UoIpS leubia zWELCOME TO WeenE ‘Welcome to How tt Works 60 Second Science. nth fact packed ‘Buide we introduce fundamental principles in physics, biology ‘and chemistry with clear, concise explanations. infographics and iustrations. From the Big Bang to quantum mechanics, and fossis to WF youll be up to speed with the latest breakthroughs inno time. Throughout the book youll aso have the opportunity to put these theores into practice with our easy-to-follow experiments. See how circuits work with batteries made fromlemons, detect Earth's magnetic field by making your own compass, learn how toinstantly ‘reeze water with asinele touch, andmuch more. ‘So what are you waiting for? Diveinto discover how the ‘wonderful world around you works. 74 L FUTURE 1 rWee vy,‘The Big Bang Atomic structure Electric currents Cell division States of matter Doppler shift Respiration Special Relativity General Relativity Magnetism How old are your cells? Moments explained Newton's laws of motion Archimedes’ principle Internal combustion engines Bacteria and viruses. How light behaves The laws of thermodynamics Your body's elements Quantum mechanics Wi-Fi explained The periodic table Inside the human brain Crystallography Nuclear fission and fusion The forces of nature The scale of your body's cellsBERS How the body digests food Electricity and magnetism Enzymes explained ‘Water transport in plants ‘Sound waves Acids and alkalisThe universe began whena dense speck burstapartina blaze of heat. Everything rushed outwards and, asitexpanded,itstarted to cool. Within minutes, the temperature had dropped to billions of degrees, allowing the first particles to come together. They formed a cloud so thickand hot that no ight could pass through it After 400,000 years it became cool enough foratoms to form. For the first time, light could travel through space and the universe became transparent. For hundreds of millions of years, atoms gathered together as patches of gas. Gravity tugged them into ever expanding clumps that became denserand hotter until there was enough energy for atoms to fuse. 008 ‘Then, the firststars were bom. Ittooka billion more years for thestarstoform galaxles, and they've been evolving ever since, still hurtling away from the explosion that happened all those years ago. Set tee eran cae)THE BIG BANG THEORY THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE ‘Track the if ofthe universe from its birth to the present day First light. ae A IPSN The universe began with a monumental explosion that eee ae ee ones ee eer eter pareeeeripanen sostructure BREAK OPEN THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE UNIVERSE AND SEE WHAT’S INSIDE All the matterin the universe is made up of atoms. At the heart of every atom isthe atomicnucleus; a cluster of protons and neutrons so ‘small that we talk about their massand ‘charge in relative terms. Both have arelative ‘mass of one, protons have a relative charge of pplus oneand neutronsa relative charge of zero. Together, they make up almost ll the ‘mass of the atom, but they only take up a tiny fraction ofits total diameter. The rest of the 10 space occupied by atoms is the domain of the electrons. These tiny particles havea relative charge of minus one, enough to balance out fone proton, but they only have a relative mass of ust 0.0005. They swirl around the nucleus inringscalledshells.ATOMIC STRUCTURE INSIDE AN ATOM Every element has the same basic core structure Electron aed Ser aa in clouds around ouElectricity ed. THE SHOCKING SCIENCE OF CIRCUITS, CURRENTS AND VOLTS Electricity is generated by the low ofelectrons. Some of the rst experimentswith electricity were performed by the ancient Greeks, who observed that Ifyou rubbed amber against fur, it would attract dust and other small particles. Infact, the word electricity is derived from the Greek word for amber-elektron. For electrons to move around and createa current, there has to bea circuit. Thisisa closed loop that allowsa steady flow of electrons, carrying tiny amounts of electrical oz energy asthey go. Circuits can be created using any conductive substances. They can be ‘made using solid materials like copper wire and other metals (which have free electrons to carry the charge), but they can also be made from fluids containing charged ions, such as, the salty Quid in