INSA de Rouen Normandie Université de Rouen Normandie

Influence of Ambient Density on the

Effects of Acoustic Radiation Pressure

Supervisors:
Author: Françoise Baillot
Michael Ovando Jean-Bernard Blaisot
Rafael Herrera

November 30, 2021

Contents

1 Introduction 7

2 Bibliographical review 9
2.1 Acoustics generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Linear acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.3 Nonlinear effects of linear acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Gas-assisted liquid jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Experimental setup 14
3.1 Resonant acoustic chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Liquid-gas system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Measurement techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 Normalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.2 Thresholding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.3 Local threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.4 Mean image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.5 Maximum image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.6 Cone angle determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.7 Liquid core length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4 Acoustic characterization 28
4.1 Design aid: numerical tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Experimental elements of investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Resonance frequency fr of the acoustic chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.4 Characterisation of the acoustic mode at fr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.4.1 Characterization on axis (O, ⃗x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4.2 Characterization on axis (O, ⃗y ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.3 Characterization on axis (⃗z) at VAN and PAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5 Results 39
5.1 Study of the flow without acoustic effects for various ambient pressures . . . . . 39

1
 5.2 Study of the flow with acoustic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2.1 Without air flow at a constant ambient pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2.2 With air flow at different ambient pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Conclusions 50

7 Perspectives 51

References 52

2
List of Figures
2.1 Examples of liquid jet atomisation regimes obtained with the coaxial injector
used in the experiments: (a) Rayleigh Axisymmetric (Re = 2500, We = 9); (b)
Rayleigh Non-symmetric (Re = 3000, We = 40); (c) Shear break-up (Re = 2900,
We = 60); (d) Membrane Break-up (Re = 3200, We = 129); (e) Fibre Break-up
(Re = 3200, We = 224). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Experimental bench with all three parts visible. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Schematic view of the closed resonant cavity. Obtained from [Herrera, 2019] . . 15
3.3 Numerical representation of the acoustic cavity in COMSOL Multiphysics™ . . . 16
3.4 Schematic view of a coaxial injector with a close-up view of the injector exit.
From [Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Hydraulic and pneumatic circuits; liquid and gas feed lines’ arrangement. From
[Herrera, 2019]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.6 Cavity top with nine acoustic measurement ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.7 Cavity top with three injectors and six acoustic measurement ports . . . . . . . 19
3.8 Simplified optical configuration, with the five predominant components . . . . . 20
3.9 Schematic plan of the views A and B for the acoustic chamber. Obtained from
[Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.10 Examples of the different views for an air assisted jet at Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60.
(a) View A, (b) View B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.11 Image acquisition samples for a jet at 50 litres per hour, non assisted by air flow 22
3.12 Post-treated images for a non-assisted jet without acoustics (liquid flow rate 50
L/h ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.13 Example of a mean image, Rel = 2900, W eg = 60, P = 1bar, Acoustic pressure
amplitude (peak to peak) pac = 10434 Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.14 Example of a maximum image, Rel = 2900, W eg = 60, P = 1bar, Acoustic
pressure amplitude (peak to peak) pac = 10434 Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.15 Example for cone angle measurement. The regions for which the regression
lines are fitted are indicated blue and orange. Injection conditions: Re = 2900,
W e = 60, pac = 4998 Pa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.16 Examples of core length measurements at Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60, 6340P a . . 27
4.1 Boundary conditions for the simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 Acoustic pressure vs. frequency, obtained in COMSOL Multiphysics™ . . . . . . 29
4.3 Lateral view of the numerical pressure distribution for one quarter of the experi-
mental chamber, obtained with COMSOL Multiphysics™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3
4.4 Schematic of the acoustic characterisation and signal generation system. Obtained
from [Ficuciello, 2017]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.5 Generated and recorded signal examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.6 Frequency response of the cavity characterised by the amplitude peak to peak of
the acoustic pressure fluctuations measured at point O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.7 Power spectral density of the raw acoustic pressure signal for the forcing frequency
f0 = 1047 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.8 Phase analysis between the reference pressure signal (point O) and the filtered
signals of a raw signal measured at point (x = 0 mm,y = 11 mm,z = 0 mm). At
1037 Hz t1 ≈ t0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.9 Peak to peak amplitude vs. x for pac = 2749P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.10 Peak to peak amplitude vs. x for pac = 5898P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.11 Phase vs. x for pac = 2749P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.12 Phase vs. x for pac = 5898P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.13 Peak to peak amplitude vs. y for pac = 2978P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.14 Peak to peak amplitude vs. x for pac = 5860P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.15 Phase vs. y for pac = 2978P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.16 Phase vs. y for pac = 5860P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.17 Peak to peak amplitudes vs. -z for pac = 2568P a at VAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.18 Phase vs. -z for pac = 2568P a at VAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.19 Peak to peak amplitudes vs. -z for pac = 4040P a at PAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.20 Peak to peak amplitudes vs. -z for pac = 7699P a at PAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.21 Phase vs. -z for pac = 4040P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.22 Phase vs. -z for pac = 7699P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.1 Visualisation of Rayleigh axisymmetric regime at different ambient pressures,
comparing to [Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.2 Visualisation of Rayleigh non-symmetric regime at different ambient pressures,
comparing to [Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.3 Visualisation of sheer break-up regime at different ambient pressures, comparing
to [Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4 Visualisation of membrane break-up regime at different ambient pressures, com-
paring to [Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.5 Visualisation of fibre break-up regime at different ambient pressures, comparing
to [Ficuciello, 2017] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.6 Jet without acoustic effects (in orange) contrasted with the gravitational acceler-
ation model (in blue). Interrupted lines indicate a region of ± 5% accuracy . . . 43

4
 5.7 Examples of liquid jet diameter variation at different acoustic pressures, (a)
p = 0P a, (b) p = 5035P a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.8 Normalised diameters vs distance at different liquid flow rates, (a) Q = 30L/h,
(b) Q = 40L/h, (c) Q = 50L/h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.9 Visual representation of the maximum diameter of the jet. Injection conditions:
Q = 50 [L/h], pac = 5539 Pa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.10 2b/D0 vs Bond number, (a) Obtained in the experiments, (b) Obtained in [Herrera,
2019] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.11 Examples of jet assisted (Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60) at different ambient
pressures, under acoustics in view A, (a) pac = 4998P a, (b) pac = 8392P a, (c)
pac = 9960P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.12 Examples of jet assisted (Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60) at different ambient
pressures, under acoustics in view B, (a) pac = 4998P a, (b) pac = 8392P a, (c)
pac = 9960P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.13 Angle measurement on a configuration of Rel = 2900, W eg = 60 and acoustic
pressure of 4998 Pa, 8392 Pa and 9960 Pa respectively, view B . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.14 Evolution of the cone angle in acoustic pressure at Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60 . . 47
5.15 Evolution of the core length in acoustic pressure for View B, Rel = 2900 and
W eg = 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

List of Tables
1 Injection conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Cone angle (in degrees) as a function of pac /P for various ambient pressures
P = 1, 3, 5 bar, Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3 Cone angle (in degrees) as a function of pac /P for various ambient pressures
P = 1, 3, 5 bar, Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60 in view A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 Cone angle (in degrees) as a function of pac /P for various ambient pressures
P = 1, 3, 5 bar, Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60 in view B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5
 Abstract
This study is based on the influence that surrounding media has on the acoustic
radiation pressure effects. For this study, we use a chamber that can be pressurized up
until 5 bar, which is equipped with speakers and a fluid injection system. Our main
targets are to characterise acoustically this chamber, determine the effects of the ambient
density (or ambient pressure, more precisely) on the atomisation process (with and without
acoustics) of a liquid jet that can be air-assisted or not, and the application and development
of tools for this system (more specifically, the image treatment and the acoustic treatment).
Keywords: Acoustics, injection, ambient density, radiation pressure.

