Generic Fundamentals Reactor Theory Course Volume 3

GENERIC FUNDAMENTALS
REACTOR THEORY COURSE

VOLUME 3
GFRT03SG
REVISION 0
PREPARED BY
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Title Reactor Theory Vol. 3
Number GFRT03SG
Program Generic Fundamentals
Author Eric Johnson Date 2/15/10
Approved Chuck Kelly Date 2/15/10
Author’s Supv’s
Rev Date Reason for Revision
Initials Initials
0 2/15/10 Initial Development EJJ CWK

REACTOR THEORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FUEL DEPLETION AND BURNABLE POISONS ................................................... 10

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE ....................................................................................... 10
ENABLING OBJECTIVES .................................................................................... 10
192007 – FUEL DEPLETION AND BURNABLE POISONS KNOWLEDGE &
ABILITIES ............................................................................................................. 12
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 13
FUEL DEPLETION ............................................................................................... 13
Fuel Cycle ......................................................................................................... 13
Fuel Exposure and Conversion Ratio ................................................................ 14
BURNABLE POISONS ......................................................................................... 15
Objective of Burnable Poisons .......................................................................... 15
Burnable Poison Materials................................................................................. 16
Burnable Poison Purposes ................................................................................ 16
Burnable Poison Rods ....................................................................................... 17
Integrated Fuel Burnable Absorbers .................................................................. 20
SOLUBLE POISONS ............................................................................................ 21
NON-BURNABLE POISONS ................................................................................ 22
CHANGES OVER CORE LIFE DUE TO FUEL DEPLETION AND POISON
CONCENTRATION .............................................................................................. 23
Effect on Moderator Temperature Coefficient.................................................... 23
Effect on Doppler Coefficient ............................................................................. 24
Effect on Control Rod Worth.............................................................................. 24
Effect on Core Thermal Flux.............................................................................. 25
EXCESS MULTIPLICATION FACTOR OVER CORE LIFE .................................. 25
CHANGES IN BORON CONCENTRATION DURING NATURAL CIRCULATION 28
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 30
REVIEW QUESTIONS ......................................................................................... 32
REVIEW ANSWERS ............................................................................................ 35
REACTOR OPERATIONAL PHYSICS ................................................................... 37

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE ....................................................................................... 37
ENABLING OBJECTIVES .................................................................................... 37
192008 – REACTOR OPERATIONAL PHYSICS KNOWLEDGE & ABILITIES .... 39
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 42
REACTOR STARTUP .......................................................................................... 42
Installed Neutron Sources ................................................................................. 42
Shutdown Control Rod Withdrawal .................................................................... 43
Reactor Coolant System Heatup ....................................................................... 46
Rod Withdrawal to Criticality.............................................................................. 46
Reactor Criticality .............................................................................................. 59
Reactor Operation in the Intermediate Range ................................................... 61
REACTOR OPERATION IN THE POWER RANGE ............................................. 64
Steam Plant Startup .......................................................................................... 64
Raising Reactor Power to 100% ........................................................................ 67
Fission Product Poison Buildup ......................................................................... 67
Power Level ....................................................................................................... 68
Load Changes During Reactor at-Power Operation .......................................... 68
Control Rod Motion at Power ............................................................................ 70
Power Tilt .......................................................................................................... 70
Shutdown Margin............................................................................................... 71
Other Reactor Parameters Affecting Operation in the Power Range................. 72
Response to a Reactor Trip............................................................................... 75
REACTOR SHUTDOWN OPERATION ................................................................ 77
Power Decay During Shutdown ......................................................................... 77
Nuclear Instrument Monitoring During Shutdown .............................................. 77
Decay Heat Removal......................................................................................... 78
Shutdown and Cooldown Procedure ................................................................. 78
DECAY HEAT ....................................................................................................... 79
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 82
REVIEW QUESTIONS ......................................................................................... 86
REVIEW ANSWERS ............................................................................................ 98
APPENDIX A: EXAMPLE INVERSE MULTIPLICATION PLOTS ........................ 106
APPENDIX B: ICR PLOTS FOR VARIOUS PLANTS.......................................... 109

INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR B&W PLANT ............................... 109
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR CE PLANT .................................. 112

INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR WESTINGHOUSE PLANT .......... 115
APPENDIX C: PLANT POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS ................... 118

BABCOCK &WILCOX POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS .................. 118
Control Rod and APSR Recommendations (B&W Procedural Examples) ...... 121
COMBUSTION ENGINEERING POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS ... 121
Cold Leg Temperature (T C ) Program Effect .................................................... 122
Control Element Absorber (Control Rod) Effect ............................................... 122
Xenon Oscillations ........................................................................................... 123
Axial Shape Index (ASI) Control ...................................................................... 124
WESTINGHOUSE POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS ........................ 125
Relaxed Axial Offset Control (RAOC) .............................................................. 127
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REACTOR THEORY
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 7-1 Burnable Poison Depletion over Core Life .............................................. 17

Figure 7-2 Borosilicate Glass Burnable Poison Rod ................................................ 18
Figure 7-3 Burnable Poison Rod Positioning in a PWR Core .................................. 19
Figure 7-4 IFBA Pellet.............................................................................................. 21
Figure 7-5 k excess Over Core Life .............................................................................. 25
Figure 7-6 Critical Boron Concentration over Core Life ........................................... 27
Figure 8-1 Typical Integral Rod Worth Curve........................................................... 45
Figure 8-2 Inverse Multiplication (1/M) Plot.............................................................. 48
Figure 8-3 1/M Plot with Fuel Loaded in Core.......................................................... 49
Figure 8-4 Sample Inverse Count Ratio Plot............................................................ 55
Figure 8-5 Changes in Neutron Level as Control Rods are Withdrawn During Startup
................................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 8-6 Typical Westinghouse T ave versus Power Program Graph ..................... 65
Figure 8-7 Typical B&W T ave versus Power Program Graph ................................... 66
Figure 8-8 Typical Load Follow Cycle ...................................................................... 69
Figure 8-9 Reactor Power Response to Reactor Trip .............................................. 76
Figure 8-10 Decay Heat Production versus Time After Reactor Shutdown ............. 80
Figure 8-11 Decay Heat versus Time for Uranium Fueled Reactors........................ 80
Figure A-1 1/M Plot During Refueling with Incorrect Detector Location ................. 106
Figure A-2 1/M Plot During Refueling with Fuel Loaded Between Source and
Detector ................................................................................................................. 106
Figure A-3 1/M Plot During Fuel Shuffle ................................................................ 107
Figure A-4 Plot Using Rod Bank Approach to Criticality (Westinghouse) .............. 107
Figure A-5 1/M Plot During Boron Dilution ............................................................. 108
Figure B-1 Initial ICR Plot at B&W Plant ................................................................ 109
Figure B-2 ICRR Plot for Initial Doubling of Count Rate at B&W Plant .................. 110
Figure B-3 ICRR Plot for Regulating Groups 5, 6 and 7 ........................................ 112
Figure B-4 Initial ICRR Plot at CE Plant ................................................................. 113
Figure B-5 Typical CE Plant ICRR Plot .................................................................. 114
Figure B-6 Initial ICRR Plot at Westinghouse Plant ............................................... 115
Figure B-7 Typical ICRR Plot for Westinghouse Plant ........................................... 116
Figure C-1 B&W Allowed Axial Power Imbalance MOL ......................................... 119
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure C-2 CE ASI Graph ...................................................................................... 125

Figure C-3 Westinghouse Allowed Axial Flux Difference Graph ............................ 126
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REACTOR THEORY
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 RO and SRO Importance Ratings ................................................................. 9

Table 7-1 Absorption Cross Sections....................................................................... 16
Table 8-1 1/M Plot Data ........................................................................................... 50
Table 8-2 Approach to Criticality .............................................................................. 57
Table 1
RO and SRO
Importance Ratings
Rating Importance for Safe Operation

5 Essential
4 Very Important
3 Fairly Important
2 Of Limited Importance
1 Insignificant Importance
* or ? Indicates variability in the rating responses. The * indicates the rating
spread was very broad. ? indicates 15% of reviewers were not familiar
with the K or A.
† More than 20% of the raters indicated the level of knowledge or ability
required by an SRO is different than the level of knowledge or ability
required by an RO
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FUEL DEPLETION AND BURNABLE POISONS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
GFRT0307.00 DESCRIBE how fuel depletion and burnable poison

concentration affects reactivity in a nuclear reactor core.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
GFRT0307.01 DESCRIBE fuel depletion for a nuclear reactor and how it

impacts reactivity over the life of the core.
GFRT0307.02 DESCRIBE the following terms:

a. Fuel Cycle
b. Fuel Exposure
c. Conversion Ratio
d. Burnable Poison
e. Non-burnable Poison
f. Chemical Shim
GFRT0307.03 EXPLAIN the purpose and use of burnable neutron poisons in a

reactor core.
GFRT0307.04 DESCRIBE the following concerning installed burnable poisons

for a nuclear reactor.
a. Poison rod construction
b. Rod placement in the core of a pressurized water reactor
GFRT0307.05 DESCRIBE the construction and use of Integrated Fuel

