Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal 0334 – 4140594

UNIT 1

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Compiled by: Hussain Ahmad Madni Uppal (O, A level teacher)

Contents of this chapter in relation to syllabus 5054.

1. Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement

Content
1.2 Measurement techniques
1.3 Units and symbols

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(d) describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy using tapes, rules, micrometers and
calipers using a vernier as necessary.
(e) describe how to measure a variety of time intervals using clocks and stopwatches.
(f) recognize and use the conventions and symbols contained in ‘Signs, Symbols and Systematics’, Association for
Science Education, 2000.

Introduction to physics:
Until the end of the eighteenth century, the study of material things was treated as a single aspect of human
thought and called natural philosophy. But, as knowledge increased, it was found necessary to divide the study
of nature into two main branches, the physical sciences and the biological sciences. The biological sciences
deal with living things, while the physical sciences are concerned with the properties and behavior of non-
living matter.

The two main physical sciences are physics and chemistry. It is difficult to make a clear cut distinction between
the two, but, broadly speaking , chemistry deals with the action of one kind of substance on another while
physics is concerned mainly with matter in relation to energy.

For elementary purposes the study of physics may be grouped under such headings as mechanics, general
physics, optics, wave motion, magnetism and electricity, but this list is by no means exhaustive. At a higher
level we have particle physics, nuclear physics, plasma physics, etc.

Definition of physics: The branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of
matter and energy. (OXFORD dictionary).

Concept map of physics:

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Figure 1.1 What is physics?

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SI UNITS:

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:
Quantities that can be measured and consist of a numerical magnitude and unit.

E.g. length: 10 m. 10 is magnitude meter is the unit.

There are many physical quantities being used in physics. Some examples are distance, time, mass,
temperature, volume, density, speed, etc. these physical quantities can be divided into two types: Base
Quantities and Derived Quantities.

BASE QUANTITIES:

 Length
 Mass
 Time
 Current
 Temperature
 Amount of substance
 Luminous Intensity

DERIVED QUANTITIES:
They can be expressed by combining suitable base quantities.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 ℎ
For example 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

SI UNITS:
In the past, physical quantities had many different types of units. Nowadays scientists have agreed to adapt
one set of units – the SI units, from the French “Le Systeme International d`Unites”. Table 1.1 shows the seven
basic quantities and their corresponding SI units.
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Basic Physical Quantity Name of Base Unit Symbol for Unit

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Table 1.1 SI base quantities and units.

Out of these seven base quantities, only six will be covered at your level. They are length, mass, time, electric
current and temperature, Amount of substance

PREFIXES:
Definition: A word, letter or number placed before another. (OXFORD dictionary.)

Why do we need prefixes?

Prefixes are useful in expressing some physical quantities that are either very big or very small to be
conveniently expressed in base units. For example, if we are interested in talking about the distance between
air molecules we are talking about very small distances. In SI units, the distance between air molecules is
0.000 000 01 𝑚. If we have to mention this quantity a number of times, we must be careful that the number
of zeros is the same each time we mention it. In the prefix form, 0.000 000 01 𝑚 is expressed as 0.01 𝜇𝑚
where the prefix `𝜇` (𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜) represents sub-multiple 10−6 . Of course, another convenient and acceptable
way is to express it in the standard form where 0.000 000 01 𝑚 = 1 × 10−8 𝑚.

Prefix Meaning Example

G (giga) 1 000 000 000 (109 ) GW (gigawatt)

M (mega) 1 000 000 (106 ) MW (megawatt)

k (kilo) 1 000 (103 ) km (kilometer)

d (deci) 1 (10−1 ) dm (decimeter)

10
c (centi) 1 (10−2 ) cm (centimeter)
100

m (milli) 1 (10−3 ) mm (millimeter)

1 000

𝜇 (micro) 1 (10−6 ) 𝜇W (microwatt)

1 000 000

n (nano) 1 (10 −9 ) nm (nanometer)

1 000 000 000
Table 1.2 Prefixes

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Powers of 10
1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103
100 = 10 × 10 = 102
0.1 = 1 = 10 −1
10
1 1
0.01 = = = 10 −2
100 102
1 1
0.001 = = = 10 −3
1000 103

Table 1.3 Prefixes

PREFIX INTERCONVERSION:
2 simple steps of inter conversion of units.

