Journal of Organizational Change Management

Effectiveness of training, based on positive psychology and social skills, applied to

supervisors, to face resistance to organizational change
Constanza Beatriz Veloso-Besio, Alejandro Cuadra-Peralta, Francisco Gil-Rodríguez, Felipe Ponce-
Correa, Oscar Söberg-Tapia,
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Constanza Beatriz Veloso-Besio, Alejandro Cuadra-Peralta, Francisco Gil-Rodríguez, Felipe Ponce-
Correa, Oscar Söberg-Tapia, (2019) "Effectiveness of training, based on positive psychology
and social skills, applied to supervisors, to face resistance to organizational change", Journal of
Organizational Change Management, https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-04-2018-0099
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Organizational
Effectiveness of training, change
based on positive psychology
and social skills, applied to
supervisors, to face resistance
to organizational change Received 20 April 2018
Revised 18 September 2018
16 November 2018
Constanza Beatriz Veloso-Besio Accepted 20 March 2019

Escuela de Psicología y Filosofía, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile

Alejandro Cuadra-Peralta
Escuela de Psicología y Filosofía,
Universidad de Tarapacá – Campus Saucache, Arica, Chile
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Francisco Gil-Rodríguez
Facultad de Psicología,
Universidad Complutense de Madrid – Campus de Somosaguas, Madrid, Spain
Felipe Ponce-Correa
Escuela de Psicología y Filosofía,
Universidad de Tarapacá – Campus Saucache, Arica, Chile, and
Oscar Söberg-Tapia
Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique, Chile

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effectiveness of training, applied to supervisors, to face
the effects of resistance to organizational change on work motivation and organizational climate of their
direct employees.
Design/methodology/approach – A quasi-experimental design with a control group was used. The
training program was applied in a public organization, which was going through a process of
organizational change. The human resources unit formed two groups according to the needs of the
organization. A group of seven supervisors received training (experimental group), and another group of
eight supervisors received no training (control group). The effectiveness of the training was measured in
the subalterns of the supervisors who formed both groups. The training was based on positive psychology
and social skills and covered a period of one month and three weeks. The outcomes variables were: work
motivation and organizational climate.
Findings – There was a statistically significant increase, from the pretest to the posttest, in the dependent
variables registered in the experimental group, compared to the control group. The size of the change (effect
size) was moderate magnitude to high.
Originality/value – This research shows an effective training system, applied in supervisors, to improve the
work motivation and the organizational climate of the subordinates in processes of organizational change that
generate resistance to change in them.
Keywords Training, Motivation, Organizations, Effectiveness, Workers
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Organizational change is considered an integral part of organizational life and a critical
element that drives organizational success. On the positive side, change can challenge the Journal of Organizational Change
Management
status quo and provide opportunities for growth, learning and development. On the © Emerald Publishing Limited
0953-4814
negative side, it can create significant problems in organizational life with an impact on DOI 10.1108/JOCM-04-2018-0099
 JOCM how people think, feel and behave. Unfortunately, studies show that the failure rate of
organizational change is high (Vakola and Petrou, 2018). Resistance to change is often
referred to as a reason for difficulties in the implementation and failure of change initiatives
(Erwin and Garman, 2010).
Resistance to change, which is often associated with organizational changes, is reflected,
at the organizational level, in an impoverishment of the organizational climate (Cuadra-Peralta
et al., 2017), and at the individual level, in a decrease in the motivation of workers, among
others (Vakola and Petrou, 2018). A newfangled, but little explored, way to face and overcome
the resistance to change is through training based on a positive perspective (e.g. positive
psychology, PP) (Avey et al., 2008). Additionally, supervisors have a significant impact on
the organizational climate and motivation of employees (Cuadra-Peralta et al., 2017), mainly
because they have more direct interactions with their employees (Avolio et al., 2009).
Consequently, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of the training applied in the
supervisors when they have to face (overcome) the resistance to change. Training, in this kind
of context, can be evaluated in the buffering of negative effects on the climate (at the
organizational level) and motivation (at the individual level) of their direct subordinates.
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Concerning the preceding, the choice of climate resides in that it encompasses multiple
dimensions (e.g. the perception of satisfaction, leadership, the relationship between peers,
etc.), all of which are relevant to organizational behavior. Additionally, it is a proxy for
organizational effectiveness and is considered an important outcome variable in the field of
positive organizational scholarship (a field of PP) (Cameron et al., 2011).
In turn, a constant concern of organizations rests in maintaining a motivated workforce.
Therefore, an area of interest for organizational psychologists and human resource
managers are interventions that promote high motivation throughout the members of the
organization, due to their beneficial effect on organizational performance and employee
well-being (Wegge et al., 2010).
One way to address the situation described is through the training of supervisors from a
perspective focused on promoting the development of positive psychological resources and
strengths, such as PP (relatively recent field) and social skills (SK). PP-based interventions can
be complemented with SK training since many of the constructs to which the PP points are
compatible and complementary with the SK. For example, PP (as well as positive
organizational scholarship) provides the tools that can help people achieve good quality social
connections/relations (Rosales, 2016), and social skills training provides specific techniques so
that these tools have a higher probability of success. Both the PP and the SK influence on
attitudes, work behaviors, work motivation and climate perceptions (see Avey, Reichard,
Luthans and Mhatre, 2011; Cameron et al., 2011; Martin, 2004; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2014).
While both the supervisor as well as the resistance to change have an impact on variables
such as work motivation and organizational climate, and that training can be a tool to help to
cope with resistance to change, this research is unique for two reasons. First, training is
applied to the supervisors and effectiveness is measured in their direct subordinates (who do
not receive training), which is not a common practice. This gap acquires special importance
since one of the challenges of training supervisors is that its effect is seen by the worker,
beyond the self-perceptions of the person receiving the training. Thus, training aimed at
supervisors should affect those who usually work with them. Second, this training is based on
the contributions of the PP (and positive organizational scholarship), relatively a recent field,
which has emerged as an original tool for the improvement of organizations and their
members. Its applications in processes of organizational change, although they have shown
encouraging results (e.g. Grant et al., 2009) are scarce (Avey et al., 2008; Meyers et al., 2013),
which reveals an academic gap and practice that requires further attention.
In response to the preceding, the general objective of this research was to analyze the
effectiveness of a training program, based on PP and SK, applied to supervisors to face the
 effects of resistance to organizational change on work motivation and organizational climate Organizational
of their direct employees, in a public organization in the area of health, which was going change
through a process of organizational change. This training could be considered a way to
buffer the adverse effects of resistance to change.