Résumé
Cette étude concerne les effets de la presision acoustique en atmosphère pressuriée sur
un jet d’eau coaxial assisté ou non par air. Pour cette étude nous utilisons une chambre
acoustique pouvant être pressurisée jusqu’à 5 bar équipée de hauts-parleurs et d’un système
d’injection des fluides. Nos principaux objectifs sont :
— de caractériser le champ de pression acoustique régnant dans la chambre dont la cible
est l’obtention du mode acoustique transverse 2T.
— de déterminer les effets de la masse volumique de l’air linéairement dépendante de la
pression ambiante sur les processus d’atomisation avec et sans acoustique.
Pour cela on est amené à développer des outils spécifiques de traitement d’image
obtenues par visualisation rapide (jusqu’à 6000 im/s) ou non suivant un axe optique
parallèle ou orthogonal à l’axe acoustique. En absence d’acoustique tous les régimes
d’atomisation déjà observés à P = 1bar sont également obtenus aux pressions ambiantes
plus élevées pour des nombres de Reynolds liquide et Weber gazeux similaires.
Les résultats montrent que le phénomène d’applatissement dû à la pression de radiation,
observé en ventre de vitesse à pression atmosphérique, est obtenu pour des amplitudes
acoustiques relatives pac /P plus faibles lorsque la pression ambiante P augmente. La
tendance observée pour la longueur de coeur liquide est une diminution pour P et pac /P
croissants.
Mots-clés : Acoustique, injection, densité ambiante, pression de radiation.

6
1 Introduction
Thermoacoustic instabilities in Liquid Rocket Engines (LRE) are a widely studied subject,
which dates from the late 1930s ([Springer and Springer, 1935],[Hoffman and Wiener, 1940]).
Almost all propulsion systems after that date had been observed to produce these instabilities
([Lieuwen and Yang, 2005]). High frequency azimuthal (spinning or standing) instabilities
(≥ 1kHz) are among the most damaging ones, and also the hardest to eliminate. They are
′
generated when fluctuations of the heat release rate, q (t) coming from the combustion process
′
can couple with pressure fluctuations p (t) which usually tune to the chamber’s eigenmodes.
Indeed fluctuations of the pressure field can modify the injection conditions, which leads in
particular to perturb atomization and vaporization processes and finally the combustion process
itself. In turn, fluctuations of the heat release rate may become a source term for the fluctuating
acoustic pressure field, as shown in the Helmholtz equation modified for reactive systems, the
amplitude of which is amplified, reaching very high levels. According to the Rayleigh criterion
([Rayleigh, 1878]) if heat release rate fluctuations are in phase with acoustic pressure fluctuations,
a resonant interaction between combustion and acoustic field is possible. However this necessary
′ ′
condition is not sufficient since the coupling p q has to be greater than the acoustic energy flux
and the damping.
Finely investigating unstable systems presenting self-sustained thermo-acoustic instabilities,
even at the laboratory scale, is a hard task due to the large complexity of mechanisms involved
and the arduousness to implement advanced diagnostics. Thus, a useful approach is to analyse
the different steps describing instability loops separately. In particular, the impact of acoustics
on flow dynamics, with or without combustion, can be studied by using an external acoustic
forcing. However producing high acoustic field levels on which observed phenomena are directly
dependent is still challenging, so that only a few studies are found in the literature.
In LRE, propellants are usually in a trans or super-critical phase during steady state operative
conditions. However, during the early transient phase, the oxidant can remain in the liquid
phase. In the case of coaxial injectors, the phase of the central jet is still liquid while the annular
fuel flow is gaseous ([Di Matteo, 2012]). Thus, studying the impact of acoustics on atomization is
quite crucial, since atomization process determines droplet size and spatial distribution involved
in the combustion process.
The coupling between acoustics and atomisation in the framework of the LRE has been the
subject of experimental and numerical studies such as [Heidmann and Groeneweg, 1969, Heister
et al., 1997, Rutard et al., 2019, Desclaux et al., 2019]. Concerning the CORIA team, it has
been involved for more than 15 years, in the collaborative French-German program REST 1
on high frequency combustion instability. Its experimental and theoretical contribution refers
to the impact of transverse acoustic standing waves of very high amplitudes on coaxial air-
assisted water-jets [Baillot et al., 2009, Ficuciello et al., 2017, Herrera et al., 2019a]. An original
experimental bench, named Transverse Acoustic Cavity for Spray (TAC-Spray), was conceived
and built up. It is based on an acoustic resonant cavity inside which an acoustic field was
forced transversely to the two-phase flow injection by means of compression drivers. At first,
experiments were conducted at atmospheric pressure, by means of a semi-opened cavity. The
1. Rocket Engine STability research initiative

7
response of a unique air-assisted water jet to the transverse acoustic field was investigated
from the Rayleigh regime to the fibre regime [Boisdron, 2006, Baillot et al., 2009]. Among the
investigated phenomena, it was observed the flattening, in the plane perpendicular to the wave
plane, of the liquid jet located at an acoustic velocity anti-node. In [Ficuciello, 2017, Ficuciello
et al., 2017], the work statistically studied the spatial distribution of droplets issued from one
to three jets, the locations of which were at or in the vicinity of pressure, velocity or intensity
anti-nodes. At intensity anti-nodes, jet flattening, but also deviation of the jet and of the spray
were quantified. In order to explain those phenomena, an analytical model based on nonlinear
effects of the linear acoustics ([King, 1934]) was developed first in the presence of a spherical
object [Baillot et al., 2009], then of a cylindrical object [Ficuciello, 2017]. Two physical quantities
averaged over time were introduced: the radiation pressure and the resulting radiation force
acting on the surface of the object. Amplitudes of these quantities can reach great values as a
result of the superposition of the incident acoustic field and of the field scattered by the object.
Thus the radiation pressure distribution could explain the flattening of the liquid jet, while
the radiation force could explicate the deviation. However, the scattered field can be modified
by the change of the geometry induced by the flattening of the liquid object. In order to take
into account this geometry change, [Herrera, 2019, Herrera, 2020] proposes a semi-analytical
model for an elliptical geometry object, which shows that the radiation pressure is enhanced
with the object deformation from an elliptical shape aligned with the acoustic direction to an
elliptical shape perpendicular to it. Another aspect to take into account for the variation of
these two quantities is the ratio of the density of the medium over that of the object, which was
theoretically investigated by [Ficuciello, 2017].
The present experimental work focuses on the effect of the density ratio upon the behavior
of the air-assisted water-jet in a pressurized environment. Thus, a new resonant cavity, but
closed at that time, was designed by [Herrera, 2020] and built up by the CORIA workshop.
The fist contribution of the present work is to elaborate a complete acoustic characterization
of the cavity with a view to generating a 2T mode inside the cavity. Then, without acoustics
it is necessary to verify that the different atomization regimes obtained with the semi-opened
cavity (from Rayleigh to fiber regimes) are well retrieved here at the absolute pressure of 1
bar [Boaz et al., 2020]. A second step is to qualify the regimes when the ambient pressure is
increased up to 5 bar while maintaining the two characteristic dimensionless numbers of the
fluid system, namely the Reynolds and Weber numbers. The final point is to characterize the
response of a liquid jet (both non assisted and air-assisted), when subjected to the transverse
acoustic standing wave.

8
2 Bibliographical review
In this chapter, we introduce the general issues related to the present investigation, namely
elements of acoustics and injection.

2.1 Acoustics generalities

2.1.1 Sound

Sound is defined as pressure waves which causes local regions of compression and rarefaction.
The propagation of sound involves a transport of energy without carrying a transport of matter,
by means of the mentioned mechanical waves. The matter that supports the sound is called
the medium. Sound is generally transmitted through fluids as longitudinal waves, also called
compression waves. The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave converts back and forth
between the potential energy of the extra compression or lateral displacement strain of the
matter, and the kinetic energy of the displacement velocity of particles of the medium.

