188 Ground investigation in sinkhole terrains [Ch.

Table 9.2. Usefulness of geophysical methods for the detection of cavities.

After British Standards (BSI) (1999) and ASTM (1999a).

Usefulness of method
Geophysical method BSI (1999) ASTM (1999a) Physical properties measured

Seismic refraction 1 B Seismic velocity; largely related to

ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ variations in rock mass strength
Seismic re¯ection 2
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Cross-hole seismic 3

Electrical resistivity sounding 2 B(A)

Electrical resistivity or conductivity;
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ related to variations of porosity,
Electrical resistivity pro®ling 3 ¯uid conductivity, degree of
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ saturation
Induced polarisation (IP) 0
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Electromagnetic pro®ling (EM) 3 A

Ground probing radar (GPR) 3 A Same as electrical

Gravity and microgravity 2 A Density; related to lithology and

®ssuring

Magnetic 1 Magnetic ®eld of ground materials

Downhole self potential 1 Same as electrical

ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
Downhole resistivity 0

Downhold neutron/gamma 0 Radioactivity; porosity, density,

logs moisture

Downhole ¯uid conductivity 2 Same as electrical

Downhole sonic velocity 2 Seismic velocity (see above)

0 ˆ not applicable; 1 ˆ limited use; 2 ˆ used, or could be used, but not the best approach, or has
limitations; 3 ˆ excellent potential but not fully developed.
A ˆ primary method; B ˆ secondary method.

It is essential that the geophysical interpretation be calibrated against information

from previous investigations, boreholes and other sources, and eciency is greatly
improved if the survey is correctly targeted on the basis of an adequate geological
model.
The usefulness of di€erent, commonly available, geophysical methods can be
summarised with regard to ground cavity detection, excluding lava tubes (Table 9.2).
Within an overview of geophysical surveys in site investigation, none was generally
considered as ``excellent, with the technique well developed'' for the speci®c task
of cavity detection (British Standards, 1999). Overall, the most useful methods
applicable in limestone karst are cross-hole seismic, microgravity, resistivity or