2. Literature review
2.1 Organizational change and resistance to change
While organizational change is an essential element that drives organizational success, its
negative side can affect the organization and its members (Vakola and Petrou, 2018). In
this context, the resistance to change of employees is one of the biggest obstacles to
effective organizational change processes, whether the change is incremental or
discontinuous (Avey et al., 2008).
A question that has drawn interest is how the process of organizational change influences
workers’ resistance to change. Studies have identified the factors of the change process that
influence the attitudes and resistances of individuals toward change: the communication of
change, the level of understanding of change, the consistency of the management actions with
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the objectives of the change initiative (consistency between what is said and what is done) and
participation in the change process (Erwin and Garman, 2010).
The supervisor–employee relationship also influences the resistance to change in the
employees. Specifically, weak relationships between supervisor–employee have been
associated with a higher resistance to change, while strong relationships have been
associated with less resistance to change (Erwin and Garman, 2010). This suggests that one
way (among many others) of overcoming resistance to change is to strengthen the
supervisor–employee relationship, to facilitate the processes of organizational change.
This strengthening can be done through the training of supervisors.
It is worth mentioning that, when overcoming the resistance to change, a strong attention
has been given to traditional perspectives focused on modifying attitudes (e.g. disengagement
or cynicism) and dysfunctional behaviors (e.g. deviance), leaving aside the role that has
positivity (what works well) in the organizational change (Avey et al., 2008). In this sense,
cultivating in the supervisors, through training in PP and SK, positive psychological resources
(e.g. gratitude, optimism, hope, savoring, make compliments) could facilitate processes of
organizational change, having a beneficial impact on their direct subordinates.