1. Convert the prefix to standard form, i.e. to base 10 form.

e.g. convert 63km to cm.
1 km = 103 m 1 cm=10−2 m
63km = 63 × 103 m

2. Divide the initial unit by the final unit:

63 × 103
= 63 × 103−(−2)
10−2
63 × 103+2 = 63 × 105 cm

EXAMPLES:
1. Convert 7 nm  pm
7 × 10−9 m  10−12 m
7×10 −9
= 7 × 10−9−(−12) = 7 × 103 pm
1×10 −12

2. Convert 5 km  Gm
5 × 103 m  109 m
5×103
= 5 × 103−9 = 5 × 10−6 Gm
109

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE:

1. 12 mm  nm
2. 8 Mm  𝜇m
3. 0.2 dm  km
4. 50 cm  km
5. 0.01 𝜇m  nm

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH:
The SI unit of length is the metre (m). In length measurement, we must choose an instrument that is suitable
for the length to be measured. Table 1.4 summarizes the commonly used instruments and the lengths which
they are suitable for measuring.
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Length to be Measured Suitable Instrument Precision of Instrument

Several metres (m) (more than Trundle wheel A few centimeters (not
100m) precise) – gives approximate
readings
Several metres (m) (0 to 100m) Measuring tape 0.1cm
Several centimeters (cm) to 1m Metre or half metre rule 0.1cm
Between 1cm and 10cm Vernier calipers 0.01cm (usually)
Less than 2cm Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm (or 0.001 cm)
Table 1.4 Instruments used for measuring length.

THE TRUNDLE WHEEL

Figure 1.2 Trundle wheel

This instrument consists of a wheel attached to a handle to hold it. It is used to measure long distances (normally greater
than 100 meters). It clicks every time one complete revolution of the wheel is made. Sometimes it comes with a meter
to read the total distance covered as can be seen in the figure 1.2.

THE METER RULE:

This instrument is commonly used in laboratory to measure the lengths of objects such as wires or the
distance between two points. To use the metre rule, it is best to measure from the 1.0 cm mark, and then
subtract 1.0 cm from the reading at the other end. This is because for most metre rules, the zero mark is at the
very end of the rule; wear and tear of the metre rule may render this mark unsuitable for measuring purposes.

For accurate measurement, the eye must always be placed vertically above the mark being read (see figure
1.2). This is to avoid parallax errors which will give rise to inaccurate measurement (see figure 1.3).

Figure 1.2 Accurate measurement Figure 1.3 Inaccurate measurement

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PARALLAX ERROR:
It is an experimental error which is being introduced when our reading is not with the line of sight
vertically above the reading mark.

To avoid parallax, we must place our eyes vertically above the mark as can be seen in figure 1.2, 1.3.

THE VERNIER CALIPERS:

The vernier caliper is most commonly used for accurate measurement of up to ± 0.1 mm or ± 0.01 cm.

Figure 1.4 Vernier calipers.

 Purpose of inside jaws – to measure internal diameter or width of something

 Purpose of outside jaws – to measure external diameter or length of something
 Purpose of stem – to measure depth of something

THE MICROMETER SCREW GUAGE:

The micrometer screw gauge is able to give very accurate measurements of lengths, up to 25 mm. It has an
accuracy of ±0.01 mm (or ±0.001 cm).

The procedure for measuring the diameter of an object (in this case, the cross -section or diameter of a rod) is
shown in figure 1.5.