Burnable Absorbers in nuclear reactor fuel.
GFRT0307.06 LIST the advantages and disadvantages of chemical shim over

fixed burnable poisons.
GFRT0307.07 DESCRIBE two reasons why fixed non-burnable neutron

poisons are used in reactor cores.
GFRT0307.08 STATE an example of a material used as a fixed non-burnable

neutron poison.
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GFRT0307.09 EXPLAIN how the following nuclear reactor core parameters
change over core life due to fuel depletion and neutron poison
concentration:
a. Moderator Temperature Coefficient
b. Doppler Coefficient
c. Control rod worth
d. Core thermal flux
GFRT0307.10 EXPLAIN the change in the value of excess reactivity over core
life.
GFRT0307.11 DESCRIBE the effect of changes in boron concentration on

reactivity during natural and forced circulation conditions.
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192007 – FUEL DEPLETION AND BURNABLE POISONS KNOWLEDGE &
ABILITIES
Associated K/A Knowledge Importance

Objective(s) RO SRO
GFRT0307.02 K1.01 Define burnable poison and state its use 2.1 2.5
GFRT0307.03 in the reactor.
GFRT0307.07
GFRT0307.08
GFRT0307.03 K1.02 Describe and explain distribution of 2.0* 2.2*
GFRT0307.04 burnable poisons in the core.
GFRT0307.05
GFRT0307.10 K1.03 Given a curve of k-effective versus core 1.7* 2.1
age, state the reasons for maximum,
minimum and inflection points.
GFRT0307.09 K1.04 Describe how and why boron 3.1 3.4
GFRT0307.10 concentration changes over core life
GFRT0307.11 K1.05 Describe the effects of boration/dilution 3.0 3.2*
on reactivity during forced flow and
natural circulation conditions.
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INTRODUCTION
In some reactors, neutron-absorbing materials called poisons are intentionally

designed into the reactor for specific purposes. Some of these poisons deplete as
they absorb neutrons during reactor operation, and others remain relatively constant.
FUEL DEPLETION
The fission process in a nuclear reactor’s fuel results in the destruction of fissionable
nuclei. Because of this there is gradual depletion of fuel as the reactor is operated
to produce power. This process is called fuel burnup or fuel depletion.
The depletion of fissionable nuclei in the reactor fuel over time results in the very
slow addition of negative reactivity. This slow addition of negative reactivity can be
accounted for by withdrawing control rods to add positive reactivity to the core.
The amount of control rod movement that must be made on a daily basis to
compensate for the effects of fuel burnup is small. Nevertheless, over a period of
time the reactivity effect of fuel depletion is large, and ultimately reaches a point
where refueling the reactor is necessary. When refueling is required the reactor is
shutdown, and some of the fuel is removed and replaced with fresh fuel.
Fuel Cycle
The term fuel cycle is derived from the above-described method of fueling and
refueling the reactor as the fuel depletes. Utilities with nuclear reactors strive to
maximize the fuel cycle in order to achieve the maximum possible amount of energy
and maximum economic benefits from fuel.
The maximum amount of energy that can be liberated from the fuel is determined by
the metallurgical and reactivity limits of the reactor. The metallurgical limits of the
fuel require that the integrity of the cladding be maintained in order to contain fission
products within the fuel. The cladding must be able to withstand hot water and a
high radiation environment while withstanding increasing pressure from fission
product gases formed in fuel rods.
Note: Many of the nuclides produced during the fission process are gases, e.g.
iodine, xenon. As fuel temperature increases these fission product gases will exert
pressure on the fuel matrix and can eventually cause a distortion of the fuel matrix.
If this effect is severe enough, a distortion in the geometry of the fuel pellet itself may
occur, which could result in a breach of the fuel pellet’s cladding.
Reactivity limits placed on a nuclear reactor core restrict the amount of enrichment
allowed for the fuel in order to maintain an adequate shutdown margin and proper
core thermal operating characteristics.
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Fuel Exposure and Conversion Ratio
Two terms that are commonly used when describing fuel burnup or depletion are
fuel exposure and conversion ratio.
Fuel Exposure
Fuel exposure is a term that is used to describe the amount of energy released per
unit weight of fuel. Fuel exposure is expressed in megawatt days per ton of uranium
(MWd/T) or megawatt days per metric ton of uranium (MWd/MTU).
Fuel exposure may be applied to an individual fuel element, the average value for a
particular region of core, or to the whole reactor core. Currently, most commercial
reactor fuel is designed to achieve a burnup on the order of 40,000 to 50,000
MWd/T. However, considerable effort is being made to increase this value.
Increasing the achievable amount of fuel burnup would result in less reactor down
time, greater utilization of the fuel and correspondingly lower power production
costs.
Conversion Ratio
Conversion ratio, as applied to commercial nuclear reactors, refers to the number of

plutonium-239 nuclei produced per 100 uranium-235 nuclei consumed. Conversion
ratio is usually expressed as a percent. Conversion ratios for light water reactors
are typically in range of 50 to 70%. If the conversion ratio for a particular reactor
was 50%, 50 fissionable plutonium-239 nuclei would be created per 100 uranium-
235 fissions.
It should be noted that even though the buildup of plutonium-239 nuclei is
referenced to the depletion of uranium-235 nuclei, the actual buildup of plutonium-
239 is based on neutron capture by uranium-238 nuclei present in the fuel and
subsequent decay as shown in the following equation.
𝛽− 𝛽−
238 1 239 239
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 92𝑈 �� 93𝑁𝑝 �� 239
94𝑃𝑢
The fact that a pressurized water reactor (PWR) acts as a converter reactor enables
it to operate for 18 to 24 months at full power.
The large amount of fuel burnup experienced in low enrichment commercial reactor
fuel is due largely to conversion of uranium-238 into plutonium-239 and plutonium-
241 over core life. After a long period of operation, the enrichment of uranium-235 in
the fuel is quite low, while an appreciable amount of plutonium has accumulated.
For example, a fuel element designed for 40,000 MWd/MTU of operation, containing
an initial enrichment of 4.0% uranium-235, will have a final enrichment of 0.8% of
uranium-235 and about 0.6% plutonium (plutonium-239) at the end of the fuel cycle.
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BURNABLE POISONS
During operation of a reactor the amount of fuel contained in the core constantly
decreases. If the reactor is to operate for a long period of time, fuel in excess of that
needed for exact criticality must be added when the reactor is built. The positive
reactivity due to the excess fuel must be balanced with negative reactivity from
neutron-absorbing material.
Moveable control rods containing neutron-absorbing material are one method used
to offset the excess fuel. Using control rods alone to balance the excess reactivity
may be undesirable or impractical for several reasons. One reason for a particular
core design may be that there is physically insufficient room for the control rods and
their large mechanisms.
To control the large amounts of reactivity associated with excess fuel without adding
additional control rods, burnable poisons are loaded into the core. Burnable poisons
are materials that have a high neutron absorption cross section which are converted
into materials of relatively low absorption cross section as the result of neutron
absorption.
Due to the burnup of the poison material, the negative reactivity of the burnable
poison decreases over core life. Ideally, these poisons should decrease their
negative reactivity at the same rate the fuel's excess positive reactivity is depleted.
Burnable poisons are generally used in the form of compounds of boron or
gadolinium that are shaped into separate lattice pins or plates, or introduced as
additives to the fuel. They may also be manufactured as rods which are installed in
various areas of a reactor core. Since they can usually be distributed more
uniformly than control rods, these poisons are less disruptive to the core power
distribution.
Objective of Burnable Poisons
The design objective for a burnable poison is that it should burnup or deplete at such
a rate that its removal increases core reactivity by a rate equal to or faster than the
rate of reactivity loss due to fuel depletion. Additionally, at core EOL, there should
be no burnable poisons remaining.
Burnable poison should not burn up too quickly or too slowly. An excessive poison
depletion rate will result in the effective multiplication factor (k eff ) of the core actually
increasing above its BOL value. Too slow of a depletion rate will result in burnable
poison being left in the core at the end of the fuel cycle, effectively limiting the useful
lifetime of the fuel.
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Burnable Poison Materials
The materials most commonly used as burnable poisons are boron and gadolinium.
The table below compares the cross section for absorption for uranium-235 to
elements commonly used as neutron poisons.
Table 7-1
Absorption Cross Sections
Isotope Cross Section

