other
stakeholders.
The Conference was officially opened by His Excellency President R. G

Mugabe. In his opening statement, the President underscored the importance
and urgency of resolving the land question in Zimbabwe. He reiterated
Government's commitment to acquire five million hectares in the next five
years to resettle about 150 000 families. He stressed that the objective of
the Land Reform and Resettlement Programme is to establish a more
efficient and rational structure of farming, achieve optimal utilization of land
and natural resources and provide equitable access to land to all
Zimbabweans irrespective of colour, gender or creed. The representatives of
the UN Secretary General, the OAU Secretary General, the World Bank and
the President of the European Union also spoke during the opening session.
The following Donor Countries and International Organizations made

statements in the Plenary Sessions of the Conference. Argentina, Australia,
Brazil, Canada, China, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Greece,
Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Norway,
South Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom, United States of America, ADB,
ECA, The European Union Delegation, IFAD, IMF, IOM, UNEP. The following
local organizations also addressed the Conference; CFU, ZFU, ICFU, ZTA, the
Women and Land Lobby Group.
The Donors commended Government for the openness, frankness of the

consultation process leading to the Conference and the proceedings of the
Conference itself. They welcomed the opportunity offered to them to
comment on the documentation prior to the Conference and the open and
frank responses provided by Government on the Donors' Comments.
The Donors unanimously endorsed the need for land reform and resettlement
in Zimbabwe and affirmed that this was essential for poverty reduction,
economic growth and stability.
Donors appreciated the political imperative and urgency of the Land Reform
and Resettlement Programme and agreed that an Inception Phase covering
24 months should commence immediately. A significant number of Donors
have pledged technical/or financial support for the Programme.
49
The delegates to the Conference had the opportunity to observe and talk to
rural communities during field visits. Some of the key experiences gained
from these visits were that most communal families are living under growing
land pressure and that there is ample evidence of poverty. Delegates also
noted that communities are actively involved in settler section.
The Conference agreed that the effective implementation of the Programme

will be greatly enhanced by improvements in the following aspects:-
1. The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme is integrally located within

the on-going national land policy formulation exercise and that it be
integrated into the national macro-economic policy reform process and
the evolving poverty alleviation action plans. Such policy refinements will
include the introduction of an agricultural land tax, the streamlining of
land subdivision regulations and the operationalisation of improved land
tenure arrangements.
2. The Programme will be enriched by further and on-going consultations

with stakeholders and co-operating partners as well as learning from
external experiences.
3. The focus of the programmes on poverty eradication will require selecting

beneficiaries from among the poor, those living in congested communal
areas and those with farming aptitude as well as vulnerable groups such
as farms workers.
4. The Programme will address more adequately gender aspects such as

equal access and ownership of land by men and women and the
involvement of women in the planning and implementation processes.
5. The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme will integrate communal

area reorganization and ensure equitable allocations of resources and
development opportunities in resettlement and communal areas.
6. The programme will be implemented in a transparent, fair and sustainable

manner, with regard to respect for the law, and broadened stakeholder as
well as beneficiary participation. It should also be affordable, cost
effective, and consistent with economic and financial management
reforms.
7. The institutional arrangements for managing the Land Reform and

Resettlement Programme will include consultations and partnerships of
Government with all stakeholders, the beneficiaries and civil society
including the National Economic Consultative Forum, the Commercial
Farmers' Union, Zimbabwe Farmers' Union, Indigenous Commercial
50
Farmers' Union, Women's Organizations and other non-Governmental

Organizations.
The Conference committed itself to supporting an Inception Phase which will

be implemented over a period of 24 months. The main elements of this
Phase are:-
1. Immediate implementation of resettlement beginning with the 118 farms

on offer.
2. The implementation of current Government resettlement models and the

provision of opportunities for testing alternative approaches such as
market driven and beneficiary initiated models.
3. Community based land redistribution initiatives will be encouraged

including through on-going programmes such as the Community Action
Plan.
4. Funding arrangements will encompass various approaches including

sector specific and scheme based project proposals.
5. Some of the undisbursed funds in the programmes that Donors are

currently supporting will provide a framework to kick-start the Inception
Phase.
6. Monitoring will be on-going during the Inception Phase with an evaluation

at the end of the period.
The Conference agreed to establish a Task Force constituted of Government

and donors willing to substantially contribute to the programme to elaborate
specific implementation and funding arrangements of the Inception Phase
and the longer term.
4.2. THE 2000 ZIMBABWEAN CONSTITUTIONAL REFERENDUM AND

ELECTIONS RESULTS
The constitution of Zimbabwe had been drawn up as part of the Lancaster

House Agreement of 1979 and had served the country for nearly 20 years.
There was a widespread feeling in Zimbabwe that it was too heavily
influenced by the country's colonial past, and that a new constitution written
in the light of the experience of independence was desirable.
A constitutional referendum was held in Zimbabwe on 12–13 February 2000.

The proposed new Constitution of Zimbabwe, which had been drafted by a
Constitutional Convention the previous year, was defeated. The defeat was
51
unexpected and was taken as a personal rebuff for President Robert

Mugabe and a political triumph for the newly formed opposition group,
the Movement for Democratic Change. The new proposed constitution was
notable for giving power to the government to seize farms owned
by white farmers, without compensation, and transfer them to black farm
owners as part of a scheme of land reform.
Constitutional Proposals
The proposed constitution incorporated a "Bill of Rights" based on that

adopted in South Africa but with some rights restricted (for example, it
included no pledge to equal treatment for homosexuals). It proposed to
expand the House of Assembly to 200 members, with 50 of them to be
elected under a proportional voting system, and to create a new 60 member
Senate. It proposed to limit the President to two successive five-year terms,
a restriction to begin after the constitution came in force.
The executive President was to remain but be supplemented by a Prime

Minister who would be head of government on a day-to-day basis. Opponents
of the constitution criticized the legal immunities given to the State and to
individuals holding office.
One of the more controversial aspects of the constitution covered land

reform. The draft presented by the Commission was not that presented to
the electorate for the referendum, but a revised version redrafted by the
Cabinet. The proposed Bill of Rights declared that "before Independence the
people of Zimbabwe were unjustifiably dispossessed of their land and other
resources without compensation", and therefore included a clause allowing
the Government to take possession of white-owned land with compensation
to be paid by the United Kingdom. Should the United Kingdom not pay, the
constitution declared that the "Government of Zimbabwe has no obligation to
pay compensation".
4.3. LAND [AGRARIAN] REFORM IN ZIMBABWE
Land was considered the collective property of all the residents in a given
chiefdom, with the chief mediating disagreements and issues pertaining to its
use. Nevertheless, male household heads frequently reserved personal tracts
for their own cultivation, and allocated smaller tracts to each of their wives.
Population growth frequently resulted in the over-utilization of the existing
land, which became greatly diminished both in terms of cultivation and
grazing due to the larger number of people attempting to share the same
acreage.
52
Land reform in Zimbabwe officially began in 1980 with the signing of

the Lancaster House Agreement, as an effort to more equitably distribute
land between black subsistence farmers and white Zimbabweans of European
ancestry, who had traditionally enjoyed superior political and economic
status. The programme's stated targets were intended to alter the ethnic
balance of land ownership. Inequalities in land ownership were inflated by a
growing overpopulation problem, depletion of over-utilized tracts, and
escalating poverty in subsistence areas parallel with the under-utilization of
land on commercial farms
Land hunger was at the centre of the Rhodesian Bush War, and was
addressed at Lancaster House, which sought to concede equitable
redistribution to the landless without damaging the white farmers' vital
contribution to Zimbabwe's economy.
Phases of Land Reform
Willing Seller, Willing Buyer
At independence from the United Kingdom in 1980, the Zimbabwean

authorities were empowered to initiate the necessary reforms; as long as
land was bought and sold on a willing buyer willing seller basis. Parliament
passed the Land Acquisition Act in 1985, which gave the government first
right to purchase excess land for redistribution to the landless. It empowered
the government to claim tracts adjacent to the former Tribal Trust Lands
(now known simply as "Communal Areas") and mark them for resettlement
purposes, provided the owners could be persuaded to sell. The British
government would finance half the cost.
Compulsory Acquisition
After the expiration of the entrenched constitutional conditions mandated by

the Lancaster House Agreement in the early 1990s, Zimbabwe outlined
several ambitious new plans for land reform. A National Land Policy was
formally proposed and enshrined as the Zimbabwean Land Acquisition Act of
1992, which empowered the government to acquire any land as it saw fit,
although only after payment of financial compensation. While powerless to
challenge the acquisition itself, landowners were permitted some lateral to
negotiate their compensation amounts with the state. The British
government continued to help fund the resettlement programme, with aid
specifically earmarked for land reform reaching £91 million by 1996. Another
£100 million was granted for "budgetary support" and was spent on a variety
of projects, including land reform. Zimbabwe also began to court other
donors through its Economic Structural Adjustment Policies (ESAP), which
53
were projects implemented in concert with international agencies and tied to

foreign loans.
In 1997 the government published a list of 1,471 farms it intended to buy

compulsorily for redistribution. The list was compiled via a nationwide land
identification exercise undertaken throughout the year. Landowners were
given thirty days to submit written objections. Many farms were delisted and
then re-listed as the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture debated the merits of
acquiring various properties, especially those which ZANU-PF had ordered be
expropriated for unspecified "political reasons". Of the 1,471 individual
property acquisitions, about 1,200 were appealed to the courts by the farm
owners due to various legal irregularities. President Mugabe responded by
indicating that in his opinion land reform was a strictly political issue, not one
to be questioned or debated by the judiciary.
The increasing politicization of land reform was accompanied by the

deterioration of diplomatic relations between Zimbabwe and the United
Kingdom. Public opinion on the Zimbabwean land reform process among
British citizens was decidedly mediocre; it was perceived as a poor
investment on the part of the UK's government in an ineffectual and shoddily
implemented programme. In June 1996, Lynda Chalker, British secretary of
state for international development, declared that she could not endorse the
new compulsory acquisition policy and urged Mugabe to return to the
principles of "willing buyer, willing seller".
On 5 November 1997, Chalker's successor, Clare Short, described the new

Labor government's approach to Zimbabwean land reform. She said that the
UK did not accept that Britain had a special responsibility to meet the costs of
land purchase in Zimbabwe. Notwithstanding the Lancaster House
commitments, Short stated that her government was only prepared to
support a programme of land reform that was part of a poverty eradication
strategy. She had other questions regarding the way in which land would be
acquired and compensation paid, and the transparency of the process. Her
government's position was spelt out in a letter to Zimbabwe's Agriculture
Minister, Kumbirai Kangai:
I should make it clear that we do not accept that Britain has a special
responsibility to meet the costs of land purchase in Zimbabwe. We are a new
government from diverse backgrounds without links to former colonial
interests. My own origins are Irish and, as you know, we were colonized, not
colonizers.
The letter concluded by stating that a programme of rapid land acquisition

would be impossible to support, citing concern about the damage which this
54
might do to Zimbabwe's agricultural output and its prospects of attracting

investment.
Kenneth Kaunda, former president of Zambia, responded dismissively by

saying "when Tony Blair took over in 1997, I understand that some young
lady in charge of colonial issues within that government simply dropped
doing anything about it."
In June 1998, the Zimbabwe government published its "policy framework" on

the Land Reform and Resettlement Programme Phase II (LRRP II), which
envisaged the compulsory purchase of land over five years.
In the late 1990s, Prime Minister Tony Blair terminated this arrangement
when funds available from Margaret Thatcher's administration were
exhausted, repudiating all commitments to land reform. Zimbabwe
responded by embarking on a "fast track" redistribution campaign, forcibly
confiscating white farms without compensation. This led to the fast track land
reform.
In September 1998, the government called a Donors Conference in Harare

on LRRP II to inform the donor community and involve them in the program:
Forty-eight countries and international organizations attended and
unanimously endorsed the land program, saying it was essential for poverty
reduction, political stability and economic growth. They agreed that the
inception phase, covering the first 24 months, should start immediately,
particularly appreciating the political imperative and urgency of the proposal.
Fast-Track Land Reform
The government held a referendum on the new constitution on 12-13

February 2000, despite having a sufficiently large majority in parliament to
pass any amendment it wished. Had it been approved, the new constitution
would have empowered the government to acquire land compulsorily without
compensation. Despite vast support in the media, the new constitution was
defeated by the whites backed opposition MDC party.
On 26-27 February 2000, Zimbabwe National Liberation War Veterans

