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Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
www.elsevier.com/journals/journal-of-magnesium-and-alloys/2213-9567

Review
Enhancing plastic deformability of Mg and its alloys—A review of
traditional and nascent developments
Kenneth Kanayo Alaneme a,b,*, Eloho Anita Okotete a
a
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
b
African Materials Science Engineering Network, AMSEN (A Carnegie-IAS RISE Network), Akure, Nigeria
Received 24 May 2017; revised 28 October 2017; accepted 3 November 2017
Available online 6 December 2017

Abstract
Mg and its alloys have continued to attract interest for several structural and super-sensitive applications because of their light weight and good
combination of engineering properties. However for some of these applications, high plastic deformability is required to achieve desired
component shapes and configurations; unfortunately, Mg and its alloys have low formability. Scientifically, the plastic behaviour of Mg and its
alloys ranks among the most complex and difficult to reconcile in metallic material systems. But basically, the HCP crystal structure coupled with
low stacking fault energies (SFE) are largely linked to the poor ductility exhibited by Mg alloys. These innate material characteristics have
regrettably limited wide spread applicability of Mg and its alloys. Several research efforts aimed at exploring processing strategies to make these
alloys more amenable for high formability – mediated engineering use have been reported and still ongoing. This paper reviews the structural
metallurgy of Mg alloys and its influence on mechanical behaviour, specifically, plasticity characteristics. It also concisely presents various
processing routes (Alloying, Traditional Forming and Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD)) which have been explored to enhance plastic
deformability in Mg and its alloys. Grain refinement and homogenising of phases, reducing CRSS between slip modes, twinning suppression to
activate non-basal slip, and weakening and randomisation of the basal texture were observed as the formability enhancing strategies explored in
the reviewed processes. While identifying the limitations of these strategies, further areas to be explored for enhancing plasticity of Mg alloys are
highlighted.
© 2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Chongqing University.
This is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Keywords: Mg alloys; HCP crystal structure; Basal texture; Severe plastic deformation; Formability

1. Introduction capability and good weldability [5,6]. They also possess high
damping capacity, high dimensional stability, easy recyclability
Among the non-ferrous metals family, aluminium, magne-
and good biocompatibility [6–8]. These have made Mg alloys
sium and titanium have been explored for a wide range of
reliable in the design of electronic consumer products (com-
technological applications. They are the most considered alter-
puter, digital camera barrels and mobile phones), conventional
natives to steel in several structural, semi-structural and indus-
construction materials and in the transport sector (light rail,
trial applications and on account of their special properties are
automobile parts and aircraft components) [9–12].
used for some super-sensitive applications [1].
The applicability of Mg alloys would have been more far-
Magnesium and its alloys are the lightest structural metals
reaching if they have good plastic deformability. This is an
within this group (Al, Mg and Ti) and in the entire processable
embittering limitation considering the diverse property base of
metallic materials family. They possess a rare combination of
Mg alloys. The HCP crystal structure of Mg and its alloys,
engineering properties complementing their high specific
poses a high resistance to plastic deformation, making it diffi-
strength and stiffness [2–4]. Some of these properties are good
cult to form Mg alloys to desirable shapes. Several attempts
castability, good machinability, good electromagnetic shielding
have been made to improve on the formability and mechanical
properties of Mg alloys to make them more amenable for engi-
* Corresponding author. Department of Metallurgical and Materials
neering use [11,13–15]. Conventional processing methods like
Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. rolling, forging, extrusion and alloying have been explored to
E-mail address: kalanemek@yahoo.co.uk. (K.K. Alaneme). enhance the formability of Mg and its alloys, and lately the use
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2017.11.001
2213-9567/© 2017 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Chongqing University.
This is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
of severe plastic deformation (SPD). The methods rely on
in-depth understanding of the structural metallurgy of Mg
alloys and its influence on mechanical behaviour. Several
reviews on Mg alloy systems have been reported in literature
covering in parts potentials and the benefits of these alloys for
use in structural applications [16–18]. The types of Mg alloys
(cast and wrought alloys) and their utilisation and limitations in
the design of automobile body parts have also been reviewed
[5,19]. Recent reviews are centred on formability improvement
of wrought Mg alloys via processing routes like alloying, pre-
twinning and severe plastic deformation processes [20–25].
However concise reviews with a comprehensive scope covering
the structural metallurgy of Mg and its alloys, the influence of
structure on plastic deformation characteristics, processing
strategies for enhancing formability and their limitations, and
future areas for consideration to address these limitations, are
still sparsely available. This review targets the provision of a
comprehensive read for those interested in Mg and its alloys
with emphasis on past and present approaches which have been
adopted to develop Mg alloys with improved formability.
2. Structural metallurgy of Mg alloys
2.1. Introduction
Mg alloys are classified based on their processing route
(history) into cast Mg alloys and wrought Mg alloys for the
purpose of engineering study and research. Cast Mg alloys
produced via die casting and other casting methods have been
in use for commercial and industrial applications over the last
few decades [26,27]. Despite the success recorded by die cast
Mg alloy products, their use is limited to areas where moderate
mechanical properties and thermal stability are specified as
service requirement [19]. On the other hand, wrought Mg alloys
have superior mechanical properties when compared to cast Mg
alloys, which is attributed to uniform composition and pro-
nounced grain refinement devoid of pores [5,12,28,29]. The
superior properties of wrought Mg alloys have made them
usable as window frames and seat frames [30]. However, the
application of wrought Mg alloys is restricted by the poor
ductility and formability which results from its HCP crystal
structure and low stacking fault energy [27,31–33].