Uranium-235 683 barns
Boron-10 3,838 barns
Gadolinium-155 61,000 barns
Gadolinium-157 255,000 barns
As indicated by the table above, boron and gadolinium both have a much higher
cross section for absorption than uranium-235. This property makes these isotopes
very effective neutron absorbers.
Boron-10 undergoes a neutron-alpha (n,α) reaction, and both gadolinium-155 and
gadolinium-157 undergo a neutron-gamma (n,γ) reactions. Poison capture reactions
generally result in nuclei that have relatively small neutron absorption cross sections,
and the daughter products of these reactions are generally stable. An exception to
this is hafnium, which is sometimes used in reactor control rods. Hafnium has five
successive isotopes which are capable of capturing neutrons.
Burnable Poison Purposes
Burnable poisons are used in nuclear reactors for the following purposes:
• Provide more uniform power density
• Allow higher fuel enrichment at initial core load
• Provide neutron flux shaping.
Example:
Which one of the following is not a function performed by burnable poisons in an
operating nuclear reactor?
A. Provide neutron flux shaping.
B. Provide more uniform power density.
C. Offset the effects of control rod burnout.
D. Allow higher fuel enrichment of initial core load.
The correct answer is: C Offset the effects of control rod burnout.
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Burnable Poison Rods
Some commercial PWRs use boron in discrete burnable poison rods. The burnable
poison accounts for approximately 6% to 8% Δk/k in a reactor core. Figure 7-1
shows how burnable poisons are depleted during fuel burnup in a commercial PWR.
APPROXIMATELY – 8000 PCM (OR –8% ∆k/k) AT BOL
100
PERCENTAGE OF BURNABLE
POISONS REMAINING (N/no)
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
3
FUEL BURNUP (MWd/MTU X 10 )
APPROXIMATELY – 1000 PCM (OR –1% ∆ k/k) AT EOL
Figure 7-1
Burnable Poison Depletion over Core Life
In commercial PWRs, it is necessary to supplement the boron dissolved in the

moderator/coolant with solid boron installed in the core in the form of borosilicate
glass rods. This additional installation of boron reduces the initial soluble boron
concentration required to counter excess fuel reactivity while preventing the
moderator temperature coefficient (MTC) from being too positive.
Burnable Poison Rod Construction
A burnable poison rod is shown in Figure 7-2. The rod consists of a borosilicate
glass (borated silicate glass 12.5 weight percent [w/o] B 2 O 3 ) tube contained within
type 304 stainless steel cladding. The cladding is plugged and seal welded at both
ends in order to encapsulate the borosilicate glass. The glass tube is also supported
along the length of its inside diameter by a thin walled tubular inner liner. The glass
used in these rods is very similar to Pyrex.
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Figure 7-2
Borosilicate Glass Burnable Poison Rod
Commercial PWRs which employ longer fuel cycles (usually 18 months) use a
higher enrichment fuel to operate longer. Burnable poisons are used in all fuel
cycles in these plants to offset the reactivity from the increased fuel enrichment.
Burnable Poison Rod Positioning
In addition to reactivity control, burnable poison rods are strategically located within
a reactor core in order to provide a favorable radial power distribution. Figure 7-3
shows the burnable poison rod arrangement superimposed upon a fuel loading
pattern for a typical commercial PWR.
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Figure 7-3
Burnable Poison Rod Positioning in a PWR Core
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It can be seen from Figure 7-3 that a greater number of burnable poison rods are
positioned near the center of the core. These poison rods help flatten the radial
neutron flux distribution in the core by suppressing the neutron flux in the more
highly enriched assemblies. Note that there are no burnable poison rods in region 1
fuel. The radial neutron flux distribution in a commercial PWR is principally
controlled through fuel enrichment and burnable poison rod positioning.
Integrated Fuel Burnable Absorbers
The standard commercial PWR fuel load includes borosilicate glass rods clad inside
and out by stainless steel tubing. The construction of these poison rods ensures
that the by-products of the neutron absorption reactions are contained within the
rods themselves.
These rods are effective at controlling the excess reactivity associated with a new
fuel load at beginning of a core cycle. The limitation associated with these poison
rods is that they display a relatively high residual absorption rate at end of a fuel
cycle. This is because the boron within the rods is not completely burned out.
The consequence of this incomplete boron depletion is that at the end of the fuel
cycle, there will still be fuel in the core which cannot be used to produce power. This
happens because the residual boron in these rods is capable of suppressing neutron
flux to the point that the fuel cannot be fully depleted. The effect of this is a
premature end to core life. Fuel reprocessing is then required in order to make the
fuel viable for further use in the reactor, increasing the cost of a single fuel load and
the cost of power production.
To allow for more complete fuel depletion, Integrated Fuel Burnable Absorbers
(IFBA) are loaded into commercial PWR reactor fuel rods. IFBA is an acronym used
to describe a type of fuel pellet that is coated with a thin film of zirconium diboride
(ZrB 2 ). The boron in the coating reduces the neutron flux seen by a coated pellet as
compared to an uncoated pellet. The boron coating on these pellets is normally
used up (burned out) prior to the end of one fuel cycle.
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Figure 7-4
IFBA Pellet
By loading IFBA pellets in the middle of the fuel rod and uncoated pellets in the ends
of the rod creates a neutron flux pattern within the fuel assemblies allowing the
reactor can be controlled. This allows increased fuel enrichment and core fuel
loading without the associated higher power peaks, resulting in more uniform fuel
burnup and lower peak centerline temperatures for the fuel.
SOLUBLE POISONS
Soluble poisons, also referred to as chemical shim, produce spatially uniform

neutron absorption when dissolved in the water moderator coolant. The most
common soluble poison in commercial PWRs is boric acid, which is often referred to
as "soluble boron," or simply "solbor."
The boric acid in the coolant decreases the thermal utilization factor, causing a
decrease in reactivity. By varying the concentration of boric acid in the coolant (a
process referred to as boration and dilution), the reactivity of the core can be easily
varied.
If the boron concentration is increased, the coolant/moderator absorbs more
neutrons, adding negative reactivity. If the boron concentration is reduced (dilution),
positive reactivity is added.
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The changing of boron concentration in a PWR is a slow process and is used
primarily to compensate for fuel burnout or poison buildup. The variation in boron
concentration allows control rod use to be minimized, which results in a flatter flux
profile over the core than can be produced by rod insertion. The flatter flux profile is
due to the fact that there are no regions of depressed flux like those that would be
produced in the vicinity of inserted control rods.
Not all reactors use soluble neutron poisons during normal operation. Some reactor
designs include emergency shutdown systems that inject solutions containing
neutron poisons into the system that circulates reactor coolant. Various solutions,
including sodium polyborate and gadolinium nitrate, are used for this purpose.
Fixed burnable poisons (rods) possess some advantages over chemical shim. Fixed
burnable poison rods may be discretely loaded in specific locations in order to shape
or control flux profiles in the core. Also, fixed burnable poisons do not make the
moderator temperature reactivity coefficient less negative as chemical shim does.
With chemical shim, as temperature rises and the moderator expands, some
moderator is pushed out of the active core area. Boron is also moved out, and this
has a positive effect on reactivity. This property of chemical shim limits the
allowable boron concentration because any greater concentration makes the MTC
positive.
NON-BURNABLE POISONS
A non-burnable poison is one that maintains a constant negative reactivity worth

over the life of the core. While no neutron poison is strictly non-burnable, certain
materials can be treated as non-burnable poisons under certain conditions. One
example is hafnium.
The removal (by absorption of neutrons) of one isotope of hafnium leads to the
production of another neutron absorber, and continues through a chain of five
absorbers. This absorption chain results in a long-lived burnable poison which
approximates non-burnable characteristics.
Absorbers with low neutron absorption cross sections can also be treated as non-
burnable under most conditions.
It is possible to make the reactivity of a poison material that is usually a burnable
poison more uniform over core life through the use of self-shielding. In self-
shielding, the poison material is thick enough that only the outer layer of the poison
is exposed to the neutron flux.
The absorptions that take place in the outer layers reduce the number of neutrons
that penetrate to the inner material. As the outer layers of poison absorb neutrons
and are converted to non-poison materials, the inner layers begin absorbing more
neutrons, and the negative reactivity of the poison is fairly uniform.
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The normal use of fixed non-burnable poisons is in power shaping, or to prevent
excessive flux and power peaking near moderator regions of the reactor.
CHANGES OVER CORE LIFE DUE TO FUEL DEPLETION AND POISON

CONCENTRATION
The fuel burnup over core life results in a slow addition of negative reactivity to the
reactor core. Fuel depletion also indirectly produces a number of other changes in
reactor operating characteristics due to the buildup of poisons (fission fragments,
etc) that invariably accompany fuel burnup.
The magnitude of the MTC and the Doppler coefficient becomes larger as core
ages. The MTC becomes more negative over core life largely as a result of the
significant drop in boron concentration required as the core ages and the fuel
depletes.
Effect on Moderator Temperature Coefficient
Since boron acts as a neutron absorber, the presence of boron results in the
reduction of the thermal utilization factor (f) within the core. As boron concentration
is increased, the change in thermal utilization factor with respect to temperature
change (Δf/ΔT) becomes more positive, causing MTC to become less negative.
Boron concentration in the coolant/moderator is a function of fuel burnup. As the
reactor continues to operate, boron is withdrawn from the moderator/coolant,
causing the MTC to become more negative.
As boron concentration approaches zero near the end of core life, the adjustment of
boron concentration is not a viable means of compensating for fuel depletion.
Compensation for fuel depletion through boron dilution of the reactor coolant system
would require a very large quantity of water. Therefore, rather than attempt to
control boron concentration near end of life, reactor is allowed to "coast down"
(power and temperature gradually drop) until shutdown for refueling.
Examples:
A nuclear reactor is operating near the end of its fuel cycle. Reactor power and
reactor coolant system (RCS) temperature are being allowed to "coast down."
Why is RCS boron dilution no longer used for reactivity control?
A. The reactivity worth of the boron has increased so much that reactivity changes
from RCS boron dilution cannot be safely controlled by the operator.
B. The reactivity worth of the boron has decreased so much that a very large
amount of water must be added to the RCS to make a small positive reactivity
addition to the core.
C. RCS boron concentration has become so high that a very large amount of boron
must be added to produce a small increase in boron concentration.
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D. RCS boron concentration has become so low that a very large amount of water
must be added to the RCS to produce a small decrease in boron concentration.
The correct answer is: D. RCS boron concentration has become so low that a very
large amount of water must be added to the RCS to produce a small decrease in
boron concentration.
Which one of the following correctly compares the rates at which reactor power can
be increased from 80% to 100% at the beginning of core life (BOL) and at the end of
core life (EOL)?
A. Slower at EOL due to a lower maximum rate of reactor coolant boron dilution.
B. Slower at EOL due to lower control rod worth.
C. Slower at BOL due to a lower maximum rate of reactor coolant boron dilution.
D. Slower at BOL due to lower control rod worth.
The correct answer is: A. Slower at EOL due to a lower maximum rate of reactor
coolant boron dilution.
Effect on Doppler Coefficient
The magnitude of the Doppler coefficient becomes larger with fuel burnup as a result
of the buildup of isotopes (fission fragments) that have substantial resonance
absorption peaks. The most important isotope produced as a result of fission is
Plutonium-240. Plutonium-240 is produced as a result of a neutron absorption by
uranium-238. Plutonium-240 has large resonance peak at 1 eV.
𝛽− 𝛽−
238 1 239 239
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 92𝑈 �� 93𝑁𝑝 �� 239
94𝑃𝑢
The buildup of Plutonium-239 (same reaction as above) in the core also reduces the
average number of delayed neutrons in the core. Therefore, a given reactivity
addition produces a somewhat shorter reactor period due to the fact that prompt
neutrons are now more likely to result in fast fission of plutonium-239 (rather than
becoming thermal).
Plutonium-239 also has a large neutron cross section for fission just above thermal
energy. This tends to make the magnitude of the MTC slightly smaller when
plutonium-239 is present.
Effect on Control Rod Worth
Control rods are considered to be non-burnable poison in a nuclear reactor core. As