Association (ZNLWVA) organized several people (including but not limited to
war veterans; many of them were their children and grandchildren) to march
on white-owned farmlands, initially with drums, song and dance. This
movement was officially termed the "Fast-Track Land Reform Program"
(FTLRP). The predominantly white farm owners were forced off their lands
along with their workers, who were typically of regional descent. This was
often done violently and without compensation.
55
Officially the land was divided into small-holder production, so called A1

schemes and commercial farms, called A2 schemes. There is however much
overlap between the two categories.
Parliament, dominated by ZANU-PF, passed a constitutional amendment,

signed into law on 12 September 2005, that nationalized farmland acquired
through the "Fast Track" process and deprived original landowners of the
right to challenge in court the government's decision to expropriate their
land. The Supreme Court of Zimbabwe ruled against legal challenges to this
amendment.
4.4. TRANSITIONAL STABILISATION PROGRAMME
The ascendancy of Cde Emmerson Mnangagwa as President through the

Minister of Finance Professor Mthuli Ncube saw the Government of Zimbabwe
launching a Transitional Stabilization Programme in a bid to set the economy
on a recovery path after years of stagnation.
The programme started running from October 2018 to December 2020,

seeking to operationalize Vision 2030. The vision is meant to see Zimbabwe
becoming a middle income country with a per capita income of US$3500 per
person.
The Transitional Stabilization Programme acknowledges policy reform

initiatives of the new dispensation to stimulate domestic production, exports,
rebuilding and transforming the economy to an upper middle income status
by 2030.
The reform initiatives have been outlined in various policy pronouncements

by President Emerson Mnangagwa, from his inaugural address on November
24, 2017, as well as the 2018 National Budget Statement.
The Transitional Stabilization Programme is bent to focus on the following

factors: stabilizing the macro-economy, and the financial sector; introducing
necessary policy and institutional reforms to translate to a private sector-led
economy; addressing infrastructure gaps, and launching quick-wins to
stimulate growth.
The short-term programme will be superseded by two 5-year Development

Strategies, with the first one running from 2021-2025, and the second
covering 2026-2030.
56
SUMMARY
The strategies which were taken by the Government of Zimbabwe bring

about total independence on the land issue were wholly outlined. The
measures being put in place to fulfill its 2030 vision was also discussed.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. What was the aim of the Land Donor Conference of 1998 and
subsequent events?
2. Why the Government of Zimbabwe did carried out the 2000
Constitutional Referendum and what were the Election results?
3. Why did the government of Zimbabwe come up with the land reform
programme?
4. Do you thing the transitional stabilization programme is yielding
results?
5. Do you think it was fair for the whites to complain about their land
being taken?
REFERENCES
Press
57
UNIT 5
CULTURE AND NATIONAL HERITAGE
CONTENT
1. Unhu/Ubuntu (Norms and values) acceptable in Zimbabwe Societies.

2. Respect for authority, age, family and strangers/visitors in social
orders.
3. Morality and religion (Christianity, Moslem/Islam)
4. The National Heritage.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:-
1. Investigate Indigenous value systems in Zimbabwe

2. Explore Unhu/Ubuntu (Norms and values) acceptable in Zimbabwe
Societies.
3. Evaluate the importance of Respect for authority, age, family and
strangers/visitors in social orders.
4. Compare and contrast morality and religion (Christianity,
Moslem/Islam)
5. Examine the National Heritage.
5.0. CULTURE AND NATIONAL HERITAGE
Introduction
The Zimbabwean society by and large has expressed concern at the bad
behaviour of its own people, young and old alike. Moral decadence appears
to have set in and running through the strata of society. Corruption has
reared its ugly head to the country‟s populace. Money laundering,
exchanging foreign currencies on the parallel market, extortion, pilfering and
many other vices have dogged our society. Furthermore, individualism has
continued to entrench itself on us. It has been noted that loss of discipline
and sound human and cultural and religious values a major concerns of our
society. A death of role models in a family, teachers, leaders, society and in
the programmes that come into people‟s homes through the electronic and
the print media is a cause of concern (Nziramasanga Commission Report,
1999). It is with this background that a call for the formation of an individual
who has hunhu/ubuntu is made. The aim in this regard is to come up with a
well rounded, respectable and respected person.
58
This chapter therefore focuses on the concept hunhu/ubuntu, qualities of a

person with hunhu/ubuntu, and how a child should be socialized by a number
of social agents to become a holistic person.
5.1. INDIGENOUS VALUE SYSTEMS
The concept of Hunhu/Ubuntu (Norms and Values)
The concept originated in traditional indigenous African societies. It has

played a major role in the forging of a national consciousness and in the
process of nation building. It functions as a unifying factor across the various
dialects and ethnic groups that are in the country. The noun Hunhu (shona)
or ubuntu (Ndebele) means humanity, humanness. Its philosophy is reflected
in the African adage “Munhu Munhu Navanhu”, “Umuntu Ngumuntu
Ngabantu”, that is a person is a person through other people. Mbiti
91991:141 echoes this perception when he says: “I am because we are and
since we are therefore I am”.
The concept hunhu/ubuntu connotes kindness, courtesy, consideration and

friendliness in the relations between people from the manner in which one
walks and talks. All this according to Makuvaza (1996), is embodied in
hunhu/ubuntu. It is an elusive concept which however denotes a good human
being, a well balanced and morally upright person (Nziramasanga
Commission, 1999) the concept articulates a basic respect and compassion
for others. Over and above what has been said above the concept is inferred
from the way one laughs, eats, loves, jokes, treats others, sits, looks,
dresses or greets people. Hunhu/ubuntu is achieved through appropriate
conductor for behaviour. Hunhu/ubuntu is therefore the totally of what a
person id or what a person does.
Qualities of Hunhu/Ubuntu
A person with hunhu/ubuntu is characterized by qualities such as

responsibility, truthfulness, respect, caring, fairness and courage among
others. Each of these qualities is discussed below in the order given above.
Responsibility whose meaning includes promising to meet someone at a

specific place and meet them being dependable like sticking to a single boy
or girlfriend, accepting the results that come from your actions, knowing
between right and wrong like everyone is doing wrong things in the school
and nobody is willing to spill the beans and you do it, volunteering your
service when you are the best one for a job like you are a soccer player and
you go out of your way to pass on the skills to the youth in your community
(Character Education, 2000).the youth should take the responsibility that
comes with stardom and seek to act in ways that will encourage children to
59
act positively. Some sports stars and artists have done advertisements
encouraging the young to walk away from violence, to turndown drugs, to
volunteer to help their communities.
Every youth should be responsible because every youth wants to develop

friendships, to be trusted and be respected. Responsibility builds in the youth
a reputation for leadership. It gives the youth respect and admiration.
Responsible youths create a better and more reliable nation-a nation that
gets things done.
Truthfulness whose meaning includes stating what you believe like stating
what you believe be it in religion, politics or about life in general, doing your
homework yourself, playing fairly at sports, being honest with boyfriends or
girlfriends, taking responsibility for you actions and giving all the facts not
just some of the acts (Character Education 2000).
People with hunhu/ubuntu value truthfulness. The society is inspired by the

idea that “the truth shall set you free”. Truthfulness or lake of it is at the
centre of much of the news we read in the print and electronic media every.
It is also at the centre of most of the discussions in groups.
Respect whose meaning includes treating other people the way you would
want to be treated-respect for others which is usually shown through
courtesy, tolerance and cooperation with all whom we meet, treating other
people‟s property or possessions with care, it is recognizing that parents,
teachers, coaches and others whose job it is to help you-have learned from
experience you have not had yet, it is appreciating the effort of someone you
compete with, it is recognizing the value of ideas different from your own, it
is listening to those around you and hearing what they are saying, and it is
seeing that others have talents and strengths and that you have talents and
strength as well (Character Education, 2000).
Respect for the environment is also critical in building personhood. Human

beings out of their uncontrollable desire are plundering the earth of its
resources not leaving sufficient time to replenish and heal itself as nature has
ordained.
Caring whose meaning includes reaching out to someone when they need
help like they are hungry, naked or shelter less, volunteering for a good
cause like Jairos Jiri volunteering to improve the life of the disabled and
demonstrating that disability is not inability, giving what one has and seeking
ways to be of service to others. Caring youth attract caring friends. Caring
friends make caring groups or communities. Caring gives the young
awareness of others, respects for others, respect for oneself, affection,
60
strength and a community. Caring has preserved natural wonders like

Victoria Falls. It has restored historic landmark like the great Zimbabwe and
all houses of stone.
Fairness whose meaning includes acting in a just and honourable manner, in

accordance with justice or the rules, it is making sure everyone gets an equal
chance to show what they can do, treating other people the way you would
want to be treated, considering all the information before making a decision
or taking a vote, and making sure a community takes care of its weakest or
poorest members (Character Education, 2000).
Fairness in Zimbabwe has given us voting as a way to pick our leaders. It has
created laws that guarantee no one will be punished without trial. It has
opened schools and universities to the young and women. It should also be
noted that rules in spots or in schools or in neighbourhoods or communities
are all about fairness.
Courage can be bravery- a quality that that makes a person to control fear in
face of danger, pain or misfortune. It can be great physical strength to battle
an opponent. It can be taking unpopular position all by yourself because you
know it is right (Character Education, 2000). Courage gives you
independence of thought and action.
Think of the guerrillas that fought in the Zimbabwe liberation struggle.

Fighting against a force that was well equipped in terms of arms and
ammunition and furthermore a highly mobile force it must have taken. What
courage it must have taken a face of such force. Thousands of guerrillas were
killed in battle. Many were wounded. Ultimately independence came to
Zimbabwe in 1980 through the fearlessness of the guerrillas. It should be
noted that in the above example courage corrects injustice and changes
society.
Other qualities of a person with hunhu/ubuntu include a cooperative spirit,

honesty, hard work, solidarity, integrity, good manners, self discipline and
tolerance.
5.2. RESPECT FOR AUTHOURITY, AGE, FAMILY AND

STRANGERS/VISITORS
Zimbabweans are generally very polite, welcoming, respectful, and formal.

Conversation usually flows quite easily, with a minimum of topics that might
cause offence. Common topics of conversation are work, family and where
you/they come from. Culture is more formal and can be sensitive to issues of
respect.
61
Basic Etiquette
1. Stand up to greet people who have recently entered a room.
2. Respect is shown by physically lowering oneself below another person‟s

stature. When meeting or interacting with someone older or of a higher
status, it is polite to lower one‟s head or body below theirs. Women
commonly give a slight curtsy or bend at the knees, whilst men bow
slightly.
3. People should address elders and those of a higher status first, using
their title and surname and formal pronouns.
4. It is extremely rude to talk back to an elder or challenge their opinion,

even if they are incorrect.
5. Offer guests hot water to wash their hands before giving them tea.
6. Gratitude is often shown nonverbally with claps to show respect. People

clap twice to say “thank you” if someone is passing them something. If
one hand is full, they may clap a hand on their chest instead.
7. It is respectful to pass and receive items with both hands together. If

being more casual, use the right hand only.
8. When passing something of value to another person, touch the forearm

of the right hand holding the object with the left hand. This is meant to
give the impression of supporting the deep value (weight) of the object.
9. It is considered bad taste to wear provocative clothing. Skirts and pants

should reach the knee; shoulders and midriffs should be covered.
10. If wearing a hat, take it off when talking to someone or entering indoors.
11. You can expect to be asked questions about your personal life and family
when initially meeting someone. For example, they may ask whether you
have a spouse and how many children you have.
12. Timekeeping is quite fluid in Zimbabwe and people are commonly late.
Appointments rarely begin punctually and engagements often run
overtime. Avoid being offended if someone does not arrive or forgets to
apologies for being late as it is rarely a reflection on the personal
relationship. People are more punctual surrounding business.
Visiting
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1. When visiting a Zimbabwean‟s house, it is the norm to arrive with a small

gift for the host. Food is usually appropriate.
2. It is not usually necessary to take off your shoes when entering a home.
However, remove your hat.
3. Expect to be offered refreshments of tea or coffee at any visit and accept

the gesture out of politeness.
Eating
1. People say “Pamusoroi” in Shona before eating. This is similar to saying