our bodies, orfrom gases, such as air duringa lightning strike. However, a circuit on its own isnotenough toproduce an electric current; a voltage, or potential difference, isneeded to get things ‘moving. This can be provided bya battery, a generator, orby the build-up of staticELECTRICITY EXPLAINED HOW A CIRCUIT WORKS Discover the key components in a simple electrical clreult Ammeter switch Voltmeter (in parallel) Deere et Ce ee ery a complete circuit to flow, and it needs a Ce eee onHOW YOU CAN POWER AN LED BULB WITH SOME CITRUS FRUITS ‘Add the electrodes For this experiment you wil ned four lemons, an LED ght, 2 multimeter, four galvanised nals, ‘our copper coins and five wires with ‘crocodile cls: ‘Cut two parallel sts couple of ‘centimetres apartin ane side ofthe lemon nena ale, slot ina copper cain, which wil act as the postive lectrode,andin the other place a ‘galvanised nai (anal thats coated ining, which willbe the negative electrode, Make sure the two donot ‘come into contact with each other inside the lemon, and then repet the process with three more lemons. Join the batteries ‘Connect the lemons together using three crocodile cinped copper wires, Clip one endof the first wire tothe coin inthe frst lemen, then lip the other end to the nalin the next lemon, Repeat this along the line with the other two wires uni they are alljoined together. This wil heb to accumulate the power produc bythe batteries sits ‘enough to power a bul ou bie lf = | ttt, a ia ee Measure the charge Test that your battery works using a ‘multimeter, an instrument that measures vltage. [Attach two additonal crocodile cipped copper Wires to the remaining coin and nal tether end of ‘your battery line u, then connect the free ends to the multimeter fit gives reading of around 3.50, volts then you have setup your experiment correctly If not, then repeat steps one and to,MAKE ALEMON BATTERY << Dur SUMMARY Batteries convert stored chemical See aes Peete ec ‘one positive and one negative, and a Cerny electrolyte. When a battery is added 7 dl ee ed 7 to move from the positively charged Connect the bulb Light itup povided ary teem ett nda te Pow ercriecaottendtn ic A (re ends of te copper wires to an LED bu 1d shoul ight up using the power generate ‘Moke sureyouconnect the wieleading from the fromyourlemon batteries. fyoudon'thave four AA iaAhali bee furthest righthand coin othe negative lemenshondy,youcanstilty theexperiment: atelier ‘connector of the LED and the wire leading from place ail four copper coins and galvanised nails, saasherpniahadeadruphareaahaied the furthestlefthand nat the postive into the same lemon, making sre they doit positive electrode and the nail isthe comector The negative and postive connectors toucheachather andconnect them nthe some MAURER ofthe LED should belabelled with~ane+signs. _way- this wllhlp to generate more power 01sGET TO GRIPS WITH MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. The single cell that starts it contains 23 B pairs of chromosomes, one set {from each parent. These are made from DNA, ‘which stores genetic instructions. Each time a cell wants to divide, itneeds to replicate this, ‘genetic code, and both types of cell division begin with the same step. The single DNA ‘molecule of each chromosome is duplicated, forming anear-perfect copy. ois Uthecells are to be used for growthand repair in the body they will need a full set of Instructions. Each new daughter cell receives two full sets of 23 chromosomes, essentially forming clone ofthe original cell. This process is mitosis. However, ifthe cells are goingon toform sperm or eggs they only need one set. This is i so that when a sperm fertilisesan egg, the resulting embryo has two complete sets, rather than four. Thisis meiosis.CELL DIVISION OBI Both types of cell division begin in exactly the same way, Pete eta on See me daughter cells each get two ful sets of ee ensThe states of matter that weareall familiar with are solids, liquids and gases. The particles that make upsolidsare packed so tightly together that they barely move. They can be made up of mixtures of diferent atoms, or from repeating patterns ofthe same atoms that fit together to form crystals. Liquids are looser. The particles are close together, butaren'tin fixed positions. This, ois THE PHYSICS OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, GASES AND PLASMA EXPLAINED ‘means that they can flow. Gases are more loosely packed. The particles are far apart, and they move around rapidly in different directions, expandingto fill container. The fourth - and ess familiar - state of matteris plasma. Itisa bitlike gas, but the atoms themselves have broken apart, becoming ionised and forminga sea of free electrons and atomic nuclei, Examples of plasma include lightning and neon signs.STATES OF MATTER ‘Steam STATES OF WATER On Earth, water naturally exists in all three states osFroeze multiple bttls to perform tho ‘Speriment afew ties = you cul ry ting ‘ne ofthe bts to str the reeze (ae step 5) GET THE POWER OF A SUPERHERO AND FREEZE A GLASS OF WATER WITH A SINGLE TOUCH! d Cool your water | For this experiment you will =a need atleast thee bottes of purfed water, aga, abowlof ‘exshed ie and access toa freezer Fist you need to freeze the water. ‘Yu might tink that youcan make ‘your own purified water fortis ‘experiment by boing it for afew minutes, but that wort remee the Seaaee —_ ae Chiorophyit Cartan ete arta loot, fdas the sunaght Water Thoplont takes in ard hyerogen Oxygen bevsed by hele = reesei te Hydrogen eT, e vi Betrdintuana photosynthesis most ife on Earth would not survive. ssmarmoccle 053,HOW DO ROCKY PLANETS FORM THROUGHOUT THE UNIVERSE? Asa glant spinning ball of dust circulates around the N eravitational pull of anewstar, D the ball begins to latten and formsa rotating dise-shaped dust cloud called a protoplanetary dise. This works ina similar ‘way toa ball of dough flattening when i's tossed and spum in the ar tomakea pizza, Inorder to form new rocky planets, little bits of dust need to combine to form clusters, Particles in the disc begin to clump together and as they continue orbiting the star they attract the surrounding materialand ‘continue to grow bigger. Under the force of ‘gravity these particles continue to collide into ‘each other toform the beginnings of planet, ‘knownas planetesimals. Over time the starorbiting planetesimals continue to collide with each other and grow, eventually becoming planetary embryos/protoplanets. 054 A chance collision between the protoplanets initiates the final stages, and What often remains are multiple fully formed smaller, rocky planets,PLANET FORMATION BUILDING PLANETS How does a rocky world form from dust? v7 [AR Seren tear ry it vipeipee een enreniean ne Ca ere es ResinrreeencernenFIND OUT HOW THE SUN AND MOON AFFECT THE EARTH BY CREATING A MINI VERSION AT HOME 4] Make the Earth \ A Fortis experiment, youll need modeling clay (na few diferent Colour) a torch, some pencil. Fist, let's make your planet. Roll ‘some modeling ly into a ball around five centimetres in diameter ‘and pushapencilint the centre of it This wil allow yout oe the ‘planet without acting shadows and also make Reasier to spinit around when youre simulating the Earth, Place a smal blob of diferent ‘coloured modeling cay onto the ball anywhere youlke to represent you, >) Activate the Sun S Tocreste our version ofthe Sun wel just useatorch The ‘experiment works best ina fay dark room, so turn off the lights and dose the curtains, Hold the torch around 25 centimetres fromthe ball and heep it steady you can place onthe edge ofa surface ts ease. Youll notice that just over hal of ‘your planets ot, with the back of the planet being much darker. 056MAKE A PLANETARY SYSTEM A 3 Spin and rotate Start sont rotate the pene der the poet You of chy that you tuk on ‘moves from the dake gtr sie. This sa Sun shines the Earths pn When the colured Bob of cays half int andaifin darkness this roprasnts suis on Earth Tho ‘went rotated agai wild the same to representsnet Create the Moon Nest, weltestout the Moon inthe same way. Get some more ‘modeling cay and make tint a ball around three centimetresin clameter Push another pen int i, then try movingit around the Earth. Vhat happens when the Sun, Moon ‘and Earth all algn? When the Moon is ether flyin the shadow ofthe Youcan ako use your Moon to how lunar phases work Hold your Mon model stilin front ofthe torch, Stand with the torch over your shoulder and youll see afull, ike afull Moon, Mave ‘around so that you are at an angle to ‘the torch and yu see that the shape appears to change. This is wy, when we look atthe Moon in theskyit always