2.1.2 Linear acoustics

Small perturbations of acoustic waves are considered. The fluid is considered as an ideal gas.
It is considered all the processes as isentropic. Thus, the main physical quantities are developed
as follows:

ρ = ρ0 + ρ′1 + O(2) (1)

′
with ρ0 
the ambient
 density in the reference state, ρ1 the first order perturbations of ambient
′
ρ1
density << 1 .
ρ0

P = P0 + P1′ + O(2) (2)

with P0 the absolute

 ′ pressure
 in the reference state, P1′ the first order perturbations of
P1
absolute pressure << 1 .
P0

−
→ − → − →
V = V0 + V ′ (3)

−→ −
→
V0 , the speed of the medium in the reference state, is equal to 0 for a purely acoustic
−
→
standpoint, and ||V ′ ||<< c with c the speed of sound in the reference state. For perfect gases is
written as:
s
γRT
c= (4)
µ

9
 Cp
With γ = , R the gas constant and µ the molecular weight. First, we introduce the momentum
Cv
balance equation for an inviscid fluid:
−
→ !
ρ
∂V
+∇ ¯ V · V = −−
−
→ −
→ →
∇P (5)
∂t

¯−
We will not take into consideration the nonlinear effects that appear in equations 5, thus ∇
→ −→
V ·V
is omitted. Introducing 1, 2 and 3 into 5:
−
→
∂V ′ 1
= − ∇P ′ (6)
∂t ρ0
The continuity equation is introduced:
∂ρ −
→
= ∇ · (ρ · V ) (7)
∂t
By linearisation, we obtain:
∂ρ′ −→
+ ρ0 · ∇ · ( V ′ ) = 0 (8)
∂t
Deriving this expression with respect to the time:
∂ ∂ρ′ −
→′
 
+ ρ0 · ∇ · (V ) = 0
∂t ∂t

−
→
∂ 2 ρ′ ∂V ′
+ ρ0 ∇ · =0 (9)
∂t2 ∂t
Combining equations 9 and 6:
∂ 2 ρ′
− ∇2 P ′ = 0 (10)
∂t2
A Taylor series is used to relate the pressure and the density, it is expressed as:
∂ 2 ρ 
 
∂ρ 
ρ = ρ0 + (0)(P − P0 ) + (0)(P − P0 )2 + ... (11)
∂P s ∂P 2 s
Considering only the linear terms of this expansion, and applying a thermodynamical expression,
we get: 
ρ − ρ0 ∂ρ 
≃
P − P0 ∂P s

ρ′ ∂ρ′ 

1
′
≃ ′
= 2
P ∂P s c


where c is the sound speed in the reference state.

10
 P ′ = c2 ρ ′ (at the first order) (12)

Combining equations 10 and 12:

1 ∂ 2P ′
− ∇2 P ′ = 0 (13)
c2 ∂t2
This is called the wave equation in the framework of the linear acoustics approach.
Among all solutions of equation 13, it will be considered only the harmonic solutions,
represented in the complex writing by P ′ = p′ (x, y, z)e−iωt , where p′ (x, y, z) is a complex spatial
function, ω = 2π is the angular frequency of the wave and f is the frequency of the wave. Thus,
the complex writing of Equation 13 is:

∇2 p′ + k 2 p′ = 0 (14)

ω 2π
With k = = , the wavenumber.
c λ

2.1.3 Nonlinear effects of linear acoustics

When the acoustic amplitudes are large enough, it is possible to keep the nonlinear quadratic
terms intervening in the balance equations without modifying the decomposition of the perturbed
quantities.
dh = dp/ρ (15)
A general form of the Bernoulli equations can be obtained as:
1 −→2
Z
dp 1 →2 ∂ϕ
h= =− − v − = − ∇ϕ − ϕ + C (16)
ρ 2 ∂t 2
⃗
where ⃗v = ∇ϕ. The enthalpy h can be written as the sum of the enthalpy at the reference state
h0 and the fluctuating part h = h′ + h0 . Expanding h in powers of p, and taking only terms up
to second order:
1 ∂ 2ρ
     
∂h  
 (P − P0 )2 + O(2)
h= (P − P0 ) + (17)
∂p s 0
 2 ∂P 2 s 0
  
Since ∂h  = 1/ρ0 , and P = P ′ + P0 we have:
∂p
s 0

′ ′
P′ P 2 P′ P2
 
′ ∂h
h = − 2 = − (18)
ρ0 2ρ0 ∂p s ρ0 2(c20 )(ρ20 )

Substituting equation 18 into 16 we have:

1  ⃗ 2 ρ0
P ′ = −ρ0 ϕ − ρ0 ∇ϕ + 2 ϕ2 (19)
2 2c0

11
 Indeed, even though the instantaneous nonlinear fluctuations terms still are negligible
compared to the linear terms, their time-averaged expression, namely radiation quantities, are
able to become sufficiently large to induce quantifiable time-averaged nonlinear effects. The
radiation pressure is given hereafter [Ficuciello, 2017]:
T
1 −→
Z
1 ρ0
prad = (−ρ0 ϕ − ρ0 (∇ϕ)2 + 2 ϕ2 )dt = pζ + pϕ + pq (20)
T 0 2 2c

These effects are all the more important as the incident field ϕi is scattered in the presence
of an object. In that latter case, the resulting field ϕi + ϕs , with ϕs the scattered field by the
object, leads to the appearance of a radiation pressure field and a resulting radiation force
acting on the surface of the object (see equation 21), able to deform or move the object.

−
→
 −→
F rad = − prad N dS (21)
S

−
→
with N the outer normal exerted on the surface of the object

2.2 Gas-assisted liquid jet

One of the (if not the) most important parts in a liquid rocket engine is the injection system,
which purpose is to introduce the flow of propellants in the combustion chamber, in order
to control the conversion into combustion gases at a high temperature and pressure. Thus,
the injector has a very important role in this process, since it controls the atomization that
determines the distribution and mixing of the propellants.
One of the most common types of injectors is the coaxial type, which consists of a set of
two concentric cylindrical tubes, where the liquid flows through the inner tube, and gas flows
through the outer tube. This type of injector is widely used due to its high atomisation at large
flow rates, with low pressure drops.
According to the liquid-gas injection conditions which are qualified by at least two dimen-
sionless numbers Rel , the liquid Reynolds number, and W eg , the gaseous Weber number, five
different atomisation regimes can be identified, as shown by [Lasheras and Hopfinger, 2000] and
illustrated by figure 2.1, corresponding to distinct atomisation regimes obtained by [Ficuciello,
2017].
The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces for the liquid jet:
ρl ul Dl
Rel = (22)
µl
with
— ul the bulk velocity of the liquid jet at the injector exit
— ρl the density of the liquid jet
— Dl the exit diameter of the injector
— µl the dynamic viscosity of the liquid jet

12
 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 2.1 – Examples of liquid jet atomisation regimes obtained with the coaxial injector used in
the experiments: (a) Rayleigh Axisymmetric (Re = 2500, We = 9); (b) Rayleigh Non-symmetric
(Re = 3000, We = 40); (c) Shear break-up (Re = 2900, We = 60); (d) Membrane Break-up (Re
= 3200, We = 129); (e) Fibre Break-up (Re = 3200, We = 224).

Rel is useful to determine the stability of a liquid jet, for which we can define three different
regions, which are the laminar region (for a Reynolds under 2000), transition region (which is in
between a Reynolds of 2000 and 2500) and turbulence (that is for Reynolds usually over 2500).
The Weber number of the gas is defined as the ratio between the inertial forces of the gas
and the surface tension forces of the liquid:

ρg u2g
W eg = σ (23)
Dl
with
— ug the bulk velocity of the gas flow at the injector exit
— ρg the density of the gas
— σ the surface tension of the liquid flow

13
3 Experimental setup
This section presents the elements of the experimental bench used for this project (see figure
3.1). We will use the same configuration as [Herrera et al., 2019b], which is composed of 3 main
parts: the acoustic resonant chamber (section 3.1), the liquid-gas system (section 3.2) and the
optical system (section 3.3).

Figure 3.1 – Experimental bench with all three parts visible.

3.1 Resonant acoustic chamber

The acoustic resonant chamber is a closed stainless steel rectangular cavity presenting several
accesses for the implementation of four loudspeakers, of the injection system at its top and
of four lateral optical quartz windows. Each loudspeaker Beyma CP-850ND is enclosed in
a pressurized cylindrical cavity to maintain the static pressure balance on both sides of its
membrane. A schematic view of the closed resonant cavity is shown in figure 3.2.

