Research article
Engineering geological properties
and comprehensive utilization
of the solid waste (red mud)
in aluminium industry
Yongshuang Zhang á Yongxin Qu á Shuren Wu
Abstract One of the main tailings of the aluminium
industry is red mud, which is a kind of hydrous silt-
muddy, highly alkaline solid waste produced by
physical and chemical treatments of bauxite in alu-
mina (Al2O3) production. As red mud is seriously
harmful to the ecological environment, the safety of
its storage has become an environmental problem of
much concern in China and abroad. Using the dis-
posal of the waste by an aluminium factory in
Shanxi province of China as an example, the authors
have studied the physical, chemical and mineral
properties, the undesirable engineering properties of
the red mud and their formation mechanisms, and
have presented the principles and methods con-
cerning storing, reinforcing and utilization of the
waste in this paper. Also it was hoped to show the
important role of engineering geology in solving this
environmental problem.
Keywords Comprehensive utilization á Engineering
property á Material composition á Red mud
Introduction
As a result of extensive exploitation of resources in China
and abroad, enormous amounts of industrial wastes are
Received: 7 March 2001 / Accepted: 25 June 2001
Published online: 5 September 2001
ã Springer-Verlag 2001
Y. Zhang (&) á S. Wu
Institute of Geomechanics,
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences,
No. 11 Minzu Daxue Nanlu, Haidian District,
Beijing, 100081, P.R. China
E-mail: zhangyongshuang@email.com.cn
Tel.: +86-010-63956084
Fax: +86-010-68422326
Y. Qu
Institute of Geology and Geophysics,
Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, 100029, P.R. China
piling up. Such wastes, if not effectively disposed of, will
harm the ecological environment humans live in. There-
fore, their economical treatment and utilization has be-
come urgent in various countries of the world (Yuan 1987;
Qu and others 1998; Chen 1999), and forms a new research
area for present engineering geology and environmental
geotechnology.
The aluminium industry in China has developed rapidly in
recent years. The process of aluminium production can be
described as follows: bauxite to alumina (Al2O3) to elec-
trolytic aluminium to aluminium materials. One of the main
tailings of the aluminium industry is red mud, a type of
silt-muddy alkaline solid waste that has a high water content
after various physical and chemical treatments of bauxite
in alumina (Al2O3) production. According to incomplete
statistical data from 19 aluminium factories in China, red
mud yield was in excess of 300´104 t/year in the early 1990s.
Red mud wastes will (1) occupy a large expanse of crop-
lands, (2) pollute ecological environments such as soil,
surface water and groundwater; and (3) threaten the safety
of lives and properties if a red mud reservoir dike bursts.
On the basis of a comprehensive study of its compositions
and engineering properties from an aluminium factory in
Shanxi province of China, a discussion of the disposal and
utilization of red mud is included in this paper.
Physical properties
and composition of red mud
Physical and hydrophilic properties
Red mud is initially sticky with a high water content, but
may greatly change in character with distance and time of
storage (Table 1).
High water content
Five samples gave a water content range of 85.79±89.97%,
which is higher than common clay and even clayey sea-
shore soil, and far exceeds its liquid limit (71.0±78.0%),
which indicates that red mud is unstable and will release
free water with slight shaking.
Low density
The density determined by ring cutting ranged from 14.73
to 15.06 kN m±3, and was as low as 7.90±8.10 kN m±3 for
dry samples, with a void ratio that ranged from 2.45 to
DOI. 10.1007/s002540100399 Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256 249
 Research article

Table 1
Physical and hydrophilic properties of red mud from an aluminium factory in Shanxi province, China
Sample Water Natural Dry Special Void Degree Water- Water- Re- Liquid Plastic Plasticity Liquid Ratio of Speci®c
number content density density gravity ratio of bearing bearing leased limit limit index index natural surface
(%) (kN m±3) (kN m±3) saturation capacity capacity water (%) (%) water area
(%) (%) after during content (m2 g±1)
shaken shaking /plastic
(%) (%) limit