non-burnable poison, control rods add negativity reactivity to the core. The worth of
the control rods increases as a result of fuel burnup.
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The combined effects of the reduction of burnable poison concentration and fuel
depletion will increase neutron thermal diffusion length. The relative absorption
effect of each control rod is increased because neutrons must travel farther to
become thermalized causing the control rod worth to increase.
Effect on Core Thermal Flux
The thermal flux within the core must increase over core life due to fuel burnup. The
core power output is proportional to the product of the neutron flux and the
macroscopic cross section for fission in the fuel.
As the fuel depletes, the macroscopic cross section for fission decreases, even
though plutonium is building up within the core. In order to operate at the same
power level, over core life, thermal flux must steadily increase.
EXCESS MULTIPLICATION FACTOR OVER CORE LIFE
The value of the excess multiplication factor (k excess ) varies over the life of a nuclear
reactor core. At the beginning of core life, the effective multiplication factor would be
greater than one if there were no control rods or burnable poisons installed in the
core. Excess multiplication factor (k excess ) is needed to make up for fuel depletion
and fission product buildup over core life.
The graph of k excess over core life is shown in Figure 7-5.
1.20
1.15
kexcess 1.10
1.05
1.0
BOL EOL
CORE AGE
Figure 7-5
k excess Over Core Life
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The easiest way of describing the shape of the curve shown in Figure 7-5 is to
describe the reactivity present in the core throughout core life.
The excess fuel loaded into the core at the beginning of a fuel cycle provides a large
amount of positive reactivity. This positive reactivity must be compensated for in
some manner. The two most common methods are through the use of chemical
shim and installed burnable poisons.
Based on the graph, the value of k excess begins to decrease in magnitude toward the
beginning of core life due to the buildup of fission product poisons (samarium and
xenon) to equilibrium levels. The buildup of samarium to an equilibrium value occurs
over a period of approximately 20 to 25 days of reactor full power operation.
Because of this build up of fission product poisons during the first 25 days of reactor
operation, the magnitude of k excess steadily declines.
After about the first 25 days of core operation until about one-third fuel cycle, the
major effect on k excess is the burnout of burnable poisons. After the buildup of fission
product poisons to equilibrium values, positive reactivity is added to the core by
burnout of installed poison. This addition of positive reactivity overcomes the
negative reactivity due to fuel depletion, and the value of k excess actually increases.
At about one-third cycle, the reactivity loss due to fuel burnout catches up with and
surpasses the reactivity addition produced by burnout of the burnable poison in the
core. From approximately the 25th day of core operation until about one-third of the
way into the fuel cycle, k excess of the core will increase, but at an increasingly slower
rate.
After about one-third of the fuel cycle, the reactivity loss due to fuel depletion
becomes the dominant factor influencing k excess in the core. From this time on,
negative reactivity is being added to core due to fuel depletion. The effect produced
by the burnable poison has become negligible. Additional fission product poison
buildup (other than xenon and samarium) and fuel depletion cause k excess to
decrease at increasing rate for the rest of the fuel cycle. Therefore, the value of
k excess will decrease at an increasing rate from one-third of the way into the fuel cycle
to the end of the fuel cycle.
The behavior of k eff over core life shown in Figure 7-5 tends to be more
representative for a PWR using gadolinium in its burnable poison loading. The
higher capture cross section for gadolinium causes it to burn up more rapidly during
first third of the fuel cycle, as described above.
However, many commercial PWR facilities tend to use boron instead of gadolinium.
In this case, the graph of k excess over core life tends to follow the same approximate
shape as the critical boron concentration over core life, as shown in Figure 7-6.
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CRITICAL BORON CONCENTRATION (ppm)

1000
500
0
0 5 10 15
BURNUP (GWD/MTU)
Figure 7-6
Critical Boron Concentration over Core Life
The shape of the graph in Figure 7-6 shows that during the initial part of the fuel
cycle, the value of critical boron concentration drops sharply due to the buildup of
the fission product poisons xenon and samarium in the newly installed fuel.
After this, the boron concentration, and the value of k excess , remains relatively
constant for a period of time due to the combined effects of fuel burnup introducing
negative reactivity and burnable poison burnup introducing positive reactivity. For
many commercial PWRs, these two reactivity changes effectively cancel one
another out.
After the period of relatively constant value, k excess drops in an almost linear fashion
for the remainder of the fuel cycle (approximately) due to the linear drop in the
concentration of critical boron required because of the steady depletion of fuel as the
reactor operates at power.
Example:
Refer to the drawing of Keff versus core age for a nuclear reactor core following a
refueling outage (see figure below).
Which one of the following is responsible for the majority of the decrease in Keff from
point 1 to point 2?
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A. Depletion of fuel
B. Burnout of burnable poisons
C. Initial heat-up of the reactor
D. Buildup of fission product poisons
The correct answer is: D. Buildup of fission product poisons
CHANGES IN BORON CONCENTRATION DURING NATURAL CIRCULATION
Some nuclear reactor designs allow for natural circulation in the reactor coolant
system (RCS) in order to allow for the removal of core decay heat when forced
circulation (reactor coolant pumps) is not available.
Since natural circulation relies on thermal driving head to circulate the coolant in the
RCS, flow rates in the RCS will be much lower for natural circulation than for forced
circulation. Because of this, adjustments to the boron concentration during natural
circulation conditions will take longer to accomplish than during forced circulation
conditions.
For example, it will require a longer period of time for a boron addition to the reactor
coolant to be completely mixed within the core and provide a uniform concentration
of boron throughout the moderator/coolant, during natural circulation than during
forced circulation. Similarly, a reduction in boron concentration by dilution will also
take a longer period of time to accomplish during natural circulation than during
forced circulation.
Once the boron has been completely mixed (or diluted) the change in boron
concentration will provide the same change in reactivity in the core for either forced
or natural circulation.
Example:
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Which one of the following describes whether reactor power can be increased from
50% to 100% in a controlled manner faster near the beginning of core life (BOL) or
near the end of core life (EOL)? (Assume all control rods are fully withdrawn just
prior to beginning the power increase.)
A. Faster near EOL due to faster changes in boron concentration
B. Faster near EOL due to greater control rod worth
C. Faster near BOL due to faster changes in boron concentration
D. Faster near BOL due to greater control rod worth
The correct answer is: C. Faster near BOL due to faster changes in boron
concentration
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SUMMARY
• Fission results in the destruction of fissionable nuclei in reactor fuel. This is