14
 Resonant
cavity Coaxial
Injector Digital
Liquid
Air Air manometer
Optical
acces

High speed CMOS Camera

(PHANTOM) LED Light
Diffuser
plate source

Loud-speaker
Loud-speaker
cavity

Level sensor

Liquid storage
vessel

Figure 3.2 – Schematic view of the closed resonant cavity. Obtained from [Herrera, 2019]

The dimensions of the acoustic cavity are: length L = 330 mm, width W = 450 mm and
height H = 510 mm. The Cartesian coordinate system (O, ⃗x, ⃗y , ⃗z) is defined in figure 3.3 such
as:
— O is the center of the inner top.
— ⃗x is the horizontal direction perpendicular to the acoustic direction ⃗y .
— ⃗z the vertical ascending direction.
The dimensions of the optical quartz windows are 320 mm in length, 170 mm in height and
34 mm in thickness. They are flushed at the internal top of the cavity. This gives a clear
visualization of the beginning of the jet from the injector exit, with a field of view large enough
to observe the atomisation and acoustic effects.

15
 Figure 3.3 – Numerical representation of the acoustic cavity in COMSOL Multiphysics™

3.2 Liquid-gas system

The liquid-gas system consists in a fluid injection part and a liquid storage part shown in
figure 3.2. The liquid is water, and the gas is air.
The injection part is composed of three water feed lines, three air feed lines and three coaxial
liquid-gas injectors. Each injector presents a central tube (Dl = 6 mm) fed by the water and a
coaxial converging tube supplied by the air injected through two opposite inlets located at 10.5
cm upstream the injector exit (see figure 3.4). The gas annular gap is e = 1 mm. One to three
injectors can be implemented on the top of the cavity.

Figure 3.4 – Schematic view of a coaxial injector with a close-up view of the injector exit. From
[Ficuciello, 2017]

Two electro-valves are used to open or close the hydraulic and pneumatic circuits. Three

16
control valves are used for the regulation of the water flow rate. The liquid flow rate in each line
ranges from 10 L/h to 500 L/h. Three regulated flowmeters are used for the air flow, which
ranges from 0.001 g/s to 5 g/s in each line. A home-made LabView program is used to control
the fluid system.

Bouyancy
Level Manometer
sensor

Digital Injector Feeding

manometer Storage
vessel

Resonant
cavity
Electrovalve

Particle
Filter

Level Electric signal

Sensor Acquisition
module

Post-
injection
Storage
vessel
Computer

Figure 3.5 – Hydraulic and pneumatic circuits; liquid and gas feed lines’ arrangement. From
[Herrera, 2019].

Fluid operating conditions

A parametric study of the injection has been held for three absolute pressures: 1, 3 and
5 bar. Liquid and gaseous injection conditions were chosen in order to maintain the liquid
Reynolds number and the gaseous Weber number. Since the gas density changes with the
ambient pressure, the air flow rate is adapted in order to maintain each Weber number (see
table 1). For the liquid flow rate, the injection depends only on the liquid Reynolds number.
Therefore, the liquid and gas (considered as a perfect gas) mass flow rates are given by:
s
W eg σl P
ṁl = Rel νl πDl ṁg = π(Dg2 − Dl2 ) (24)
2M RTg Dl

Injection conditions are reported in table 1 for P = 1, 3 and 5 bar.

17
 Rel ml [L/h] W eg ṁg [g/s]
P = 1 bar P = 3 bar P = 5 bar
2500 42.56 9 0.25 0.44 0.56
3000 51.07 40 0.53 0.92 1.19
2900 49.36 60 0.65 1.13 1.46
3200 54.47 129 0.95 1.65 2.14
3200 54.47 224 1.26 2.18 2.82

Table 1 – Injection conditions

The cavity top in our system is interchangeable. We use two different configurations, the
first one comprises 9 acoustic measurement points (see figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6 – Cavity top with nine acoustic measurement ports

The other one comprises 3 injection points and 6 acoustic measurement points located near
the injection ports (see figure 3.7).

18
 Figure 3.7 – Cavity top with three injectors and six acoustic measurement ports

Liquid level sensors were placed in the feeding and post-injection storage vessels to prevent
the post injection vessel from a fulfilment and the feeding vessel from emptying. A fulfilment
of the liquid post-injection tank would damage the liquid regulation valve, which can only
work under moistened gas flow conditions, but not under liquid flow conditions. Likewise, the
emptying of the feeding tank would result in gas flow going through the liquid lines, resulting in
a damage of the flow meters.

3.3 Measurement techniques

For this system, we have set up several optical techniques, for which we obtained images
of the liquid jet for several conditions, in air-assisted and non-assisted conditions. The main
technique used for data acquisition is Diffuse Back-Light Visualization, which consists of a white
light source that is used as a background, a camera and an objective to capture images of the
jet. A diffuser plate is placed between the light source and the object (the jet) in order to ensure
an homogeneous grey-level for the background. A simplified schema of this configuration is
shown in figure 3.8:

19
 Figure 3.8 – Simplified optical configuration, with the five predominant components

In such a backlight configuration, objects appear as black over white background.

As explained previously, the acoustic chamber has four windows, allowing visualisations
according to View A and View B as shown in figure 3.9. View A is normal to the acoustic axis
and View B is parallel to the acoustic axis. Some examples of the jet in both views are shown
in figure 3.10.

Figure 3.9 – Schematic plan of the views A and B for the acoustic chamber. Obtained from
[Ficuciello, 2017]

The cameras used for all experiments were the following:

— MatrixVision BlueCOUGAR CCD camera Definition: 2448x2050, focal length = 105
mm, magnification factor = 0.119, framerate = 10 images/second.
— Phantom V9 High Speed Camera. Definition = 1632x1200, focal length = 180 mm,
framerate = 1000 images/second.
— Phantom V12 High Speed Camera. Definition = 1280x800, focal length = 105 mm,
framerate = 5000 images/second.
The main purpose of this set of cameras is to produce a certain amount of images, which are
post-processed in order to extract statistical information.

20
 (a) (b)

Figure 3.10 – Examples of the different views for an air assisted jet at Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60.
(a) View A, (b) View B

3.3.1 Normalisation

The process of data acquisition starts with a series of background images without any object
(see Figure 3.11a). With this in mind, we start performing our experiment at the desired frame
rate to obtain a image stack. The raw jet images (figure 3.11b) are normalised (figure 3.11c)
by dividing them by the background. After we have the normalised images, we proceed to the
thresholding process.

21
 (a) Background Image (b) Raw jet image (c) Normalized jet image

Figure 3.11 – Image acquisition samples for a jet at 50 litres per hour, non assisted by air flow

Normalisations are made by handmade python scripts. Normalisations of the different images
are required to have a better separation of our object (the liquid jet in our case) from the
background. The normalized image is almost uniform, which facilitates the threshold procedure
presented below.

3.3.2 Thresholding

There are two regions of interest in the images, i.e. the liquid and the air. To separate these
regions the image must be segmented. Here we use a threshold, which is nothing more than a
given grey-level value, for which we apply the condition of ”if grey level of the pixel is higher
than this value, then replace its value by 255” and ”if grey level of the pixel is lower than this
value, then replace its value by 0”. However, doing this method for the whole image with a
fixed threshold level can produce aberrations or false information for the image, which could be
explained by the non uniformity of the normalisation process. This non uniformity arises when
time variation of the light source cannot be corrected by the normalisation process. This reason
is why a local threshold method is used here.

3.3.3 Local threshold

A local threshold is nothing more than a threshold elaborated in a small area. This is useful
due to the effects previously mentioned. Several local threshold methods exist and one must be
selected depending on the application.
Some of the more usual methods are listed bellow:
— Mean method, which uses the mean of grey levels of a given region as the threshold.
— Median method, that selects the median of the grey levels of the region as the threshold.
— Mid-grey method, that is the mid level of the minimum and maximum grey levels of the
region.
Some more elaborated methods were developed by [Niblack, 1986] and [Otsu, 1979]. For our
purposes, the better adapted is the Phansalkar method, which is briefly described hereafter.