1627 89.97 14.97 7.96 2.87 2.61 99.1 93.32 81.34 11.98 76.0 50.6 25.4 1.47 1.16 74.24
1628 85.79 15.06 8.11 2.80 2.45 97.9 86.99 72.08 14.91 71.0 44.5 26.5 1.56 1.21 70.99
1629 87.22 14.81 7.91 2.85 2.60 95.5 90.31 74.97 5.34 75.0 51.0 24.0 1.51 1.16 73.20
1630 86.01 14.73 7.92 2.85 2.60 94.4 79.03 74.66 4.37 78.0 52.0 26.0 1.31 1.10 78.65
1635 89.41 14.96 7.90 2.84 2.60 97.9 85.52 75.76 9.76 76.0 46.0 30.0 1.45 1.18 64.09

2.61. The high water content and low density were mainly index of 24 to 30, and the characteristic of clayey soils
caused by the high porosity of red mud (Fig. 1). by the engineering classi®cation of plasticity index. The
high liquid index (1.31±1.56) and high ratio of water
High consistency content to liquid limit (1.10±1.15) indicate that red mud
Consistency is a measure of the hardness of clayey soil. belongs to an industrial waste that is liable to plastic
The red mud has a liquid limit that ranges from 71.0 to ¯ow.
78.0%, and a plastic limit of 44.5±51.0%, with both being
relatively high; but it has a comparatively low plasticity Properties of water-bearing and liquefaction of red mud
Experiments by the authors have shown that fresh red
mud samples can release free water by shock to cause
liquefaction. The water-bearing capacity of red mud was
measured with fresh powdered samples under gravity to be
79.03±93.32%, which is very close to the natural water
content (85.79±89.97%). The released water during shak-
ing ranged from 4.37±14.91%, depending on the water-
bearing capacity. This suggests that fresh red mud stocked
as tailing dams could undergo liquefaction by mechanical
vibration and result in failure of soil mass, known as
shallow or surface dam failure.

Chemical composition of red mud

The speci®c engineering properties and associated envi-
ronmental problems of red mud result from its chemi-
cal and mineral compositions, as well as the change
that has occurred during storage. Chemical analyses
Fig. 1
was done on three types of samples: original red mud,
SEM image of the microstructure of red mud, which shows the colloid red mud (<0.002 mm) and a coarse sample
aggregates of super-®ne carbonate composed of amorphous aragonite (>0.002 mm; Table 2).
and a few calcite micrites

Table 2
Gross analysis results of red mud wastes
Sample Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO CaO MgO K2O Na2O H2O CO2 Total CaCO3
number type (%)

1627 Original 16.40 2.50 6.84 6.91 0.73 33.07 1.67 0.17 3.00 3.05 26.58 100.92 60.35
1628 Original 14.10 2.50 6.94 6.78 0.66 33.59 1.29 0.17 3.25 3.42 27.81 100.51 63.17
1629 Original 12.80 2.75 7.74 6.54 0.82 34.16 1.11 0.19 3.00 3.48 27.01 99.60 61.35
1630 Original 12.43 2.25 7.40 7.04 0.66 34.11 1.15 0.17 3.00 3.27 28.14 99.62 63.92
1635 Original 13.70 2.25 7.51 6.97 0.59 34.37 1.52 0.15 1.42 3.38 26.35 99.11 59.85
1627-1 <2 lm 24.20 1.25 14.23 10.88 0.66 18.01 1.49 0.27 2.95 5.41 15.45 94.80 35.09
1628-1 <2 lm 21.10 1.50 15.36 10.46 0.44 20.05 1.30 0.27 3.07 5.10 17.03 95.58 38.68
1635-1 <2 lm 21.30 1.25 16.51 11.00 0.52 17.44 1.30 0.26 2.45 5.71 15.25 92.99 34.40
1627-2 >2 lm 16.30 2.50 6.83 6.60 0.66 33.59 1.49 0.16 1.35 2.58 27.44 99.50 62.33
1628-2 >2 lm 16.95 2.50 7.06 6.75 0.69 34.40 1.52 0.15 1.38 2.91 25.22 99.52 57.28
1635-2 >2 lm 15.00 2.25 7.17 6.91 0.62 34.52 1.67 0.15 1.42 2.94 26.92 99.57 61.15