known as fuel depletion.
 Gradual depletion of fuel as the reactor is operated results in gradual insertion
of negative reactivity over core life.
• Fuel cycle refers to fueling and refueling the reactor as the fuel depletes
• Fuel exposure describes the amount of energy released per unit weight of fuel.
 Expressed in megawatt days per ton of uranium (MWd/T) or megawatt days
per metric ton of uranium (MWd/MTU).
• Conversion ratio refers to the number of plutonium-239 nuclei produced per 100
uranium-235 nuclei consumed.
 Usually expressed as a percent.
• A burnable neutron poison is a material that has a high neutron absorption cross
section that is converted into a material of relatively low absorption cross section
as the result of neutron absorption.
 Burnable neutron poisons are used in reactor cores to compensate for the
excess positive reactivity of the fuel when the reactor is initially started up.
• Fixed burnable poisons have several advantages over chemical shim.
 Can be used to shape flux profiles
 Do not have an adverse effect on moderator temperature coefficient
• A non-burnable neutron poison is a material that has relatively constant neutron
absorption characteristics over core life.
 Two reasons for using non-burnable neutron poisons in reactor cores are to
shape power and to prevent excessive flux and power peaking near
moderator regions.
 An example of a material that is used as a fixed non-burnable neutron poison
is hafnium.
 The absorption of a neutron by one isotope in the material produces another
isotope that also has a high absorption cross section.
• Chemical shim is a soluble neutron poison that is circulated in the coolant during
normal operation.
• Chemical shim has several advantages over fixed burnable poisons.
 Has a spatially uniform effect.
 Possible to increase or decrease amount of poison in the core during reactor
operation.
• An installed burnable poison rod consists of a borosilicate glass tube contained
within type 304 stainless steel cladding.
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 Cladding is plugged and seal welded at both ends in order to encapsulate
borosilicate glass.
 Glass tube is supported along length of its inside diameter by a thin walled
tubular inner liner.
• Large number of burnable poison rods positioned near the center of the core.
 Helps flatten radial neutron flux distribution in core by suppressing neutron
flux in more highly enriched fuel assemblies.
• IFBA - type of fuel pellet coated with thin film of zirconium diboride (ZrB 2 ).
 Boron coating normally burned out prior to end of one fuel cycle.
 Loaded in middle of fuel rod assemblies to control neutron flux patterns
 Allows increased fuel enrichment and core fuel loading without higher power
peaks, resulting in more uniform fuel burnup and lower peak centerline
temperatures.
• The magnitude of the MTC and the Doppler coefficient becomes larger as core
ages.
 The MTC becomes more negative over core life largely as a result of the
significant drop in boron concentration required as the core ages and the fuel
depletes.
• The worth of the control rods increases as a result of fuel burnup over core life.
• Thermal flux within a reactor core must increase over core life due to fuel burnup.
• Change in value of kexcess (k eff ) over core life:
 Initial drop in magnitude due to buildup of fission product poisons
 K excess increases from about day 25 to 1/3 fuel cycle due burnout of installed
burnable poisons
 From 1/3 fuel cycle to EOL reactivity loss of fuel burnout dominates and
k excess decreases.
• Boron concentration/dilution will take a longer period of time when the RCS is
operating in a natural circulation mode versus forced circulation.
 Once the boron has been completely mixed (or diluted) the change in boron
concentration will provide the same change in reactivity in the core for either
forced or natural circulation.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following terms refers to the number of plutonium-239 nuclei

produced per 100 uranium-235 nuclei consumed in commercial nuclear
reactor fuel?
A. Fuel Cycle
B. Fuel Exposure
C. Conversion Ratio
D. Breeding Ratio
2. Instead of using a higher concentration of soluble boric acid, burnable

poisons are installed in a new nuclear reactor core to _______________.
A. prevent boron precipitation during normal operation.

B. establish a more negative moderator temperature coefficient.
C. allow control rods to be withdrawn farther upon initial criticality.
D. maintain reactor coolant pH above a minimum acceptable value.
3. Just prior to a refueling outage the 100% power reactor coolant boron
concentration was 50 ppm. Immediately following the outage the 100%
power boron concentration was 1,000 ppm. Assume that burnable poisons
were installed during the outage. Also assume that control rods were fully
withdrawn from the core at 100% power for both cases.
Which one of the following contributes to the need for a much higher 100%
power reactor coolant boron concentration at the beginning of a fuel cycle
(BOC) compared with the end of a fuel cycle (EOC)?
A. The negative reactivity from burnable poisons is greater at BOC than at

EOC.
B. The negative reactivity from fission product poisons is smaller at BOC
than at EOC.
C. The positive reactivity from the fuel in the core is smaller at BOC than at
EOC.
D. The positive reactivity from a unit withdrawal of a typical control rod is
greater at BOC than at EOC.
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4. A nuclear reactor has been shut down for 8 hours following a loss of offsite
power. A reactor coolant system (RCS) cooldown on single-phase natural
circulation is in progress.
Compared to adding boric acid to the RCS during forced circulation, adding
boric acid during natural circulation requires _________ time to achieve
complete mixing in the RCS; and, once completely mixed at a given coolant
temperature, a 1 ppm increase in RCS boron concentration during natural
circulation will cause a/an ________ change in core reactivity.
A. more; smaller
B. more; equal
C. less; smaller
D. less; equal
5. Why are burnable poisons installed in a new nuclear reactor core instead of
using a larger reactor coolant boron concentration?
A. To prevent boron precipitation during normal operation.

B. To establish a more negative moderator temperature coefficient.
C. To minimize the distortion of the neutron flux distribution caused by
soluble boron.
D. To allow the loading of excessive reactivity in the form of higher fuel
enrichment.
6. Just prior to a refueling outage, a nuclear power plant is operating at 100%

power with a reactor coolant boron concentration of 50 ppm. After the
refueling outage, the 100% boron concentration is approximately 1,000 ppm.
Which one of the following is the primary reason for the large increase in full-
power reactor coolant boron concentration?
A. Reactivity from power defect at beginning of core life (BOL) is much

greater than at end of core life (EOL).
B. Differential boron worth at BOL is much less than at EOL. [Inverse boron
worth at BOL is much greater than at EOL.]
C. The excess reactivity in the core at BOL is much greater than at EOL.
D. The integral control rod worth at BOL is much less than at EOL.
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7. During a six-month period of continuous full power reactor operation, the
reactor coolant boron concentration must be decreased steadily to
compensate for...
A. buildup of fission product poisons and decreasing control rod worth.

B. fuel depletion and buildup of fission product poisons.
C. decreasing control rod worth and burnable poison burnout.
D. burnable poison burnout and fuel depletion.
8. Refer to the graph of critical boron concentration versus burnup for a nuclear
reactor core following a refueling outage (See figure below.).
Which one of the following is primarily responsible for the shape of the curve
from the middle of core life to the end of core life?
A. Fuel depletion
B. Fission product buildup
C. Burnable poison burnout
D. Conversion of U-238 to Pu-239
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REVIEW ANSWERS
1. Which of the following terms refers to the number of plutonium-239 nuclei

produced per 100 uranium-235 nuclei consumed in commercial nuclear
reactor fuel?
C. Conversion Ratio
2. Instead of using a higher concentration of soluble boric acid, burnable

poisons are installed in a new nuclear reactor core to _______________.
B. establish a more negative moderator temperature coefficient.
3. Just prior to a refueling outage the 100% power reactor coolant boron
concentration was 50 ppm. Immediately following the outage the 100%
power boron concentration was 1,000 ppm. Assume that burnable poisons
were installed during the outage. Also assume that control rods were fully
withdrawn from the core at 100% power for both cases.
Which one of the following contributes to the need for a much higher 100%
power reactor coolant boron concentration at the beginning of a fuel cycle
(BOC) compared with the end of a fuel cycle (EOC)?
B. The negative reactivity from fission product poisons is smaller at BOC

than at EOC.
4. A nuclear reactor has been shut down for 8 hours following a loss of offsite
power. A reactor coolant system (RCS) cooldown on single-phase natural
circulation is in progress.
Compared to adding boric acid to the RCS during forced circulation, adding
boric acid during natural circulation requires _________ time to achieve
complete mixing in the RCS; and, once completely mixed at a given coolant
temperature, a 1 ppm increase in RCS boron concentration during natural
circulation will cause a/an ________ change in core reactivity.
B. more; equal
5. Why are burnable poisons installed in a new nuclear reactor core instead of
using a larger reactor coolant boron concentration?
B. To establish a more negative moderator temperature coefficient.
6. Just prior to a refueling outage, a nuclear power plant is operating at 100%

power with a reactor coolant boron concentration of 50 ppm. After the
refueling outage, the 100% boron concentration is approximately 1,000 ppm.
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Which one of the following is the primary reason for the large increase in full-
power reactor coolant boron concentration?
C. The excess reactivity in the core at BOL is much greater than at EOL.
7. During a six-month period of continuous full power reactor operation, the

reactor coolant boron concentration must be decreased steadily to
compensate for...
B. fuel depletion and buildup of fission product poisons.
8. Refer to the graph of critical boron concentration versus burnup for a nuclear
reactor core following a refueling outage (See figure below.).
Which one of the following is primarily responsible for the shape of the curve
from the middle of core life to the end of core life?
A. Fuel depletion
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REACTOR OPERATIONAL PHYSICS
TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
GFRT0308.00 DESCRIBE the operation of a nuclear reactor during startup, in

the power range and during shutdown.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
GFRT0308.01 EXPLAIN why a startup neutron source may be required for a

reactor.
GFRT0308.02 DESCRIBE why shutdown control rod assemblies are

withdrawn prior to starting up the reactor.
GFRT0308.03 EXPLAIN how the neutron population changes during rod

withdrawal in a subcritical reactor.
GFRT0308.04 DESCRIBE how the reactor operator monitors reactor response

during rod withdrawal to criticality.
GFRT0308.05 DESCRIBE the conduct of the reactor coolant system heat up

and how shutdown margin is maintained during the heatup.
GFRT0308.06 EXPLAIN the use of inverse multiplication (1/M) plots during

reactor fuel loading and during the approach to criticality and
PREDICT when criticality will occur using these plots.
GFRT0308.07 DESCRIBE the variables typically involved in an Estimated

