Biomechanics of Hard Tissues

(Bone)
Biomechanics
 Composition of Bone
• In biological terms,
– bone is a connective tissue that binds
together various structural elements of
the body.
• In mechanical terms,
– bone is a composite material with various
solid and fluid phases.
 Composition of Bone
• Bone consists of cells and an organic mineral
matrix of fibers and a ground substance
surrounding collagen fibers.
• Bone also contains inorganic substances in the
form of mineral salts.
• The inorganic component of bone makes it
hard and relatively rigid, and its organic
component provides flexibility and resilience.
• The composition of bone varies with species,
age, sex, type of bone, type of bone tissue, and
the presence of bone disease.
 Composition of Bone
• At the macroscopic level, all
bones consist of two types of
tissues
• The cortical or compact bone
tissue is a dense material
forming the outer shell
(cortex) of bones and the
diaphysial region of long
bones.
• The cancellous, trabecular, or
spongy bone tissue consists of
thin plates (trabeculae) in a
loose mesh structure that is
enclosed by the cortical bone. Sectional view of a whole bone
showing cortical and cancellous
tissues
 Composition of Bone
• Bones are surrounded by
a dense fibrous
membrane called the
periosteum.
• The periosteum covers
the entire bone except for
the joint surfaces that
are covered with
articular cartilage.
Sectional view of a whole bone
showing cortical and cancellous
tissues
 Mechanical Properties of Bone

• Bone is a nonhomogeneous
material because it consists of
various cells, organic and
inorganic substances with
different material properties.
 Mechanical Properties of Bone

• Bone is an anisotropic material

because its mechanical
properties are different in
different directions.
– That is, the mechanical response of bone is dependent upon the
direction as well as the magnitude of the applied load.
– For example, the compressive strength of bone is greater than its
tensile strength.
 Mechanical Properties of Bone
• Bone possesses viscoelastic
(timedependent) material
properties.
– The mechanical response of bone is dependent on
the rate at which the loads are applied.
– Bone can resist rapidly applied loads much better
than slowly applied loads.
• In other words, bone is stiffer and stronger at
higher strain rates.
 Mechanical Properties of Bone
• Bone is a complex structural material.
• The mechanical response of bone can be
observed by subjecting it to tension,
compression, bending, and torsion.
• These tests can be performed using uniform
bone specimens or whole bones.
– If the purpose is to investigate the mechanical response
of a specific bone tissue (cortical or cancellous), then the
tests are performed using bone specimens.
– Testing a whole bone, on the other hand, attempts to
determine the “bulk” properties of that bone.
 Tensile stress–strain
• This σ – ε curve is drawn
using the averages of the
elastic modulus, strain
hardening modulus,
ultimate stress, and
ultimate strain values
determined for the human
femoral cortical bone
tested under tensile and
compressive loads applied
in the longitudinal Tensile stress–strain diagram for human cortical
direction at a moderate bone loaded in the longitudinal direction (strain
rate ε = 0.05 s-1)
strain rate (ε = 0.05 s-1).
 Tensile stress–strain
The σ – ε curve in has three distinct regions.

• In the initial linearly elastic

region, the σ – ε curve is
nearly a straight line and
the slope of this line is
equal to the elastic
modulus (E) of the bone,
which is about 17 GPa. Tensile stress–strain diagram for human cortical
bone loaded in the longitudinal direction (strain
rate ε = 0.05 s-1)
 Tensile stress–strain
The σ – ε curve in has three distinct regions.
• In the intermediate region,
the bone exhibits nonlinear
elasto-plastic material
behavior.
• Material yielding also
occurs in this region.
• By the offset method, the
yield strength of the Tensile stress–strain diagram for human cortical
bone loaded in the longitudinal direction (strain
cortical bone for the σ – ε rate ε = 0.05 s-1)

diagram can be determined

to be about 110 MPa.
 Tensile stress–strain
The σ – ε curve in has three distinct regions.

• In the final region, the

bone exhibits a linearly
plastic material behavior
and the σ – ε diagram is
another straight line.
• The slope of this line is the
strain hardening modulus Tensile stress–strain diagram for human cortical

(E’) of bone tissue, which is bone loaded in the longitudinal direction (strain
rate ε = 0.05 s-1)

about 0.9 GPa.