2.2. Structural characteristics of Mg
Mg and its alloys possess HCP crystal structure and are
characterised by low symmetry which is associated with all
HCP structure metals. These alloys have lattice parameters
a = 3.18 Å and c = 5.19 Å, giving them a c/a ratio of 1.62354
(at 25 °C) which is slightly less than 1.633 ideal c/a ratio for
HCP structures [34,35]. This near ideal c/a ratio results in larger
primitive cell volume compared to other HCP metals, and this
leads to low stacking fault energy (SFE) levels in Mg alloys
[34]. Stacking faults are crystalline imperfections which are a
result of introduction or removal of atomic layers from a
sequence of atomic arrangement within a crystal structure and
the energy per unit area of the faults is known as stacking fault
energy (SFE) [36]. SFE is a useful parameter to quantify defor-
mation mechanisms in a metal, as activation energies for
461
deformation processes are controlled by SFE levels in the
metal. The SFE varies from atomic plane to atomic plane in
metals and depends on factors like dislocation configuration,
presence of local defects, and grain size [36]. High SFE
decreases the activation energies for dislocation movement
thereby favouring slip, while lower SFE increases the activation
energies for slip but favours twinning deformation [34,36].
Therefore, the low SFE of Mg alloys and other HCP metals is a
contributing factor to the limited ductility of these metals.
Additionally, an HCP structure has about six independent
slip systems but only two of the slip systems are favourably
oriented for slip movement [37]. The six slip systems are: a
{0001} <11–20>, a {10–01} <11–20>, a {10–11} <11–20>,
c + a {11–22} <11–23>, c {10–10} <0001> and c {11–
20} <0001>. The limited number of favourably oriented crys-
tallographic planes and directions for slip movement is
attributed to the low symmetry of the HCP lattice which makes
strain accommodation difficult in this crystal structure
[34,37,38]. Summarily, it is also important to note that defor-
mation mechanisms in HCP metals are dependent on c/a ratio,
available deformation modes, critical resolved shear stress
(CRSS) of slip and twinning, and the imposed deformation
relative to crystallographic texture [39].
3. Plastic behaviour of Mg alloys
Plastic deformability can be simply considered as a measure
of the capacity of a material to sustain plastic strains from load
or stress application without cracking. There are two plastic
deformation mechanisms in Mg alloys as with all HCP metals
– slip and twinning, which are both reported to be inherently
anisotropic [40].
3.1. Slip in Mg alloys
Dislocation glide in Mg alloys occurs when the critical
resolved shear stress (CRSS) in a specific slip system causes a
gradual re-orientation of atomic planes [37,41]. There are three
common slip modes in Mg alloy systems, they are basal <a> ,
prismatic <a> and pyramidal <c + a> ; and each of these modes
has different CRSS for slip movement [40,42]. Deformation of
Mg alloys primarily occurs by basal <a> slip in the most
densely packed basal plane (0001) and in the <11–20> direction
which has two independent slip systems. This is because of the
low CRSS (1/100 of non-basal slip at room temperature)
required to activate slip movement in the basal plane
[28,35,43]. Beyond slip in the basal plane, <a> dislocation
movement also occurs in the prismatic plane at CRSS values
lower than CRSS for pyramidal slip. However, the prismatic
plane has just two independent slip systems which are not
enough for slip movement. On the other hand, slip in the pyra-
midal plane takes place by the movement of both <a> and
<c + a> type dislocation, and this slip mode have enough inde-
pendent slip systems to accommodate plastic strains within a
material. These two non-basal slip modes in Mg alloy systems
(prismatic and pyramidal slip modes) can only be easily acti-
vated (cross-slip) at elevated temperatures and high CRSS
values [22,26,44]. The distinctions in CRSS values required to
462 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
activate slip in the different slip modes partly result in anisot-
ropy in Mg alloys, because the orientations of crystals vary in a
material. This leads to simultaneous activation of different slip
modes within a single material resulting in directionality of
properties [40]. Nevertheless, plastic anisotropy in Mg alloys is
primarily linked to the low symmetry of the crystal structure
which limits formability.
3.2. Twinning in Mg alloys
Twinning in Mg alloys occurs at or below room temperature
by uniform distribution of shear stress along the crystallo-
graphic c-axis leading to rearrangement of atomic planes within
a parent grain [37,45,46]. Extension twins are the primary twins
formed in Mg alloys; they accommodate tensile strain along the
c-axis, and occur on the {10–12} plane and <10–11> direction
[40,42,43]. Contraction twins also occur in Mg alloys. They
accommodate compression strains along the same axis, are
formed at higher CRSS levels than extension twins, and occur
in {10–11} plane and <10–102> direction [22,27,43]. Hence,
twinning tends to make up for lack of deformation in the c-axis
when slip occurs along the <a> direction. The type of twins
formed depends on the loading direction and both type of twins
(extension and contraction) cannot be formed simultaneously in
the alloys leading to mechanical (tension-compression) asym-
metry during twinning in Mg alloys. A major unfavourable
effect of twinning deformation in Mg alloys is that twin bound-
aries act as barrier to slip movement in the grain structure and
limit ductility of the alloys [47]. Twinning has also been
reported to cause rotation of basal poles towards loading direc-
tion resulting in rapid hardening and nonlinear mechanical
response in the material [48]. Fig. 1 is a schematic representa-
tion of the various slip systems and twin systems in Mg alloys.
3.3. Room temperature deformation of Mg alloys
Deformation of Mg alloys at room temperature begins with
slip movement in the basal slip plane but this slip mode has
only two independent slip systems and cannot accommodate
Fig. 1. A schematic representation of the active slip systems (a) and twins systems (b) in a Mg alloy (after Cheng and Ghosh [142], with permission from Elsevier).
homogeneous deformation [49]. This is because it does not
meet the Von Mises and Taylor criterion of five independent slip
systems for free movement of dislocations between grains in a
material [34,44,50]. Thus as deformation proceeds, twinning
sets in at slightly higher CRSS values and accompanies slip in
the deformation process [22,34,42]. Mechanical twins aid room
temperature deformation of Mg alloys by inducing grain rota-
tion and subsequent activation of slip modes. They also result in
grain refinement due to twin lamellae subdividing grains [20].