22
3.3.3.1 Phansalkar thresholding method

The Phansalkar method ([Phansalkar et al., 2011]) is an adaptation of the Sauvola’s thresh-
olding method ([Sauvola and Pietikäinen, 2000]), which consists in dividing the image into
several regions, and in tracking structures with similar grey levels. The advantage of the
Phansalkar’s method over the Sauvola’s is its ability to better define the edges of objects.
This is a pretty effective method for images that have low contrast levels (or a relative low
contrast level) and several structures near each other without a clear separation between them.
To compute this method we use the following formula:

T = c̄ · (1 + p · e−q·c̄ + k((σ/r) − 1)) (25)

Where:
— c̄ represents the mean level of the selected region
— σ is the standard deviation of the level of the selected region
— p is the exponential term magnitude effect
— q is the threshold characteristic exponent factor
— r is the dynamic range of standard deviation
— k is a constant
As stated by Phansalkar, the more effective value for the parameters of the methods are p = 2,
q = 10, r = 0.5 and k = 0.25. Two-level images are inverted : the liquid phase corresponds to
level = 255 (white pixels) and the gas phase to level = 0 (black pixels) (see figures 3.12b and
3.12c).

(a) Normalised image (b) With global threshold (c) With Phansalkar method

Figure 3.12 – Post-treated images for a non-assisted jet without acoustics (liquid flow rate 50
L/h )

3.3.4 Mean image

Having the binary and inverted images, we are interested in the probability of the residence
of a particle in a given pixel. This is obtained by using the grey level average on the entire
image stack for a given pixel. The statistical average is expressed as:
n
1X
x̄ = (xi ) (26)
n i=1

23
where x̄ is the average level, n represents the number of images in the stack and xi each individual
levels for a given pixel. If a pixel is visited 60 percent of the time, the final result for this pixel
is going to be:

x̄ = 0.6 · 255 = 153 (27)

An illustration is given in figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13 – Example of a mean image, Rel = 2900, W eg = 60, P = 1bar, Acoustic pressure
amplitude (peak to peak) pac = 10434 Pa

3.3.5 Maximum image

The maximum image is computed to get the location where liquid has passed at least one
time along the image sequence. Indeed, as liquid is coded with level 255, the maximum value of
a given pixel over the image sequence is 255 if this pixel value is 255 for at least one image in
the sequence.

24
Figure 3.14 – Example of a maximum image, Rel = 2900, W eg = 60, P = 1bar, Acoustic
pressure amplitude (peak to peak) pac = 10434 Pa

3.3.6 Cone angle determination

The efficiency of atomisation is usually characterized by the cone angle Θ of the region
containing the dispersed liquid elements. The process to obtain the cone angles starts with the
mean image (see section 3.3.4). From the mean image, we focus on the 15 percent probability
region (which correspond to a grey level greater than 37). We use the matplotlib library in
python to obtain the contours of this region. The coordinates of the contour are used to perform
local linear regressions. This method consist in selecting regular intervals of the contour (around
50 pixels is a good start to approximate) to apply linear regression analysis. The interval with
the largest correlation coefficient (closest to 1) is selected. This method is done on both sides of
the jet (see figure 3.15).

25
Figure 3.15 – Example for cone angle measurement. The regions for which the regression lines
are fitted are indicated blue and orange. Injection conditions: Re = 2900, W e = 60, pac = 4998
Pa.

The result of the correlations gives two lines, and the angle between these lines is easily
calculated by using the formula:

 
m2 − m1
Θ = arctan (28)
1 + m1 m2

Where:
— m1 represents the slope of the blue line (that is calculated with the left side)
— m2 represents the slope of the orange line (that is calculated with the right side)

3.3.7 Liquid core length

The liquid core of a jet is defined as the region where the jet has not developed any kind of
break up. The liquid core length is defined as the length of the region connected to the jet exit
in the mean image where the probability of finding water is 100% (i.e. the region with a 255
level).
In figure 3.16 we can see measurements of the core length from View A and View B.

26
 (a) View A (b) View B

Figure 3.16 – Examples of core length measurements at Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60, 6340P a

27
4 Acoustic characterization

4.1 Design aid: numerical tool

The software COMSOL Multiphysics™was first used as a tool of conception in order to verify
that the planned resonant cavity well met the acoustic target, namely a 2T mode associated
to a frequency around 1000 Hz such that the cavity is well decoupled from the downstream
storage vessel. The frequency range is chosen in agreement with the typical thermo-acoustic
instability frequencies observed in LRE. Simulations have been performed with the Acoustic-Solid
Interaction, Frequency domains interface and Pressure acoustics interface. The modelled system
includes the air inside the cavity, downstream storage vessel and neck-piece between them.
Simulation considers only the air inside these elements. Air was considered at a temperature of
20 degrees Celsius, with a sound speed of c = 343 m/s. All walls of the system are considered
rigid elements, which means ∇p′ · N ⃗ = 0. The mesh is composed of polygonal elements. It has
a polygonal mesh, with a total of 443,070 tetrahedra, 28778 triangles, 1736 edge elements and
38 vertex elements. The loudspeaker is considered as an oscillating paraboloid membrane. To
determine the acoustic response of the system, the Helmholtz equation (equation 13), applied to
the acoustic pressure fluctuations, is solved in the frequency domain by imposing an harmonic
normal acceleration of frequency f0 to the membranes of loudspeakers such that ∇p′ · N⃗ = ρ 0 an
with an the acceleration amplitude.

(a) Limit conditions for the chamber (b) Limit conditions for the speakers

Figure 4.1 – Boundary conditions for the simulations.

In practice, f0 is swept from 1030 Hz to 1050 Hz by an increment of 0.1 Hz. The resonant
behaviour of the cavity is obtained when the pressure amplitude obtained at the cavity center is
maximized. An illustration is presented in Figure 4.2 where the resonant frequency, fr is found
at 1039.7 Hz. Finally, the amplitude distribution of the acoustic pressure field of one quarter of
the system is calculated for fr = 1039.7 Hz (see figure 4.3). It is observed a strict decoupling
between the cavity and the vessel, and a pressure distribution in the cavity representative of a
2T mode (pressure antinodes at its center and wall, and pressure node at the middle distance
between the latter ones). It can be concluded that the experimental system should acoustically

28
respond as expected. Its acoustical characterisation can then begin.

Figure 4.2 – Acoustic pressure vs. frequency, obtained in COMSOL Multiphysics™

29
Figure 4.3 – Lateral view of the numerical pressure distribution for one quarter of the experimental
chamber, obtained with COMSOL Multiphysics™

4.2 Experimental elements of investigation

Several experiments were conducted to characterize the acoustic field of the experimental
chamber. Acoustic measurements where mainly made along the following axes in the cavity:
(O, ⃗x), (O,⃗y ), (O,⃗z) (pressure anti-node PAN) and (x = 0, y = L/4,⃗z) (velocity anti-node VAN).
The acoustic field in the cavity was characterized by measurements made with pressure sensors
flush-mounted in the cavity top. Nine sensor locations are available on the top as shown in
figure 3.6. The elements used for the acoustic measurements (see figure 4.4) are listed below:
• PCB 106B : Acoustic pressure sensors (x4).
• ICP signal conditioner : Electrical source for PCB 106B.
• NI-9263 : Voltage signal generator module.
• NI-9215 : Analogue voltage to digital converter module.
• NI-9234 : Acoustic signal acquisition module.
The generated signal’s shape at the loudspeaker input is shown in figure 4.5a. The signal envelope
shows three parts: a linearly increasing region, a constant region and a linearly decreasing
region. An example of acoustic pressure signal measurement inside the resonant cavity is shown
in figure 4.5b. We can see small deviations of the pressure signal from the sent signal.

30
Figure 4.4 – Schematic of the acoustic characterisation and signal generation system. Obtained
from [Ficuciello, 2017].

27.71
Voltage[V]

0.00

27.88
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time[Sec]
(a) Signal at the loudspeaker input generated in
LabView (b) Acoustic signal at (0,0,0)

Figure 4.5 – Generated and recorded signal examples.