Critical Position calculation and the type of information provided
by an Estimated Critical Position.
GFRT0308.08 EXPLAIN how Estimated Critical Position may be used to

predict the conditions under which the reactor will become
critical.
GFRT0308.09 DESCRIBE the parameters that must be monitored and

controlled as a nuclear reactor approached criticality.
GFRT0308.10 EXPLAIN what is meant by criticality as related to the startup of

a nuclear reactor.
GFRT0308.11 DESCRIBE operator responsibilities when criticality is reached

in a commercial nuclear reactor.
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GFRT0308.12 DESCRIBE operator responsibilities when operating a
commercial nuclear reactor in the intermediate range.
GFRT0308.13 EXPLAIN the Point of Adding Heat as it applies to the operation

of a nuclear reactor and how reactor power responds above the
Point of Adding Heat.
GFRT0308.14 DESCRIBE the basic startup sequence for the secondary

(steam) plant associated with a commercial nuclear reactor and
how reactor power is controlled during steam plant startup.
GFRT0308.15 DESCRIBE the monitoring and control of reactor coolant system

temperature during power range operations.
GFRT0308.16 DESCRIBE the process of raising reactor power to rated core

power.
GFRT0308.17 EXPLAIN how fission product poison buildup affects reactor

operation in the power range.
GFRT0308.18 DESCRIBE the term Load Follow as it applies to commercial

nuclear reactor operation.
GFRT0308.19 DESCRIBE the effects of control rod motion on reactor

operation in the power range.
GFRT0308.20 DESCRIBE the importance of maintaining acceptable core

power distribution during power range reactor operation.
GFRT0308.21 DESCRIBE the importance of maintaining reactor shutdown

margin.
GFRT0308.22 DESCRIBE how the following parameters affect the operation of

a nuclear reactor in the power range:
a. Coolant Temperature
b. Steam Demand
c. Coolant Pressure
d. Coolant Flow
e. Core Age
GFRT0308.23 EXPLAIN the response of the reactor to a reactor trip.
GFRT0308.24 EXPLAIN how power decays in a shutdown reactor.
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GFRT0308.25 DESCRIBE the basic shutdown and cool down sequence for a
commercial nuclear reactor and operator responsibilities during
the shutdown.
GFRT0308.26 EXPLAIN why decay heat is present following reactor operation

and why it must be removed.
GFRT0308.27 DESCRIBE the relationship between decay heat generation,

power history and time after reactor shutdown.
GFRT0308.28 ESTIMATE the approximate amount of decay heat that will exist
shortly after a reactor is shutdown from steady state conditions.
192008 – REACTOR OPERATIONAL PHYSICS KNOWLEDGE & ABILITIES

Objective(s) RO SRO
GFRT0308.04 K1.01 List parameters which should be 3.4 3.5
monitored and controlled during the
approach to criticality.
GFRT0308.02 K1.02 †List reactivity control mechanisms 2.8 3.1
which exist for plant conditions during
the approach to criticality.
GFRT0308.04 K1.03 Describe count rate and instrument 3.9 4.0
response which should be observed for
rod withdrawal during the approach to
criticality.
GFRT0308.01 K1.04 Relate the concept of subcritical 3.8 3.8
GFRT0308.03 multiplication to predicted count rate
response for control rod withdrawal
during approach to critical.
GFRT0308.10 K1.05 Explain characteristics to be observed 3.8 3.9
when the reactor is very close to
criticality.
GFRT0308.06 K1.06 Calculate ECP using a 1/M plot. 2.9 3.1
GFRT0308.07 K1.07 Calculate ECP using procedures and 3.5 3.6
GFRT0308.08 given plant procedures.
monitored and controlled upon reaching
criticality.
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Objective(s) RO SRO
GFRT0308.10 K1.09 Define criticality as related to a reactor 3.2 3.3
startup.
GFRT0308.10 K1.10 Describe reactor power response once 3.3 3.4
GFRT0308.11 criticality is reached.
GFRT0308.09 K1.11 Describe how to determine if a reactor is 3.8 3.8
GFRT0308.10 critical.
GFRT0308.11
monitored and controlled during the
intermediate phase of startup (from
criticality to POAH).
GFRT0308.13 K1.13 Discuss the concept of the point of 3.4 3.6
adding heat (POAH) and its impact on
reactor power.
GFRT0308.13 K1.14 Describe the reactor power response 3.1 3.1
prior to reaching the POAH.
GFRT0308.13 K1.15 Explain characteristics to look for when 3.4 3.4
the POAH is reached.
GFRT0308.14 K1.16 Describe monitoring and control of 3.2 3.3
reactor power and primary temperature
during 0% to 15% (B&W).
GFRT0308.16 K1.17 Describe reactor power response after 3.3 3.4
reaching the point of adding heat.
GFRT0308.15 K1.18 Describe the monitoring and control of T- 3.6 3.5
ave, T-ref and power during power
operation.
GFRT0308.16 K1.19 Describe means by which reactor power 3.5 3.6
will be increased to rated power.
GFRT0308.17 K1.20 Explain the effects of control rod motion 3.8 3.9
GFRT0308.18 or boration/dilution on reactor power.
GFRT0308.19
GFRT0308.22 K1.21 Explain the relationship between steam 3.6 3.8
flow and reactor power given specific
conditions.
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Objective(s) RO SRO
GFRT0308.17 K1.22 Explain how boron concentration affects 2.6? 3.8?
GFRT0308.18 core life.
GFRT0308.22
GFRT0308.23 K1.23 Explain the shape of a curve of reactor 2.9 3.1
power versus time after a scram.
GFRT0308.24 K1.24 Explain reactor power response to a 3.5 3.6
control rod insertion.
GFRT0308.25 K1.25 Explain the necessity for inserting control 2.9 3.1
rods in a predetermined sequence
during normal shutdown.
GFRT0308.26 K1.26 Define decay heat. 3.1 3.2
GFRT0308.27 K1.27 Explain the relationship between decay 3.1 3.4
GFRT0308.28 heat generation and: a) power level
history, b) power production and c) time
since reactor shutdown.
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INTRODUCTION
It is important to understand the principles that determine how a reactor responds

during all modes of operation. Special measures must be taken during the startup of
a reactor to ensure that expected responses are occurring. During power operation,
control of the flux shape is necessary to ensure operation within limits and maximum
core performance. Even when a reactor is shut down, the fact that the fission
products created by the fission process continue to generate heat results in a need
to monitor support systems to ensure adequate cooling of the core.
This chapter will cover general information regarding the flowing reactor plant
operations:
• Heatup of the Reactor Coolant System (RCS) to normal operating temperature
• Reactor startup and power increase to full power
• Plant external load changes at power (load follow operations)
• Reactor shutdown and RCS cooldown
• Reactor response following a reactor trip (power vs. time)
These operations will be discussed from the standpoint of the major steps involved
in each evolution and how those steps affect reactor operation. Operators should
consult approved plant procedures for specific direction on performing these
operations.
REACTOR STARTUP
Several significant operations are required to take a nuclear reactor plant from a
shutdown, cooled down condition to at-power, steaming operations. Prior to actual
startup of the reactor, a heatup of the RCS must be conducted. Once the plant is
heated up, rod withdrawal to criticality can begin. Once critical, reactor power can
be raised to facilitate steam plant startup and main turbine loaded operation.
Installed Neutron Sources
When a reactor is started up with unirradiated fuel, or on those occasions when the
reactor is restarted following a long shutdown period, the source neutron population
will be very low. In some reactors, the neutron population is frequently low enough
that it cannot be detected by the nuclear instrumentation during the approach to
criticality. Installed neutron sources are frequently used to provide a safe and easily
monitored reactor startup. The neutron source, together with the subcritical
multiplication process, provides a sufficiently large neutron population to allow
monitoring by the nuclear instruments throughout the startup procedure.
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Without the installed source, it may be possible to withdraw the control rods to the
point of criticality, and then continue withdrawal without detecting criticality because
the reactor goes critical below the indicating range. Continued withdrawal of control
rods at this point could cause reactor power to rise at an uncontrollable rate before
neutron level first becomes visible on the nuclear instruments.
An alternative to using a startup source is to limit the rate of rod withdrawal, or
require waiting periods between rod withdrawal increments. By waiting between rod
withdrawal increments, the neutron population is allowed to increase through
subcritical multiplication.
Subcritical multiplication is the process where source neutrons are used to sustain
the chain reaction in a reactor with a multiplication factor (k eff ) of less than one. The
chain reaction is not "self-sustaining," but if the neutron source is of sufficient
magnitude, it compensates for the neutrons lost through absorption and leakage.
This process can result in a constant, or increasing, neutron population even though
k eff is less than one.
Shutdown Control Rod Withdrawal
One of the first steps in preparing a reactor unit for startup is heat up of the RCS to
normal operating temperature. Prior to beginning a heatup, it is necessary to fully
withdraw all shutdown rod control assemblies from the reactor. This provides an
adequate reserve of negative reactivity that can be rapidly inserted into the reactor if
a problem occurs during the heatup.
Monitoring Source Range Counts During Rod Withdrawal
Withdrawing the reactor’s shutdown rods results in a positive reactivity addition to