Despite the combined action of slip and twinning during
deformation in Mg alloys, there is limited room temperature
plasticity in this alloy systems attributed to insufficient number
of independent slip systems and anisotropy associated with
twinning and deformation processes [34,51]. In addition, strong
crystallographic basal texture introduced in the basal planes
which aligns parallel to processing (extrusion, forging and
rolling) planes also hinders formability of Mg alloys
[27,51,52]. This is because these strong textures do not easily
accommodate strain along the thickness direction (direction
normal to the rolling plane) thereby restricting shear strain
during subsequent room temperature deformation processes
[51,53].
Proposed strategies to improve the plastic deformability and
isotropy of Mg alloys involve reducing the CRSS between
deformation modes and suppressing twinning to trigger non-
basal slip by reducing the c/a ratio through alloying [22,40,54].
Grain size reduction and texture modification via weakening
and randomisation (rotation of grains from basal orientation to
non-basal orientation) also helps to improve formability
[22,40,52].
4. Enhancing formability of Mg alloys
The preceding sections x-rayed the features characteristic of
the HCP structure of Mg and its alloys and its contribution to
the limited formability inherent in these metallic systems. The
approaches explored in improving the formability of Mg and its
alloys, target any or combination of grain refinement, texture
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
modification, reduction in c/a ratio and activation of non-basal
slip [51]. Some of the processes currently under use to improve
Mg formability are alloying, severe plastic deformation and
some novel shear deformation methods.
4.1. Alloying
This is the basic process explored to improve formability of
Mg alloys. Several studies have shown that addition of alloying
elements either in micro- or macro-quantities can increase the
plasticity of Mg alloys by reducing the CRSS differences
between slip modes and affecting twinning response (type of
twins formed) within grains during deformation. The addition
of RE elements have particularly been reported to modify the
texture of Mg alloys by promoting non-basal slip during defor-
mation, retarding dynamic recovery and recrystallisation pro-
cesses and promoting the growth of non-basal oriented grains
[55].
Mg alloys are categorised based on their alloying constitu-
ents into various series and the major series are AZ (aluminium
zinc), AM (aluminium manganese), AE (aluminium rare-earth
elements), EZ (rare-earth element zinc), ZK (zinc zirconium)
and WE (zirconium rare-earth element) [5,19]. The percentage
composition of the alloying elements in Mg alloy series is
denoted by two numbers representing the composition for each
element present in the alloy in the order they appear. For
example AZ31 represents 3% Al and 1% Zn in the alloy and any
element with composition less than 1% is denoted with 0 [56].
4.1.1. AZ alloy series
AZ series is a series of Mg alloys containing Al and Zn with
Al having higher concentration; examples of alloys in this series
are AZ31, AZ61, AZ80 and AZ91 [19,56]. The AZ series of Mg
alloys is most utilised for cast and wrought applications because
of its good castability and good mechanical properties [57]. Al
concentrations in AZ series promote the formation of
β-Mg17Al12 phase and the amount of this phase present in the
alloys affects the deformation texture. High Al concentrations
favour the formation of the Mg17Al12 intermediate phase and
this weakens the basal texture by resisting the movement of
twin boundaries and hindering formability. Hence AZ alloys
with high Al concentrations are most preferred for engineering
applications [54,57].The formability of these alloys have shown
sensitivity to the presence of micro-alloying constituents espe-
cially additions of rare-earth elements (RE) [55,58,59]. Laser
et al. [59] reported that micro-alloying additions of Ca and Ce
in AZ31 alloys result in slight improvement in formability.
Grain refinement was observed to increase with increase in
concentration of the micro-alloys resulting also in improved
strength and fibre textures which indicates the presence of
non-basal slip (Slip in non-basal planes). Mackenzie and
Pekguleryuz [60] reported improvement in rollability, increased
activation of non-basal slip planes and texture changes when
AZ31 alloys were modified with Li alloying additions. Pan et al.
[10] however, observed grain coarsening and formation of Y
containing blocky compounds in Y-modified extruded AZ31
alloys. This occurrence was more prominent in alloys having
463
high concentrations of Y (>1.48%) and resulted in decreased
formability of the alloys. This was in contrast to results
observed when low concentrations (<1%) of Y and Sb were
added to AZ91 [61]. Jiang et al. [29] reported improvement of
mechanical properties (ultimate tensile strength, yield strength
and elongation) of AZ80 Mg alloys with the addition of Sn. The
alloys with low concentrations of Sn (<2%) had the best com-
bination of properties after thermal treatment. The presence of
Zn in AZ Mg alloys is reported to affect the extrudability of this
alloy series. This is because the Mg-Al-Zn phase formed in the
ternary alloy has low eutectic temperature which affects pro-
cessing temperature of the alloy [62]. Fig. 2a and 2b are micro-
structural representations of the influence of Ca, Ce and MM on
the longitudinal and cross-section of AZ31 extruded rods at
initial temperature of 300 °C. It can be observed from the
micrographs that compositions I and II show elongated grains
in the longitudinal direction while III and IV have a more
homogeneous distribution along the same direction. It is also
obseverved that existing intermetallic phases in all the compo-
sitions modified with alloying elements (Ca and RE) broke up
resulting in particles aligned in the extrusion direction.
4.1.2. AM alloy series
AM alloys such as AM30, AM40, AM50, and AM60 are Mg
based alloys containing Al and Mn with higher concentrations
of Al [9,63]. These alloys generally have superior extrudability
to AZ alloys due to the absence of Zn-containing eutectic
ternary phases and possess superior mechanical properties to
AZ alloys of the same Al concentrations (example AZ31 com-
pared with AM30) [62]. The mechanical properties of these Mg
alloys (AZ31 and AM30) are greatly affected by extrusion
temperatures and extrusion speeds. Low extrusion speeds are
reported to promote greater dynamic recrystallisation which
results in finer grain structures and better properties [62].
Huang et al. [63,64] also reported higher stretch formability
potential in AM60 alloys compared to AZ61 alloys because of
the weaker basal textures and basal pole splitting in AM60. The
texture modification in this alloy occurred after annealing and
was attributed to the formation of new static recrystallised
grains at pre-existing grain boundaries and the presence of
deformation twins. The effect of Al concentrations on the
texture and sheet formability of various AM alloys (AM30,
AM40, AM50, AM60, AM70 and AM80) was studied by
Huang et al. [64]. It was observed that the AM alloys with high
Al concentrations (6% and above) had enhanced strength while
the alloys with lower concentrations of Al (<6%) had better
formability and weaker basal textures. Wang et al. [9] reported
that mechanical properties of AM50 alloys improve with the
addition of Y and Ce both at room and elevated temperatures.