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Figure 1.5 Using micrometer screw gauge

Zero error:
The micrometer must be checked for any zero error.
Before placing the object to be measured between the
anvil and the spindle, turn the thimble until the anvil
and the spindle meet. If the zero mark on the thimble
scale lies directly opposite the datum line of the main
scale (see fig 1.6), we say that there is no zero error. If Figure 1.6 No zero error
the zero mark on the thimble scale does not lie directly
opposite the datum line of the main scale as in figure
1.7, 1.8, then we say that the instrument has zero error.

For figure 1.7, the zero error is + 0.03 mm, that is to say,
all measurements should be reduced by 0.03 mm. the
value obtained from figure 1.5 will then become [8.90 –
(+0.03)]mm = 8.87 mm due to the zero error of
+0.03mm.
Figure 1.7 Zero error is +0.03 mm. All
measurements should be reduced by
0.03 mm.

For figure 1.8, the zero error is - 0.03mm that is to say,

all measurements should be increased by 0.03mm. The
value from figure 1.5 will then become [8.90-(-0.03)]
mm = 8.93 mm due to the zero error of -0.03 mm.
Figure 1.8 Zero error is -0.03 mm. All
measurements should be increased by
0.03 mm.

THE MEASUREMENT OF TIME:

Time is measured in years, months, days, hours, minutes and seconds. The SI unit of time is seconds (s). Due to
the wide range of time intervals that we want to measure, we need different kinds of clocks and watches.
Table 1.5 shows some useful clocks and watches that are currently in use.
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Type of Clock/Watch Use and Accuracy

Atomic clock Measures very short time intervals of about 10−10 seconds
Digital stopwatch Measures short time intervals (in minutes and seconds) to an
accuracy to ±0.01s.
Analogue stopwatch Measures short time intervals (in minutes and seconds) to an
accuracy to ±0.1s.
Ticker-tape timer Measures short time intervals of 0.02 s.
Watch Measures longer time intervals in hours, minutes and seconds.
Pendulum clock Measures longer time intervals in hours, minutes and seconds.
Radioactive decay clock Measures (in years) the age of remains from thousands of years ago.
Table 1.5 Some useful clocks and watches.

For this unit, we will only focus on watches and pendulum clocks which are used to measure long intervals of
time as well as stopwatches which are used to measure short intervals of time.

All these clocks and watches mentioned have one common characteristic: they are based on regular event or
process such as repetitive motion (as in the swinging pendulum) or vibration (as in the quartz crystals in
watches or stopwatches). Such repetitive motion or vibrations are called oscillations. The time ta ken to make
one complete oscillation is known as the period of the oscillation.

PENDULUM CLOCK:
This clock is used to record long intervals of time. It gives the
hour, the minute and the second at any moment of the day.
The energy required to keep the pendulum swinging comes
from either the elastic potential energy stored in coiled
springs inside the clock or the gravitational potential energy of
a descending mass.
 The number of oscillations made by the pendulum per
second is called the frequency.
Figure 1.9 Pendulum clock
 Period depends upon:
o The length of the pendulum (period increases with increasing length)
o Acceleration due to gravity (period decreases with increasing `g`)
o Period does not depend upon the amplitude of the oscillations.

WATCH:
Watches and the clocks are normally used to measure long intervals of time as in the case of the pendulum
clocks.

STOPWATCH:
Stopwatches are used to measure short intervals of time. There are two types, namely the digital stopwatch
and the analogue stopwatch. The digital stopwatch is more accurate than the analogue stopwatch as it can
read up to ± 0.01 s unlike the latter which reads up to ± 0.1 s.

To measure time interval, the stopwatch needs to be started and stopped by hand. This manual operation
introduces an error called the human reaction time which can be quite a large fraction of a second. The
human reaction time varies from one person to another. Young people usually have shorter human reaction
time than older people. Normally it ranges between 0.1s and 0.3 s.
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Q: Why taking large number of reading and averaging out is better compared to taking a single reading?

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