2.2 Training: effectiveness and evaluation

The accumulated evidence has shown that training works and that it is a powerful tool for
development, which affects organizational effectiveness (Salas et al., 2017). In this line,
meta-analyses show that training produces positive results, with effect sizes (d) ranging
from 0.15 to 1.36 (Salas et al., 2012). Recently Lacerenza et al. (2017), in their meta-analysis
(k ¼ 335, n ¼ 26.537) about design, delivery and implementation of leadership training,
reported a general effectiveness of medium-high magnitude (g ¼ 0.76). It should be
mentioned that the meta-analyzed studies included interventions aimed at teaching
intrapersonal, interpersonal, leadership or business skills. The first three mentioned are
related to our work (as can be seen in section 3.3).
The effectiveness of training has been related to the application of four principles (Ford
et al., 2018; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001), namely, information, demonstration, practice and
feedback. Therefore, complete training transmits the information to the learners, that is, the
concepts, facts, and information they need to learn. Then, demonstrates the behavior,
cognition and desired attitudes. Subsequently, it creates the opportunity to practice the
behaviors, cognitions, and attitudes to be learned. Finally, it provides feedback to the learner
about how he or she is doing it (both successes and failures), and as a consequence allows
correction (Lacerenza et al., 2017; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Feedback helps in learning
 JOCM and transfer because it encourages people to participate in metacognitive activities during
training, such as planning, monitoring and reviewing behavior (Lacerenza et al., 2017).
Most training programs, which try to generate skills, should keep all these components
in mind (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). The underlying reason is that together they
facilitate a fundamental aspect of training, that is, the transfer of learning (Ford et al., 2018).
To sum things up, participants should learn new ways of thinking and acting, and then
they should practice and apply those new forms to their daily performance, and also have
multiple opportunities for feedback (Gentry and Martineau, 2010).
Regarding the measurement of training effectiveness, decisions must be made
concerning which evaluation criterion (dependent variable) will be utilized. This decision
should be based on the training objectives (Arthur et al., 2003).
One of the most extensively used models for evaluating training actions is that of
Kirkpatrick (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2006). The model is composed of four hierarchical
levels: reactions (satisfaction of the assistants with the training received); learning (acquisition
of knowledge, development/improvement of skills or change of attitudes; they are not measures
of work performance); behavior or transfer (application of knowledge, skills or attitudes to the
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workplace; they are measures of real performance at work); results (financial results: e.g. profit;
results associated with organizational effectiveness, e.g., absenteeism, turnover and
organizational climate) (Arthur et al., 2003; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001).

2.3 Positive psychology and social skills: contents of the training program
It has been observed that PP and SK not only improve the functioning of diverse variables
(Veloso-Besio et al., 2018; Meyers et al., 2013), but also aid to counteract the impact of
organizational changes (Avey et al., 2008; Grant et al., 2009; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2014). Both
can be considered alternative ways of overcoming resistance to change, which usually causes
negative effects in those organizations that are subject to important modifications (Cameron
et al., 2011; Grant et al., 2009). Thus, in contexts of organizational change, the PP and the SKs
can provide valuable contributions to the headship to provide assistance and emotional
support to their subordinates, an aspect that could translate into a better disposition and
commitment to work (Luthans et al., 2013; Youssef-Morgan and Luthans, 2013).
Specifically, PP-based interventions consider the application of interventions based on
personal strengths, self-efficacy, optimism, hope, gratitude, savoring, forgiveness, among
others. Each one of them has efficacy studies (Meyers et al., 2013; Page and Vella-Brodrick,
2013; Stone and Parks, 2018). Forgiveness is recently being considered as a desirable
practice in organizations, due to the possible results that it entails (Stone and Parks, 2018),
such as, for example, on organizational effectiveness (evaluated with proxies variables, such
as organizational climate) (Cameron et al., 2011).
To maximize the effect of these interventions, it has been suggested to apply them in a
combined fashion, instead of applying them in isolation (Cameron et al., 2011).
PP-based interventions have shown a favorable effect on the follower when applied to
direct headship (e.g. Avey, Avolio and Luthans, 2011). By intervening in intentional factors
(e.g. using personal strengths, encouraging optimism), positivity is developed in the headship,
which implies a more positive evaluation of the objective events of life. This positivity is
instrumental because it helps to amplify the impact of positive events (Cameron et al., 2011),
and to buffer the impact of negative ones (Luthans et al., 2013). In this sense, positivity plays a
pivotal role in facilitating favorable evaluations (Luthans et al., 2013), even when positivity
does not develop directly in employees (Avey, Avolio and Luthans, 2011), because the
positivity of leaders affect how subordinates think, feel and behave (Peterson et al., 2008).
Regarding training in SK, this is articulated according to certain principles that are
critical, namely: instructions and an explanation of the theoretical foundation; exposure to
models; opportunity to practice manifest skills or behavioral rehearsal; reinforcement and
 feedback to molding behavioral practice; generalization of these perfected skills to the Organizational
natural environment (Kelly, 2013). change
Within the SK relevant to the context of the work and organizations are assertiveness,
make a criticism, compliment, request for behavior change (e.g. Cuadra-Peralta et al., 2017;
Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2014; Payne, 2005). As in the case of the PP, it has been recommended
to focus on the training of more than one social skill in order to maximize its effect
(Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2014).
SKs have been recognized as a fundamental resource for those who occupy positions of
leadership (e.g. supervisors) since within their functions is to promote an environment
characterized by relationships of support and cooperation. In this sense, SKs are considered
one of the specific mechanisms that the leader uses to positively influence followers
(Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2014).
In attention to the exposed antecedents, the research question is as follows:
RQ1. Is the training program, based on PP and SK, applied to supervisors, effective to
face (overcome) the effects of resistance to organizational change on work
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motivation and organizational climate of their direct employees?