The improvement was attributed to the Al11Ce3 and Al2Y pre-
cipitates formed when Ce and Y are added to the alloy. These
precipitates are reported to promote grain refinement of the
structure by retarding grain growth. It is worth noting that the
influence of RE and non-RE elements on the room temperature
formability of AM alloys has been sparsely investigated unlike
in AZ Mg alloys despite the potentials of AM alloys in wrought
and cast applications.
464 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475

Fig. 2. (a) Micrograph showing microstructure of the longitudinal and cross-sections of extruded AZ31 rods with Ce and MM additions at 300 °C (after Laser et al.
[59], with permission from Elsevier). (b) Micrograph showing microstructure of the longitudinal and cross-sections of extruded AZ31 rods with Ca, Ce and MM
additions at 300 °C (after Laser et al. [59], with permission from Elsevier).

4.1.3. Mg-Li alloy series
Mg-Li is a relatively new Mg based alloy which is formed by
adding small concentrations of Li to pure Mg metal. From the
Mg-Li phase diagram, two phases are present in Mg-Li alloy, an
α HCP structured phase at lower concentrations (5% and less)
of Li and a β BCC phase at higher concentrations of Li (>11%)
[65]. The α phase which is an Mg-rich phase is reported to have
moderate strength and poor formability, while the β phase
which is an Li-rich phase, possesses better ductility but with
lower strength [66,67]. These two phases coexists at Li concen-
trations between 5 and 11 percent, resulting in a material with
moderate strength and excellent ductility [65,68]. At higher Li
concentration (12% and above), the β phase presents results in
a material with very good formability attributed to the relative
larger number of active slip system in the BCC structured
phase. This is because Li additions reduce both a and c spacing,
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
and promote slip activities in the prismatic and pyramidal
planes at temperatures below 200 °C by reducing the critical
resolved shear stress for non-basal slip [69].
Mg-Li alloy with high Li concentrations (≥11%) are also
known as ultralight alloys having densities between 1.35 and
1.45 g/cm3, which are approximately 25% reduction in density
compared to other Mg alloy series [70]. Consequently, there has
been increased interest in its utilisation for light weight engi-
neering applications ahead of other Mg alloys. Despite their
potential for light weight applications, Mg-Li alloys are limited
by their relatively low strength, unstable mechanical properties
and oxidation-resistance [71]. Ternary alloy additions to Mg-Li
alloys such as Zn, Al, Cd, RE, Ca, Nd and Ag, have been
reported to result in the formation of coherent metastable pre-
cipitates which improves the mechanical and chemical proper-
ties of Mg-Li alloys [70,71]. Most of these elements have been
added to low Li concentration Mg-Li alloys with predominantly
α phases. Drozd et al. [72] studied the deformation behaviour
of LA43 (Li-4%, A-3%) and LA45 (Li-4%, A-5%) Mg-Li
alloys. It was observed that Li additions caused decrease of the
c lattice parameter, resulting in easier non-basal slip activities
which helped reduce the flow stress necessary for deformation.
Wang et al. [73] established that multidirectional rolling
process results in grain refinement and significant improvement
and stability of mechanical properties in Mg-Li-Y alloy. The
study also indicated that alloying Mg-Li with Y promotes
dynamic recrystallisation which weakens the basal texture and
reduces anisotropy in the alloy. Zou et al. [74] investigated
texture evolution in dual phase Mg-Li alloys – alloys with low
concentration of Li where the α and β phases coexist. The study
revealed that thermo-mechanical treatment can improve the
strength and ductility of dual phase Mg-Li alloys. This was
attributed to basal and non-basal activities in the HCP Mg-rich
α phase during hot deformation, and the contribution of the
fibre texture in the β phase.
4.1.4. Other Mg alloy series
Extensive studies have also been carried out on the influence
of RE and non-RE elements (Ca, Li, Al, Mn and Zn) on other
known Mg alloy series (ZK, AE and WE) and these investiga-
tions have been extended to newly developed Mg based binary
and ternary alloys.
Asgari et al. [75] reported that increasing Y concentration in
AE44 alloy increases the tensile strength and ductility of the
alloys. Higher Y concentration also decreases twinning activity
and increases dislocation density in the alloys. This is attributed
to the increase in the volume fraction of the Al2Y second phase
in the alloy which was speculated to have decreased nucleation
and activation of twinning systems, resulting in higher activa-
tion of slip deformation modes.
The effect of Er additions on Mg-1.5Zn-0.6Zr alloy was
studied by Zhang et al. [31]. The results reported that Er addi-
tions led to grain refinement and formation of stable Mg-Zn-Er
intermetallics instead of divorced Mg-Zn binary eutectics.
Er was also observed to effectively suppress grain growth
during high temperature (420 °C) extrusion; and the stable
intermetallics led to improvement in mechanical properties.
465
The mechanical properties of Mg-1.5Zn-0.6Zr alloys were also
sensitive to Er additions and the elongation increased with
increasing in concentration of Er in the alloys. Yu et al. [76]
reported grain refinement, phase change and weakening of
basal texture in Mg-5.5Zn-0.6Zr modified with minor Gd addi-
tions (<1%). Gd additions also reduced the SFE of the matrix
and promoted dynamic recrystallisation during high strain rate
rolling. Higher concentrations (0.8%) of Gd gave an optimal
balance of strength and ductility in Mg-5.5Zn-0.6Zr alloys.