“Bon Appetite” before a meal, but it means something similar to “Excuse
me while I eat”.
2. In Zimbabwe, people usually sit to eat on low stools or gather around a

mat on the floor.
3. Utensils are commonly used, but it is also normal to eat with one‟s
fingers.
4. Water is always provided to wash one‟s hands before and after a meal.
Women give men a dish to wash their hands so they don‟t have to get up
and do it themselves.
5. The host usually serves everybody individually.
6. Do not talk whilst you are eating/have food in your mouth.
7. It is rude to be on your phone at the table.
8. Ask people‟s permission as to whether it is okay to leave the table when

you are done.
9. The national dish of Zimbabwe is called „sadza‟. It is a maize paste

similar to a cornmeal dumpling.
10. Some Zimbabweans may not eat pork for religious reasons.
11. If eating out, it is expected that the oldest or wealthiest male will pay for
everyone's meal. If everyone present has the same earning ability and
age, they will split the bill.
Gift Giving
1. There is a big gift-giving culture in Zimbabwe. A gift represents a gesture

of friendship; thus, refusing a gift can seriously offend the person who
63
offered it. It is taboo to do so. Always accept a gift given by a

Zimbabwean.
2. Zimbabweans may directly ask you if you have a gift for them if they‟ve
been expecting it. For example, if you are coming home after travelling,
they may ask if you brought them back something. Avoid perceiving this
as presumptuous, rude or greedy.
3. If you are visiting Zimbabwe for the first time, you can expect that they
will give you something to bring back home.
4. The most common occasions for giving gifts are births, birthdays,
weddings, graduations, installations of pastors, Christmas and farewell
services.
5. Gifts may be wrapped or given unwrapped. There is no strong cultural

preference regarding the presentation.
6. Give and open gifts in front of everyone in attendance.
7. People commonly show gratitude by clapping, whistling, jumping or even

dancing. A verbal “thank you” may not actually be said.
8. Food is a common gift that is appropriate to be given at all occasions.
9. Consider that Zimbabwe struggles with corruption and very expensive

gifts may be interpreted as bribes.
If a visitor reports to someone‟s work environment or house, current affairs

are likely to be the main conversational topics. If the context for the first
meeting is personal, the conversation may move into the topic of family and
other personal circumstances. It is customary to use people‟s titles (Mr., Dr.,
Mrs.) on first meetings and especially if they are older or more senior than
you.
It is common to ask Zimbabweans what part of the country they come from
this is an important part of how they identify themselves to each other. The
home area helps to identify their clan, language, and customs, and in some
cases their politics. They will likely be interested in finding out where (what
part of the city) you live. While it can be hard to avoid the question,
neighbourhood is often an indicator of your relative wealth.
Politics is a subject of great interest to everyone but it is best to appear non-

partisan until your social relations are more solidified and trusted. In the
cities, the majority of people support the opposition party.
64
Most Zimbabweans are Christians and that religion holds a significant place in
their lives. Zimbabweans are generally extremely friendly and welcoming and
you should have no problem feeling relaxed and comfortable relatively
quickly.
A simple handshake and friendly smile, a general "how are you?" is good on
the first meeting. Friends and acquaintances will often use a familiar three-
part African handshake. Direct eye to eye contact is usually acceptable. It
confirms your friendly position and intentions. A person of lower social or
economic status (e.g. domestic workers) will more likely behave in a demure
manner, offer less eye contact, and be more reserved.
Although men are generally more comfortable with touching each other, the
boundaries of personal space are reduced as familiarity grows. Zimbabweans
are conscious of status and respect, and superiors and elders are accorded
greater personal space.
Leadership, education, experience, fairness, industriousness and

reasonableness would all be considered important qualities in how those in
authority of the elderly might be regarded. A high level of regard for
management or the elderly is expected and demanded.
Young people or employees may also be expected to perform errands for

other more elder or senior staff members even if they are not their
supervisors. The complexity of these relationships will only bear them out
over time and will reflect the unique configuration of individuals in any
particular office.
Decisions are generally taken by the most senior personnel or the elderly and
they are also responsible for generating and putting forward ideas.
Consultative or consensus decision-making is not the norm. Young people or
workers are most comfortable making a decision if it has already been
endorsed from above, and may have little experience in taking responsibility
for independent analysis or action. It is acceptable to go to your immediate
elder or supervisor for answers or feedback.
5.3. MORALITY AND REIGION (CHRITIANITY, MOSLEM/ISLAM)
Christianity is the dominant religion in Zimbabwe. Christian denominations in

Zimbabwe with significant number of faithful include Roman Catholicism,
Anglicanism, Baptists, Lutheranism and Methodism. Over the years a variety
of indigenous Christian denominations emerged especially Pentecostal
churches and Apostolic churches.
65
Traditional religions are followed. While the country is majority Christian,

most people practice, to varying degrees, elements of the indigenous
religions as well. Religious leaders also reported an increase in adherence to
traditional religion and shamanic healers. The Constitution of
Zimbabwe allows for freedom of religion. Foreign missionary groups are
present in the country.
Christianity
The first Christian mission arrived in Zimbabwe in 1859 because of the

efforts of London Missionary Society. Their work began among the Zulu
people. David Livingstone appealed to the British government to assign land
and protection to Christian missions, which led to a land grant to the
Universities Mission in 1888 and the centre of missionary activity to the Zulu
and Shona peoples. The first Methodist mission arrived in 1896, with
members from the United Kingdom and the United States. The British worked
with the white settlers, while the Americans worked with the native Africans.
The Seventh-Day Adventists and Central African Christian Mission established
their missions in 1890s. Pentecostalism and African Apostolic Churches
arrived in the 1920s, and grew rapidly, with the Zion Christian Church now
the largest Protestant following in Zimbabwe. In 1932, Johane
Marange (born: Muchabaya Momberume) announced that he had received
vision and dream to preach like John the Baptist, an apostle. He baptized
many in a local river, and his efforts in the decades that followed led to
African Apostolic Church, the second largest ministry in Zimbabwe.
Most Zimbabweans Christians are Protestants. The Protestant Christian

churches with large membership are Anglican (represented by the Church of
the Province of Central Africa), Seventh-day Adventist and Methodist. A
variety of local churches and groups have emerged from the mainstream
Christian churches over the years that fall between the Protestant and
Catholic churches. Some, such as the Zimbabwe Assemblies of God, continue
to adhere to Christian beliefs and oppose the espousal of traditional religions.
Other local groups, such as the Seven Apostles, combine elements of
established Christian beliefs with some beliefs based on traditional African
culture and religion.
Traditional Religions
Some of Zimbabweans express their religion to be Traditional, but most

Christians continue to practice elements of their traditional religions. Further,
most Zimbabwe churches, like African Churches now incorporate worship
practices that include traditional African rituals, songs, dance, non-Christian
iconography and oral culture.
66
Islam
Islam is the religion of less than one percent of the population of

Zimbabwe. The Muslim community consists primarily of South
Asian immigrants (Indian and Pakistani), a small number of indigenous
Zimbabweans, and a very small number of North African and Middle
Eastern immigrants. There are mosques located in nearly all of the larger
towns.
5.4. NATIONAL [ZIMBABWE] HERITAGE
The heritage of any nation is based on that nation‟s enduring political

tradition. In the USA, the national heritage is a deep rooted political legacy
born out of the war and rebellion against Great Britain and this is embodied
in the term Republicanism. The French, who are fiercely proud of their
heritage, have the French revolution which climaxed in the storming of the
Bastille palace and the slaughter of the nobility as their national heritage.
Similarly, the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second
Chimurenga as the national and enduring political tradition. The second
Chimurenga ethos embodies political, cultural as well as economic principles
which define and continue to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation,
all one has to do is undermine that nation‟s heritage hence the continuing
psychological war by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort and demonize not
only the second Chimurenga war but those who participated in that war and
especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.
Heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event,

achievement, tradition or theory to which the peoples of a specific nation
rally around, and have emotional attachments and for which they are
prepared to defend and to go to war if threatened or violated.
Social and Cultural Heritage
Culture in Zimbabwe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the
society. Inspite of their small number the Ndebele influence on culture is
fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has rubbed on to the Shona
tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is also quite true. Culture is dynamic. As
a result it is a correct generalization that there is such a thing as African
culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to European culture. There are at most only
variations in customs among the various African groups in Zimbabwean
society but the customs are either the same or closely resemble each other.
Zimbabwean African culture has the following major elements;
Nuclear or extended family
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Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.
Respect for hard and honest work.
Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex and marriage.
There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media
on the African culture in Zimbabwe. Television, radio and the print media
have done much harm in undermining the superior African culture by
encouraging foreign tastes and habits in terms of diet, dress, the family,
marriage, sex and the extended family. The first culprit has been the African
family with divorce wrecking many families. Disease due to sex before
marriage and prostitution has grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS
related ailments. The white man‟s‟ consumption or spending patterns have
also spread among young Zimbabweans and they are finding the extended
family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white
man‟s‟ culture and this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike
the white person in Zimbabwe, the African does not have sufficient
expendable cash and as a result debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are
making the lives of many Zimbabweans miserable.
African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the
nation cemented. Moreover such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street
kids, crime and political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed
would be non existent. All these ills are a result of lack of self respect and
lack of personal identity due to wanting to be a white person for example
Michael Jackson who straightens his nose or an African woman who wears
false hair extensions to look like a Caucasian or preferring to speak in a
foreign language and not vernacular.
The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchallengeable in

that traditional diet consisting of small grains legumes and African fruits,
vegetables and nuts naturally prevent such diseases as obesity/kusimba - a
common feature of most urbanized woman and the major cause of high
blood pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis and infertility.
In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the

panacea for a long healthy life and the solution to such problems as AIDS
more so than condoms.
Marriage and the family is the economic base of any society and nation.
Premarital sex, divorce and sex for money and perversions such as
lesbianism, homosexuality, drug taking and including alcohol directly attack
and undermine the family and as such society. A multiplicity of sexual
68
partners before marriage will always lead one to either multiple sex partners
in marriage or lack of satisfaction with one partner in marriage.
In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the
fundamentals of Christianity are firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents
and authority, good morals that is no fornication or adultery no perversion
that is no homosexuality, taking care of the needy etc are biblical positions
that remain unchangeable. In short the white man‟s culture is not only
incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the antithesis and a direct attack
on everything Godly, that is, it is devilish. The problem between African
religion and Christianity is not lack of morals in African religion, but methods
of accessing God or worship. Indeed this writer is convinced there is lots of
superstition with respect to methods of worship in African religion in as much
as most main line and emerging Christian churches are thoroughly
paginated. It is only right and good therefore to promote and maintain our
morally superior culture while adopting correct Christian methods of worship.
Our religious inheritance will therefore remain for all time our good cultural
values or morals.
The values of any society therefore serve to define that society‟s identity.
History has much been distorted by painting the African culture as irreligious
to the extent that it is almost the accepted value among most young
Zimbabweans to be immoral because a White Christian has an immoral
value or practice for an example walking naked or partial naked in public
despite the fact that this violates Christian principles. The Black person
should there for not use the Whiteman‟s values, or morals or immoral as the
case may be as the reference point for good or bad values but should use
traditional practice as the point of departure and compare that with biblical
principles which remain unchanging Our values as Africans clearly identify
and portray us as a people who shun immorality graft corruption and
laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We believe in God
and we have no room for atheism in our culture.
The second Chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At
the economic level the legacy of the second Chimurenga and our heritage
from that event is that the resources that are God given belong to
Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as resource
number one belongs to all Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans with very
negligible exceptions believe that land and all ill gotten gains from the
international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic cleansing and
segregation are legitimately and exclusively the property of those former
criminals. Whites do not want to share our land with us. We have said we will
equitably share our land with whites and that remains and will always remain
69
the Zimbabwean African‟s morally right and correct position. Any so called
Zimbabwean therefore of any race who departs from this position is not only
a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect and in essence
declaring that the second Chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won by
the Africans in Zimbabwe through much blood and joy, and lost by settler
colonialists through by much blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of
war.
Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with
land firmly in their hands, can engage other nations at the economic level
and benefit from the comparative advantages we have in terms of skilled
disciplined labour, good climate, an abundance of minerals and varied flora
and fauna - domestic and wild. Economic activity therefore should benefit
Zimbabweans first and foremost and this should happen through an internal
driven economic programme and not one that is externally driven. Political
liberation simply relates to universal common suffrage being available to all
citizens. This was gained fully at Lancaster as manifested in the result of the
1980 elections and subsequent elections whether presidential or
gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow and empty and absolutely useless if it is
not used to bring about economic emancipation. Political emancipation there
for leads to and of necessity must lead to economic emancipation. This has
eluded not only Africa but most of the former colonies through the practice of
neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and most of the
developed world. The war for economic emancipation is the last war and it is
the most difficult war in that it is now being fought at the psychological level
through global media houses and the agency of corrupted local
comprador/reactionary/collaborator journalists who raise and imagine and
publish false notions of the freedoms of expression assembly and association.
This leads to people as it were shooting themselves in the foot because they
through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters‟ perceptions have
been warped in favour of their colonizers - vote into power those who
perpetrate their economic subjugation. The battle for perceptions is an unfair
war, and it is most cruel and criminal because of the open aggression
through demands made on former colonies under the guise of human rights.
At the political level the Second Chimurenga heritage is that as a people we

are sovereign and can determine our own destiny without outside
interference and through democratic processes designed to safeguard our
hard won independence.
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SUMMARY
The function of inculcating values of hunhu/ubuntu amongst the youth

can only be realized when each of the agents of socialization discussed
above and many others take an active part in the moral and ethical
education of the youth. The challenges indicated above notwithstanding,
each of the agents should execute its purpose efficiently and effectively.
Citizens produced from such endeavours are likely to take the country far
and wide in so far as development and good relations are concerned.
Culture and heritage move hand in glove and in Zimbabwe culture reflects
the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society. There are variations of
customs among various groups in Zimbabwean society but the customs
are either the same or closely resemble each other. This was well outlined
and discussed in this unit.
ACTIVITY
1. What do you understand by Indigenous value systems in Zimbabwe?