250 Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256


Chemical composition of original red mud
1. The main composition of original red mud includes
CaO and CO2: its content ranges from 33.07 to 34.37%
and 26.35 to 28.14%, respectively, with a corresponding
mineral composition of aragonite (CaCO3) or calcite
(CaCO3). The content of CaCO3 ranged from 59.85 to
63.92%, which accounts for more than one-half of the
red mud. The deposition and crystallization of CaCO3 is
produced by the addition of quicklime (CaO) and car-
bon dioxide (CO2) during aluminium production, and
constitutes the coarse components (skeleton) and
cementing materials.
2. The content of SiO2 in red mud ranges from 12.43 to
16.40%, which is dissociated from kaolinite [Al2Si2O3
(OH)4] associated with bauxite during alumina pro-
duction to form hydrophane (SiO2±nH2O) and sodium
silicate (Na2SiO3), which effects irreversible cementa-
tion during red mud ageing and hardening.
3. The content of Al2O3 in red mud ranges from 6.84 to
7.74%, which usually exists in two forms, NaAlO2 and
Al(OH)3, in the presence of the strong alkaline media
NaOH.
4. Fe2O3, a colloid of Fe(OH)3, formed after oxidation and
hydration of associated FeS2 in bauxite, ranged from
6.54 to 7.04% (whereas FeO was only between 0.59 and
0.82%). The colloid of Fe(OH)3 is unstable under
strongly alkaline and heated conditions, and tends to
convert into goethite (FeOOH), which may coexist with
the colloid Fe(OH)3 in fresh red mud, whereas FeO may
exist as a form of siderite (FeCO3).
5. Na2O in red mud was comparatively high, and generally
ranged from 3.0 to 3.25%, and exists in pore solutions
as Na+. Its abundance in red mud is caused by the
excessive addition of NaOH in aluminium production.
In addition, a series of saline deposits or colloid
products, such as Na2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2SiO3, NaAlO2,
are formed during desiccation, which take part in
reshaping the structure of aged red mud.
6. TiO2 is also comparatively high, and ranged from 2.25
to 2.75%, and was present as components of rutile and
anatase in bauxite, which was left as residues in red
mud in alumina production.
Chemical composition of <0.002-mm red mud
The chemical analyses of <0.002 mm ®ne red mud, as
compared with that of original red mud and >0.002 mm
coarse red mud, show that SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 exist
mainly as colloids in the <0.002 mm fraction, with SiO2
Table 3
Results of chemical analyses of easily soluble salt in red mud
Sample pH Residue Cations (mg 100 g±1)
number value after
drying Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ Total
(mg 100 g±1)
1627 11.25 1,880 1.85 35.37 607.07 13.44 657.73
1628 11.50 1,849 0.74 9.52 720.73 16.43 747.42
1635 11.25 1,340 0.37 4.48 661.19 15.97 682.01
Research article
increasing to 60%, Al2O3 to 110.7% and Fe2O3 to 57.4%,
whereas CaCO3 decreased by 41% compared with the
original sample.
Chemical composition of easily soluble salt
in red mud
Determination of the permeating solution in the perme-
ation test showed that large amounts of easily soluble salts
were present in red mud as a result of the addition of
NaOH, CO2 and CaO in alumina production. The results
show that the main chemical composition of easily soluble
salt was Na2CO3, and accounted for 60% of the total
(Table 3), and the others were Na2SO4 10H2O, NaHCO3,
NaAlO2. These easily soluble salts exist as pore solutions in
red mud at the initial stage of storage. Dehydration,
especially drying, will cause the formation of solid salt on
the surface.
Mineral composition of red mud
After studying the red mud by X-ray diffraction analysis,
rock chemical analysis, differential thermal analysis
(DTA), infrared absorption spectroscopy, MoÈssbauer
spectrometry and scanning electron microscope (SEM),
the results were as follows:
1. The minerals of red mud are aragonite and calcite,
which are both the polymorphs of CaCO3. Because of
the instability of aragonite under normal temperature
and pressure, it has a tendency to convert to calcite.
Furthermore, it contains a little siderite (FeCO3).
2. The subordinate minerals of red mud are hydrated free
oxides such as hydrophane (SiO2 nH2O), goethite or
hydrohematite (b-FeOOH) and gibbsite [Al(OH)3].
Goethite usually exists in the form of a thin crust
coating the surface of grains and acts as a cementing
material.
3. A layer of white powder was commonly formed on the
surface of regular test samples of red mud dried in the
laboratory. According to X-ray diffraction analysis
results, the layer is a mixture of trona [Na3H(CO3)2
2H2O] and thermonatrite (Na2CO3 2H2O), which are
salt deposits formed from pore solution by evaporation
and condensation on the surface, and of Na+, HCO3
and CO23 ions by capillary action under drying con-
ditions. Although their total content is less than
2 g 100 g±1, they are seriously harmful to the environ-
ment because of their accumulation and the formation
of a white crust on the surface.
Anions (mg 100 g±1)
HCO3 CO23 SO24 Cl± AlO2 OH± Total
187.01 547.86 305.89 29.46 72.42 ± 1,142.64
119.37 675.04 271.91 34.37 85.58 1.11 1,187.38
136.98 567.42 253.78 36.83 84.27 12.2 1,091.48
Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256 251
 Research article