The hypotheses to be contrasted are as follows:
H1. The experimental group’s subordinates (their supervisors receive training) will have
a statistically significant increase in their work motivation, in comparison with the
control group’s subordinates (their supervisors do not receive training).
H2. The experimental group’s subordinates will have a statistically significant
increase in their perception of organizational climate, in comparison with the
control group’s subordinates.

3. Method
3.1 Participants
A total of 15 first-level supervisors and 77 employees from the public sector, from the health
area of the city of Arica (Chile), participated. It should be noted that the organization was
going through a process of organizational change, which caused discomfort in several units.
The experimental group consisted of the units that had generated the most resistance, as
indicated by the human resources unit. The control group did not show particular problems
according to human resources.
The average age of the sample of supervisors was 41 years (SD ¼ 6.44), with an average
of five years and two months in office. Thirty-three percent of them were men, and
67.3 percent were women. The supervisors were mainly physicians and nurses. Two groups
were formed. An inactive control group of eight supervisors, and an experimental group of
seven supervisors, to whom the intervention was applied.
The effectiveness of the training was registered in the subordinates (n ¼ 41) of the
supervisors belonging to the experimental group, and in the subordinates (n ¼ 36) of the
supervisors belonging to the control group. The subordinates were paramedical technicians,
medical professionals, non-medical professionals, administrative staff (e.g. secretary).
The average age of the subordinates of the experimental group was 35 years (SD ¼ 8.95);
87.8 percent were women. The average age of the subordinates of the control group was 38
years (SD ¼ 9.34); 94.4 percent were women.

3.2 Instruments
The self-perceived motivation questionnaire developed by Cuadra (2001) was used, to
measure work motivation. This questionnaire consists of five items that indicate the
 JOCM percentage of work motivation perceived (e.g. “Determine how hard do you try to do your
job well”). Items can be grouped into a general first-order factor that explained 65 percent of
the variability. Its internal consistency was 0.91.
Organizational climate was measured through the organizational climate questionnaire,
developed by Cuadra-Peralta and Veloso-Besio (2007). It is based on the organizational
climate questionnaire of Litwin and Stringer (1968). The questionnaire consists of 47 items
presented on a Likert scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 4 (totally agree). The items are written
to evaluate how an individual thinks that the other members of the organization perceive
different aspects of the organizational climate. Items can be grouped into eight dimensions
(see Table I). Internal consistency ranged from 0.79 to 0.92. These dimensions make up a
general second-order factor that accounts for 60 percent of the variance.
The measurement scale of the dependent variables was transformed to a scale of 0–100.

3.3 Procedure
A quasi-experimental design with a not balanced control group and pre-posttest measures
was used. To form the sample, public organizations from the city of Arica (Chile) were
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contacted, of which one of the health sector accepted to participate.

This organization, at the beginning of the intervention, underwent a process of
organizational change and restructuring, such as the ministerial accreditation of the
organization. It is important to clarify that this process was developed transversally in all
units of the organization, so that both the control group and the experimental group were
subject to the same circumstances.
Before implementing the intervention, a manual based on PP and SK was designed. This
manual contained each of the topics to be discussed in the sessions, together with the logs of
the tasks that the supervisors of the experimental group had to perform outside the sessions.
Also, a session on transformational and transactional leadership was included.
Regarding transactional leadership, only the contingent reward facet was considered in the
tasks outside the sessions because is the only facet that has systematically correlated with
other criteria ( Judge and Piccolo, 2004; Piccolo et al., 2012).
Participants were assigned to the experimental and control condition by the
organization’s human resources unit. The experimental group was made up of those
units that previously reported conflicts to the human resources unit. The training program
was considered within the formal courses of the organization. One week before starting the
training, each of the dependent variables was recorded in the subordinates of the
supervisors who belonged to the experimental group (n ¼ 41). The same was made in
parallel with the subordinates of the supervisors who belonged to the inactive control group
(n ¼ 36). The participation was anonymous. The intervention was applied to supervisors,
and effectiveness was measured in their subordinates.
The intervention covered one month and three weeks, with a total of 12 sessions: one of
presentation, one of closure and 10 sessions corresponding to the application of the
workshops. Two weekly sessions, on different days, were applied for 60–90 min each. The
sessions were held in the workplace, during working hours.
The modality of training delivery was group since there are particular characteristics of
group interaction (e.g. the opportunity for vicarious learning or interaction with peers), which
optimize the learning process (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). The training methods applied
were: lectures, discussion groups, role-playing and cognitive-behavioral techniques (instructions,
modeling, behavioral rehearsal, feedback, reinforcement and generalization strategies).
Outside the sessions, supervisors had to perform the activities in the workplace and
register them in the logbooks provided. The logbooks were fed back by the trainer to each
participant before de next session. Then the fed back activities were commented (with the
consent of the participants) at the beginning of the next session. This modality was aimed at
 facilitating the transfer. The transfer is widely recognized as one of the elements that should Organizational
be ensured in every training process (Ford et al., 2018). change
Two weeks after the last session concluded, the post measurement of the dependent
variables was applied in both groups of subordinates.
Finally, the contents of the 10 workshops were: transformational and transactional
(contingent reward) leadership, positive interpersonal relationships and communication
styles, make and receive compliments, happiness and life satisfaction, savoring, gratitude,
personal strengths and efficacy, optimism and hope, expression of criticism and request for
change of behavior, forgiveness.