2. Explore Unhu/Ubuntu (Norms and values) acceptable in Zimbabwe
Societies.
3. Why do you think it is important to practice the respect for authority,
age, family and strangers/visitors in social orders?
4. Compare and contrast morality and religion (Christianity,
Moslem/Islam)
5. Why is it important to preserve our National Heritage?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Why do people prefer to be associated with people with hunhu?

2. Analyse the view that elders abuse the youth who respect them.
3. Show how the media shapes the behaviour of Zimbabweans.
REFERENCES
1. Character Education (2000) Detroit Free Press accessed on

www.freep.com
2. Makuvaza, N. (1996) Educatedness in the African Context: The Case for
Education for Hunhuism/Ubuntuism in Zimbabwe in The Zimbabwe
Bulletin of Teacher Education. Vol.4 No. 3
3. Makuvaza, N. (1996) Education in Zimbabwe, Today and Tomorrow: The
Case for Hunhuist/Ubuntuist Institutions of Education in Zimbabwe in
Zimbabwe Journal Of Educational Research Vol.8 No.3
71
4. Mbiti, J. (1991) African Religion and Philosophy. London: Heinemann

Educational Books, Ltd.
5. Nziramasanga, C.T. (Chairperson) (1999). Zimbabwe: Report of the
Presidential Enquiry into Education and Training. Harare: Government
Printers.
6. Samkange, T. and Samkange, S. (1980) Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A
Zimbabwean Indigenous Political Philosophy. Harare; Graham Publishers.
7. Shah, S. (2002) The Necessity of “Value Based Education” Value Based
Education.htm
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UNIT 6
NATIONAL INTERESTS
CONTENT
1. Zimbabwe‟s national vision, ethos and aspirations as embodied in the

Second Chimurenga
2. Political sovereignty
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unity students should be able to:-
1. Scan the Zimbabwe‟s national vision, ethos and aspirations as

embodied in the Second Chimurenga.
2. Weigh-up the Political sovereignty
6.0. NATIONAL INTERESTS
Introduction
The heritage of any nation is based on that nation‟s enduring political

tradition. Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second Chimurenga as the national
and enduring political tradition. The ethos embodies political, cultural as well
as economic principles which define and continue to sustain us as a nation.
6.1. ZIMBABWE NATIONAL VISION, ETHOS AND ASPIRATIONS AS

EMBODIED IN THE SECOND CHIMURENGA
Ethos entails character or fundamental values of a person, people, culture, or

movement. As a nation our fundamental values are inspired by the causes of
our liberation struggle which issue of land and protect of our integrity as a
nation.
Vision entails the ability to see something that you imagine, something that
you can dream especially as part of a religious or supernatural experience.
(Merriam Webster-English language learners dictionary.)
Aspirations are strong desires to achieve something high or great.
It is of paramount that a nation should religiously respect its vision, ethos,

aspirations. Zimbabwe as a nation is also not spared as it has its ethos which
acted as a spring board for the second Chimurenga as the national and
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enduring political tradition. The second Chimurenga ethos embodies political,

cultural as well as economic principles which define and continue to sustain
us as a nation. It should be also noted that political liberation simply relates
to universal common suffrage being available to all citizens who manifest as
a vision thus dragging the nation to one direction. As a nation, we are
determine to our own destiny without outside interference and through
democratic processes designed to safeguard our hard won independence.
As a country a series of visions were put in place which were bent to direct
us in the same direction. Of interest is our latest vision 2030 which our
President Emmerson Mnangagwa continue to clamour for which he
pronounced whilst delivering his inaugural speech as the President of the
Second Republic. The thrust of the vision is to make sure our nation become
a, „Prosperous & Empowered Upper Middle Income Society by 2030‟.
To ensure the success of this vision, we must adopt a spirit of oneness which
will bring a sense of concerted effort. As police officers we must endeavour to
work flat out and remain resolute in executing their duties in making sure
that the vision comes to reality.
6.2. POLITICAL SOVEREIGNTY
Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself,
without any interference from outside sources or bodies.
In political theory, sovereignty is a substantive term designating

supreme legitimate authority over some polity.
The politics of Zimbabwe takes place in a framework of a

full presidential republic, whereby the President is the head of
state and government as organized by the 2013 Constitution. Executive
power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both
the government and parliament.
The elected government controls senior appointments in the public service,

including the military and police, and ensures that appointments at lower
levels are made on an equitable basis by the independent Public Service
Commission.
Political power in Zimbabwe is split between three branches, the executive,

the legislative and the judicial branches, with President as the head of the
executive branch, the Prime Minister the head of the legislative branch and
the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe the head of the judicial
branch.
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6.3. THE THREE ARMS OF GOVERNMENT
Executive
Under Zimbabwe's Constitution, the president is the head of state,

government and commander-in-chief of the defence forces, elected by
popular majority vote. Prior to 2013, the president was elected for a 6-year
term with no term limits. The new constitution approved in the 2013
constitutional referendum limits the president to two 5-year terms.
Legislature
Parliament consists of the House of Assembly and, since 2005, the Senate,
which had previously been abolished in 1990. The House of Assembly has
two hundred and ten (210) members elected by universal suffrage, including
the Speaker, and the Attorney General, and may serve for a maximum of five
years. Under the 2013 constitution, the Senate consists of eighty members,
of whom sixty are elected for five-year terms in six member constituencies
representing one of the ten provinces, elected based on the votes in the
lower house election, using party-list proportional representation, distributed
using the hare quota. Additionally the Senate consists of two seats for each
non-metropolitan district of Zimbabwe elected by each provincial assembly of
chiefs, one seat each for the president and deputy president of the National
Council of Chiefs and one male and one female seat for people with
disabilities elected on separate ballots by an electoral college designated by
the National Disability Board.
Judiciary
The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of

Zimbabwe who, like their contemporaries, is appointed by the President on
the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The Constitution has a Bill of
Rights containing extensive protection of human rights. The Bill of Rights
could not be amended for the first 10 years of independence except by
unanimous vote of Parliament.
The legal system is based on Roman-Dutch law with South African influences.
A five-member Supreme Court, headed by the Chief-Justice has original
jurisdiction over alleged violations of fundamental rights guaranteed in the
constitution and appellate jurisdiction over other matters. There is a High
Court consisting of general and appellate divisions. Below the High Court are
regional magistrate's courts with civil jurisdiction and magistrate's courts
with both civil and criminal jurisdiction over cases involving traditional law
and custom. Beginning in 1981, these courts were integrated into the
national system.
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SUMMARY
In this chapter, the national vision, ethos and aspirations embodied in the
second Chimurenga were fully discussed. These come as fruits of the next
generation coupled with political sovereignty.
ACTIVITY
1. Explain the Zimbabwe‟s national vision, ethos and aspirations as

embodied in the Second Chimurenga.
2. What do you understand by the Political sovereignty and why it is
important in nation building?
REFERENCES
Press
Africa. London, Rex Callings
76
UNIT 7
LAW AND SOCIETY
CONTENT
1. Pre-colonial legal systems and modern legal systems in Zimbabwe.

2. Law Enforcement, justice and public order in Zimbabwe.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of Unit students should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast the Pre-colonial legal systems and modern legal
systems in Zimbabwe.
2. Assess the Law Enforcement, justice and public order in Zimbabwe.
7.0. LAW AND SOCIETY
Introduction
Any society requires some form of discipline and order for its progress. The
two words are like twins as they go hand in hand. Where there is discipline
there is order and where there is order there is discipline. Similarly where
there is no discipline there is no order; disorder is a sign of indiscipline.
Indiscipline breeds disorder. What then is discipline and order?
Oxford Dictionary defines discipline as the ability to control one‟s behaviour

or the way one lives or to punish somebody for something they have done.
Other words which mean the same as discipline are regulation, control or
restraint.
Order has various meanings depending on how it is used. For our context in
a society order means the state that exists when people obey laws, rules or
authority (Oxford Dictionary). It refers to regular and tidy patterns. It means
having regular, stable and predictable forms of behaviour. Other words with
similar meanings are tidy, regulate or arrange.
People require order in their societies so they work to ensure that there is
discipline. This begins at family level. A disciplined child usually grows up to
be a disciplined adult. This is what parents yearn for their children. There are
various ways in which parents discipline their children to ensure that they are
orderly.
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Some talk to their children when they make mistakes explaining to them the
problem of their actions and possible results or repercussions. In this way
they hope their children will see sense and be able to change.
Some talk to their children harshly whenever they do something deemed bad
or unbecoming. They shout at them and warn them of possible consequences
if they continue with their wayward behaviour.
Some use corporal punishment to discipline their children.
Some control the type of friends their children associate with so that they are
not influenced to be bad people.
Some ask their friends or relatives to talk to their children about their
behaviour.
Some use the church to inculcate moral values in their children hoping that
once they learn and emulate the commandments they will ultimately be good
people.
7.1. PRE-COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEMS AND MODERN LEGAL SYSTEMS

IN ZIMBABWE
Pre-Colonial Legal Systems in Zimbabwe
The term chief “Ishe” or “Vashe” in shona and induna in Ndebele refers to an
individual who, by virtue of ancestry, occupies a clearly defined leadership
position in an area. Traditionally, chiefs were installed by the most senior
headman in the area in consultation with the spirit mediums of the chiefdom.
The medium acted as the voice of the ancestors in the whole process of the
installation. This procedure was meant to curb any possible disputes that
might arise from the people. The involvement of the ancestors in the choice
and appointment of the chief made him an important religious functionally.
Traditional chiefs could stay until death as long as they obeyed the precepts
of the ancestors. The shona proverb “hakuna zuva rinobuda rimwe risati
radoka” implies that the chief could not be deposed as long as he had the
backing of the ancestors. However the chiefs who despised the ancestors and
did not rule according to the democratic guidelines given by the ancestors
through the spirit mediums risked losing their positions.
Chiefs were supposed to be the link between the ancestors and their
subjects. As the link between the supernatural and the temporal existence of
the present, they had extensive religious powers that generated fear, respect
and obeisance from their subjects (Vaughan 2003). They were responsible
for all responsible for all religious ceremonies conducted in their areas. In
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times of drought, famine or any natural disaster, people looked up to their

chief. In fact natural disasters sometime blamed on the chief who might have
disobeyed the ancestors (Bourdillon 1993: Dusing 2001). Traditional leaders
were also responsible for protecting and land among their subjects. Land in
pre-colonial era was viewed as a sacred commodity, a burial ground and the
abode of the living dead. Since they mainly depended on agriculture, the
shona also viewed land as a source of their livelihood. They believed that
land belonged to the ancestors and that the chiefs were its custodians
(Gluckman 1977; Bourdillion 1998). Chiefs were also mandated to distribute
the land among their people equitably. This implies that they were not
supposed to horde the land that belonged to the community for their
personal gain.
Traditionally, chiefs were expected to administer justice and democracy in