The success of RE elements as alloying additions to Mg
alloys has led to development of Mg alloys based on the com-
bination of several RE elements known as misch-metal (MM)
[77,78]. Lim et al. [79] reported that the addition of Sn to
Mg-MM alloys increased the ductility of the Mg-MM alloys
attributed to the modification of the secondary solidification
phase morphology to small rod-shaped phase in the Mg-rich
Mg-MM-Sn alloys. Lim et al. [3] also studied the effect of Al
and Zn as alloying elements in Mg-MM-Sn with a view to
improve the mechanical properties of the alloys. The addition of
Al and Zn resulted in solid-solution softening on the non-basal
plane and random distribution of (0002) poles which led to
larger strain to fracture and better formability.
Suh et al. [80] reported improved mechanical properties
(ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and total elongation) in
Mg-Zn-Mn alloy with Ca additions. The Mg-3.92Zn-0.44Mn-
0.32Ca (ZMX400) also had a significantly weakened basal
texture compared to the unmodified alloys attributed to both
dynamic and static recrystallisation which occurred during
rolling.
5. Traditional forming processes
Traditional forming processes such as rolling, forging and
extrusion are reported to result in strong crystallographic basal
texture in wrought Mg alloys which impedes shear strain in the
available slip systems and also induces anisotropy which limits
room temperature formability [52,81]. This has encouraged
processing at high temperatures to enhance the mechanical
properties of Mg and its alloys [82,83]. Chen et al. [84] reported
inferior formability from tensile and forming limit test of AZ31
sheet at room temperature, however the formability of the sheet
dramatically improved when stamped at elevated temperatures.
Chino and Mabuchi [53] also reported enhanced stretch form-
ability of AZ31B sheets rolled at elevated temperature. The
improvement of formability was due to the weaker basal texture
intensity. The weaker basal intensity maybe attributed to sup-
pression of tension twinning and activation of non-basal slip, or
variation of dynamic recrystallisation modes at higher tempera-
tures. Chino et al. [85] also suggested that reduction of strain
and plastic anisotropies related to texture intensity and texture
distribution are dominant factors for excellent stretch formabil-
ity at room temperature. Also, the ductility of Mg alloys at
elevated temperatures is dependent on possessing fine grain
sizes which result in higher stretch formability.
Chino et al. [86] studied the effect of cross-roll rolling on
press formability and mechanical properties of AZ31 Mg
alloys. In cross-roll rolling, the roll axis is tilted from its normal
axis against transverse direction (TD) in the rolling direction
466 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
(RD). This paves way for the easy application of a thrust force
(in the axial direction of the roll) on a roll sheet. Intense shear
deformation can also be easily induced in the normal direction
(ND) of the roll sheet [86,87]. This rolling method leads to
improvement in press formability at elevated temperatures
compared to normal-roll rolled AZ31 alloys. The improvement
in formability is a result of reduction in directional dependence
of thickness-direction strain and normalising of width-direction
strain by tensile-direction strain. Also, the (0002) plane texture
of the cross-roll rolled AZ31 alloys showed lower texture inten-
sity and narrow spread of basal planes in the rolling direction.
Subsequently, Chino et al. [87] reported that the superposition
of cross-roll rolling and rolling route alternation in AZ31 Mg
alloys may further enhance the formability of Mg alloys. The
cross-roll rolled AZ31Mg alloy sheets were processed with two
different rolling routes (unidirectional rolling and reverse
rolling). It was observed that the AZ31 alloys processed via
reverse cross-roll rolling had enhanced stretch formability com-
pared to unidirectional cross-roll rolled sheets [87]. This is
mainly attributed to higher frequency of high angle boundary
and low texture intensity in the reversed cross-roll rolled Mg
alloys.
6. Nascent processing routes adopted for Mg alloys
The success of traditional forming processes reviewed in the
previous section was limited to improvement of formability of
Mg alloys at elevated temperatures. The limitation of these
forming processes justified the need to explore other processing
techniques (shear rolling and intense deformation methods) to
improve stretch formability in Mg alloys. These processing
techniques are techniques from which significant success have
been recorded in improvement of mechanical properties and
stretch formability of other engineering alloys at both room and
elevated temperature processing conditions.
6.1. Severe plastic deformation processing methods
Thermo-mechanical processing can produce significant
grain refinement in metallic materials and severe plastic
Fig. 3. Schematic (a) and pictorial (b) representation of ECAP process (after Khani et al. [105], with permission from Elsevier).
deformation (SPD) processes have recorded some of the most
significant results. SPD is a forming process which introduces
large plastic strains in a material resulting in rearrangement of
dislocations (a distorted structure) and non-equilibrium grain
boundaries state which bring about substantial grain reduction
to submicron and even nanoscale levels [88–90]. The ultrafine
grain structure produced from SPD processing method is
mostly associated with improvement in mechanical properties
which is attributed to the formation of high density of internal
interfaces like twin, grain and sub-grain boundaries [91]. SPD
techniques are also expected to decrease the propensity for
twinning as the grain size reduces thereby weakening the basal
texture [92]. SPD techniques include equal channel angular
extrusion/pressing (ECAE/ECAP), high pressure torsion (HPT)
and accumulative rolling bond (ARB). Each technique has its
unique advantage over the other in terms of grain refinement
and property improvement [93]. The different SPD techniques
used in processing Mg alloys and research outcomes are pre-
sented in the succeeding sub-sections.
6.1.1. Equal channel angular pressing deformation of Mg
alloys
ECAP is one of the simplest and effective SPD technique
used to improve material integrity and functionality and
produce bulk ultrafine Mg alloys [94,95]. In ECAP, the bulk
material is pressed through an angle die and plastic strain is
introduced without a change in dimension of the work piece
[88,96]. The die consists of two intersecting channels of equal
cross-section and shear strain is introduced at the intersection of
the channels and repeated pressing can result in strain accumu-
lation [97,98]. The success of this deformation process is
however, dependent on processing temperature, type/number of
passes, pressing rate, die angle and die geometry [24,98]. Fig. 3
presents a schematic and pictorial representation of ECAP
process.