DVs Conditions n Mean SD F p η² d dppc

Work Motivation Ctrlpre 36 89.86 8.82 4.602 0.034 0.030 0.35 0.75
Ctrlpost 30 87.33 14.49
Exppre 41 89.15 12.04
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Exppost 40 94.63 9.36

Organizational Climate Ctrlpre 36 77.85 14.60 27.001 0.000 0.147 0.83 1.76
Ctrlpost 30 69.57 16.40
Exppre 41 57.88 16.17
Exppost 40 76.82 15.84
Interaction effect on the sub-dimensions of organizational climate
Leadership Ctrlpre 36 78.93 14.94 25.556 0.000 0.139 0.80 1.71
Ctrlpost 30 70.83 22.18
Exppre 41 55.48 22.17
Exppost 40 80.20 18.12
Motivation and involvement Ctrlpre 36 79.09 15.37 24.238 0.000 0.135 0.79 1.66
Ctrlpost 30 70.47 22.14
Exppre 41 57.25 21.94
Exppost 40 80.59 18.12
Satisfaction Ctrlpre 36 79.25 16.39 17.40 0.000 0.098 0.66 1.38
Ctrlpost 30 75.33 19.74
Exppre 41 59.51 20.67
Exppost 40 81.66 18.10
Environment Ctrlpre 36 80.09 16.82 16.808 0.000 0.101 0.67 1.42
Ctrlpost 30 72.49 18.84
Exppre 41 64.02 17.32
Exppost 40 80.83 18.70
Conflict Ctrlpre 36 67.89 20.87 21.681 0.000 0.120 0.74 1.54
Ctrlpost 30 62.96 19.43
Exppre 41 47.96 21.29
Exppost 40 75.55 21.96
Structure Ctrlpre 36 81.48 23.00 9.918 0.002 0.064 0.52 1.10
Ctrlpost 30 66.48 20.03
Exppre 41 68.29 15.77
Exppost 40 74.72 22.54
Reward Ctrlpre 36 71.84 23.42 8.314 0.005 0.049 0.45 0.86
Ctrlpost 30 67.10 16.60
Exppre 41 52.19 16.92
Exppost 40 64.83 14.64
Fellowship Ctrlpre 36 84.25 17.25 27.025 0.000 0.143 0.82 1.63
Ctrlpost 30 70.88 18.81
Table I.
Exppre 41 53.65 25.25 Interaction effect of
Exppost 40 76.16 19.91 the independent
Notes: η², eta squared; d, standardized mean difference calculated from η²; dppc, effect size according to variables on
Morris (2008) dependent variables
 JOCM 4. Results
To contrast the effectiveness of the intervention, a factorial MANOVA 2X2 (Group X
evaluation time) was performed. The MANOVA is adequate since it controls the Type I
error, due to the use of more than one dependent variable.
The results of the main effects showed that the group factor (experimental/inactive control)
had a statistically significant effect on the set of dependent variables, this is, work motivation
and organizational climate (Pillai’s trace ¼ 0.072, F(2,142) ¼ 5.501, p ¼ 0.005). Conversely, the
main effect of the factor evaluation time (pre/posttest) was not statistically significant on the
set of dependent variables (Pillai’s trace ¼ 0.029, F(2,142) ¼ 2.132, p ¼ 0.122).
Regarding the interaction effect, it provides more information to analyze the effect of the
intervention, compared whit main effects. In this sense, the interaction effect analyzes the
combined effect of the factors group and evaluation time on the dependent variables.
MANOVA results showed that the interaction of the independent variables Group X evaluation
time on the set of dependent variables was statistically significant (Pillai’s trace ¼ 0.165,
F(2,142) ¼ 14.074, p ¼ 0.000). That is, the experimental group showed an increase, from the
pre-intervention records to the post-intervention records, in the set of dependent variables, as
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compared to the control group, in which a decrease was observed.