4. According to chemical analyses, some unstable com- loam. It needs to be pointed out that the content of ®ne
pounds, such as Na2SiO3, NaAlO2, NaOH and Fe(OH)3, sand of >0.1 mm was very high (with values between 28.91
are also included in the pore ¯uids of red mud. and 35.37%), and was generally >30%. Brown sand parti-
cles and coarse silt particles, obtained by suspension
Generally, aragonite, calcite and siderite can not only act sieving, can all be rubbed into very ®ne particles by hand,
as the skeletons of red mud, but also mutually cement which indicates that they are strongly integrated aggre-
themselves through phase transformation and recrystalli- gates with high stability.
zation under drying condition. Colloids of free oxides such However, suspensions obtained from ultrasonically
as hydrophane (SiO2±nH2O), sodium silicate (Na2SiO3), treated HCO3 ±Ca2+ type tap water was considerably
goethite (b-FeOOH) and gibbsite [Al(OH)3] will become unstable, and precipitated fast after churning. This
irreversible cement materials of dried mud when changing indicates that dispersion to promote liquefaction of red
to a solid state. mud would be considerably lowered under the effects
of a HCO3 ±Ca2+-type surface or groundwater after
Particle and aggregate constitution of red mud storage.
Excessive addition of NaOH, CaO and CO2 in alumina
production results in the presence of abundant electrolytes
(dispersants), such as NaOH and NaHCO3 in red mud,
causing red mud to be in a highly dispersive state under
natural conditions. The particle constitution is measured Engineering properties of red mud
using a liquid extract of red mud with a mud/water ratio of
1:10: suspensions of such an extract are very stable with no Permeability and leaching property
¯occulation. The results of granulometric analysis using a The incoherence and high content of ®ne sands and coarse
pipette method, are shown in Table 4. silts determine the importance of the permeability re-
The particle fraction of <0.005 mm ranged from 19.6 to search of red mud. Using a Nan-55 type lysimeter and
26.8%, the particle fraction <0.002 mm was 15.2 to 23.6%. taking tap water as a penetrating ¯uid, the authors have
The principal particle size was >0.01 mm. Thus, most studied the permeability and leaching properties of origi-
samples belonged to heavy loam, and a few to heavy silty nal red mud samples (Table 5).

Table 4
Granulometric analysis results of red mud in different dispersing media
Sample Dispersing Particle composition (mm, %) Structural
number media coef®cienta
>0.1 0.1 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.01 0.01 to 0.005 <0.005 <0.002

1627 Distilled water 35.28 11.12 26.0 8.0 19.6 15.2 5.43
Tap water 20.61 25.79 35.6 12.8 5.2 2.8
1628 Distilled water 28.91 4.29 31.2 10.0 25.6 21.2 6.63
Tap water 15.51 20.88 48.8 9.6 5.2 3.2
1629 Distilled water 35.24 3.16 26.4 8.8 26.4 23.6 2.81
Tap water 37.44 16.16 23.6 9.2 13.6 8.4
1630 Distilled water 30.23 5.77 26.0 11.2 26.8 22.4 6.22
Tap water 57.2 12.18 20.8 6.0 4.0 3.6
1635 Distilled water 35.37 6.63 22.8 10.0 25.2 19.6 12.30
Tap water 45.92 4.03 38.0 7.6 4.4 1.6
a
Structural coef®cient is the ratio of the content of <0.002 mm particle fraction measured by distilled water to that measured by tap water

Table 5
Test results of permeability and leaching property of red mud. The results of chemical analysis for tag water: pH=7.62, degree of mineral-
ization=240.9 mg/l, the type of water quality belongs to HCO3 ±Ca2+
Sample Duration Filtration pH Na+ K+ Salt Natural Dry Water
number of time coef®cient value (mg l±1) (mg l±1) content density density content
(h) (´10±5 cm s±1) (mg l±1) (kN m±3) (kN m±3) (%)