loks ikea sifforent shape. SUMMARY Se ey Re et eee) temperatures. This test shows you how sunrises and sunsets work, why the day lasts longer than the night, and why the Moon looks different every night.THREE SIMPLE LAWS EXPLAIN THE EFFECT OF FORCES ON THE UNIVERSE AROUND US Sir Isaac Newton developed three fundamental Laws of Motion: the Pirst Law explains what happens if the forces acting on an object are balanced. fan objects not moving, itwon't start moving. And, ifan object isalready moving, itwon'tstop. This tendency is known, asinertia, Newton's Second Law describes what happens ifthe forces acting on an object are unbalanced. If more force is applied in one direction, the object will accelerate. The more unbalanced the forces, the faster the object oss. will accelerate, The more massive the abject, the more force that is needed to make it move. Newton's Third Law explains that for every action there isan equal and opposite reaction, Forces come in pairs; ifone object exerts a force on another, the first abject will exertan equal force in return. A simple examples the recoilofa gun; as the bullet fies forwards, the gun kicks back. Newton's laws first appeared in his ‘masterpiece, Principia n 1687, and he developed them to explain why the orbits of the planetsare ellipses, not circles.NEWTON’S LAWS IN ACTION ‘The Laws of Motion govern the movement of everything First Law The eres ating on the gray matched by the ond puch fhe acne Normal force NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION Second Law “out seater thn the oreo raw. Thay become ube ‘adhe rocket celts, f. fox Air resistance Aiton free cts ied fore Reaction Sorles Thrust from ground Becton Weight ili Exhaust aa I sree ncresenocion Syietoceotoes Atrest Acceleration | asianioppnsctace tet y en ees Tow of urversl pati Sep faroma veeFIND OUT WHY EVEN HUGE HEAVY BOATS CAN FLOAT ON WATER ‘The eureka’ moment reportedly came while Archimedes was takinga bath. When he climbed in, the water level rose and he realised thatthe volume of water he displaced must be ‘equal to his body's volume. fhe was bigger, ‘more water would spill onto the floor. He also noticed that the water must be pressing up against him tosupport his weight, otherwise he would sink to the bottom. This force isnow called buoyancy, andi due tothe fact that ‘fuld pressure increases with depth. The buoyant force counteracts the object's weight, pushing up with an equal force. Butifthe ‘objects heavier than the volume of water it displaces {meaning itis denser than water), will sink. Using this logic, Archimedes proved that the kings crown was not pure, 060ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE 8 THE THEORY IN ACTION ‘See how Archimedes’ principle works inthis simple experiment Object’s weight Inalrad onder rma ‘rg fe blogs reduced by ths amount, “Tf an object is heavier than the volume of water it displaces, it will sink" Buoyant force {othe wot ofthe water Volume Theckjeet= okies equal to Density eee cr eee er 287 BCE ~ 212 BCE Mathematician, asi engineer and inve Archimedes brilliant mind” tronomer, ntor, oe ZsMake it bright Forthis experiment youll nceda dear plastic bottle withalid, water, {ocd colouring, vegetable ol fizzy tablet and a torch. You can use a ‘small bottle or alarge two-itre bottle, ay size works, but large hotles wil require moce materials! Filth bottle arcund one-third of ‘the way with water, and then add some food colouring; round ten ‘drops should dofor smaller bottles. ‘You can use any colour you want, but range and blue work wel Add some oil Falthe rest ofthe bottle almost tothe top with vegetabe ol Youll natce the water and ol dort mig the ol sits ontop ofthe water because is less dense, They dont mix because water molecules are attracted to each other andthe of molecules ae attracted to other ol molecules, so they wil not combine and you shouldbe able to seea clear line of separation between the two, 062. CREATE A SIMPLE LAVA LAMP AT HOME USING HOUSEHOLD INGREDIENTS Make it bubble Now drop a fzy vitamin tablet or an -AlkaSeltzer tablet into the bottle to start the zing, This will work better if you break the {abletinto smaller pices frst. The tablet is made froma mixture of chemicals that react with each other inthe presence of water to form carbon oxide gas. These bubbles ae gtr than the