the core. Because of this, the reactor operator must be aware that the reactor may
achieve criticality during this rod withdrawal. Neutron count rate (CR) must be
closely monitored during this evolution in order to verify that source range counts are
behaving predictably based on reactivity addition and subcritical multiplication.
Recall that neutron count rate can be expressed as:
1
𝐶𝑅 = 𝑆𝑜 𝜂
1 − 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓
Where:
CR = neutron count rate
𝑆𝑜 = source strength
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = effective neutron multiplication factor
𝜂 = detector efficiency
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The indicated count rate in the subcritical (source) range, by itself, is often not a
useful representation of neutron activity in the reactor. Count rate comparisons are
more useful, especially during reactor startups, to gage the reactor’s response to
reactivity changes.
Count rate ratio is a comparison of two count rates (final count rate divided by initial
count rate). Count rate ratio can be expressed as:
𝐶𝑅2 1 − 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓1
=
Where:
CR 1 = represents count rate at reference time
CR 2 = represents count rate at some time later
When using values for reactivity instead of k eff, the above equation can be re-written
as follows.
Recall that:
1
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
1−𝜌
Substituting this into the count rate ratio equation yields:
𝐶𝑅2 𝜌1 (1 − 𝜌2)
=
𝐶𝑅1 𝜌2 (1 − 𝜌1)
If k eff is approximately 1.0 and 1-ρ ≈ 1.0, then the equation above can be
approximated by:
𝐶𝑅2 𝜌1
≈
𝐶𝑅1 𝜌2
This ratio of CR 2 /CR 1 is also known as value for subcritical multiplication (M):
𝐶𝑅𝑛
𝑀=
𝐶𝑅𝑜
Where:
CR n = some count rate at a condition “n”
CR o = initial count rate
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Recall that in a subcritical reactor, each time counts double the negative reactivity
remaining in core has been halved, meaning that the distance to criticality has been
halved. Stated another way, if an amount of positive reactivity is added to a
subcritical reactor that causes the difference between keff and 1.0 to be halved, the
count rate will double.
For the above equations to be correct, equilibrium conditions must be present in the
core at the start and at the end of the count rate comparison. The counts should be
allowed to stabilize after rod withdrawal and prior to comparison.
During initial rod withdrawal prior to heat up, when it has been determined that the
source range count rate has doubled, the position of the shutdown rods is noted.
Using an integral rod worth versus steps withdrawn curve such as the one shown in
Figure 8-1, the operator can determine how much reactivity has been added to the
core by rod withdrawal and how much reactivity remains in those shutdown rods not
yet fully withdrawn.
1600
1200
INTEGRAL ROD WORTH (pcm)
BANK B
BANK C
800
BANK E
BANK D
400
BANK A
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
ROD BANK POSITION STEPS WITHDRAWN
Figure 8-1
Typical Integral Rod Worth Curve
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Once the remaining activity has been determined, rod withdrawal can continue as
long as criticality will not be attained by continuing to withdraw the shutdown rods.
If the amount of reactivity remaining is greater than that which has already been
added to the core by shutdown rod withdrawal, rod withdrawal should be stopped
and management should be informed. In this condition, criticality could occur if
withdrawal of the shutdown rods is continued.
Reactor Coolant System Heatup
Once the shutdown rods have been fully withdrawn, the heatup of the RCS can
begin. Various heat sources may be used to increase the temperature of the RCS,
including:
• Reactor coolant pumps
• Pressurizer heaters
• Reactor decay heat
• Combinations of the above sources.
Typically, plant heatup procedures limit the heat up rate of the RCS to 50 °F per
hour.
Maintaining Shutdown Margin During Heatup
Under certain core conditions, the possibility exists that the moderator temperature
coefficient (MTC) is positive. A positive MTC may cause the reactor to lose some of
its required shutdown margin due to the addition of positive reactivity as the reactor
coolant temperature increases during the heatup.
Typical plant technical specifications require that shutdown margin be maintained
greater than 1% Δk/k when RCS temperature is less than 200 °F, and greater than
1.3% Δk/k when RCS temperature is above 200 °F. It is the reactor operator’s
responsibility to ensure that the minimum shutdown margin requirements associated
with the specific plant technical specifications are met at all times during the RCS
heatup. Shutdown margin can be adjusted by adjusting boron concentration during
heatup.
Rod Withdrawal to Criticality
Once RCS temperature has been increased to normal operating temperature (NOT)
and RCS pressure has been increased to normal operating pressure (NOP), reactor
startup may begin.
Examples:
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A nuclear power plant was operating at steady-state 100% power near the end of a
fuel cycle when a reactor trip occurred. Four hours after the trip, with reactor coolant
temperature at normal no-load temperature, which one of the following will cause the
fission rate in the reactor core to increase?
A. The operator fully withdraws the shutdown control rods.
B. Reactor coolant temperature is allowed to increase by 3°F.
C. Reactor coolant boron concentration is increased by 10 ppm.
D. An additional two hours is allowed to pass with no other changes in plant
parameters.
The correct answer is: A. The operator fully withdraws the shutdown control rods.
A nuclear power plant was operating at steady-state 100% power near the end of a
fuel cycle when a reactor trip occurred. Four hours after the trip, reactor coolant
temperature is being maintained at normal no-load temperature in anticipation of
commencing a reactor startup. At this time, which one of the following will cause the
fission rate in the reactor core to decrease?
A. The operator fully withdraws the shutdown control rods.
B. Reactor coolant temperature is allowed to decrease by 3°F.
C. Reactor coolant boron concentration is decreased by 10 ppm.
D. An additional two hours is allowed to pass with no other changes in plant
parameters.
This question asks for a decrease in fission rate. Waiting time allows xenon time to
buildup up to the peak at ten hours. The correct answer is: D. An additional two
hours is allowed to pass with no other changes in plant parameters.
Inverse Multiplication (1/M) Plots
The count rate comparison process used during shutdown rod withdrawal yields an
ever-increasing value as criticality is approached in the reactor. Accurately plotting
the expected point of criticality in this manner would be difficult because the count
rate ratio could increase from approximately 1 to several million prior to reaching
criticality.
In order to obtain a more useful plot of the effects of subcritical multiplication on
source neutron level, the inverse of the multiplication factor is used. The ratio of
CR 1 to CR 2 (inverse count ratio) is plotted following each reactivity addition. This
method is shown in Figure 8-2.
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1.0 A
.9
B
.8
.7
C
.6
1/M
.5
D
.4
.3
INVERSE MULTIPLICATION PLOT
E
.2
F
.1
G
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
NUMBER OF FUEL ASSEMBLIES LOADED
Figure 8-2
Inverse Multiplication (1/M) Plot
As k eff approaches one, CR 2 increases dramatically and the ratio of CR 1 to CR 2

approaches zero. Plotting a function that approaches zero is a lot easier than
plotting a function that approaches infinity.
After several points have been plotted on an Inverse Multiplication Plot, a
conservative estimate of critical rod position can be obtained by extrapolating the
steepest slope between two existing points on the plot.
Use During Fuel Loading
This approach may also be used during fuel loading to monitor for and prevent
inadvertent criticality. Count rate doubling and 1/M plots are useful tools for helping
to predict criticality; however, it cannot be emphasized enough that the reactor
operator should be expecting criticality at all times.
Recall that the count rate is compared utilizing this expression:
=
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This relationship shows ever-increasing value of M = CR 2 /CR 1 as criticality is
approached. In fact, as k eff approaches 1.0, M approaches infinity (∞).
This can also be stated as:
1
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1 −
𝑀
In a reactor with no fuel loaded, k eff = 0. This results in a count rate ratio equal to
1.0, or M equal to 1.0. As the fuel is loaded, the value of M increases. Under these
circumstances, as M approaches infinity (∞) k eff approaches 1.0.
The equation above is intended for use in the case where the core initially has no
fuel and when CR o was measured using only source neutrons. However, the same
principle can be applied when CR o is measured with some number of fuel
assemblies initially present in the core. In fact, this principle can be applied even
when all fuel assemblies are loaded into the core and rod withdrawal to criticality is
in progress as shown in Figure 8-3.
1.0
0.8
1/M
0.6
0.4
0.2
100 200 300 400 500

CONTROL ROD POSITION
Figure 8-3
1/M Plot with Fuel Loaded in Core
Estimating Criticality Using 1/M Plots
1/M plots can be used to predict criticality. Normally an inverse multiplication curve
is plotted against control rod position or the number of fuel assemblies loaded into a
reactor core, both of which directly affect k eff . As an example of this, consider a 1/M
plot used during fuel loading. The 1/M plot is built using data from the following
table, as shown on Figure 8-2:
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Table 8-1
1/M Plot Data
Count Rate (Neutrons/Second) Fuel Assemblies Loaded in Core