1632-1 2.00 2.36 12.6 2,500.0 116.2 9,848 15.3 76.7 8.7
1632-2 3.40 3.40 12.3 857.0 60.0 2,732
1632-3 4.50 3.62 11.96 340.0 21.1 1,192
1632-4 5.75 3.48 11.87 290.0 15.0 956
1633-1 2.20 1.86 12.56 2,307.7 80.0 7,980 14.9 74.6 8.5
1633-2 3.50 2.36 12.22 660.0 31.0 2,048
1633-3 4.70 2.59 12.08 469.9 25.7 1,456
1633-4 5.92 2.57 11.85 285.0 4.3 868

252 Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256

 Research article

1. Red mud is weakly permeable with a ®ltration coef®- water content (w>80%), which may arise from the
cient between 2.57´10±5 cm s±1 and 3.62´10±5 cm s±1, recrystallization of carbonates.
which is close to that of loess.
2. The ®ltration coef®cient of red mud affected by pene- Strength of red mud
trating water tends to increase gradually because An undrained shear test (direct shear test) with four
leaching of easily soluble salts and the ¯occulation of original samples was performed (Table 7). Despite the
Ca2+ lead to a rapid decrease of salts. The original high water content and low density, the shear strength was
content of salts within 6 h decreased by about ten times not low, with an internal friction angle (u) of 29±31°
from 8±10 g l±1 to 0.87±0.96 g l±1. Therefore, alkaliza- (higher than that of loess), and not a low cohesion(c). The
tion of groundwater and soil will inevitably occur after high shear strength is attributed to the high content of
storage of red mud. >0.01-mm coarse silt particles and ®ne sand particles
(>60%), and the recrystallization and cementation as
It should be pointed out that the strong alkalinity (with a discussed above. Furthermore, draining of samples during
pH value of >12.5, and a pH value of the leaching solution the test may also be responsible.
of up to11.7 after leaching for 6 h), is harmful to the Red mud exhibits a similar behaviour to saturated clay
ecological environment. when deformed, and the shear strain rate varies rapidly
with the increase in shear stress. Long conserved samples
Compressibility of red mud have a remarkably higher cohesion than that of the un-
The highly porous, wet red mud will become gradually conserved samples. Therefore, discontinuous ®lling of red
consolidated and compacted with increased dumping in mud waste may help improve the stability of the dam.
the tailings dam. Its compressibility will be lowered with
the duration of its storage as a result of the crystallization Contraction and disintegration durability of red
of the soluble salts from the pore solutions by desiccation mud
and the cementation caused by hydrophane (SiO2±nH2O), Red mud does not undergo volumetric shrinkage by
goethite (FeOOH), gibbsite [Al(OH)3] and sodium silicate exposure, but hardens with progressive drying. Hardened
(Na2SiO3), so that it becomes a less compressible non- red mud test pieces experience no disintegration when
metallic material. soaked, and neither expansion nor disintegration when a
The compressibility test results of original red mud sam- redried sample is immersed in water for some time, this is
ples from an aluminium factory in Shanxi province are because of recrystallization of CaCO3 and the diagenetic
given in Table 6, with a subsidence rate that ranges from cementation of red mud.
6.0 to 19.0 mm m±1 under a load of 0.1 MPa, and from
12.5 to 30.5 mm m±1 under a load of 0.2 MPa, and a Corrosion of red mud
compressibility factor (a1±2) of 0.218 to 0.433 MPa±1. Such Being of high water content, industrial waste contains
values show a medium compressibility that is not quite large amounts of strong alkaline materials such as NaOH,
compatible with their high porosity (e>2.0) and a high NaHCO3, Na2CO3, Na2SiO3, NaAlO2, so that red mud

Table 6
Results of compressibility test of red mud
Sample Water Natural Dry Void Subsidence rate (mm m±1) Modulus of Compression
number content density density ratio compressibility coef®cient
(%) (kN m±3) (kN m±3) 0.1 MPa 0.2 MPa (MPa) (MPa±1)

1637-1 80.39 14.4 8.0 2.57 14.0 20.0 16.67 0.218

1637-2 80.39 15.3 8.5 2.37 6.0 12.5 15.39 0.223
1638-1 87.08 15.5 8.3 2.44 6.5 17.8 8.89 0.395
1638-2 87.08 13.8 7.4 2.85 19.0 30.0 9.09 0.433