their areas of jurisdiction. They were not tyrannical leaders who wielded
power of life and death over their subjects nor did they use excessive force
to maintain law and order. The ancestral spirits through their human agents,
the spirit mediums and the subjects always removed tyrannical rulers from
power with the assistance of the neighbouring chiefs. This is the situation in
which Chirisamhuru of the Rozvi Empire found himself when he ignored the
advice of the ancestral spirits during his rule. His army with the help of the
neighbouring female chief, Nyamazana, rebelled against him. Traditional
chiefs would not deliberate alone on the issues affecting their people,
particularly those with important political, economic, religious and social
dimensions. Makahamadze (2013).
The democratic structure and function of the institution of the chieftaincy

that existed in the pre-colonial period came to an end with the coming of
colonial authorities in the country in 1890. The colonial masters introduced
administrative laws that reduced the function of a chief to that of
government officer. The chief was no longer answerable to the ancestors in
matters pertaining to the day to day happenings in his chiefdom but to
colonial administrates. His judicial powers were clipped. He was only allowed
to try petty cases like disputes among his subjects, while serious cases like
murder, violence, thefts and witchcraft were all to be referred to the colonial
authorities.
Modern Legal Systems in Zimbabwe
The judiciary is one of the three pillars of government and is concerned about
the administration of justice and ensuring that constitutional rights are
protected. It exercises its functions independently of the other two pillars of
government which are the legislature and the executive. The modern legal
79
system is now hierarchal starting from the Supreme Court to the Community
Court.
Supreme Court
This is the highest court in the country. It hears appeals from the High Court
and all other lower courts. It only sits as a court of first instance when it
hears arguments on whether or not there has been violation of declaration of
rights. It consists of the chief justice who is also the head of judiciary system
and judges of the Supreme Court.
High court
It hears serious cases such as murder, treason and robbery as a court of first
instance and appeals to the Supreme Court. Both civil and criminal cases can
be heard in the high court. The high court can also hear appeals from
magistrates‟ court in criminal cases where the appeal is against conviction
and sentence. In civil cases it can hear appeals and also review decisions of
inferior courts and administrative tribunals where it is alleged that there are
irregularities in the conduct of the proceedings.
Magistrates’ court
Magistrates‟ courts can hear both civil and criminal cases. The ranks of
magistrates are ordinary magistrates which are referred as magistrates,
senior magistrates, provincial magistrates and regional magistrates. The rank
of magistrates determines the criminal jurisdiction he or she can exercise.
The maximum jurisdiction of Magistrates courts is seven years imprisonment.
However the statute may confer special jurisdiction which is higher than this.
The modern legal system in Zimbabwe, Chiefs and Headmen are appointed in
terms of the Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 9:17) and their powers and
functions are laid down in this Act. The President appoints or removes a Chief
or Acting Chief from office. He also may fix from time to time a chief‟s salary,
allowances, gratuities and pension. Chiefs are traditional leaders who
exercise their powers in the Communal Land. Their main duties are to
provide traditional leadership to their communities and to promote and
uphold cultural values among members of the community under their
jurisdiction, particularly the preservation of the extended family and the
promotion of traditional family life. They also have adjudicatory functions at
local level in terms of the Customary Law and Local Courts Act (Chapter
7:05). They preside over community courts, which courts apply customary
law to resolve civil disputes.
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The Minister also appoints a person nominated by the chief as Headman for
each community to assist the chief to properly carry out his duties. Any
headman appointed by the Minister shall be installed in office by the chief of
the area concerned. A headman shall be paid such salary and allowances as
may from time to time be prescribed by the Minister.
7.2. LAW ENFORCEMENT, JUSTICE AND PUBLIC ORDER
Generally law can refer to rules and regulations which are put in place to
regulate people‟s behaviour in a particular society, organisation etc. Usually
the law protect the interest of the elite or those in power hence this will have
a bearing on its enforcement. During the colonial era, Smith government
promulgated laws which were suppressing blacks. However, in 1980 after
attaining our independence, our government inherited such laws with a few
adjustments. In 1990 according to Lancaster House agreement Britain, under
its colonial leader in Zimbabwe, Ian Smith had promised to address the land
issue through surrendering substantial hectares to the black majority. As
years unfolds beyond 1990, the land issue was cited as the main item in the
Movement for Democratic Change political party manifesto which then
triggered land invasion starting with Svosve area.
This saw the emerging of public order maintenance legislations which include
AIPPA [The Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act], LOMA [Law
and Order Maintenance Act] which were meant to thwart any trait of political
instability in the country. This was repealed with POSA [Public Order and
Maintenance Act] which was also serving the same purpose but with a few
changes. In the eyes of other political parties, they view it as injustice which
manifests in the form of a piece of law which they say was meant to
„suffocate‟ their efforts to bring regime change.
As they wrestle for the laws and the enforcement of these laws to be
indiscriminative, this prompted for another repealment which then gave birth
to MOPA [Maintenance of Public Order Act] which is currently being enforced.
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SUMMARY
This unit outlined and differentiated the difference between the pre-
colonial legal systems and the modern legal systems and how law
enforcement, justice and public order was maintained.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Discuss the Pre-colonial legal systems and modern legal systems in

Zimbabwe.
2. What do you understand by Law Enforcement, justice and public order
in Zimbabwe?
REFERENCES
Press
82
UNIT 8
GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY
CONTENT
1. Theory and practice of democracy and pre-colonial governance

systems.
2. The major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe since 1980
3. Zimbabwe‟s electoral systems, authority and the SADC elections
guidelines
OBJECTIVES
1. Examine the theory and practice of democracy and pre-colonial

governance systems.
2. Scrutinize the major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe since
1980
3. Scan through the Zimbabwe‟s electoral systems, authority and the
SADC elections guidelines
8.0. GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY
Introduction
This chapter introduces you to various contentious concepts that relate to

governance and how citizens relate to one another.
8.1. THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DEMOCRACY AND PRE-COLONIAL

GOVERNMENT SYSTEMS.
Democracy
Origin and Definitions
The word democracy is derived from Greek words „kratos‟ which means rule
or power and „demos‟ which means people. So the Greek word Demokratia
means rule by people or the people‟s rule. Its earliest meaning had a
negative connotation as it was meant to say the rule by the property less and
uneducated people. Janda and Berry (1997) say the ancient Greeks were
afraid of democracy as it meant rule by rank and file citizens so it meant rule
83
by the mob. In today‟s meaning democracy refers to a government that

rules with the permission of people.
Giddens (2001:2001) defines democracy “as a political system for the

participation of citizens in political decision-making, often by the election of
representatives to governing bodies.” Oxford Dictionary defines democracy
as “a system of government in which all the people of a country can vote to
elect their representatives.” Fraenkel and Kane (1983:5) refer to democracy
as a government in which “final authority rests with the people.” The three
definitions show that democracy has following the basic characteristics: a
political system, allows participation of citizens, citizens vote to elect
representatives and citizens have final authority.
Janda and Berry (1997) look at the broad meaning of democracy in terms of
schools of thought:
Democracy is a form of government in terms of procedures. These

procedures include holding meetings to discuss issues, voting in elections,
running for public office and how decisions are made.
Democracy in the substance of government policies, in freedom of religion

and the provision of human needs. It refers to what the government does in
relation to its relations with people.
Types of Democracy
Many varieties of democracy have been identified but there are three main
ones:
Direct democracy
This is when every citizen participates in government. It is the type of

democracy in which the people make decisions about what the government
will do. It works well in small communities like in ancient Athens where
almost everyone participated in government when they met. It is rare in the
modern world as all citizens are not able to get together in one place. But
when people participate in referendums or town or village meetings there is
an element of direct democracy.
Indirect democracy
This is when people elect other citizens among them to represent them. The
chosen representatives make decisions on behalf of people. The people do
not directly participate in government but are represented by elected
members of parliament. It is also referred to as representative democracy.
84
When people are not happy about the performance of their representatives
they may vote them out during elections.
Liberal democracy
This is similar to indirect democracy but there are many aspects that are
considered in addition to representatives. It is a form of electoral democracy
with regular elections being the core element in choosing representatives. It
is based on checks and balances through the promotion and use of a
parliamentary system, an independent judiciary, constitution and a visible
civil society. Civil society acts like a watchdog on the activities of government
by pointing out mistakes and excesses of the executive, the legislature and
the judiciary. Other characteristics of liberal democracy include property
rights, bill of rights, civil liberties, respect for political equality, the principle
of one person one vote, equal voting rights and accountability by politicians.
Giddens (2001) defines liberal democracy as a system of government based
on parliamentary institutions, coupled to the free market system in the area
of economic production.
Critics of liberal democracy
Liberal democracy appears to be popular but it has its own critics:
 Elitists believe power should be concentrated in the hands of the elitists.

An elite is a group of people in a society who are powerful and have a lot
of influence because they are rich, intelligent (etc.) (Oxford Dictionary).
The elitists are of the opinion that liberal democracy is utopia as it does
not exist.
 Marxists say liberal democracy is capitalist and bourgeois oriented. The

system is manipulated by the capitalists for their own benefit.
 Radical democrats say liberal democracy is façade democracy. People

never rule but are ruled by self-serving politicians. The general public
suffers from inertia, apathy and breakdown of community so they are not
united to actually rule.
Positives of democracy
The idea and practice of democracy is good for the following aspects:
 It protects the individual from too powerful governments who may

deprive them of their property, freedom, happiness, interests or value.
85
 It allows people to make their own laws to improve their freedom and
independence.
 It creates a sense of solidarity in a community.
 It is egalitarian in nature.
Negatives of democracy
The idea and practice of democracy appears to be impossible for the

following reasons:
 Ordinary members of society are not competent to rule. Only certain

people have the ability to rule. So there is a class that rules and a class
that is ruled.
 Democracy is an enemy of individual liberty as it is characterised by the

rule of majority so individual rights and opinions are opposed or ignored.
This is why people have said majority rule is also the rule of the tyranny
as minority rights are trampled on.
 By placing power in the hands of representatives it actually places power

in the hands of a few individuals deemed able to rule.
 Democracy may result in uncontrolled appetites of the masses (majority)

which is sometimes brutal and violent, for example what happened during
the French Revolution. This may also be referred to as totalitarian
democracy which is characterised by rallies, marches, demonstrations and
other forms of political agitation.
 The fight for democracy may lead to division in society and civil wars as
people fight for power.
 Elections, which are an important feature of democracy, may bring about

a continuous change of governments that has a negative impact on
economic and social development.
Dictatorship
Giddens (2001) defines dictatorship as a system of government that denies

or severely curtails popular participation. Fraenkel and Kane (1983) define
dictatorship as a type of government in which all the power is held by one
person or a small group of persons. It is a form of government in which the
ruler is an absolute dictator (Online dictionary (2006). A dictator is a ruler
with absolute power and authority which are not restricted by a constitution,
laws or any opposition
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Dictatorship is also referred to as absolutism, authoritarianism, Caesarism,

despotism, monocracy, one-man shogunate, Stalinism, totalitarianism or
tyranny.
How Dictators Achieve Power
Elections
Initially they come to power by use of democratic elections but once in power
they ban opposition parties or make it difficult for them to operate or exist.
Elections are banned or when they are held they are manipulated in their
favour. Such elections are not free. A lot of intimidation, coercion and
emotional zeal are used on the electorate so that most citizens go and vote
for the dictator in order to achieve very high voter turn-out as a show off to
the outside world.
Appointment
They may be appointed by ruling party congress after the death or removal
of the previous leader. Once in power they consolidate their positions by
appointing relatives and friends to key positions so that it becomes difficult to
remove them. Potential adversaries within the party are sidelined, removed
from the party or ultimately killed in unclear circumstances.
Inheritance
Dictators may pass on power to a son, brother or relative who they groom
for leadership when they are still strong. This becomes family dictatorship
akin to monarchy. They usually do this in order to protect themselves and
their property from possible revenge and trials for wrongs done during their
leadership.
Coup d’etat
Military commanders or officers seize power in a coup d‟etat from a

democratic elected leader. Once in position such a leader may suspend the
use of a constitution and ban the legislature and get all power in his hands.
After consolidation of power they then use elections to make themselves
legitimate and appease the outside world. But elections will not be free and
fair so that the results are manipulated in their favour. Most government
posts are militarized to ensure that there is less opposition.
Some Features of Dictatorships
87
Power: The leaders wield a lot of power in almost every sphere of society.
People are gradually socialized to believe that such power is necessary and
cannot be questioned. Thus there is a creation of „chiefdom‟ so that whatever
the leader says is right and unquestionable.
Intolerance: Dictators do not tolerate opposition parties so they usually

operate in a single party system or prefer very weak opposition parties who
rarely challenge them during elections and create some resemblance of an
opposition to make elections legitimate.
Use of force: Dictators do not hesitate to use force to silence those opposed
to them. The army, police and other security units are used to protect mainly
the interests of a party and not the state. In order to appease these groups
dictators give them a lot of favours at the expense of other civil servants.
Opposition leaders or individual opponents disappear.
Scapegoats: If the country has problems, be they political or economic,

dictators blame foreign countries or other organizations. They tend to see a
link between opposition leaders and foreign influence and how these are
creating all the problems in a country.
Positive aspects of dictatorship
Generally a dictatorial government is viewed with a lot of suspicion and fear

but some believe in some circumstances it may be necessary:
In a country characterised by instability a dictator may help to bring about

stability.
Enforced peace may help to bring about economic development as resources

are not wasted on elections.
It may help to bring about unity in a country as divisive elements are not
tolerated.
The negative aspects of dictatorship
 People live in fear.
 Sometimes citizens in opposition parties may be killed or they go into

exile.
 Some individuals with bright ideas are not heard as dictators may not
accept their contributions.
 Freedom is limited.
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 Citizens do not have a chance to choose their own leaders or

representatives.
 Dictators do not want to relinquish power so they go on ruling even when

they have run out of good ideas. Some decisions they make are
influenced by old age or self-serving interests.
 In most cases such governments are corrupt. For example appointments

are not based on merit but nepotism so the best brains in a country are
not chosen which has a negative effect on development. Such individuals
usually relocate to other countries.
 There are a lot of divisions in a country ruled by dictators although this

may not evident because of enforced control.
8.2. THE MAJOR ISSUES AT ALL ELECTIONS HELD IN ZIMBABWE