Because the multivariate significance test (Pillai’s Trace) for the interaction effect was
statistically significant for the set of dependent variables, we continued the univariate contrasts
for each dependent variable. That is, to analyze the interaction effect for each dependent variable
individually. The results showed a statistically significant interaction of the independent
variables on work motivation (F(1,143) ¼ 4.602, p ¼ 0.034) and organizational climate (average
of organizational climate dimensions) (F(1,143) ¼ 27.001, p ¼ 0.000) (Table I). The interaction
effect can be seen more clearly in Figures 1 and 2, in which the slope of the experimental group
(continuous line) increases and the slope of the control group (segmented line) decreases from
pre to posttest. It should be mentioned that the univariate contrasts of the interaction effect for
each of the organizational climate dimensions were also statistically significant (Table I).

Work Motivation

96.00 Group
Experimental
Control

94.00

92.00

90.00

88.00

Figure 1.
Interaction effect 86.00
of group and
evaluation time on
Pretest Posttest
work motivation
Time
 Organizational Climate Organizational
80.00 Group change
Experimental
Control

75.00

70.00

65.00
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60.00

Figure 2.
55.00 Interaction effect
of group and
evaluation time on
Pretest Posttest
organizational climate
Time

Although Table I shows a change in the pre-posttest means in the dependent variables of
the control group, we verified if these differences were statistically significant. Since the
records were anonymous, a t-test for independent samples was made. The results obtained
evidenced that the pre-posttest change was not statistically significant for work motivation
(t(64) ¼ −0.871, p ¼ 0.387). There was a statistically significant decrease for organizational
climate (t(64) ¼ −2.171, p ¼ 0.034), structural climate (t(64) ¼ −2.796, p ¼ 0.007) and
fellowship climate (t(64) ¼ −3.009, p ¼ 0.004). This finding is explained in Section 5. The
same was done for the experimental group, the results showed statistically significant
differences of means from pre to posttest in work motivation (t(79) ¼ 2.283, p ¼ 0.025) and
organizational climate (t(79) ¼ 5.321, p ¼ 0.000). With respect to the climate dimensions,
only the structural climate dimension did not show an increase statistically different from
zero (t(79) ¼ 1.490, p ¼ 0.140).
In addition, effect sizes were estimated, specifically for the interaction effect. It was
decided to report the effect sizes measures traditionally communicated in the publications,
such as eta squared (η²) and their equivalence in standardized mean difference (d)
(see Table I). Due to space limitations, the only d will be interpreted. The valuation of d (and
dppc, see it below) was done under the classification by Cohen (1988). Absolute values of the
d (dppc) index around 0.20, 0.50 and 0.80 indicate effect sizes low, medium and high size,
respectively. The d value represents the magnitude of the difference between the means of
two groups (experimental vs control), i.e., how much change occurred as a result of the
training. A positive high value of d indicates a beneficial effect for the subjects of the treated
group, in comparison to the subjects of the control group (when the design is intergroup).
A low value of d indicates no change, or that the training had no effect.
The effect sizes obtained (d) were of low to high magnitude (0.35–0.83). However, because
groups in quasi-experimental research are not always similar in the pretest, a specific effect
size for pre/posttest designs with a control group (PPC) provides a better index of treatment
 JOCM effect (Morris and DeShon, 2002). Morris (2008) proposes to compute an effect size
considering the use of the combined pretest standard deviation of the experimental and
control groups, in order to weight the differences in the pre-posttest means. The dppc
obtained, for each dependent variable (Table I) were of moderate to high magnitude
(0.75–1.76). The dppc is interpreted in the same way as the d.

5. Discussion
The objective of this research was to analyze the effectiveness of a training program, based
on PP and SK, applied to supervisors to face the effects of resistance to organizational
change on work motivation and organizational climate of their direct employees, in a public
organization in the area of health, which was going through a process of organizational
change. The results provided (provisionally) empirical support to the hypotheses
established. Specifically, these results evidenced a statistically significant increase in the
dependent variables in the experimental group, compared to the control group. The change
in magnitude was from moderate to high, according to Morris (2008). It should be remarked
that the training was applied to supervisors, but the effectiveness was evaluated in their
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workers, who did not receive training.