cui, so they rise tothe top ofthe botSees SUMMA The fizzing tablets create carbon Ce eT) Ce ete) ‘water with them as they rise. When ‘Add more stuff Asthese bubbles rise they wil pull some ‘When the bubbles stop appearing, open the thecoloured water up with tem, making streaks _kdagainand dropin nether broken up table oA Rall ‘of colour burst through thei Put the Id tiohtly start the process allover again. Youcan aso ty I Aa a conto the bottle therwise tight bubble out of dropping some raspberries or ther small and light. [ag a ae the top).andtin the bottle aver a couple of times rats into the bottle, as they oat between the RES eee SS tomake the bobs move even more youputa layers of water and ol See what happens when ARAN aR La Ea ee ea ed bright flashight underneath the Bote twilight you add the tabletintothe botle-how doesthe MEE Lup ke areal lava lamp! frat react tothe bubbles?Internal combustion = engines Ee FOUR SIMPLE STROKES - SUCK, SQUEEZE, BANG, AND BLOW - CHANGED THE WAY WE MOVE FOREVER ‘The heartbeat ofan internal ‘combustion engine isa series of regular controlled explosions. First comes the ‘suck, the Intake stroke that draws air anda tiny amount of fuel {nto the chamber. Then the ‘squeeze’, the compression stroke, which forces the fuel and airmixture upwards, squashing it against the spark plug. Then there's the ‘bang, the ‘combustion stroke; the spark plug firesand the gas explodes. This forces the piston down, driving the crankshaft round. Finally, comes the’blow’, the exhaust stroke, which lets the spent fuel and air mixture out of the engine. ‘The force ofthe explosion with every ‘bang’ Isenough to keep the crankshaft turning and the piston pumping through each of the next three stages, cycling up for the exhaust, down 064 tosucknew fuel in, up again to squeeze the gas, and then down with the next explosive Dango start the processall over again, (, i “wo 10h century eventos bate forthe tte of ivetae ofthe interna combustion nine: Niclas fo er) SsnuAbhense Secu de Roches Gah)INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 8 EASY AS ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR ‘Take a look atthe inner workings of a four-stroke combustion engine Induction stroke suck’) Tresieton é Compression stroke Combustion stroke (bang’) jueeze) ts o Crankshaft nd ecru out 065,WHICH IS WHICH, AND WHY DOES IT EVEN MATTER? RY When you've gotasore throat, the RS a cause doesnt always seem SSM important. Some microscopic ED pasty iswaging war withyour Immune system, ithurts, and you ust want to feel better. But whether i's bacteria ora virus ‘on the rampage is actually very important. Bacteria are some ofthe smallest living things on the planet, each made from justa single, primitive cell. Thelr insidesare separated from the outside by afatty membrane and a flexible coat of armour called ‘the cell wall. Their genetic information is, ‘cartied on loops of DNA, and these contain ‘tiny factories called ribosomes, which use the ‘genetic code to produce the molecules that the bacteria need to grow, divide and survive. Viruses, onthe other hand, arenot technically alive. They carry genetic {information containing the instructions to 066 Dulld more virus particles, but they don't have ‘the equipment to make molecules themselves. ‘Toreproduce, they need to get insidea living cell and hijack itsmachinery, turning itintoa ‘virus factory, oth bacteria and viruses can cause diseases, but knowing which s the culpritis critical to treating them effectively. Antibiotics can harm bacteria, buthave no effect on viruses. Even your own immune system uses different tactics. For bacteria, itunleashes antibodies ~ projectile weapons that stick ‘invading microbes together, slowing them down and marking them for destruction. For viruses, your immune system can search for any infected cells before nitiatinga self destruct sequence to dispose of anything lurking inside. But some viruses are able to endure our defences, and can remain inside usindefinitely.BACTERIA & VIRUSES HEAD TO HEAD Sires, Both are microscopic, but take a closer look and the differences become clear Not alive Nucleic acid Deserta) So ee Ee ata ee eed and can only reproduce by hijacking organisms’ cells 067A GUIDE TO HOW LIGHT TRAVELS, AND WHY IT MOVES FASTER THAN ANYTHING ELSE {In Bon, physicist Thomas Young shone a beam oflight througha pinhole, and allowed ttohita, piece of card with twoslits. I light were carried by particles, itshould hhave passed through thesslits, lighting up two distinct spots. Instead, itformed bands, leading him to conclude that light is made up of waves. In 1860, James Clerk Maxwell extended this idea by explaining that light {selectromagnetic waves, made up of electric and magnetic field. However, in the 1900s, Max Planck and Albert Einstein showed that electromagnetic radiation Is divided into packets of energy called quanta, indicating that light is made up of particles, now known as photons. 