 Tensile stress–strain
The σ – ε curve in has three distinct regions.

• The bone fractures

when the tensile
stress is about 128
MPa, for which the
tensile strain is Tensile stress–strain diagram for human cortical
bone loaded in the longitudinal direction (strain
about 0.026. rate ε = 0.05 s-1)
Viscoelastic nature of bone tissue
• The elastic moduli and strength
values for bone are dependent
upon many factors including
the test conditions such as the
rate at which the loads are
applied.
• The stress–strain diagrams for
different strain rates indicate
that a specimen of bone tissue
that is subjected to rapid
loading (high ε) has a greater
elastic modulus and ultimate
strength than a specimen that is The strain rate-dependent
loaded more slowly (low ε) stress–strain curves for cortical
bone tissue
Viscoelastic nature of bone tissue
• The energy absorbed
(which is proportional to
the area under the σ – ε
curve) by the bone tissue
increases with an
increasing strain rate.
• During normal daily
activities, bone tissues are
subjected to a strain rate
The strain rate-dependent
of about 0.01 s-1. stress–strain curves for cortical
bone tissue
Anisotropic nature of bone tissue
• The stress–strain behavior
of bone is also dependent
upon the orientation of
bone with respect to the
direction of loading.
• The cortical bone has a
larger ultimate strength
(stronger) and a larger
elastic modulus (stiffer) in
the longitudinal direction
than the transverse
direction. The direction-dependent
stress–strain curves for bone
tissue
Anisotropic nature of bone tissue
• Furthermore, bone
specimens loaded in the
transverse direction fail
in a more brittle manner
(without showing
considerable yielding) as
compared to bone
specimens loaded in the
longitudinal direction. The direction-dependent
stress–strain curves for bone
tissue
Anisotropic nature of bone tissue
• The bone strength is highest under
compressive loading in the longitudinal
direction (the direction of osteon
orientation) and lowest under tensile
loading in the transverse direction (the
direction perpendicular to the longitudinal
direction).
Anisotropic nature of bone tissue
• The elastic modulus of cortical bone in the
longitudinal direction is higher than its
elastic modulus in the transverse direction.
• Therefore, cortical bone is stiffer in the
longitudinal direction than in the transverse
direction.
Anisotropic nature of bone tissue
• Ultimate strength, and elastic and shear moduli
for human femoral cortical bone.
 Mechanical Properties of Bone
• It should be noted that there is a wide range
of variation in values reported for the
mechanical properties of bone.
– tensile strength of bone is less than 10% of that
of stainless steel.
– stiffness of bone is about 5% of the stiffness of
steel.
– Specimens of the same dimension and under the
same tensile load, a bone specimen will deform
20 times as much as the steel specimen.
 Cortical and Cancellous Bone Tissues
• The chemical compositions of
cortical and cancellous bone
tissues are similar.
• The distinguishing
characteristic of the cancellous
bone is its porosity.
• This physical difference
between the two bone tissues is
quantified in terms of the
apparent density of bone, Apparent density-dependent
• mass of bone tissue present stress–strain curves for
cancellous bone tissue
in a unit volume of bone.
 Cortical and Cancellous Bone Tissues
• To a certain degree, both
cortical and cancellous bone
tissues can be regarded as a
single material of variable
density.
• The material properties such as
strength and stiffness, and the
stress–strain characteristics of
cancellous bone depend not
only on the apparent density
that may be different for Apparent density-dependent
different bone types or at stress–strain curves for
cancellous bone tissue
different parts of a single bone,
but also on the mode of loading.
 Cortical and Cancellous Bone Tissues