SINCE 1980.
An election Council chaired by British election Commissioner Sir John

Boynton was established to monitor the elections which were held in early
March 1980. The Council comprised representatives from all parties which
contested the elections and it performed a consultative role throughout the
elections. Its mandate was to investigate allegations of election fraud and
other electoral crimes and make recommendations to the Governor.
The Electoral process was observed by international observer that included

the Commonwealth Observer group which was made up of representatives of
eleven Commonwealth states shared by Ambassador Dayal of India. The
general elections were resoundingly won by ZANU P.F led by Robert Mugabe.
The general election outcome was as follows;
 ZANU P.F – 57 seats

 P.F ZAPU – 20 seats
 UANC – 2 seats
The other seats were the preserve of the white minority as per the Lancaster
House Conference agreement. The independence of Zimbabwe was declared
on 18 April 1980 and was greeted with jubilation by the black majority. The
white minority and Ian Douglas Smith in particular were left exposed and
shamed.
Cognizant of this victory, the governor Lord Soames requested Robert

Mugabe to form a substantive government to wish the ZANU P.F gladly
obliged. The process of handing over the political power from Britain to
Zimbabwe included the following steps;
89
Ian Smith and Bishop Abel Muzorewa handed back political power to Britain
through the recognition of the appointment of Lord Christopher Soames as
the governor of Rhodesia.
Britain then surrendered political power to Zimbabwe through Prince Charles

on 18 April 1980. Prince Charles terminated the monarch power which had
been ushered by the Royal Charter in 1889.
All other elections held in Zimbabwe were conducted in the same manner
most of which were contested in the courts of law as the opposition found it
prudent for the government to consider the following five (5) issues for the
elections to be free and fair.
Opening up the voters’ roll for scrutiny
In 2013, the voters‟ register, which was not released in time for inspection
and verification, became a key source of electoral disputes. In early-2016,
the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC) announced that it would introduce
a Biometric Voter Register for the 2018 elections. A clean and reliable
database would improve trust and confidence in the system. But concerns
have been raised about the process and its openness. The only way to
ensure the sanctity and cleanness of the new voters roll is for it to be open to
an independent audit.
Breaking the secrecy around the ballot papers
Ballot papers are the single most important documents in any election and,
for a process to be credible, there must be rigorous control over the number
printed. If not, extras can easily be produced and used for ballot-stuffing.
This is why The Zimbabwe Electoral Commission‟s has the sole duty of the
procurement of ballot papers in a way of building trust in every aspect of the
election. ZEC must explain its process for managing and securing ballot
papers through the entire electoral chain and allow its strategy to be
scrutinised publicly.
Showing the ZEC is independent
The ZEC‟s is an independent body appointed by the government to run all

elections in Zimbabwe. The body was originally set up as a supervisory
commission to oversee election processes. In this incarnation, it sunk to its
lowest depths in 2008 when it failed to declare results for 45 days before
claiming a run-off was needed between Mugabe and opposition leader
Morgan Tsvangirai. In 2013, ZEC was reconstituted as an independent full-
time commission. In order to prove its integrity, ZEC has gone beyond
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assurances and demonstrate its independence and transparency with its

actions.
Repealing repressive laws
During the era of the late Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe enacted and amended
laws which were meant to regulate the behaviour of the people of Zimbabwe
which will go a long way in achieving our vision and aspirations of our nation.
The Public Order and Security Act (POSA), for instance, were designed to
thwart any uprising conducts which might derail our endeavours as a nation.
The Act required organisers to notify police ahead of any public meetings,
rallies or protests. The Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act (CODE)
contains provisions that criminalise criticism of the president; publication of
false information perceived to be prejudicial to the state; and breaches of
public peace. The Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA)
has been used to curb the flow of information which might incite instability
and disturb the prevailing tranquil and peace. To its credit, the new
government under President Emmerson Mnangagwa has taken a more
lenient approach thus far which saw the emerging of MOPA [Maintenance of
Public Oder Act] repealing POSA [Public Order and Security Act].
Balanced coverage from the state media
While private and commercial media channels have a prerogative to cover

parties as they wish, the public broadcasting media belongs, and must be
accessible, to all. The Constitution proscribes editorial interference in state
media and enjoins public broadcasters to be impartial. New modes of
communication, such as social media, offer campaigners some alternative
methods for reaching voters. However, low internet penetration and
connectivity outside of cities means that public broadcasts remain the most
accessible sources of information in rural areas where most voters reside.
Audience research shows that the majority of Zimbabweans rely on radio
there by providing equal coverage.
8.3. ZIMBABWE’S ELECTORAL SYSTEMS, AUTHLORITY AND THE

SADC ELECTION GUIDLINES
Zimbabwe‟s electoral system evolved since independence. It begins by

outlining its origin in the Lancaster House compromise constitution, and the
subsequent changes it underwent. This was followed by an evaluation of the
key institutions involved in the administration of the elections.
The Electoral System at Independence
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The main features of the electoral system at independence were spelt out in
the Lancaster House Constitution, which was negotiated between the British
colonial power, the nationalist/liberation movement and parties to „internal
settlement‟ set up in 1979. It was of necessity a compromise agreement
which was as much intended to end a protracted civil war as to pave the way
to an internationally recognized independence. Until 1979 the black majority
had been denied the right to participate fully as voters in the electoral
system. The concept of „one person, one vote‟ was enshrined in the
Constitution, and the proportional representation system used in the 1980
election. As a compromise, the Constitution provided for 20 reserved seats
for the white minority in a 100-seat House of Assembly. In addition, the
Lancaster House Constitution provided for an upper house, the Senate, with
40 members. Fourteen of the seats were reserved for blacks elected by the
80 black members of the Assembly, 10 were reserved for whites elected by
the 20 white members of the Assembly, 10 for traditional chiefs, and the
remaining six were filled by the President. The four key institutions involved
in the Zimbabwean electoral system and process are the Delimitation
Commission, the Electoral Supervisory Commission (ESC), the Election
Directorate and the Registrar-General‟s Office.
The Zimbabwe electoral system had its own serious weaknesses. The flaws in
the election generated an international debate and outcry, leading some
countries and organizations to declare that the election was not „free and fair.
This resulted in the birth of the Zimbabwe Election Commission which is now
the sole supervisor of elections in Zimbabwe.
Electoral System in Zimbabwe
An electoral system is as a method by which votes are translated into

legislative seats. The choice of the system would, therefore, determine the
nature of representation and the format by which seats are allocated.
Zimbabwe‟s electoral system is a mixed system consisting of the Single

Member Majority system, the Single Member Plurality System popularly
known as the First-past-the-post system and the Proportional Representation
System (PR).
Single Member Majority
The Single Member Majority system is applied for the Presidential election. In
this system, the winner must obtain an absolute majority of votes the
minimum being 50% plus one vote. If a candidate fails to secure an outright
majority, a run-off election is conducted between the two candidates with the
highest number of votes.
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What does this mean?
Scenario 1
If there are only two candidates to the Presidential election then the
person who receives the greater number of votes is declared the
winner.
Scenario 2
If there are more than two candidates to the Presidential election the
person who receives more than half the number of votes cast i.e. 50%
plus one vote is declared a winner. (Note it is not enough to receive
more votes than the others, it has to be more than half the votes cast.
Further, it cannot be just 50% of the votes cast because the law talks
of “more than half” so the one vote added to the 50% is what will tilt
the scales.
Scenario 3
Where there are more than two candidates to a Presidential election

and no candidate receives the required 50% plus one vote then a run-
off election shall be held on a date fixed by the President in the
Proclamation calling for elections. (That date has currently been fixed
as of Saturday 8 September 2018.
Proportional Representation System
The Proportional Representation System is applied for 60 members of the

upper house of Parliament i.e. the Senate, 60 members of the National
Assembly all of whom must be women and for the Provincial Councils in the 8
non-metropolitan provinces. To qualify a party must have filed nomination
papers for election under the PR System. So a Party that has not filed a
party-list nomination form for election under the PR System is not eligible to
be allocated seats. To allocate seats the officer responsible must first
determine a quota.
Senate PR System
For the upper house of Parliament (the Senate) 60 senators (six from each of
the 10 provinces) are elected on the basis of party-list Proportional
Representation (PR system). The proportion of seats to be given to each
party is calculated based on the provincial returns of votes for parties fielding
candidates in the National Assembly elections. On each party-list for the
Senate, male and female candidates are listed alternatively, with every list
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headed by a female candidate (Zebra list). The remaining 20 seats of the

Senate are distributed amongst the Chiefs, persons with disabilities and the
President and Deputy President of the National Council of Chiefs.
National Assembly PR system
For the National Assembly Women‟s Quota) 60 members (six from each of
the 10 provinces) are elected on the basis of party-list proportional
representation (PR system). The proportion of seats to be given to each
party is calculated based on the provincial returns of votes for parties fielding
candidates in the National Assembly elections. The party-lists must contain
only women candidates.
Provincial Council PR System
For the Provincial Councils, 10 members from each of the 8 non-metropolitan

provinces are elected on the basis of party-list proportional representation
(PR system). The proportion of seats to be given to each party is calculated
based on the provincial returns of votes for parties fielding candidates in the
National Assembly elections. On each party-list for the Senate, male and
female candidates are listed alternatively, with every list headed by a female
candidate (Zebra list).
First-Past-The-Post System
The First - Past – the - Post, that is, Single Member Plurality System is used
for elections in the lower house of Parliament (the National Assembly) and
for local authority elections. Under this electoral system, the country is
divided into 210 electoral constituencies and 1958 wards, each of which is
represented by a candidate. The candidate with the highest number of votes
is declared the winner. The winner in each constituency is the candidate who
receives a minimum of one vote more than the other candidate(s).
SADC Guidelines for the Observation Of Elections
SADC Member States shall be guided by the following guidelines to

determine the nature and scope of election observation:
1. Constitutional and legal guarantees of freedom and rights of the citizens;
2. Conducive environment for free, fair and peaceful elections;
3. Non-discrimination in the voters' registration;
4. Existence of updated and accessible voters roll;
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5. Timeous announcement of the election date;
6. Where applicable, funding of political parties must be transparent and

based on agreed threshold in accordance with the laws of the land;
7. Polling Stations should be in neutral places;
8. Counting of the votes at polling stations;
9. Establishment of the mechanism for assisting the planning and

deployment of electoral observation missions; and
10.SADC Election Observation Missions should be deployed at least two