Table 7
Results of quick shear test of red mud
Sample Water Natural Dry Cohesion Angle of Remarks
number content density density (MPa) internal
(%) (kN m±3) (kN m±3) friction
(°)

1627 88.1 15.0 8.0 0.0125 30 The results of no. 1636 are obtained by
the sample conserved for 100 days
1629 87.2 14.9 7.9 0.04 29
1635 89.4 15.0 7.9 0.005 31
1636 84.3 14.8 8.1 0.075 29

Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256 253

 Research article

wastes possess several kinds of corrosion. Some examples internal friction angle to approximately that of a soft rock
that appeared during the experimentation were (1) the (Table 8).
boxes for measuring water content were subjected to
considerable corrosion, which was caused by the reaction Reinforcement mechanisms
of aluminium with NaOH to form NaAlO2. (2) Quartz and The above augmentation in strength is thought to arise
glass are extraordinarily stable when put in neutral or from the following mechanisms:
acidic media; however, there appears to be extensive dis-
1. Heating effect. The reaction of quicklime with red mud
solution when the pH value of water exceeds 11. In dis-
leads to the formation of Ca(OH)2 with extensive
integration tests, the white salt deposits separated out,
emission of heat to cause vapourization of interstitial
distilled water changed into a strongly alkaline solution,
water to create enormous cavities (Fig. 2). Loss of water
and the inner wall of the beaker changed into a semi-
will thereby increase the strength of red mud waste. The
transparent rough surface. (3) Touching the red mud di-
rectly for a short period of time brought about pain, and
the skin became tender because of the alkaline conditions.
Because of the above, the drainage of red mud will cause a
series of environmental problems, such as threatening the
growth of crops and trees, and the safety of humans and
animals.

Reinforcement of red mud waste

Experiment on red mud reinforcement by quicklime
Quicklime is usually applied to reinforce the red mud
waste dam in Shanxi province, China, as well as in the
western plain of Germany (Chinese State Bureau of Envi-
ronmental Protection 1992; Chen 1999). Experiments
conducted in a laboratory show that the strength of red
mud mixed with quicklime in the ratios of 6, 10, 15 and SEM Fig. 2
image of red mud mixed with 10% quicklime, which shows the
20% was increased after being kept for more than 10 days, cavities with diameter between 10 and 20 lm, as well as authigenic
and resulted in an increase in the cohesion and the acicular aragonite

Table 8
Test results of red mud reinforcement by quicklime
Test Method of Duration Water Natural Dry Special Shear strength
order reinforcement of time content density density gravity
(day) (%) (kN m±3) (kN m±3) (c/MPa) u (°)

1 Simply conserved 5 51.43 13.3 8.8 2.811 0.075 28.0

2 10 55.81 13.7 8.8 0.068 28.0
3 20 57.2 13.2 8.4 0.035 26.0
4 40 57.82 13.2 8.4 0.085 27.0
5 Mixed with quicklime 5 61.61 12.9 8.7 2.785 0.046 13.8
in the ratio 6%
6 10 62.46 12.8 7.9 0.055 26.6
7 20 60.63 12.9 8.0 0.035 33.5
8 40 69.64 12.8 7.5 0.020 31.5
9 Mixed with quicklime 5 47.10 11.1 7.5 2.733 0.015 24.0
in the ratio 10%
10 10 65.68 12.4 7.5 0.030 31.3
11 20 63.03 12.5 7.7 0.094 31.0
12 40 63.18 12.2 7.5 0.110 37.0
13 Mixed with quicklime 5 66.37 12.4 7.5 2.701 0.090 21.0
in the ratio 15%
14 10 69.62 11.0 6.8 0.080 23.6
15 20 68.45 12.2 7.2 0.105 32.5
16 40 62.50 10.8 6.6 0.105 34.5
17 Mixed with quicklime 5 49.13 12.9 8.6 2.683 0.240 49.0
in the ratio 20%
18 10 50.39 12.4 8.3 0.210 52.5
19 20 46.03 12.6 8.6 0.120 37.5
20 40 50.81 12.7 8.4 0.110 58.0