ECAP processing of Mg alloys at elevated temperature
results in significant grain refinement and activation of non-
basal slip in the crystal structure [57]. The degree of grain size
reduction and grain structure homogeneity in ECAP deformed
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
Mg alloys increases with increased number of passes and
increased processing temperature [95,99–101]. The refinement
in the grain structure of Mg alloys using ECAP SPD processing
is associated with improved mechanical properties like strength
and ductility. Chen et al. [99] and Chung et al. [102] reported
that the ductility of ECAP processed AZ91 Mg alloys increases
with increase in number of passes while strength decreases
slightly after the first pass. Similar observation was made by
Pereira et al. [103] in AZ80 Mg alloys. The improvement in
mechanical properties of ECAP processed Mg alloys is depen-
dent on both the morphology and distribution of Mg17Al12 pre-
cipitates formed in the alloy and the ECAP approach utilised to
achieve grain refinement [101,104,105]. Avvari et al. [101] also
highlighted the dependence of the mechanical properties of
ECAP deformed AZ61 alloys on moderate die angles and
increased processing temperature. Also, Masoudpanah and
Mahmudi [104] affirmed that reduction in anisotropy of
mechanical properties in AZ31 alloys across the extrusion and
normal direction as a result of texture modification is also a
benefit of ECAP SPD processing of Mg alloys. Khani et al.
[105] embarked on a two-step ECAP processing study to reduce
the tendency of cracking in AZ91 alloys. The studies show that
processing at lower temperatures after the first pass reduces
grain growth which leads to grain refinement and improvement
in mechanical properties of the alloys. This occurred on account
of dynamic recrystallisation and dynamic precipitation during
the two-step process. Fig. 4 shows SEM micrographs of
as-extruded and ECAP processed AZ31 alloy. It is observed
that both the as-extruded and ECAP processed compositions
have equiaxed grain structures, and ECAP processing resulted
in significant refinement of the grains in the AZ31 alloy inves-
tigated. It is also observed that refinement and homogeneity of
grain structure increased with increasing number of passes
during ECAP processing.
Fig. 4. Shows SEM micrographs of the microstructure of AZ31 alloys after extrusion (a)1 ECAP pass (b) 2 ECAP passes (c) 4 ECAP passes (d) (after Masoudpanah
and Mahmudi [104], with permission from Elsevier).
467
Gu et al. [106] made a successful attempt to process AZ31
alloys using ECAP at room temperature by applying back pres-
sure three times larger than the yield stress in a 90° die angle.
Extensive grain reduction (10–3 µm) was observed after a
single pass and this was attributed to dynamic recovery/
recrystallisation that occurred during testing. Small grain size
regions formed in the alloy did not show sign of twinning
activities.
A major concern associated with ECAP processing of Mg
alloys arises in the premature cracking of the alloys when
deformed at low temperatures. These cracks result from the
absence of active slip systems especially <c + a> dislocations
(dislocations present in non-basal slip planes) at ambient tem-
peratures which can enhance the plasticity of the alloys [97].
Therefore ECAP processing of Mg alloys have been con-
strained to processing at elevated temperatures and refinement
is limited due to grain growth [107,108]. Several attempts
have been made to induce pressing at lower temperatures
[97,106,108]; however there are no conclusive reports on pro-
cessing parameters and conditions that can achieve room tem-
perature or moderate temperature ECAP processing of Mg
alloys.
6.1.2. High pressure torsion deformation of Mg alloys
This processing method was proposed for use in metallic
materials to increase the extent of grain refinement during SPD
processes. In this technique, the test material (in a disk form) is
held between two anvils and subjected to applied pressure and
concurrent torsion straining [109,110]. The compressive
stresses impose high hydrostatic forces on the material which
makes it possible to impose high shear strain to produce finer
grains [111]. It is expected that the high hydrostatic forces will
prevent crack and segmentation during HPT processing of Mg
alloys at room temperature [97,112]. This low temperature
468 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
Fig. 5. A schematic illustration of HPT processing facility (after Kai et al.
[109], with permission from Elsevier).
deformation hinders dynamic recrystallisation and leads to pro-
nounced grain refinement and strain hardening [97,113]. Fig. 5
presents a schematic illustration of HPT processing facility.
HPT processing has been used successfully to achieve sig-
nificant grain refinement in wrought and cast Mg alloys and the
percentage reduction in grain size were greater than those
observed during ECAP processing [109]. Harai et al. [114] also
reported extensive grain refinement accompanied with increase
in ductility of AZ61 alloys processed by HPT technique at room
and elevated temperatures. Huang et al. [112] also observed
from their studies that the number of revolutions during HPT
processing dictates the extent of grain refinement and level of
improvement in mechanical properties of AZ31 Mg alloys.
They established that activity of basal slip and twinning also
contributes to HPT deformation behaviour in these Mg alloys.
Meng et al. [115] and Pauwa et al. [116] asserted that the
presence of coarse second phase particles and that of nanosized
precipitates helps increase the magnitude of grain refinement
recorded in HPT processed Mg-3.4Zn alloys. This is because
the second phase particles and precipitates hinder movement of
grain boundaries and restrict excessive growth of dynamic
recrystallised grains. Fig. 6 shows optical micrographs of the
microstructure of ZK60 Mg alloys after HPT processing. It is
observed that the grain size varies from centre to periphery in
HPT processed ZK60 samples. The grain size in the alloy
structure decreases progressively from the centre to the periph-
ery of the sample disk. The micrograph also established that at
least 1 turn is needed for homogeneous microstructure. Increase
in number of turns of sample disk during HPT processing also
resulted in increased grain refinement while causing a reduction
in variation of grain size from centre to periphery.
Elevated temperature HPT processing of Mg alloys is
however an area of concern since processing at high tempera-
tures leads to increase in dynamic recrystallisation and grain
growth which can both induce premature cracking in Mg alloys
[112].
6.1.3. Accumulative roll bonding deformation of Mg alloys
This deformation process is presently recognised as the only
SPD process which takes advantage of the principle of rolling
to induce plastic strains in a bid to refine grain structures [117].