068SEPARATING THE SPECTRUM Prisms can be used to reveal the rainbow of colours hidden in white ight Prism Refraction Ligh trav ttre Asti ts the angled oced thou (dgeattne pram teen mater White light White ant wavelnaths thecloursof he BENDING THE LIGHT As light travels from one material to another, is path can bend ‘Angle of incidence ‘hon ig ite na mate at an eal slows Bending light soca Deer esenrerer steel oe ‘At an angle igen 290 sears, straahtine LIGHT & Rainbow ‘tinct eloes Dispersi sande hts ‘owed more than ed a eapartng out the ours othe rambo, Total internal reflection, ‘Theane of ercton cannot hemor than 90 cegrees 2 ‘spot te ightis reflected Angle of refraction “Thoarount that he Hat bands depends on the propertar of theaters, |BUILD YOUR OWN SPECTROSCOPE TO REVEAL LIGHT’S RAINBOW OF COLOURS Make a viewing hole For this experiment you needa large cardboard bax, CD, a perc, ‘scissor, two razr blades (or card rectangles), a cardboard tube, ‘aluminium fol and sticky tape. Piace the CD on one side ofthe bbs ust over acentimetre from the ‘edge, and craw around the circular ‘gap ints centre. Centre your cardnoard tube over that cc and ‘daw around its edge, then move ‘light the ight and repeat to ‘create an oval Cutt out using scissors it must be wide enough for the tube tofitin tan angle, Position your light slit Place the box fat on the table sothatthe oval you've just at ison the side focng you. Take the CD and plait on the top ofthe bos, so that itis tne with the aval you created in top 1, and draw around its ‘central gap o shows poston Cut a smallrectangleroughly 05 ‘centimetres wide and 25 ‘centimetres tal with its base in ine ith the bottom ofthe cle you've Just drawn, Install your light sit Tomake your ight sit you shoulddeally use ‘wo razor blades but if you arent comfortable handing them use two cardboard rectangles instead. Set the edges of the two blades over the hole you cut in Step 2, leaving avery smal gap bbtween them thats the same width at both ends. Ths will ensure that the ight facts (spits apart eventy when it passes throughTape down your CD Next, tape your CD tothe inside ofthe box fon the opposite edge to your ight st. ts edge ‘must be the same clstance from the bors edge ‘as thes, 20 measure it with are beforehand. Place the CO withthe shiny surface pointing towards the ight lit this wl reflect the ight to the wewing tube. Cover the edges and any gaps ‘th laminin fol to make the box ihttiht. SPLIT THE COLOURS OF LIGHT Complete the assembly Putthe cardboard tube int the frst hole you made, angling ittowards the CO. Performa test run bere taping in pace by pointing the sit ‘towards ight source and checking that you can ee the ful spectrum of ight through the tube. When yout happy it’s right tape the tube ‘securely tothe box. Now you can use your spectroscope to study diferent ight sources! yy SUMMAI ot pemarenien ere mph siepaisinrenn pepe neerenrenl De ar Cee eos Nee cad Ce aE eee ete onApe bnn tS Ce eee nutrients, The body needs them to Senet ent eee Pee) pe oe a ed cee ene ed nn etme! EUnet ety Eee eg eee ected ne a td fats, carbs and proteins to survive, but italso requires small quantities of micronutrients. Senet ete onar tts Penne eeeeerneT erm eee Ene ease! Seto eee Ten! tostrengthen and repair tissues. Pea | De eR = pees eto Gj Prenerer eect nt esi ‘human body cannot produce them by itself, sowe need to take them in through our diets. eer ene categorised according to how they dissolve. Fat Pee nae es dairy products, eggs, liverand fish, and they are also stored in the fats inside the body. This Pe ecient a ena eae contrast, water soluble vitamins cannot be ga ae nat Se Cae) Cee ene eee La makes it harder to overdose, but