In general terms, these results can be explained due to the consideration of the four
principles of an effective training (Ford et al., 2018; Lacerenza et al., 2017; Salas and
Cannon-Bowers). In this sense, the information about the PP and SK was provided during
the sessions. Information was also available in the manual provided to participants.
The trainer demonstrated the social skills included in the training. The participants also
contributed with demonstrations. In turn, during and outside the sessions the conditions
for continuous practice were generated (e.g. recognizing the work well done), and various
feedback opportunities were provided (e.g. by the trainer and participants). Both the
contents, the demonstrations, the continuous practice and the systematic feedback have
been pointed out within the characteristics of well-designed, and that facilitate the transfer
of learning (Ford et al., 2018; Gentry and Martineau, 2010; Salas et al., 2012).
Specifically, these results can be explained by the development of personal and social
resources of those supervisors who received workshops based on PP and SK. Through
sessions that incorporated PP components, supervisors were trained to put into practice
(apply) certain intentional factors (e.g. personal strengths, optimism) in order to develop a
more positive evaluation of objective life events. This positivity helps to amplify the impact
of positive events (Cameron et al., 2011), but also to buffer negatives, affecting attitudes and
behaviors of their direct employees (Luthans et al., 2013; Peterson et al., 2008).
In turn, more specific behavioral changes, based on SK training, affect work motivation
(e.g. Judge and Piccolo, 2004) and on the perceptions of the organizational climate of its
workers (Cuadra-Peralta et al., 2017). In this sense, these skills are important for supervisors
since they are the ones who maintain frequent contact with workers.
These findings point in the same direction as the studies cited in this paper, which
have demonstrated the beneficial effect that has the implementation of a more positive
perspective, such as PP and SK training, in the creation of healthy relational spaces
(e.g. Grant et al., 2009; Meyers et al., 2013; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2014). In specific terms,
as supervisors modify their judgments (evaluations) and behaviors, by means of the
constant practice of their strengths, experimentation of positive emotions and
development of positive interpersonal bonds in the place of work, they can influence
favorably in the evaluation of work motivation and the perception of organizational
climate of their subordinates.
As it could be seen, H1 (work motivation) and H2 (organizational climate) received empirical
support in favor, that is, there was a statistically significant increase at the individual level,
through work motivation, as well as at the organizational level, through of the climate.
 The improvement of variables at the individual level (work motivation), from the field of Organizational
PP, has more evidence than variables at the organizational level. However, from the field of change
PP, there are few studies in the context of resistance to change and how overcoming it at
individual and organizational level.
In relation to work motivation, recognition for a job well done is a source of important
motivation for the subordinate, since it implies that their work is valued. Regarding the
improvement of the organizational climate, this can be explained because the program
improves supervisor–subordinate relationships, in aspects such as, showing gratitude and
optimism, making compliments, making corrections without disqualifying people, which
affect directly on climate perceptions. The indicated is in line with what was raised by Avey
et al. (2008) regarding that the PP has provided opportunities for researchers to learn how to
take advantage of positive constructs at the individual level (e.g. optimism, hope, personal
strengths, efficacy, etc.) to improve the results at the organizational level (Avey et al., 2008).
Moreno-Jiménez et al. (2014) and Momeni (2009), from the field of SK, point out something
similar when it comes to improving the organizational climate.
Nevertheless, an effect of greater magnitude was observed in the results at the
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organizational level (organizational climate, dppc ¼ 1.75) than in the results at the individual
level (work motivation, dppc ¼ 0.75). A possible explanation for this is that although the work
motivation is, in part, influenced by certain factors that are under the supervisor’s control
(e.g. supervisor–worker relationship), it is also influenced by other factors such as the
remuneration of the employee and the performance-reward relationship, which are usually set
by organizational policies beyond the direct control of the supervisor. On the other hand, for
the case of organizational climate, it has been indicated that the supervisor is the “climate
engineer” (Naumann and Bennett, 2000) so that the figure of the supervisor would have a main
role in influencing climate perceptions of the workers (Momeni, 2009).
A striking result, not contemplated, was the decrease of the dependent variables in
the subordinates of the control group. This can be seen clearly in Figures 1 and 2, where the
control group decreased its scores in both variables. The explanation for this is that
the organization, at the beginning of the training, underwent a process of organizational
change and restructuring, such as the ministerial accreditation of the organization. This is
provisional evidence that the training program, based on PP and SK, counteracts the harmful
impact of organizational changes. Therefore this program could be an alternative way to
overcome resistance to change, which it often causes negative effects in many organizations
that are undergoing significant modifications (Cameron et al., 2011; Grant et al., 2009).