weeks before the voting day.
SADC Electoral Support Unit (ESU): Structure and Management
There shall be an Electoral Support Unit under the Directorate of the Organ
on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation which shall provide
administrative functions related to SEAC and electoral matters.
The Electoral Support Unit shall comprise of the following staff:
 Politics and Diplomacy Officer
 Elections and Good Governance Officer
 Research Officer
 Code of Conduct for Election Observers
The code of conduct for the elections observers of SADC are consistent with
those of the OAU/AU Declaration on the Principles Governing Democratic
Elections in Africa. In this regard, the SADC Election Observation Missions
shall adhere to the following code of conduct:
1. Must comply with all national laws and regulations;
2. Shall maintain strict impartiality in the conduct of their duties, and shall at
no time express any bias or preference in relation to national authorities,
parties and candidates in contention in the Election process. Furthermore
they will not display or wear any partisan symbols, colours or banners;
3. Shall neither accept nor attempt to procure any gifts, favours or

inducements from a candidate, their agent, the parties or any other
organization or person involved in the electoral process;
95
4. Shall immediately disclose to the relevant SADC structures any

relationship that could lead to a conflict of interest with their duties or
with the process of the observation and assessment of the elections;
5. Will base all reports and conclusions on well documented, factual, and
verifiable evidence from multiple number of credible sources as well as
their own eye witness accounts;
6. Shall seek a response from the person or organization concerned before

treating any unsubstantiated allegation as valid;
7. Shall identify in their reports the exact information and the sources of the
information they have gathered and used as a basis for their assessment
of the electoral process or environment;
8. Shall report all information gathered or witnessed by them honestly and

accurately;
9. Shall, when meeting election officials, relevant state authorities and public
officials, parties, candidates and their agents shall inform them of the
aims and objectives of the SEOM;
10.May wish to bring irregularities to the attention of the local election

officials, but they must never give instructions or countermand decisions
of the election officials;
11.Will carry any prescribed identification issued at all times, and will identify
themselves to any interested authority upon request;
12.Will undertake their duties in an unobtrusive manner, and will not

interfere with the election process, polling day procedures, or the vote
count;
13.Will refrain from making personal or premature comments or judgements

about their observations to the media or any other interested persons,
and will limit any remarks to general information about the nature of their
activity as observers;
14.Must participate in the briefings/training provided by the SEOM;
15.Must provide their reports on time to their supervisors and attend any
debriefings as required; and
16.Should work harmoniously with each other and with observers from other
organizations in their area of deployment.
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Rights and Responsibilities of SADC Election Observers
The rights and responsibilities of the SOEM are based on the SADC
experience and the AU Guidelines for Electoral Observation and Monitoring
Missions. Accordingly the following shall be the rights and responsibilities of
the SADC Elections Observers:
1. Freedom of movement within the host country;
2. Accreditation as election observers on a non-discriminatory basis:
3. Unhindered access to and communicate freely with the media;
4. Free access to all legislation and regulations governing the electoral

process and environment;
5. Free access to electoral registers or voters‟ roll;
6. Unimpeded and unrestricted access to all polling stations and counting

centres;
7. Communicate freely with all competing political parties, candidates, other

political associations and organizations, and civil society organizations;
8. Communicate freely with voters without prejudice to the electoral law

proscribing such communication in order to protect the secrecy of the
vote;
9. Communicate with and have unimpeded and unrestricted access to the

National Election Commission or appropriate electoral authority and all
other election administrators;
10.The SEOM shall be headed by an appropriate official from the Office of the
Chairperson of the Organ who shall also be the spokesperson of the
Mission;
11.Send regular reports on the electoral observation process to the

Representative of the Organ on issues that may require urgent
consideration;
12.Issue a statement on the conduct and outcome of the elections

immediately after the announcement of the result; and
13.Prepare a Final Report within 30 (thirty) days after the announcement of

the results.
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SUMMARY
This chapter has introduced concepts on democracy, dictatorship, major

issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe since 1980 and Zimbabwe and
SADC election guidelines. The basics of these topics have been
highlighted. It is important to make an effort to read further on these to
have a better understanding of what goes on in our country and the world
at large.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. What is your own definition of democracy?

2. What are the indicators of democracy in Zimbabwe?
3. Why is it difficult to achieve total democracy?
4. Are elections a good indicator of democracy?
5. What were the major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe since
1980?
6. Are the Zimbabwe electoral systems and authority are in tandem with
the SADC elections guidelines?
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Zimbabwe is a democratic state. Discuss.

2. The contract between citizens and the state is favours one side.
Evaluate this statement.
3. Analyse the view that liberty is elusive in practice.
REFERENCES
1. Fraekal, J.R., Kane, F.T., Cornbleth, C and Wolf, A. (1983) Civics:

Government and Citizenship. Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
2. Giddens, A (2001) Sociology 4th Edition, Blackwell, Cambridge.
3. Janda, K and Berry, J.B. and Goldman, J. (1997) The Challenge of
Democracy. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
4. Online dictionary Dictatorship Accessed on 19/9/2006
http://dictionary.labourlawtalk.com
5. Sharpe, G () The Methods of Nonviolent Protest and Persuasion. Accessed
on 14/9/2006
6. Freire, P (1972) The Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin Books, London
7. Mackinnon, C (1995) Pornography is Oppression http//.spectacle.org.
Accessed on 17/11/2004
98
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UNIT 9
NATIONAL IDENTITY
CONTENT
1. Analyse the Ideological Orientation

2. Describe Nationalism and Patriotism
3. Explore the National Flag, Emblems, Anthem, Shrines and Monuments.
OBJECTIVES
1. Analyse the Ideological Orientation

2. Describe Nationalism and Patriotism
3. Explore the National Flag, Emblems, Anthem, Shrines and Monuments.
9.0. NATIONAL IDENTITY
Introduction
Is it possible to identify a Zimbabwean if you meet him/her anywhere in the

world? What is unique about a Zimbabwean? What is about a Zimbabwean
that differentiates him/her from other people? Do Zimbabweans make unique
products, peculiar to them? When an attempt is made to answer these
questions we are actually looking at the identity of people. We are trying to
show what distinguishes Zimbabweans from other people. This unit is about
whether Zimbabweans have anything that identifies them from other people.
9.1. IDEOLOGICAL ORIENTATION
Ideological Orientation-is a body of ideas that reflects the beliefs and

interests of a nation, political system, etc. and underlies political action.
Ideology means an idea of life therefore ideology dictates the political

spectrum of any individual and political spectrum of a person gives direction
on what, when, where, why and how to do a thing for life.
Ideology is the secular equivalent of theology. It is that which is built upon a

set of philosophical premises, and which define in broad stroke the political
template that a politician uses to create their brand, and is the standard they
use to attract people with a similar ideology to support them. Nicholas
Fulford.
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Why is ideology important in politics?
Ideology is important in politics, because it serves as a compass that gives

direction to the person leading the society.
The importance of knowing different political ideology helps your critical

thinking skills and how things impact you. If you know and understand how
different political ideology's work, it can help you with your critical thinking
skills in elections, and understanding other peoples choices and why they
chose it. It also helps you understand your values so you can avoid
supporting something you disagree with. The notions of politics are to form a
methodology to govern. Whether representative or pure democracy, the goal
is to form institutions that can help the governed. So to achieve these goals,
we need to be practical and have the ability to compromise. This method also
assumes we can keep more than one ideal and idea in our minds at one time.
This is where ideology crosses the boundary. We should be able to maintain
a system that promotes the benefits for the greatest majority and the same
time assuring that minorities are full fledged citizens with rights.
Well, it exists as a basis to organize society within a certain socioeconomic

and political sphere/government structure. The reason many people develop
their personal ideology on political matters (perhaps relating to some group
they affiliate or want to affiliate with) is because they want to feel relevant
within whatever social circle has the most influence on them (usually without
the care, incentive, or confidence in order to make the necessary sacrifices in
the process of actually learning anything). It‟s either that, or the person is
looking for confirmation bias on the basis of their own.
It gives people a cause to rally around, people by nature are tribalistic. Why
do we have nations? Why do we classify into groups such as religions,
nations, races? We are tribalistic and want a group to belong to. Then it also
is easier to rally around and improve upon. It gives us a chance to cause
change and something to fight for. It helps us form ideas, and grow as
people, it helps us find people who think like us and helps us create an image
in our minds of the world in our image.
Neo-liberalism, monarchism, feudalism, fascism, socialism, communism, and

libertarianism are examples of political ideologies. They are built upon a set
of premises that are particular to each of them, and within each are a set of
governing principles, ideals, and things to be fought for and gains.
9.2. NATIONALISM
Definition of Nationalism
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 Spirit or aspirations common to the whole of a nation.
 Devotion and loyalty to one's own country; patriotism.
 The desire for national advancement or political independence.
 The policy or doctrine of asserting the interests of one's own nation

viewed as separate from the interests of other nations or the common
interests of all nations.
 A sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a

population and often produces a policy of national independence or
separatism loyalty or devotion to one's country; patriotism exaggerated,
passionate, or fanatical devotion to a national community.
 Nationalism can also be defined as the desire for Africans to end all forms
of foreign control and influence so as to be able to take charge of their
political, social and economic affairs.
Several factors contributed to the rise African nationalism some of which

are:-
Loss of independence to foreigners and the introduction of foreign systems of

government caused feelings of resistance among rulers and peoples of Africa.
Therefore foreign control caused feelings of nationalism.
Unfair colonial policies-colonial economic policies such as taxation, forced

labour and compulsory growing of crops caused discontent among
Zimbabweans. The suffering of Zimbabweans which was also expressed in
form of armed resistance in Zimbabwe marked the growth of nationalism.
The settlement of many European settlers in different parts of Africa caused

growth in African nationalism. Large numbers of Africans were displaced from
fertile lands. This caused destruction of African culture, poverty, hunger and
other forms of suffering. It also exposed Africans to segregation. This caused
need to fight for political freedom and self determination.
Pan African movement also influenced African nationalism. Pan African

congresses which were held in the first half of the twentieth century
emphasized the need to promote the dignity of the black people and liberate
them from racial discrimination. They emphasized the idea of Africa for
Africans. This encouraged the idea of nationalist movement.
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The formation of political parties also inspired nationalism. They sensitized

colonial people about their human rights and especially the need for political
independence.
Colonial education also contributed to the rise of African nationalism. As a

result of colonial education a group of African elite with anti-colonial
sentiments emerged. These educated Africans later became leaders of
nationalist movements. They played a decisive role in the mobilization of the
people for political independence.
9.3. PATRIOTISM
Patriotism relates to each citizen‟s ability to identify with his nation by being
able to distinguish party political issues and national issues. Sovereignty,
land and defending the nation are not party political issues but are national
issues which every real Zimbabwean must stand up in defence.
In other words, patriotism means defending the nation physically and in

armed combat when called upon to do so by authorities in power or
individually when the situation so demands like in the case of unilateral
superpower attack. Defending the nation through positive publicity. The
nation‟s greatest and most potent enemy is the one amongst us who agrees
to spread falsehoods about the nation‟s politics and economy. Other than the
dissident menace Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation apart from
countries like Botswana and Namibia. Supporting the nation through tax
payments, practice the environmentally friendly countries, for example,
littering graft, crime, corruption, greed and harmful behaviour such as
premarital sex, respect and tolerate other races, tribes and religious opinions
and beliefs and cherish unity in diversity among the various stakeholders in
spite of differences in approaches
9.4. NATIONAL SYMBOLS/IDENTITY
Every country is mindful of the importance of national identity. This is why all
countries have specifically come up with certain terms that clearly identify
them from other countries. Every country has its own flag, national anthem
and emblem.
The word national is derived from the word nation which in simple terms
means a country. Wallerstein says a nation is socio-political category linked
to the actual or potential boundaries of a state.
Identity is the characteristics, feelings or beliefs that distinguish people from

theirs (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary).
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The National Flag
The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms
they are the official and visible tokens of the state and its authority and
existence. The flag is also a product of the war of liberation. The red star
represents our socialist ideals and the Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to
our distant origins and prowess as a people and nation in antiquity among
the great civilizations of the world. The white background on which the above
two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and tranquillity within
and without. The red stripes symbolize the blood of the heroes who died
liberating the country, yellow our mineral resources green our flora and
fauna and black the indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent
upon every Zimbabwean and any foreigner on our soil to acknowledge our
statehood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered where ever and
whatever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a religious act as some
overzealous and misguided so called Christians think. Kneeling or bowing
down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why Shadrech
and his other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian
writing is standing erect an act of worship or homage. It would be only right
and fair to refuse to kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is only right and
fair for every Christian to stand erect in recognition not homage of those who
rule them.
The National Emblem
This is a sign or insignia that acts as a stamp for the nation. It is used as a
figure on letter heads for the nation.
The National Anthem
Soon after independence, Zimbabwe adopted “Ishe Komborera Africa” (God

