LITERARY CRITICISM-II

Irony as a Principle of Structure

Cleanth Brooks
Introduction:
Cleanth Brooks was an American literary critic and professor. He is best known for his
contributions to New Criticism in the mid-20th century and for revolutionizing the teaching
of poetry in American higher education. His best-known works, The Well Wrought Urn:
Studies in the Structure of Poetry(1947) and Modern Poetry and the Tradition (1939). Irony
as a principle of structure is an important critical theory by Cleanth Brooks. In this essay he
says that metaphor allows poet to show particular thing to give a more general level of
meaning. According to him theme of poem is a result of coherent structure of elements used
in poetry. He also says that particular statement get different meaning when used on different
context. He defines irony harmony between contradictory things and creates multiplicity of
meaning. All his arguments and its application the poems are described in detail as follows.
Objectives:
1. To understand the concept of metaphor, organic relationship, context and irony.
2. To apply these concepts to the poem, “my last duchess” and “the chimney sweeper”
3. To find out the various meaning in the poems expressed through comparison between
two things.
Concept of metaphor:
Metaphor is rediscovery of modern poetic techniques. By using metaphor in modern poetry
poet can deal with universal things in the world. Metaphor allows poet to point out particular
objects, events, or experience. It helps to give a more general or universal level of meaning
e.g. „a red red rose‟ in this poem „rose‟ is a particular flower which gives fragrance. But with
the help of this poet suggest universal thing that is „love‟.
Poet’s intention of using metaphor:
By using metaphor poetry takes risk of saying something particularly and obscurely of not
saying anything at all. The poet has to take this risk because he can‟t make direct statements.
If a poet makes direct statements, poetry will be full of abstraction and threatens. It will not
be poetry at all.
Concept of organic relationship:
According to brooks, metaphor implies a principle of organic relationship. That means poetry
consist of different elements like words, phrases, images, symbols, figure of speech, rhyme,

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rhythm, meter etc. All of them contribute in generating meaning of a poem, all these part are
interdependent and all are connected to the main theme. Thus poetry has coherent structure. It
is like a kite or a plant or a drama where different parts contribute to make total effect. The
tail of the kite seems to navigate the kite‟s function. It weights the kite down, it paradoxically
is a necessity that allows the kite to rise, and a plant too, is compassed of several parts that
allow the plant to grow as a whole. The leaves, roots, branches, and stem are all essential the
plan‟s growth. The poem is also like a little drama. The total effect proceeds from all the
elements in the drama and in a good poem as in a good drama, there is no waste motion and
there are no superfluous parts. Thus small things are important to form a big complete.
Concept of context:
Brooks says that because of the organic relationship of poetic structure context becomes the
most important thing. Context means relationship of words with each other and with the main
theme of overall meaning that poetry generates. It can be called as something like a them or
subject of a poem. All great poems have poetic qualities because of particular context.
Meaning of a particular utterance becomes something different because of the context. Poetic
statement gain new meaning of unexpected references because of context and not in isolation.
When particular sentence is used for particular context the meaning has modified or changed.
Simple statement gets a different meaning in literary context. E.g. In „king lear‟, the
expression „ripeness is all‟ is used not is positive thing. It has negative kind of significance.
Edger wants to say old age is of no scope for improvement. „to be or not to be‟ shows
complexity of dilemma in hamlet‟s mind.
Concept of irony:
Cleanth Brooks defines the irony as „the obvious wrapping of the statement by the context‟.
Irony is created because of the presser of the context. Brooks makes it very clear that irony is
a wrapping which means twisting. He wants to suggest that because of the context standard of
one dimensional meaning of an utterance gets twisted. Thus here irony means a complete
reversal of meaning affected by the context and pointed probably, by the tone of voice. Irony
offers more than one expected.
Importance of irony:
1. Unimportance or non literary utterance get a specific meaning when placed in a
particular context like this „to be or not to be‟
2. Utterance having some meaning are change to different or sometimes contrary meaning

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like that „ripeness is all‟

Type of irony:
1. Verbal irony :
It occurs when words means in context the opposite of what they say considered by
themselves.
2. Situational irony :
It occurs when event expected by another oppositional event.
3. Dramatic irony :
It exists when a literary character and the reader view a particular situation form opposing
perspective with knowing more than the other.
Functions of irony:
1. To five opposite meaning than a common meaning
2. Fusion is poetic structure where irrelevant element are put together to find balance.
Application of irony to the poems:

My Last Duchess:
Robert Browning's poem "My Last Duchess" is a splendid example of the irony that a poet
can achieve within the format of the dramatic monologue, a poetic form in which there is
only one speaker. When there is only one speaker, we necessarily have to weigh carefully
what he or she is telling us, and we often have to "read between the lines" in keeping an
objective perspective on the story or incidents that the speaker describes to us. We can gather
from this poem's setting, "ferrara," a town in italy, as well as from the speaker's reference to
his "last duchess," that the speaker in this poem is the duke of ferrara.

In "My Last Duchess" verbal irony is demonstrated when the duke says to this guest, „even i
had skill, in speech – (which i have not)‟. The duke is not a modest man, nut him making this
seemingly humble statement in the midst of all his power stricken remarks establishes
situational irony. Dramatic monologue can make that an unappreciated irony, with this
„dramatic‟ surrounding that totally attracts the reader‟s attention and so we can appreciate
how the duke‟s monologue appears on the surface to be about his late wife, a close reading
will shown that the mention of his last duchess is merely a side note in his self-important
speech. In „my last duchess‟ he shows the reader how the duke need to control and have

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completely power and he causes a weariness to overcome the reader through irony, browning
shows us the controlling, jealous and arrogant traits the dramatic monologue his desired
haunting effect.
Finally we get to the heart of the duke's problem with his former wife. She thanked a person
who pleased her, which was all well and good in theory, but she thanked them all with equal
affection, "as if she ranked / my gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name / with anybody's gift."
the duke seems to have been offended that she did not single him out among the others who
pleased her, and underrated his gift of a well-established name and proud family heritage. She
smiled, he says, whenever he passed her, "but who passed without / much the same smile?"
and how did the duke react to this? "who'd stoop to blame / this sort of trifling?" he asks his
auditor. The whole business is beneath him. Even if he had "skill / in speech," it would be
stooping to address such a situation, and he tells his listener that he indeed does not have skill
in speech. This statement is ironic, for the duke actually seems to be quite a polished speaker,
although he may be telling us a great deal about his personality and history that he may not
have intended to reveal. So what became of this seemingly kind and happy lady, who
evidently enjoyed whatever she experienced? "i gave commands," the duke says, "then all
smiles stopped together." he says for a second time, "there she stands / as if alive," suggesting
that the lady is no more. And yet, strangely, he shows no compunction for his actions.

The Chimney Sweepers:

The poem „the chimney sweeper‟ is written by William Blake. This poem is a poignant
depiction the wretchedness and abject misery of young and innocent children forced to lives
of extreme suffering and hardship as chimney sweepers. There are many instances of irony in
this poem.
In the first stanza poet presents contrast between the behaviour of father and mother. Father is
symbol of slavery, cruel man and mother is symbol of security and freedom.
„could scarcely cry, “weep! Weep! Weep!”
So your chimneys i sweep and in soot i sleep‟
Form this lines poet wants to say that children are so young that they lisp „weep‟. Ironically
poet portrays the innocence and misery of the children.
Tom‟s dream is also ironical-as everything as joys and they are free to leap and frolic yet he

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still wake up to the world of oppression. He goes to work feeling „happy and warm‟ when it
is a job that will essentially would kill him.
The statement „so if all do their duty they need not fear harm‟ suggest that if the young boys
do work as chimney sweepers they should fear harm because they will die from illness
associated with work.

In the poem poet skilfully portrays contrast through innocence and experience. Innocence
suggests the naturalistic world of childhood and experience suggests adult world of
corruption and restraint.
Thus this poem reveals multiplicity of meaning through ironic statement. Poet expresses the
psychological condition. The poems also reflects the poet‟s zeal for social reform and the
challenging stance that he adopted towards authority.
Conclusion:
Thus the interpretation of this poem help to built a compelling case for irony as a major
principle of structure in poetry. We can say that irony is the only term available to point out
general and important aspect of poetry through which readers can understand and experience
poem from more than 3d (three dimensional) view.
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