254 Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256

 Research article

Table 9
Measurement results of pore size distribution in red mud and consolidated red mud by quicklime
Sample Quicklime Bulk Skeleton Total Total Median Average Distribution of pore size/lm, %
number supplement density density volume area of of pore of pore
(%) (g ml±1 (g ml±1 of pores pores size size >200 200‹20 20‹2.0 2.0‹0.2 <0.2
(ml g±1 (m2 g±1) (lm) (lm)

2050 0.0 1.134 2.269 0.441 6.747 0.691 0.262 3.40 7.93 20.40 40.80 27.47
2054 6.0 0.995 2.382 0.585 7.365 0.957 0.318 0.86 12.47 23.42 41.88 21.37
2053 10.0 1.014 2.456 0.579 12.057 0.537 0.192 2.59 21.57 12.95 25.02 37.87
2052 15.0 0.895 2.159 0.654 9.203 1.124 0.284 3.06 30.56 10.70 30.57 25.11
2051 20.0 1.056 2.298 0.512 13.770 0.191 0.149 0.98 2.92 10.74 34.16 51.20

distribution of different pore sizes of samples mixed
with different proportions of quicklime is determined
by hydrargyrum pumping (Table 9). The abundance of
cavities enhances the permeability of red mud.
2. Formation and cementation of carbonates. Secondary
calcite and acicular aragonite crystals produced by the
reaction of Ca(OH)2 (formed by the process as stated
above) with carbon dioxide from the air will increase
the structural strength of red mud. The more quicklime
added, the stronger the cementation.
3. Formation and cementation of minerals of hydrous
aluminium-silicate. Authigenic platy minerals of hy-
drous aluminium-silicates formed by the reaction of
Ca(OH)2 with free oxides such as SiO2 and Al2O3 will
result in an irreversible cementation of the mud waste.
Control and utilization of red
mud waste
Reinforcement countermeasures for a red mud dam
At present, red mud wastes produced in the world are
either dumped into the sea or piled up on land. In China,
they are mainly stored in a red mud dam. With the rapidly
rising height of mud-waste accompanying the develop-
ment of the aluminium industry, unforeseen disasters may
occur. Consequently, to ensure the safety of dams, hazard
controls and for environmental protection the following
engineering countermeasures are suggested.
1. Shaking draining. Water retained in fresh red mud is a
pore solution of various salts such as Na2CO3 and
Na2SO4, which can be removed by shaking and vacuum
pumping through transformation of capillary water to
free water. Meanwhile, the pumped solution can be
recycled.
2. Consolidation by draining. Rapid consolidation by
draining is fundamental to the stability of a red mud
dam. Therefore, it is necessary to drill drainage wells
and lay a sand layer as a drainage cushion at the base of
the waste mass for this purpose. The waste can thus be
half-consolidated.
3. Reinforcement by desiccation. Desiccation of red mud Qingxuan and members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences for
can not only result in a reduction of water content,
which increases the strength of the waste, but also
accelerates the transformation of aragonite to calcite to
form a ®rm crust. Thereby, it is best to stack the waste
in the reservoir at intervals of time other than the rainy
season. It provides the most convenient way of rein-
forcement without involving any additional invest-
ment.
Utilization of red mud waste
As a kind of composite material mainly composed of su-
per-®ne grains of calcium carbonate, as well as several
other kinds of minerals, red mud has a broad prospect of
utilization, especially after solution pumping and recy-
cling.
1. It can be used as roadbed material instead of lime soil
in the plain area because of its high bearing strength
and durability.
2. Silicate cement produced from red mud is strong, sul-
phate- and frost-resistant, and inexpensive.
3. Silicate fertilizer made from red mud is very suitable to
acid red soil, yellow soil and rice soil in south China
because it contains many trace elements, and is espe-
cially high in potassium and phosphate.
Conclusions
Fresh red mud is a kind of soft, loose, earthy material,
which has undesirable engineering properties such as high
water content that are liable to deformation and lique-
faction. Nevertheless, after it is conserved or desiccated for
a long period, its strength can obviously be increased, and
it undergoes no shrinkage or disintegration because of its
special chemical and mineral composition, and the irre-
versible structural cementation formed during ageing and
desiccation. It has been proved by experiments that ap-
plying quicklime to red mud consolidation is an effective
method. Moreover, the comprehensive utilization of red
mud can open up a new way for turning a harmful material
into a valuable one that is of bene®t to society.
Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank Professor Chen
carefully reading the manuscript and for their constructive sug-
gestions.

Environmental Geology (2001) 41:249±256 255

 Research article
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