Bless Africa” as its National anthem. This has become a rallying song for the
liberation for Africa during liberation struggles in Africa. It had originated in
South Africa. It was not unique to Zimbabwe but it was used by many African
countries in southern Africa. In the early 1990‟s Zimbabwean government
asked Zimbabweans to come up with lyrics for a new national anthem. This
was done in competition form. Professor Solomon Mutsvairo wrote the
current the current national anthem and the song was composed by Ex-police
officer Superintendent Changundega. He was inspired by the war of liberation
in coming up with the lyrics as he narrates in a few words our origins,
history, beliefs and aspirations. The national anthem is a national song
recognized and revered by the whole nation. It is sung at national occasions
for example celebrations, commemorations and at funerals. Citizens of
Zimbabwe composed it and therefore it is a pride for Zimbabwe. The national
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anthem is a celebration, a reflection, a vision, a rallying point and a pride to

the people of Zimbabwe. It celebrates the abundance and beauty of natural
endowments. It speaks of peace and tranquillity in our country. It speaks of
hope and aspirations as a nation. The anthem is sung in our three languages
(Ndebele, Shona and English). The national anthem transcends tribal,
political and regional barriers.
Zimbabwean Bird
It is an emblem structure of Great Zimbabwe bird known as „Hungwe‟. It re-

enforces the identity of the nation state as a derivative of the great
monuments based at Great Zimbabwe in Masvingo.
Monuments
National monuments are historical heritages in Zimbabwe such as the Great

Zimbabwe in Masvingo. Zimbabwe is well known for the following natural and
man-made features which are unique to the country:-
1. The Great Zimbabwe Monuments

2. Khami ruins in Matebeleland
3. The Victoria Falls
4. The Kariba Dam
5. Hwange National Park
6. Matopo Hills Gonarezhou National Park
7. The Eastern highlands and the Inyangani Mountains.
Great Zimbabwe Monuments.
Located near Masvingo town, it represents unparalleled architectural design

and construction and stands as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed
Africans of possessing no scientific psychological make-up or achievements
or capability. It was used as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great
Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties.
The Victoria Falls.
A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few
rivals if any and has water plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and
mist from which its more appropriate Tonga names is derived from Mosi a-
tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the nation‟s prime tourist resort
attraction.
The National Heroes Acre
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Zimbabwe‟s independence was not given, it was won through suffering and
supreme sacrifice by patriotic sons and daughters who waged a long and
arduous struggle against the colonial regime.
The National Heroes Acre, the revered shrine, is the pride of the people of
Zimbabwe. It is a symbol of bravery and selflessness for those whose
remains are interred at the shrine.
Towering majestically is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, which symbolises
the final resting place for tens of thousands of Zimbabweans who sacrificed
their lives for the sake of freedom and independence, but whose remains are
scattered in valleys, disused mines, caves, unknown graves and mass graves
spread across the nation and in neighbouring states.
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The liberation struggle was the epic of the revolutionary spirit that
characterises modern Zimbabweans. They are fighters, hence their own
liberators-in every sphere, political, economic and social.
Before independence, many people were detained under sub-human
conditions by the notorious Rhodesian settler regime, and some of them
spent long spells in detention without trial.
Tens of thousands of gallant fighters sacrificed their lives to free Zimbabwe.

In honour of these fallen heroes, the Government built shrines across the
country where declared heroes and heroines are interred.
All heroes‟ acres are administered by the Department of Museums and
National Monuments in the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Conferment of hero status is a great honour in recognition of these gallant

sons and daughters of Zimbabwe.
106
The heroes are classified into three categories that generally reflect the
departed hero or heroine‟s contribution to the nation. The status is
determined by the state on a case by case basis.
According to the National Heroes Act [Chapter 10:16], designation of heroes

is done by the President "where the President considers that any deceased
person who was a citizen of Zimbabwe has deserved well of his country on
account of his outstanding, distinctive and distinguished service to
Zimbabwe, he may, by notice in the Gazette, designate such a person a
national, provincial or district hero.
National hero status is the highest honour that can be conferred on an

individual and recipients are buried at the National Heroes Acre.
The other statuses are liberation war hero (formerly provincial hero) and
liberation (formerly district) hero.
The former are buried at provincial heroes‟ acres while the latter are buried
at district shrines if their families agree.
These sacred shrines were built to honour the people who contributed to the
emancipation of this country. The heroes include national leaders, freedom
fighters and dedicated supporters of the national liberation struggle who
participated in or undertook revolutionary activities that contributed directly
to the final victory and declaration of independence on 18 April 1980.
These heroes laid down their lives for Zimbabwe‟s freedom. They
subordinated their personal interests to the collective interest of Zimbabwe.
They cherished qualities such as loyalty, dedication and patriotism.
Their actions were guided by the ideals of comradeship and love. Their
support for the cause of freedom and justice was indeed unwavering. They
accepted and endured pain, suffering and brutality with fortitude even unto
death. Some of the heroes include contemporary and future sons and
daughters of Zimbabwe of the same calibre as those fallen heroes whose
dedication and commitment to Zimbabwe justify their burial at the sacred
spots.
Main Features of the National Heroes Acre
The main statue, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, and the graves are
flanked by two high walls on which are engraved and painted various scenes
of the armed struggle and these murals bear witness to the rich and diverse
culture of the country. The two mural shrines, on either side of the Tomb of
the Unknown Soldier bear a perched Zimbabwe bird. On the walls there are
murals depicting the various stages of the freedom struggle from the 1960s
107
to the end of the 1970s. The murals pictorially tell the history of Zimbabwe‟s
liberation war.
A terraced area with three rows of graves on the left of the main statue and
three rows on the right.
Seating space: the terracing of the hill on the western side of the main
monument provides seating space for about 5 000 people for funerals or
ceremonial occasions. Trees, shrubs, flowers, and couch grass have been
planted to beautify the place.
A Revolutionary Museum is to be built at the top of the western hill. A variety

of war materials will be displayed in the museum as a permanent record of
posterity.
The landscaping at Heroes Acre has been kept as natural as possible. The
burial complex is surrounded by well-preserved typical woodland although
some non-indigenous trees have been planted on both sides of the road
leading to the Acre.
The burial complex is almost completely natural landscaped with hard surface
stone work. Additional landscaping has only been required in small areas. A
lawn has been grown adjacent to the steps but natural rock has been
exposed in the remainder of the area with patches of lawn between the
rocks. The subtle, low key arrangement emphasises the strength and
performance of the sculpture and monuments. These features have a
purpose and significance.
The Eternal Flame signifies that Zimbabwe shall live forever; the souls of its
fallen heroes are alive. The Eternal Flame also indicates that man‟s desire for
freedom has always existed since the beginning of time and will always exist.
The collective desire is infinite.
Because of its indefinite nature, it defeated the forces of colonialism in
Zimbabwe and it will defeat external forces of destabilisation and internal
forces of reaction.
After achieving independence, the Zimbabwean masses are becoming

enlightened by the torch of knowledge as they are rehabilitated and
integrated fully within their community, taking part in the activities.
The Eternal Flame points the way forward and beckons the people to work
hard for the higher cause of nation building.
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier represents the many freedom fighters and
freedom loving people who died during the armed struggle.
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It preserves the memory and qualities of these soldiers and people and acts
as an inspiration to the youth so that they can emulate the strength and
courage of these heroes.
The statue of the three freedom fighters is majestic and they seem to
breathe. They possess some kind of dynamism and vitality. Energetic,
confident and assured, they blend naturally with their surrounding showing
that they are at home.
The heroes‟ status is bestowed upon the person posthumously. It is however

conferred on the death of the individual hero. In Zimbabwe there is a
stratified classifying of hero status that is National, Provincial or District hero.
The decision to accord one with hero status is arrived at by the Provincial
command, which recommends to the Politburo then makes final decision.
National heroes are buried at the National heroes‟ acre and families of such
heroes Provincial and District heroes are entitled to some assistance and
benefits from the state. Provincial and District heroes are buried at respective
burial sites.
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SUMMARY
This chapter have introduced the national identity and showed how
culture is the basis for national identity. Difficulties and challenges
towards national identity have also been highlighted. Unique features of
Zimbabwe‟s identities have also been shown.
ACTIVITY
1. What do you understand by Ideological Orientation and why is it

important?
2. What are the factors that contributed to Nationalism and Patriotism
and give examples?
3. Explain the meanings of the following:-
a. The National Flag
b. Emblems
c. Anthem
d. Shrine
e. Monuments.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Do Zimbabweans have a national identity?

2. Discuss difficulties of maintaining an identity in a country which was a
former colony like Zimbabwe.
3. In order to enhance national identity Zimbabweans should use local
languages in schools. Discuss.
4. Evaluate the behaviour of hunhu in modern Zimbabwe.
5. Zimbabweans suffer from lack of identity. Discuss.
6. Define and give examples of the following: taboos, norms and values.
7. Assess the factors that affect national identity.
REFERENCES
1. Robertson, I. (1987) Sociology 3rd edition, Worth Publishers, London.

2. Giddens, A. (2001) Sociology. Polity Press, Cambridge.
3. Macionis J.J., and Plummer, K.(2002) Sociology, A Global Introduction
2nd edition. Pearson Education Limited, London.
4. Makuvaza, N. (1996) Educatedness in the African Context: The Case for
Education for Hunhuism/Ubuntuism in Zimbabwe in The Zimbabwe
Bulletin of Teacher Education. Vol.4 No. 3
5. Samkange, S. and Samkange , J.M. (1980) Hunhuism and Ubuntuism: A
Zimbabwean Indegenous Political Philosophy. Harare, Graham Publishing.
110
6. Nziramasanga, C.T. (1999) Zimbabwe Report of the Presidential

Commission into Education and Training. Harare, Government Printers.
111
UNIT 10
LOCAL LANGUAGES
CONTENT
1. Local languages
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit students should be able to:-
1. Know the local languages used in the country
10.0. LOCAL LANGUAGES
According to Section 6 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe (Amendment number

20) stipulates that Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya,
Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, Sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana,
Venda and Xhosa are the officially recognized languages of Zimbabwe.
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. Name the local languages used in Zimbabwe?

2. What should be done to promote our own local languages?
REFERENCES
The Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (Number 20) ACT 2013
112

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DIPLOMA IN POLICE STUDIES

NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

7.1. PRE-COLONIAL LEGAL SYSTEMS AND MODERN LEGAL SYSTEMS IN ZIMBABWE

By the end of the Unit students should be able to:

a. Identify and draw lessons from the Pre-colonial societies

1.0. PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE

1.1. PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES

Socio-Economic and Political Structures

1.2. THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

Great Zimbabwe was one of the earliest states to emerge as a result of

In addition to architecture, Great Zimbabwe‟s most famous works of art are

Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese

Social and Political Organization

Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through

Purpose of the stone structure

Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State

 The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.

1.3. THE MUTAPA STATE

a. The people at Great Zimbabwe were experiencing an acute shortage of

b. The area around Masvingo was experiencing a general decline of

e. Succession disputes after the death of Mutota‟s father, Chibatamatosi,

Successes of the state

The state developed an economic system whose backbone was agriculture.

The state resisted religious influence of foreigners such as Christianity and

Challenges of the state

The state occasionally experienced serious droughts which weakened the

The Mutapa Language, Eschatology and Customs

The Mutapa Economy

The Mutapa Political Structures

The Portuguese Factor in the Mutapa State.

When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo

In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or

The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State

1.4. THE ROZVI STATE

Successes of the Rozvi State

a. It developed a military state that was able to defeat and incorporate

d. Tribute payment was used as a sign of loyalty and showing allegiance.

Economy of the state also included crop cultivation, mining, hunting,

Challenges of the Rozvi State

Decline and Collapse of the Rozvi State

1.5. THE NDEBELE STATE

The attacks forced Mzilikazi to move northwards. Uncertain of what lay

The Ndebele Economy

Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases

Hunting and Gathering

The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited

Ndebele- Shona Relations

The Myths and Realities

The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy

Composition of the Ndebele State

The pre-colonial states of Zimbabwe were described with emphasis on

a. Name the early States of Zimbabwe?

a. Outline factors which led to the demise of the Great Zimbabwe.

a. Early Christian missionary, their scientific and philanthropic expeditions

By the end of this unit students should be able to:-

a. Identify Early Christian missionary, their scientific and philanthropic

2.0. COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE

It is also important to highlight the lifestyles of Zimbabweans in the pre-