Data presented in the following correspond to acoustic pressure fluctuations obtained when
the signal delivered by the loudspeaker input is in the plateau region. As shown hereafter, the
raw acoustic measurements need to be filtered which is done by implementing an elliptic filter
in the postprocessing. This filter (also known as a Cauer filter) is used due to its fast transition
in gain around the passband frequency. The filter used in our system is a passband, with an
order of 8; the maximum ripple allowed in the passband was of 0.1 dB. The frequency was the
determined resonance frequency on that experiment (around 1047 Hz).

31
4.3 Resonance frequency fr of the acoustic chamber
We determine the experimental resonance frequency of the cavity by a method similar to
the one used with simulations. The loudspeakers are forced successively at a frequency f0 such
that f0 is swept from 1000 Hz to 1100 Hz by a step of 1 Hz. The resulting acoustic pressure
fluctuations are measured at point O inside the cavity for each frequency. The amplitude peak to
peak is extracted from all the raw signals (see blue data in figure 4.6). The resonant frequency,
fr is expected to be around the maximum of the raw signal. Then, the PSD of each raw pressure
signal shows that the two main frequencies are the forcing frequency f0 and its first harmonic
2f0 . An illustration is given in figure 4.7. The raw signal is filtered at these two frequencies with
an elliptical filter, from which amplitude peak to peak is extracted and reported in figure 4.6.
The resonance frequency is found when the filtered amplitude is maximum, namely for the
present example for fr = f0 = 1047 Hz, a value similar to the value found with the simulations
fr = 1039.7 Hz) This frequency analysis is systematically made when a new experiment is
done in order to take into account the (small) variability of the sound speed due to ambient
temperature and humidity variations.

Figure 4.6 – Frequency response of the cavity characterised by the amplitude peak to peak of
the acoustic pressure fluctuations measured at point O.

32
Figure 4.7 – Power spectral density of the raw acoustic pressure signal for the forcing frequency
f0 = 1047 Hz

As we can see in figure 4.7 the signal is particularly non linear showing a cascade of
harmonics in addition to the fundamental frequency.

4.4 Characterisation of the acoustic mode at fr

The expected mode is a 2T mode (see figure 4.3). Pressure acoustic measurements have
been made at different locations inside the cavity in order to verify that the target mode was
satisfactorily obtained. The analysis needs to extract the amplitude and phase of the signals
filtered at the resonant frequency fr and at its main harmonics.
Relative phase determination
We define the signal of reference as the signal measured at point O and filtered at fr . The
phase of a filtered signal is calculated relative to the signal of reference. To do that, the reference
signal and the studied signal are measured simultaneously. The time t0 of the signal of reference
is defined as a time when the signal becomes null during an increasing evolution. Then, the
time ti of the studied signal, defined in a similar manner, is the one obtained in the near vicinity
of t0 . The relative phase of the studied signal is therefore equal to:
P hasei = (t0 − ti ) ∗ 2π ∗ fr (29)
An illustration is given in figure 4.8 for four signals (i = 1 − 4) obtained from a raw signal
filtered at fr and at its three first harmonics.

33
Figure 4.8 – Phase analysis between the reference pressure signal (point O) and the filtered
signals of a raw signal measured at point (x = 0 mm,y = 11 mm,z = 0 mm). At 1037 Hz t1 ≈ t0 .

4.4.1 Characterization on axis (O, ⃗x)

A uniform acoustic pressure distribution along the axis (O, ⃗x) is expected in order to be
in agreement with the COMSOL simulations. Measurements have been made for nine evenly
spaced positions on the top of the cavity. Two set of experiments were conducted for acoustic
pressure signals at point O with a raw amplitude peak to peak, pac , equal to 2749 Pa and 5898
Pa respectively. The response is mainly driven at fr .
As can be seen in figures 4.9 and 4.10 the amplitude is not uniform whatever the signals,
non filtered or filtered at fr or 2fr . The signal filtered at fr is asymmetrical: presenting no
variation in the region of x positive, it increases from x = 0 to x = -100 mm. Concerning
the first harmonic signal, it has a bell shape centred at x = 0. But, whatever the signals, the
discrepancy relative to the value at x = 0, is at most +15%.
The relative phase is constant and equal to or close to zero, all along the axis for all the
signals (see figures 4.11 and 4.12).
The explanation concerning this amplitude discrepancy is not found presently. However it is
sufficiently small, in particular in the central domain where measurements will be made (+5%),
to consider that the assumption of uniformity is acceptable.

34
Figure 4.9 – Peak to peak amplitude vs. x for Figure 4.10 – Peak to peak amplitude vs. x
pac = 2749P a for pac = 5898P a

Figure 4.11 – Phase vs. x for pac = 2749P a Figure 4.12 – Phase vs. x for pac = 5898P a

4.4.2 Characterization on axis (O, ⃗y )

A 2T mode for acoustic pressure distribution along the axis (O, ⃗y ) is expected in order to
agree with the COMSOL simulations. As done for axis (O, ⃗x), nine evenly spaced positions
were used for measurements on top of the cavity. Two sets of experiments were conducted for
acoustic pressure signals at point O with a raw amplitude peak to peak pac equal to 2978 and
5860 Pa, respectively.
For the 2T mode it is expected an acoustic pressure maximum at (x = 0, y = 0) and minima
at (x = 0, y = ±L/4).
The amplitude for the filtered signals at fr (see figures 4.13 and 4.14) follows the 2T mode
shape as expected. The contribution to the raw signal at the minimum of pressure is due to
the first harmonic 2fr . For higher pac , the minimum of pressure is greater due to a larger
contribution of the first harmonic.
The phase for the filtered signals at fr in the central part of region delimited by the minima
of pressure is equal to zero (see figures 4.15 and 4.16). At the boundary of this region the
phase decreases from 0 to −π by passing by the value of −π/2 at the minimum of pressure in
agreement with results of Lespinasse˙PhD and Baillot˙et˙al˙sympo˙2020.
The distribution of amplitude for the filtered signals at fr agrees with the 2T mode while

35
the shape of the raw signal depends on the first harmonic too.

Figure 4.13 – Peak to peak amplitude vs. y Figure 4.14 – Peak to peak amplitude vs. x
for pac = 2978P a for pac = 5860P a

Figure 4.15 – Phase vs. y for pac = 2978P a Figure 4.16 – Phase vs. y for pac = 5860P a

4.4.3 Characterization on axis (⃗z) at VAN and PAN

With the consideration of a 2T mode, constant amplitude are expected along ⃗z. To verify
this, measurements are done in both velocity anti-node VAN axes (x = 0, y = L/4, ⃗z) and
the pressure anti-node PAN (O, ⃗z). In practice, measurements were made by steps of 5 mm
from z = 0 up to z = -100 mm for VAN and z = -475 mm for PAN. Three acoustic levels were
performed:pac equal to 2568 Pa at VAN, and pac equal 4040 Pa and 7699 Pa at PAN. Results
are presented in figures 4.17 and 4.18.
The peak to peak amplitudes for the filtered signals at fr and its harmonics are small and
as expected at VAN the first harmonic has a larger amplitude than the fundamental. The large
amplitude of the raw signal suggest the sum of many harmonics. This results has to be confirmed
by a finer analysis. The phase of the low signal filtered at fr stays around −π/2 provided
|z|< 60mm. Beyond, the amplitude of the signals are too small to provide an accurate value of
the phase. This is the case for the third and fourth harmonics. But for the first harmonic, the
constant phase equal to −π/2 has to be taken into for consideration.

36
Figure 4.17 – Peak to peak amplitudes vs. -z for Figure 4.18 – Phase vs. -z for pac = 2568P a
pac = 2568P a at VAN at VAN

The fundamental is the most energetic mode for the results at PAN (see figures 4.19 and 4.20).
A dome-like structure is observed on the amplitude of the signal filtered at fr . An assumption,
needed to be confirmed, would be the excitation of other modes with a frequency close to fr
that alter the 2T mode along ⃗z. The phase of fr is close to 0 provided that |z|< 300mm. For
other harmonics, the phase has no predetermined shapes. However the domain of interest, i.e.
|z|< 100mm presente properties closed to a 2T mode.