• The compressive stress–strain

curves of cancellous bone
contain an initial linearly elastic
region up to a strain of about
0.05.
• The material yielding occurs as
the trabeculae begin to fracture.
• This initial elastic region is
followed by a plateau region of
almost constant stress until Apparent density-dependent
fracture, exhibiting a ductile stress–strain curves for
cancellous bone tissue
material behavior.
 Cortical and Cancellous Bone Tissues
• By contrast to compact bone,
cancellous bone fractures
abruptly under tensile forces,
showing a brittle material
behavior.
• Cancellous bone is about 25–
30% as dense, 5–10% as stiff,
and five times as ductile as
cortical bone.
• The energy absorption capacity
of cancellous bone is Apparent density-dependent
stress–strain curves for
considerably higher under cancellous bone tissue
compressive loads than under
tensile loads.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
• There are several factors that may affect the
structural integrity of bones.
–The size and geometry of a bone
determine the distribution of the
internal forces throughout the bone,
thereby influencing its response to
externally applied loads.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
–The larger the bone, the larger the
area upon which the internal forces
are distributed and the smaller the
intensity (stress) of these forces.
–Consequently, the larger the bone,
the more resistant it is to applied
loads.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
• A common characteristic of long
bones is their tubular structure in
the diaphysial region, which has
considerable mechanical advantage
over solid circular structures of the
same mass.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
– Shear stresses in a structure subjected to
torsion are inversely proportional with the
polar moment of inertia (J) of the cross
sectional area of the structure,
– Normal stresses in a structure subjected to
bending are inversely proportional to the area
moment of inertia (I) of the cross-section of the
structure.
– The larger the polar and area moments of
inertia of a structure, the lower the maximum
normal stresses due to torsion and bending.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
• Since tubular structures have larger polar and
area moments of inertia as compared to solid
cylindrical structures of the same volume,
tubular structures are more resistant to
torsional and bending loads as compared to
solid cylindrical structures.
• Furthermore, a tubular structure can
distribute the internal forces more evenly over
it cross-section as compared to a solid
cylindrical structure of the same cross-
sectional area.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
• Certain skeletal conditions such as osteoporosis
can reduce the structural integrity of bone by
reducing its apparen density.
• Small decreases in bone density can generate
large reductions in bone strength and stiffness.
• As compared to a normal bone with the same
geometry, an osteoporotic bone will deform
easier and fracture at lower loads.
 Structural Integrity of Bone
• The density of bone can also change with
aging, after periods of disuse, or after chronic
exercise, thereby changing its overall strength.
• Certain surgical procedures that alter the
normal bone geometry may also reduce the
strength of bone.
• Bone defects such as screw holes reduce the
load-bearing ability of bone by causing stress
concentrations around the defects.
Stress–strain curves for dry and wet
bones
• Bone becomes stiffer and less ductile
with age.
• Also with age, the ability of bone to
absorb energy and the maximum
strain at failure are reduced, and the
bone behaves more like dry bone.
• Although the properties of dry bone
may not have any value in
orthopedics, it may be important to
note that there are differences
between bone in its wet and dry
states.
• Dry bone is stiffer, has a higher
ultimate strength, and is more brittle
than wet bone .
 Bone Fractures
• When bones are subjected to moderate loading
conditions, they respond by small deformations
that are only present while the loads are
applied.
• When the loads are removed, bones exhibit
elastic material behavior by resuming their
original (unstressed) shapes and positions.
• Large deformations occur when the applied
loads are high. Bone fractures when the
stresses generated in any region of bone are
larger than the ultimate strength of bone.
 Bone Fractures
• Fractures caused by pure tensile forces are
observed in bones with a large proportion of
cancellous bone tissue.
• Fractures due to compressive loads are
commonly encountered in the vertebrae of
the elderly, whose bones are weakened as a
result of aging.
 Bone Fractures
• Bone fractures caused by compression occur in
the diaphysial regions of long bones.
• Compressive fractures are identified by their
oblique fracture pattern.
• Long bone fractures are usually caused by
torsion and bending.
• Torsional fractures are identified by their
spiral oblique pattern, whereas bending
fractures are usually identified by the
formation of “butterfly” fragments.
 Bone Fractures
• Fatigue fracture of bone occurs when the
damage caused by repeated mechanical stress
outpaces the bone’s ability to repair to prevent
failure.
• Bone fractures caused by fatigue are common
among professional athletes and dedicated
joggers.
• Clinically, most bone fractures occur as a
result of complex, combined loading situations
rather than simple loading mechanisms.