easier to Peete eed Luckily, a healthy, balanced diet is usually Sr ees mixture of vitaminsand minerals to keep your body functioning normally. on dminerals & explained WHAT ARE MICRONUTRIENTS, AND < WHERE CAN YOU FIND THEM? r Vitamin D Vitamin BS aka id eee peter ne ithe tong one Pon Peed Vitamin BS aka pyridoxine Vitamin C aka ascorble acid ch Vitamin 83 aka niacinVITAMINS AND MINERALS EXPLAINED 5 Folic acid eed Vitamin B12 Vitamin Bt Vitamin 87 aka biotin oe SUMMARY ee oy jeeieniniiptar pains pemeerneiper ene eeennaireny DURCases can be squashed, pushing the molecules closer together to fit AVF intoa smaller space, but liquids B arehard to compress, as the moleculesare close already. Particles bump around as they move, generating pressure. Push ona liquid, and pressure is increased. Ima container with two cylinders and two pistons, connected by a uid, when you push down ona piston inthe first cylinder, itwill push a piston up in the second. The pressure is equal tothe force applied, divided by the ‘cross-sectional area ofthe piston, oma Puta bigger piston atthe other end of the container and the pressure can be used to generate a larger force. You can see why ifyou rearrange the equation -force is equal to pressure multiplied by cross-sectional area. If thearea of the second piston goes up, so does the force generated.HYDRAULICS (& INSIDE HYDRAULICS How do hydraulic systems generate so much force? Master piston Thorarew pistons pushed song stance both fe istance toe forest long dtc Incompressible fluid a a Slave piston a —~ penne Stance bythe i Short distance force than the now on Even pressure from oe ptantothe ther 075Journey to the centre of the Es WHAT GOES ON INSIDE THIS BIG LUMP OF ROCK WE CALL HOME? Humans may have Sp ciscumnavigated the globe, scaled SABE everest, and even reached the Moon, butwe haven't travelled particularly far into our own planet. The deepest we've managed to digis ess than 0.2 pper cent of the distance to the Earth's core~so, uite literally, we've barely scratched the surface. Despite this, we stll know quitea lot about whats going on inside. For example, we know that, like an onion, Earth consists of several different layers, each with its own ‘unique composition and characteristics. 076 We also know that, as you go deeper down : through they layers of our planet, the pressure and temperature in those layers increases dramatically. Ths information has made it possible for scientists to recreate the conditions inside the Earth, allowing them to find out what happens to chemistry and biology as you get closer to the core. By crushing samples between pieces of extremely hard material, such as diamond, « és they can deliver the same pressure experienced towards the centre of our planet, leading to some exciting discoveries.EARTH’S STRUCTURE Discover the geology, chemistry and biology of what les beneath ‘our planet's surface Deepest ‘scuba dive ohm Deepest suspected life Depth 19:3km Fock ud deep eth the Er rfae contain high ‘costed wth mlrobes that Proteins start to ‘become unstable Depth: 20km' Complex life impossible Depth: 30km ‘ts dept would ate the capes cals toctegrte. Mantle. Depth: 30km this thick ayer soldat he op but becomes sft ander youget cdosertothecoe, Hydrogen may Depth: 4,000km [Athoush nt yt prove, is ‘eve that tac rogen ‘Stperconductor at such igh ry ‘Sect wn zero resetance eon et Morenisey Me Geir fe Earth Sentra ‘cma actor vhegumentgecn Zcinaniepmcunces” | {tetnwface “woud enh ou JOURNEY TO THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH Ey Bottom of the Mariana Trench Depth: Lkm tertomot the Poles the dees pot of he ‘words oceans orth “Seen po hans ve eer reaches Deepest hole dug by humans | Depth: 12.3km, Deepest observed life eee Depth tik ‘reborn ofthe aan “enehis oa ona cocambarand frites Sidra erenamatit sethougt reson sme ‘Ayerage depth of oceanic crust Depth: 7km Diamonds form Depth: 150km degrees Css nd subjected pushed towers he surface "coats door Depth: 2,800km Outer core Depth: 2,920km, Inthis ily fron ant etal the atmosphere pressure ‘quant 17/200 legate Inner core Depth: 4,140km “yecentr ofthe arenas of S03 ‘temperatures here earoes Cassy The laws of thermodynamics THE PHYSICS OF HOW ENERGY FLOWS EXPLAINED ‘Thefirstlawofthermodynamics _there'sno such thingasa100 per cent efficient states that