Figure 4.19 – Peak to peak amplitudes vs. Figure 4.20 – Peak to peak amplitudes vs.
-z for pac = 4040P a at PAN -z for pac = 7699P a at PAN

37
Figure 4.21 – Phase vs. -z for pac = 4040P a Figure 4.22 – Phase vs. -z for pac = 7699P a

38
5 Results

5.1 Study of the flow without acoustic effects for various ambient
pressures
In this chapter we will discuss about the studies made on the liquid jet, but without forcing
acoustics into the system, with the intention of characterizing the flow in different atomization
regimes at different ambient pressures. The objective is to verify the effect of the ambient
pressure on the various atomization regimes.
A visual comparison of the regimes is shown in figures 5.1 through 5.5. One remark is that
the images obtained by [Ficuciello, 2017] have a bigged field of view than the ones obtained in
our experiment.
We start in figure 5.1, on which we can see the Rayleigh axisymmetric instabilities. We are
not able to see the rupture of the jet in our images, but we can see small perturbations on the
contour of the jet. This image does not tells us about any effects of the ambient pressure on the
atomisation regime.

Experiments of
𝑃 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑟
A. FICUCIELLO

Rayleigh
Axisymmetric
𝑅𝑒𝑙 = 2500
𝑊𝑒𝑔 = 9

Figure 5.1 – Visualisation of Rayleigh axisymmetric regime at different ambient pressures,

comparing to [Ficuciello, 2017]

In figure 5.2 however, we can see a direct effect on where the non-symmetric Rayleigh
instabilities start to appear. For the case at 5 bar, it is closer to the injectors nozzle than on
the other two cases, and for 3 bar it is closer than atmospheric pressure. This is to say that it
does exist a link in between the ambient pressure and the Rayleigh non-symmetric instabilities.

39
 Experiments of
𝑃 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑟
A. FICUCIELLO

Rayleigh
Non-Symmetric
𝑅𝑒𝑙 = 3000
𝑊𝑒𝑔 = 40

Figure 5.2 – Visualisation of Rayleigh non-symmetric regime at different ambient pressures,

comparing to [Ficuciello, 2017]

Similar to the previous case, for figure 5.3 we see the shear break-up appearing closer to the
injectors nozzle as we increase the ambient pressure. Another take is that the dispersion range
appears to be bigger as we decrease the ambient pressure.

Experiments of
𝑃 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑟
A. FICUCIELLO

Shear
Break-up
𝑅𝑒𝑙 = 2900
𝑊𝑒𝑔 = 60

Figure 5.3 – Visualisation of sheer break-up regime at different ambient pressures, comparing to
[Ficuciello, 2017]

In the case of membrane break up, as seen in figure 5.4, the same phenomena occurs, the
decrease of the length of stability as we increase the ambient pressure. Moreover, we have a
quicker separation of water packets from the core flow as we decrease the ambient pressure.
This is to say that at higher pressures for membrane breakup, it will be more likely to have
larger water clusters.

40
 Experiments of
𝑃 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑟
A. FICUCIELLO

Membrane
break-up
𝑅𝑒𝑙 = 3200
𝑊𝑒𝑔 = 129

Figure 5.4 – Visualisation of membrane break-up regime at different ambient pressures, comparing
to [Ficuciello, 2017]

In the last case seen in 5.5 for fibre break up, we can start to see the shape of a dispersion
cone appearing from the top. This ”cone” appears to decrease in angle as we increase the
ambient pressure. Another note is that it is more likely to see large bundles in the centre of the
jet axis as we increase the ambient pressure.

Experiments of
𝑃 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃 = 5 𝑏𝑎𝑟
A. FICUCIELLO

Fibre break-up
𝑅𝑒𝑙 = 3200
𝑊𝑒𝑔 = 224

Figure 5.5 – Visualisation of fibre break-up regime at different ambient pressures, comparing to
[Ficuciello, 2017]

5.2 Study of the flow with acoustic effects

We have made several experiments concerning the effect of acoustics on a liquid jet. This
experiments are divided into two parts: experiments without air flow (Rel = cste and ambient
pressure fixed at 1 bar) with variable acoustic pressure, and experiments with air flow (at a
given gas Weber number and liquid Reynolds number) with variable acoustic and chamber
pressure.

5.2.1 Without air flow at a constant ambient pressure

We will characterize the evolution of the jet diameter with respect of the position in the
z axis. To do this part, we used the normalised images, and measure the diameter of the jet

41
at different acoustic intensities, then we proceed to subtract the diameter of the jet without
acoustic perturbations (which is our reference jet, shown in figure 5.7a). The diameter of the
jet is obtained by thresholding the images and determining the distance in pixels for several
horizontal profiles. These lengths then are converted into centimetres by dividing with the
resolution of the camera.
We could have not done the same value for the entire jet, since the diameter for the non
disturbed jet diminishes with z, because of an acceleration due to gravitational effects according
to the model presented in figure 5.6. This model comes from the continuity equation and the
Bernoulli principle, which states that for a incompressible fluid, the sum of half of the square
of the velocity, acceleration due to gravity times the height and pressure over density should
remain constant; this is written as:

u2 p
+ gz + = K (30)
2 ρ

We will consider two points of the system, one at the exit of the injector (we will call
this point 0), and other at a lower point inside the jet (which will be called 1). Another
consideration to make is that the pressure/density ratio is equal in the entire liquid jet. With
these considerations, the expressions for the continuity equation and the Bernoulli principle are:

u20 u2
+ gz0 = 1 + gz1 (31)
2 2

u0 A0 = u1 A1 (32)

πD2
Knowing that A is the cross section of the jet, A = and z0 = 0. Combining these
4
expressions and solving for u1 and D1 we obtain:

 1/2
2g (z1 )
u1 = u0 1 − (33)
u20

 −1/4
2g (z1 )
D1 = D0 1 − (34)
u20

42
 (a) (b)

Figure 5.6 – Jet without acoustic effects (in orange) contrasted with the gravitational acceleration
model (in blue). Interrupted lines indicate a region of ± 5% accuracy

In figures 5.7a and 5.7b we see the difference between the diameter of the jet in different
heights. Several points have a very noticeable spread, while others are roughly equal.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.7 – Examples of liquid jet diameter variation at different acoustic pressures, (a) p = 0P a,
(b) p = 5035P a.

Three different injection conditions were used on this experiment, which were at 30, 40 and
50 litres per hour of liquid flow rate, these are represented in figure 5.8. As we can see from this
figure, there exist some peaks at different values of z. We can state that these peaks represent
the maximum deformation for the liquid jet at that acoustic pressure, more clearly seen in figure
5.9. Saving these peaks and dividing by the value of the diameter of the jet without acoustics
at that position in z, we can obtain the deformation value (represented as 2b/D0 ).

43
 (a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.8 – Normalised diameters vs distance at different liquid flow rates, (a) Q = 30L/h, (b)
Q = 40L/h, (c) Q = 50L/h

Figure 5.9 – Visual representation of the maximum diameter of the jet. Injection conditions:
Q = 50 [L/h], pac = 5539 Pa.

With this deformation value, we can obtain a stability curve (to see how much the defor-

44
mations are dependant on the surface tension forces), by linking this deformation to the Bond
number. One characteristic of the flow that we could analyse is the ratio of surface tension
forces and gravitational forces. Luckily for us, it exists a dimensionless number which represents
the rate of these forces, which is called the Bond number.
p̄ · D0
Bo = (35)
2σ
where:
— p̄ the mean acoustic energy per unit volume
— D0 the diameter of the jet without acoustic effects
— σ the surface tension of the liquid flow
In figure 5.10a we see the ratio of the Bond number with respect to the deformation, and in
figure 5.10b we see the same curves obtained by [Herrera, 2019]. We can see certain similarities
in the behaviour of these curves. These results show that the surface tension forces in our
system plays a crucial role in keeping non deformed the jet. In agreement with the Bond number
definition, an increase in the deformation tends to decrease the surface tension forces, until a
certain threshold for which the jet is unstable.