ARB processing is a two-stage SPD technique which involves
deformation (rolling) and bonding. During ARB processing, a
50% rolled test material is cut into two parts (or more), then
stacked into the initial rolling dimension and rolled again;
during the second rolling the two halves of material bonds
together to form one single sheet [117,118]. The feasibility of
the ARB SPD deformation process to be continuous gives it an
edge over other SPD process for bulk production of fine grained
structure [119,120]. Fig. 7 is a schematic representation of an
accumulative roll bonding process but in this case the material
from the first rolling stage is cut into five before the second
rolling [119].
Perez-Prado et al. [119] stated that ARB is an inexpensive
and efficient technique for grain refinement in AZ Mg alloys,
however grain refinement and degree of homogeneity is depen-
dent on the Al concentrations and the number of rolling passes
respectively. The effectiveness of this method also depends on
the rolling temperature and thickness reduction per pass. High
temperature and high reductions have been observed to favour
degree of bonding while smaller grain sizes are favoured by low
temperatures [121,122]. Zhan et al. [120] observed homoge-
neous equiaxed grain structure in ARB processed AZ31 Mg
alloys and this was attributed to dynamic recrystallisation
which contributes extensively to the improved room tempera-
ture ductility of the alloys. However, the strength of the alloy
decreased slightly after ARB processing due to weakened basal
texture, dynamic recovery and recrystallisation and absence of
twins [120,123]. Roostaei et al. [124] suggested that suitable
annealing treatment after ARB processing can cause improve-
ment of mechanical properties of AZ31 alloys. This improve-
ment in mechanical properties is however subject to the heat
treatment temperature range. Fig. 8 shows the microstructures
of AZ31 alloy processed by ARB technique. The microstructure
of the ARB processed AZ31alloy is observed to be more refined
and homogenised with increase in number of passes.
6.1.4. Other severe plastic deformation processes
Dynamic recrystallisation and growth associated with SPD
deformation at high temperatures may restrict the extent of
grain refinement in Mg alloys. In view of this, attempts have
been made to develop new SPD methods that can successfully
address some of the setbacks associated with ECAP and HPT
SPD processes.
6.1.4.1. Multidirectional forging. Multidirectional forging
(MDF) or Multiaxial forging (MAF) can be considered as the
easiest SPD technique since it does not require any special
device and has the potential of processing materials on a large
scale. MDF processing involves repeating compression process
in a material with changing axis of the applied strain
(x- > y- > Z) at each step. This can lead to accumulation of
redundant plastic strains as the material is repeatedly deformed
and generation of total high strains since the material does not
change shape during MDF processing [125]. Fig. 9 is a sche-
matic illustration of a multidirectional forging process. Xing
et al. [126] reported that uniform development of ultra-fine
grain structure and plastic formability of AZ31 Mg alloys can
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475 469

Fig. 6. Optical micrographs showing microstructures of HPT processed ZK60 Mg alloys at the centre, half-radius position and periphery of each disk after
processing through 1/4, 1/2, 1 and 5 turns at room temperature (after Torbati-Sarraf and Langdon [143], with permission from Elsevier).

be accelerated at room temperature using MDF technique. This
was as a result of continuous dynamic recrystallisation as the
plastic strains accumulated increased with decreasing process-
ing temperature and increasing number of passes. Yang et al.
[127] reported texture modification in AZ31 alloys in addition
to accelerated grain refinement and improvement in mechanical
properties. They reported that the basal plane in 45° and 90°
direction rotates with increasing straining, and approaches par-
allel to the tensile axis with high strain irrespective of the initial
texture. This was attributed to grain rotation and grain boundary
sliding. Miura et al. [128] compared the degree of grain refine-
ment in AZ31 MDF processed alloy with AZ61 alloy subjected
470 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of Accumulative Roll Bonding Process (after Perez-Prado et al. [119], with permission from Elsevier).

to same processing conditions. They established that AZ61
alloys had more accelerated tendency to grain refinement, supe-
rior thermal stability and superior mechanical properties com-
pared with AZ31 alloys. Miura and Nakamura [129] also
successfully processed AZ80 alloy using MDF at room tem-
perature without cracking. They achieved 0.3 µm average grain
size accompanied with improved mechanical properties
(530 MPa yield stress, 650 MPa UTS and 9% plastic strain).
The success of the processing at room temperature was the
accumulation of plastic strains ΣΔɛ = 2.0 at such low tempera-
tures, and this was due to suppressed sharp textural evolution
and grain orientation randomisation.
6.1.4.2. Cyclic extrusion compression. Continuous deforma-
tion and special stress conditions have been deployed to induce
grain refinement and improve mechanical properties of Mg
alloys using cyclic extrusion compression (CEC). This process-
ing involves pushing the test material from one cylindrical
chamber of known diameter to another cylindrical chamber
with equal dimensions through a die with a diameter smaller
than the cylindrical chambers. The test material is first sub-
jected to preliminary compressive stresses to permit high defor-
mation without danger of crack development [130]. The
processing continues by cyclic flow of the test piece from one
cylindrical chamber to the other by the action of an applied
force, and compression takes place simultaneously with extru-
sion in the second cylindrical chamber by the action of force on
this chamber [130]. Thus, the processing induces extrusion
while the chambers provide compression so that, during one
cycle, the material is pushed to first experience compression
then extrusion, and finally compression again [131]. Fig. 10 is a
schematic diagram of the CEC process showing the compres-
sion chambers and extrusion section. Chen et al. [132] reported
that CEC was used to achieve grain sizes between submicron
and nanoscale level in AZ31 alloys. They also established that
as the number of passes increase the grain size reduces and the
micro-textures becomes weaker, which was attributed to rota-
tional dynamic recrystallisation. Chen et al. [133] also reported
that a compound grain refining mechanism is responsible for
increase in ductility of AZ31 alloys as the number of passes

Fig. 8. Microstructure of the AZ31alloy processed by ARB technique. After stage 1 (a), after stage 2 (b), after stage 3 (c) and after stage 4 (d) (after Perez-Prado
et al. [119], with permission from Elsevier).