energy isalways machine, In other words, energy can't be Sey conserved,sotheamountputinto recycled and someform of energy willneedto Ete a systemisthesameastheamount beadded to keep a machine running. that comes out, The ‘zeroth law defines the notion of sae However, while the amountof energy temperature, while the third law states that a " remains thesame, itsusefulness decreasesas substance cannot reach absolute zero (273.15. : ‘changes form. Thisis the second law of degrees Celsius), asits atoms would have no thermodynamics,andit’sthereasonwhy _Kinetic energy, which s impossible. Iftwo objects with the same temperature As energy transforms, itbecomesless are touching, there isno net flow of ‘concentrated and therefore less useful. ‘energy from one object to the other. Itis not possible to get the temperature Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it ‘ofa substance down toabsolute zero ‘can only be transformed, lodegrees Kelvin or -273.5°C). o7eTHE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 8 THE FIRST AND SECOND LAW ‘See the laws of thermodynamics in action in this simple example Heat energy Inefficient system ate a ENERGY OUT Concentrated energy inetic energy laws of thermodynamics explain the relationship between all types Stee ee es Work, from human bodies to steam engines. 079» 968 PSUVLS LNFIONV JGISNI 2) [ee EN Me Celot- Be: lalen-la) SAVW IWH1L SLN3IN313 SHL Pept eats Poveycaiee ae IT,(a) a8 Ae OSs 0 EGR ees CN | CA on) Kot Aaa "9 0 1) Ets acing cg AIAVL OIGOr WINISSEROg ostOTN Maa van) echanics DELVE INTO A WORLD SO SMALL THAT IT BREAKS THE RULES OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS Quantum mechanics ests duality; particlesare wave-like and and momentum, theless certain we ean onthreekey principles. First wavesare particle-like. Weneed both _—_beabout the value of the other, This fs quantisation; properties _ principles together explain howmatter makes t impossible to predict what might likeenergy and momentum and ight work. happen next, only which outcomesare come in packets, called quanta. This [And third, the uncertainty principle; we mast probable. ‘means that, rather than varying ‘can't measure everything at once with The effects of quantum mechanics get continuously, they step up and down, absolute precision. Thesurerweareabout —largeras things get smaller, and the by fixed amounts. Second swave-particle one ofa par of properties, like position _ predictions get weirder, to. QUANTUM CONCEPTS Examining the bizarre effects that are experienced at the quantum scale Superposit [pnt superposition Z ip brary Oana Tinker NC fevhaade ad tale Heads OR tails Heads AND tails Entanglement Tho ertanged parle are range sed 20 the 5 Of oneattects the other ¢ thesame withaopen os N quantum bits or qubits — Serbo cosas tt f imerecton hth 082 HEADS + HEADS HEADS + TAILS. TAILS + HEADS TAILS + TAILS 2n possible states 2QUANTUM MECHANICS 8 SCHRGDINGER’S INFAMOUS CAT 111935, physicist Erwin Schridinger highlighted the absurdity of superposition with this thought ‘experiment featuring an unfortunate feline Steel box tho oxpermentsothat Cat nanan tan the poten s ure Iypehetea Schcaoe never Geiger countor TheGoger counter ‘eatininnid the box Vial of poison No, idioactive decay ® Hammer etectsrodation tie the vi n Poison released released cat Titi ane rea Thebox bit we oscar ‘one Sohes he son, youlok so bone Sues the pon.HOW DO RADIO SIGNALS LINK US UP TO THE PHYSICAL NETWORK THAT POWERS THE INTERNET? Linking wirelessly to the physical Internet network requires a Wi-FL access point. For example, a broadband modem to talkto the network, and a wireless outer to prepare and send the signals. To complete the connection, each device needsa wireless adapter, allowingitto receive and decode the messages beingsent. Computers speak in binary code, sothe routerand the adapter need to convert the 084 data back and forth into radio signals. They send the signals over one of two bands, 2.4GH2 orsGHz. Each band has dozens of channels, allowing lots of devices to communicate in the same place at once; routers simply switch between channels tofind one that's free before establishing connection. Unlikea wired connection, it’s easy for others to listen non radia signals once they're in the al, so ‘most Wi-Fi systems use encryption to keep data secret