1.0

0.8
Ba = D20σP

0.6

0.4 α = 0.0550
α = 0.1100
0.2 α = 0.1700
Elliptic cylinder
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
2b [−]
D0
(a) (b)

Figure 5.10 – 2b/D0 vs Bond number, (a) Obtained in the experiments, (b) Obtained in [Herrera,
2019]

5.2.2 With air flow at different ambient pressures

A set of experiments was conducted in regards of air-assisted liquid jet under acoustic effects
at the velocity anti-node (VAN) located in the central part of the cavity at z = 0. For this
part, we conducted measurements in both view A and view B. The injection conditions are
summarised in table 1. Experiments were made at three ambient pressures, 1 bar, 3 bar and 5
bar. An illustration is given for the shear break-up regime in Figs. 5.11 and 5.12 where the
values of the numbers Rel and W eg are the same whatever the ambient pressure.

45
 (a) P = 1 bar (b) P = 3 bar (c) P = 5 bar

Figure 5.11 – Examples of jet assisted (Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60) at different ambient pressures,
under acoustics in view A, (a) pac = 4998P a, (b) pac = 8392P a, (c) pac = 9960P a

(a) P = 1 bar (b) P = 3 bar (c) P = 5 bar

Figure 5.12 – Examples of jet assisted (Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60) at different ambient pressures,
under acoustics in view B, (a) pac = 4998P a, (b) pac = 8392P a, (c) pac = 9960P a

Be careful, the dimensions of the two fields of view are slightly different. The analysis
concerns two geometrical jet quantities: the cone angle and the liquid core length.
Cone angle

46
 The evolution of the angle is reported in figure 5.14 as a function of the relative pressure
amplitude, pac /P

(a) P = 1 bar (b) P = 3 bar (c) P = 5 bar

Figure 5.13 – Angle measurement on a configuration of Rel = 2900, W eg = 60 and acoustic

pressure of 4998 Pa, 8392 Pa and 9960 Pa respectively, view B

Figure 5.14 – Evolution of the cone angle in acoustic pressure at Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60

For a given ambient pressure, as the ratio pac /P increases the cone angle visualized in view B
tends to increase as well. This was expected, since the radiation pressure amplitude is increased
as the acoustic pressure amplitude increases. For a given value of pac /P , the cone angle tends
to increase with an increase of the ambient pressure as well. However, the trend is the opposite
if we consider pac and not pac /P . The values for the angles are numerically represented in table
2. Here we can see the decrease in the average cone angle as we progress in ambient pressure
since each column in table 2 correspond to a given value of pac .

47
 P = 1 bar
pac
[-] 0.0397 0.0493 0.0570 0.0626 0.0685
P
Angle [degrees] 3 84 120 132 138
P = 3 bar
pac
[-] 0.0214 0.0276 0.0343 0.0397 0.0521
P
Angle [degrees] 9 19 40 76 58
P = 5 bar
pac
[-] 0.0151 0.0197 0.0236 0.0269 0.0299
P
Angle [degrees] 17 21 23 58 62

Table 2 – Cone angle (in degrees) as a function of pac /P for various ambient pressures P = 1, 3, 5
bar, Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60

Core length
The core length evolution has been measured in both views A and B in order to characterize
jet atomization at different values of pac and pac /P . An illustration is reported in figure 5.15a
and 5.15b.

(a) View A (b) View B

Figure 5.15 – Evolution of the core length in acoustic pressure for View B, Rel = 2900 and
W eg = 60

The core length tends to diminish with an increase of the ratio pac /P , which implies that
the atomization process occurs closer to the jet exit as the acoustic pressure is increased. When
the ambient pressure is increased, the core length diminishes.

48
 pac
[-] 0.0397 0.0493 0.0570 0.0626 0.0685
P
P = 1 bar 22 12 5 4 3
pac
[-] 0.0214 0.0276 0.0343 0.0397 0.0521
P
P = 3 bar 21 11 8 8 1
pac
[-] 0.0151 0.0197 0.0236 0.0269 0.0299
P
P =5 11 11 9 8 6

Table 3 – Cone angle (in degrees) as a function of pac /P for various ambient pressures P = 1, 3, 5
bar, Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60 in view A.

pac
[-] 0.0397 0.0493 0.0570 0.0626 0.0685
P
P = 1 bar 21 7 4 5 5
pac
[-] 0.0214 0.0276 0.0343 0.0397 0.0521
P
P = 3 bar 13 11 8 7 10
pac
[-] 0.0151 0.0197 0.0236 0.0269 0.0299
P
P =5 6 7 13 12 11

Table 4 – Cone angle (in degrees) as a function of pac /P for various ambient pressures P = 1, 3, 5
bar, Rel = 2900 and W eg = 60 in view B.

49
6 Conclusions
The problem to discuss was presented in the first chapter. Here we see the significance and
weight of this investigation, as well as the objectives for the project.
A brief summary of the basic knowledge was introduced in chapter two, where we introduced
about the acoustics generalities, as well as the radiation quantities due to the non-linearity effect
of the scattering phenomenon. The different atomization regimes were also introduced.
Description and definitions of the experimental setup were discussed in chapter three. The
acoustic chamber used is the same as the one described by [Herrera et al., 2019b]. This cavity,
compared to the one made by [Ficuciello, 2017], is a closed cavity working in a pressurized
environment up to 5 bar. We also presented the measurement techniques, image treatments and
the methods by which the atomisation regime is characterized by means of the cone angle and
the liquid core length of the liquid jet. The image treatment process was also described in this
chapter,and showed the different applications used in this work, such as cone angle and liquid
core length determination.
The acoustic characterization of the acoustic chamber was performed in order to verify that
the acoustic target, namely a 2T mode acoustic wave, is obtained inside the cavity. To do
that we swept the forcing frequency delivered by the loud-speakers which gave the resonance
frequency, fr . The detected value is of 1047 Hz, a value which depends on ambient conditions
(temperature and moisture), may vary by ± 12 Hz). The results showed that the acoustic
field along an axis parallel to the acoustic axis, the acoustic field is that of a 2T mode, but
along the axis perpendicular to the acoustic axis, it shows some discrepancy from the expected
constant pressure distribution. However, this discrepancy remains small and its impact should
be negligible.
Experiments were performed at 3 ambient pressures (1 bar, 3 bar and 5 bar) while keeping
constant both the Reynolds and Weber numbers in order to compare the regimes, at least
qualitatively. The different atomisation regimes shown by [Ficuciello, 2017], were well found for
the same dimentionless numbers. In the case of non-assisted air systems, the determination of
the deformation values vs pac was obtained. The maximum of the deformation values was used
to compare the acoustic Bond number in this work with the calculations from [Herrera, 2020].
Here we see that trend of the values has the same structure, as well as similar values. For the
air-assisted liquid jet with acoustic effects, the evolution of the cone angle and the liquid core
was used. Results revealed that it exists a reduction of the cone angle with an increase of the
cavity pressure, whereas the cone angle tends to increase by increasing the acoustic intensity.
Another interesting point to remark is the liquid core length diminution as we increase the
acoustic intensity whereas it becomes larger for higher cavity pressures. These results confirm
the model developed by the CORIA team in which the impact of the radiation pressure to
flatten the jet well increases with the increase in the acoustic level, but decreases as the density
ratio increases.

50
7 Perspectives
Precedent study covers the first part of the study in the interaction of acoustics and injection
in a pressurised cavity. Several experiments needs to be further developed. Different conditions
presented in table 1 needs to be exploited using the same processes, in order to characterise
more thoroughly the impact of the ambient density has on the behaviour of a air-assisted jet
submitted to acoustics. The experiments presented here corresponds to one position of the
injection in the chamber, the intensity anti-node (IAN). An exhaustive study needs to be done
in other critical positions, such as the pressure anti-node (PAN) and the velocity anti-node
(VAN).
One of the next steps for this study is to further approach the real operating conditions
of a liquid rocket engine. To achieve this, studies on transcritical injection conditions are
required. This is a complex system not only submitted to atomisation, but also to phase changes.
Further experimental studies and physical modellings, implying interaction between acoustics
and liquid-gas injection, need to be performed. This need to be done under subcritical or
transcritical conditions.

51
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