The mechanism that explains the aforementioned is based on the fact that, in contexts of
organizational change, PP and social skills training can provide valuable resources to the
supervisors, that will allow them providing help and emotional support to subordinates, an
aspect that could lead to a better disposition and commitment to work (Luthans et al., 2013).
Regarding the limitations, there was no random assignment of the participants to the
experimental conditions. Besides, there were initial differences in the dependent variables
between both conditions, with worse records in the units that formed the experimental
group (a situation that was reversed at the end of the intervention). This situation, although
presents difficulties to carry out the necessary controls, it is frequent in real and daily
interventions, in which organizational human resource managers are asked to intervene
groups that present some disadvantage. From this perspective, the present study
approaches the usual conditions faced by these professionals, which benefits the external
validity of our study.
Another limitation is that the sample consisted only of a public sector organization
from the health area. Moreover, it was not possible to take follow-up measures. Although
an effect could be confirmed in favor of the training program, a more robust conclusion
would imply a third measurement of the dependent variables. The difficulty to obtain
 JOCM follow-up measures is more frequently in situations where there is no control over the
participants (e.g. they are not students). In our case, those who answered the
questionnaires did not receive the training and the responses were anonymous. Now,
although this would have been possible, it is necessary to bear in mind that this objective
is not always achieved with a single experiment, but that a series of them are necessary in
order to be able to determine precisely the origin of the observed effects. For the rest, the
available evidence points to a reduction in the effect on follow-up measures, as a result of
adaptation (e.g. Page and Vella-Brodrick, 2013).
Taking into account the limitations indicated, the generalization of these findings to
other types of organizations (e.g. private) should be made with caution. In addition to this, it
must be taken into account that organizations vary widely, so the training contents should
be adapted to the type of situation, the context of the organization (Al-Haddad and Kotnour,
2015), and even culture (e.g. individual culture v/s collectivist).
We show a way to face resistance to change for practitioners focused on promoting the
development of resources and strengths in supervisors that could help to increase the
probabilities of success under real problematic situations. This acquires relevance if it is
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considered that the organizations invest part of their budget in training their workers, and
that, in response to this, they could demand demonstrable results.
Another contribution is related to the fact that the training results were recorded in the
subalterns (anonymously), and not in those who received the intervention. Unfortunately,
this is not a usual practice in organizations.
The general implication of our findings is that the improvement of outcome variables, such
as those addressed in this study, is directly related to the training of supervisors, especially in
contexts of organizational change that can generate resistance in their subordinates.
Amongst the implications for the area of management can be mentioned that resistance
to change can have consequences not only obstructive but also openly negative. For
example, the decrease in organizational climate can have effects on performance and
productivity. This makes training in PP and SK an alternative to consider when facing the
resistance product of organizational change processes.
Another implication for the area of management is that a large number of service
organizations, such as banks, financial, insurance sales, evaluate the performance of their
supervisors based on indicators of productivity and work climate. Productivity depends on
internal factors (e.g. capacity) and external factors (e.g. market behavior). However, climate
depends to a large extent on the direct supervisor. The evaluation of climate-based
performance is especially important since a negative climate generates a high probability of
conflict. In this regard, this kind of training can be of help for those supervisors whose
performance evaluations show problems of work climate.
While the results of this research are in line with the search for effective solutions for
dealing with reactions to organizational change, future studies should continue this research
line and confirm the effectiveness in subsequent experiments.
Given that the effects of interventions diminish over time, future studies should analyze
the effect of maintenance programs as part of organizational development strategies.

6. Conclusion
In this work, the resistance to change was addressed through the impact on the
organizational climate and the motivation of the workers. Such resistance could be
observed in the decrease of the climate and the motivation of the control group, a
situation that did not occur in the experimental group. In this sense, the control
group (subordinates of those supervisors who did not receive training) was subjected to
the same situation of change as the experimental group, evidencing a deterioration. The
indicated implies that there was effectively a resistance that was buffered in the
 experimental group. Therefore, we can conclude that the training in PP and SK applied to Organizational
the supervisors was successful for buffering the resistance to change in processes of change
organizational change.

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Corresponding author
Constanza Beatriz Veloso-Besio can be contacted at: cvelosob@academicos.uta.cl

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