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475
Fig. 9. Schematic representation of multidirectional forging with aspect ratio
of 1.0:1.49:2.22 and pass strain of Δε = 0.8 (forging axis is changed by 90° at
each pass) (after Miura et al. [144], with permission from Elsevier).
increase. They also established that the mechanical properties
of the AZ31 alloys depend on the grain size, dislocation density,
texture and grain boundary structure. Wang et al. [134] com-
pared the efficiency of CEC processing for several AZ series
(AZ31, AZ61 and AZ91) alloys. They reported that the first
CEC pass is the most effective for all the alloys, and there exists
a CEC critical pass for all three alloys beyond which the grain
size and homogeneity of the alloys remains almost constant.
The homogeneity of the microstructures increases with increas-
ing concentration of Mg17Al12 particles in the alloy structure.
Fig. 10. A schematic drawing of CEC method; FA and FB are the applied
force, the extrusion section is in the centre with the compression chambers on
both sides (acal. [132], with permission from Elsevier).
471
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of the present DSR method and sample rotation.
Arrows inside the rolls indicate the rotational speed of the roll (after Hamad
et al. [145], with permission from Elsevier).
The presence of these particles also promotes increase in frac-
tion of high angle grain boundaries, dislocation density, refine-
ment at initial CEC pass and texture randomisation. Chen et al.
[135] also concluded that ultrafine grains are obtained in AZ31
alloys only after 3 passes during CEC processing at 225 °C. The
fraction of high angle grain boundary and mean misorientation
is reported to be dependent on the extrusion temperature. Grain
refinement of the alloy was also aided by sub-boundaries
formed as a result of continuous dynamic recrystallisation.
Their study also revealed that pyramidal slip and basal slip are
the most active slip modes at 225–350 °C and 400 °C
respectively.
6.1.4.3. Differential speed rolling. Differential speed rolling
(DSR) is a SPD technique which makes use of the principle of
conventional rolling but the upper and lower rolls are rotated at
different speeds to introduce intense shear deformation
throughout the sheet [6]. A schematic representation of the
DSR process is shown in Fig. 11, indicating that both rolls are
rotated at different speeds about the same axis. Watanabe et al.
[7] and Huang et al. [136] reported substantial improvement in
mechanical properties (micro-hardness, strength and elonga-
tion); and weakened basal texture in AZ31 Mg alloys processed
using DSR which enhanced formability (stretch forming and
deep drawing) over conventionally rolled sheets. Kim et al.
[137] also reported that the extent of grain reduction and
mechanical properties which can be achieved via DSR process-
ing is dependent on the roll speeds, roll speed ratio (difference
in speed between rolls), number of passes and temperature of
rolling.
6.1.4.4. Accumulative back extrusion. Accumulative back
extrusion (ABE) is a novel continuous SPD process which
combines the principle of back extrusion and two-dimensional
constrained back pressing to achieve grain refinement [138].
These operations are performed through a twin punch setup and
the punches are designed to slide past each other. The test
material is first subjected to back extrusion to extrude the mate-
rial into the gap between the inner punch and the die, and then
the outer punch presses the extruded material back into the
inner punch. This leads to loose lifting of the inner punch and
472 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475

Fig. 12. The principle of accumulative back extrusion (after Fatemi-Varzaneh and Zarei-Hanzaki [138], with permission from Elsevier).

makes room for material flow. Fig. 12 shows the setup for the Lu et al. [52] explored the efficiency of an integrated
forward and backward extrusion process. Fatemi-Varzaneh forward extrusion and torsion deformation on the grain refine-
et al. [139] reported ultrafine/nanograins in AZ31 Mg alloys ment and texture of AZ31 alloys. This deformation method
subjected to ABE processing at relative low temperatures. They introduces torsional shearing after forward extrusion in a single
also observed significant change in basal texture intensity as the processing step, eliminating the need for multiple passes. Con-
number of passes increased and this was attributed to strain path sequently, this deformation technique has the potential to be
changes during ABE processing. The number of passes was also used for large scale production of Mg alloys with refined grain
observed to influence the orientation of basal and prismatic structure and weakened texture. This technique was applied to
planes during ABE processing in AZ31 alloys. AZ31 alloys without cracks and led to significant grain refine-
ment and change in basal texture attributed to dynamic
6.1.4.5. Tube cyclic expansion extrusion. Babei et al. [140]
recrystallisation induced by heavily accumulated strains. A 3D
recently studied tube cyclic expansion extrusion (TCEE), an
representation of the facility used for this deformation process-
SPD technique for processing cylindrical tubes. This SPD tech-
ing is presented in Fig. 13.
nique is reported to be capable of imposing large strains to
Huo et al. [141] reported sharp grain refinement and
cylindrical tubes without dimensional and geometrical changes.
randomised weakened basal texture in AZ31 alloys processed
The application of TCEE to AZ91 alloys was reported to result
with cross-wavy bending. This was due to accumulative shear
in grain refinement which enhanced tensile elongations, hard-
deformation introduced in Mg alloys subjected to this process-
ness and strength of the alloy.
ing which resulted in improvement of tensile strength and room
temperature stretch formability. Fig. 14 shows the device and
6.2. Other deformation processes
process of cross-wavy bending.
Several SPD techniques which have been successfully
utilised to achieve grain refinement in Mg alloys as a means to
improve room temperature formability have been comprehen-
sively discussed in this review. There are still other deformation
processing techniques that have been explored to improve grain
refinement and mechanical properties of Mg alloys.

Fig. 13. Sketch of integrated extrusion die illustrating the die structure and Fig. 14. Schematic illustration of the device for cross-wavy bending (a) and
extrusion fashion, and definition of external orientations. The ED, TD, and ND process of cross-wavy bending (b). The AZ31 Mg alloy sheet is bended for 4
denote the extrusion, transverse, and normal direction (after Lu et al. [52], with passes with a 45° rotation after each pass (after Huo et al. [141], with permis-
permission from Elsevier). sion from Elsevier).
 K.K. Alaneme, E.A. Okotete / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 5 (2017) 460–475 473

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