100 0
(Initial Source Rate Count S 0 )
125 10
166 20
250 30
500 40
1000 45
Note that the initial source neutron level (S 0 ) is 100 n/sec with no fuel in the reactor
(k eff = 0.0). For this initial point there would be no subcritical multiplication and 1/M
would be 1.0 (Point A on Figure 8-2).
This is proven as follows.
Recall that:
𝐶𝑅2
𝑀=
𝐶𝑅1
Therefore:
1 𝐶𝑅1
=
𝑀 𝐶𝑅2
Using the initial source count:
𝑛
1 𝑆𝑜 100𝑠𝑒𝑐
= = 𝑛 = 1.0
𝑀 𝑁𝑡 100𝑠𝑒𝑐
Where:
S o = source count rate
N t = neutrons per second counted at particular time
After ten fuel assemblies have been loaded into the core, subcritical multiplication
𝑛
increases the total neutron level to 125𝑠𝑒𝑐. The new 1/M value is:
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𝑛
1 100𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 𝑛 = 0.8
𝑀 125𝑠𝑒𝑐
This 0.8 value for M is plotted for ten fuel assemblies on Figure 8-2 as Point B, and a
straight line is drawn between Points A and B. The straight line can then be
extrapolated to cross the x-axis. This same process is continued for each fuel
loading.
After a total of 20 fuel assemblies have been loaded, the neutron level increases to
166 n/sec.
𝑛
1 100𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 𝑛 = 0.6
𝑀 166𝑠𝑒𝑐
This 0.6 value is plotted on Figure 8-2 as Point C and a straight line is drawn
between Points B and C and then extrapolated to the x-axis at Point G.
As fuel assemblies continue to be loaded into the core, the 1/M plot is updated.
Based on the plot shown in Figure 8-2, criticality is predicted at a fuel loading of 50
fuel assemblies. Each time a new point is calculated and plotted, the accuracy of
the final criticality point for fuel loading is increased.
When plotting 1/M plots, operators should keep in mind that as k eff approaches one,
CR 2 increases dramatically. The ratio of CR 1 /CR 2 however, approaches zero.
Plotting a function that approaches zero is easier than plotting a function that
approaches infinity.
After several points have been plotted on a 1/M plot, a conservative estimate of
critical condition can be obtained by extrapolation.
These plots are also referred to as inverse count rate ratio (ICRR) plots or inverse
count ratio (ICR) plots. Figure 8-3 shows an example of a 1/M plot created as
control rods are being withdrawn. As control rod position increases, the 1/M
calculations are performed and plotted.
Use of 1/M Plots During Reactor Operations
An inverse multiplication plot can be constructed for any core characteristic that is
proportional to or directly affects k eff . Because very few core characteristics are
directly proportional to k eff , errors may be introduced into the plots. The accuracy of
these 1/M plots is usually good enough to prevent an unwanted or unplanned
criticality, which is the goal of the plots.
Inverse multiplication plots are generally used for three evolutions for PWR reactors:
• Loading fuel into the reactor
• Approaching criticality using control rods/regulating rod banks (or groups)
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• Boron dilution to criticality.
Additional examples of 1/M plots can be found in Appendix A at the end of this text.
Example:
During a nuclear reactor startup as Keff increases toward 1.0, the value of 1/M...
A. decreases toward zero.
B. decreases toward 1.0.
C. increases toward infinity.
D. increases toward 1.0.
The correct answer is: A. decreases toward zero.
TOPIC: 192008
Refer to the drawing of three 1/M plots labeled A, B, and C (see figure below).
The least conservative approach to criticality is represented by plot _____ and could
possibly be the result of recording count rates at ________ time intervals after
incremental fuel loading steps compared to the situations represented by the other
plots.
A. A; shorter
B. A; longer
C. C; shorter
D. C; longer
The correct answer is: C. C; shorter
Estimated Critical Position
1/M plots are useful for monitoring the approach to criticality and predicting when
criticality will occur based on indications received while the startup is actually in
progress.
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Before the reactor startup is initiated, the operator calculates an estimate of the
amount of rod withdrawal that will be necessary to achieve criticality. This process
provides an added margin of safety because a large discrepancy between actual
and estimated critical rod positions would indicate that the core was not performing
as designed.
Depending upon a reactor's design or age, the buildup of xenon within the first
several hours following a reactor shutdown may introduce enough negative reactivity
to cause the reactor to remain shutdown even with the control rods fully withdrawn.
In this situation it is important to be able to predict whether criticality can be
achieved, and if criticality cannot be achieved, the startup should not be attempted.
For a given set of conditions (such as time since shutdown, temperature, pressure,
fuel burnup, samarium and xenon poisoning) there is only one position of the control
rods (and boron concentrations for a reactor with chemical shim) that results in
criticality, using the normal rod withdrawal sequence. Identification of these
conditions allows accurate calculation of control rod position at criticality.
The calculation of an estimated critical position (ECP) is simply a mathematical
procedure that takes into account all of the changes in factors that significantly affect
reactivity that have occurred between the time of reactor shutdown and the time that
the reactor is brought critical again.
For most reactor designs, the only factors that change significantly after the reactor
is shut down are the average reactor temperature and the concentration of fission
product poisons. The reactivities normally considered when calculating an ECP
include the following.
• Basic Reactivity of the Core - The reactivity associated with the critical control
rod position for a xenon-free core at normal operating temperature. This
reactivity varies with the age of the core (amount of fuel burnup).
• Direct Xenon Reactivity - The reactivity related to the xenon that was actually
present in the core at the time it was shutdown. This reactivity is corrected to
allow for xenon decay.
• Indirect Xenon Reactivity - The reactivity related to the xenon produced by the
decay of iodine that was present in the core at the time of shutdown.
• Temperature Reactivity - The reactivity related to the difference between the
actual reactor temperature during startup and the normal operating temperature.
To arrive at an ECP of the control rods, the basic reactivity, direct and indirect xenon
reactivity, and temperature reactivity are combined algebraically to determine the
amount of positive control rod reactivity that must be added by withdrawing control
rods to attain criticality. A graph of control rod worth versus rod position is used to
determine the estimated critical position.
These calculations provide the following information:
• Amount of dilution water needed.
• Amount of boric acid needed.
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• Control bank positions for each plateau (ensures insertion limits are observed
and sufficient control reactivity is reserved for future needs).
• Reactivity changes (magnitudes and rates) needed to compensate for fission
product poisoning (dilution/boration amounts are included above).
• Assurance that auxiliary systems can adequately support startup.
Forward-looking preparations such as these help ensure that power escalates
without unplanned interruptions.
To complete an ECP, the reactor operator selects the control rod height at which he
wants the reactor to go critical, and then using a reactivity balance the operator
determines the required change in RCS boron concentration to achieve criticality at
this desired rod position.
In some instances, an ECP is calculated using existing boron concentration, and the
critical rod position is determined rather than chosen. This method is frequently
used to recover from reactor trip, minimizing the time required to return the reactor to
power.
Examples:
Near the end of core life, critical rod position has been calculated for a nuclear
reactor startup 4 hours after a trip from 100% power equilibrium conditions. The
actual critical rod position will be lower than the predicted critical rod position if...
A. the startup is delayed until 8 hours after the trip.
B. the steam dump pressure setpoint is lowered by 100 psi prior to reactor startup.
C. actual boron concentration is 10 ppm higher than the assumed boron
concentration.
D. one control rod remains fully inserted during the approach to criticality.
The only choice that adds positive reactivity is the steam dump because it would
lower coolant temperature. The correct answer is: B. steam dump pressure setpoint
is lowered by 100 psi prior to reactor startup.
To predict critical control rod position prior to commencing a nuclear reactor startup,
the operator must consider the amount of reactivity added by post-shutdown
changes in...
A. reactor coolant boron concentration, neutron flux level, and burnable poisons.
B. control rod positions, core xenon-135 concentration, and reactor coolant
temperature.
C. neutron flux level, reactor coolant boron concentration, and control rod positions.
D. reactor coolant temperature, burnable poisons, and core xenon-135
concentration.
The correct answer is: B. control rod positions, core xenon-135 concentration, and
reactor coolant temperature.
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Validating ECP During Rod Withdrawal
Once the ECP has been completed and the RCS boron concentration has been
adjusted to the desired value, the reactor startup may begin. As a check on the ECP
as rod withdrawal progresses, the operator is required to use the count doubling
technique to monitor source range counts. The operator records the source range
count level before control rod withdrawal, and then notes the rod position at which
the count rate doubles. Using this information, the operator can approximate the rod
height where the reactor will go critical. Curves similar to Figure 8-4 may be used to
assist the operator in making this determination.
DATE INITIAL COUNTS DOUBLING ROD POSITION

TIME N31 cps BANK AT STEPS
R.O. N32 cps PREDICTED CRITICAL POSITION
ECP BANK AT STEPS
BANK AT STEPS ACTUAL CRITICAL POSITION
BANK AT STEPS
1.0
.9
INVERSE COUNT RATIO (1/M)
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
BANK "B" 6 26 46 66 86 106 126 146 166 186 206 226
BANK "C" 12 32 52 72 92 112 132 152 172 192 212
BANK "D"
Figure 8-4
Sample Inverse Count Ratio Plot
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To use a 1/M plot (inverse count ratio plot) like the one shown in Figure 8-4 during a
reactor startup, the baseline inverse count ratio (ICR) is typically established after
fully withdrawing the first control bank and allowing the indicated source range count
rate to stabilize. A point is then plotted on the graph at the intersection of the rod
position (e.g. Bank A fully withdrawn) on x-axis and the 1.0 line on the y-axis.
The reactor operator then withdraws control banks until the source range count rate
approximately doubles. After allowing the count rate to stabilize, the count rate is
recorded, and the ICR is calculated. The ICR is then plotted against the current rod
position.
Extrapolating a line from the baseline ICR through the current ICR yields the
approximate critical rod height, which can be compared against the calculated
critical rod height (ECP).
The reactor operator then again withdraws the control banks until the source range
count rate again approximately doubles, and another ICR is calculated, plotted, and
extrapolated to determine the approximate critical rod height. This may be repeated
two or more times on the approach to criticality. Each successive extrapolation
should indicate a more accurate estimate of the critical rod height.
If the estimated critical rod height determined from the ICR plot developed during rod
withdrawal is outside the bounds of the ECP (which was performed prior to the start
of rod withdrawal) the reactor startup must be terminated and all rods fully inserted.
The reason for the difference between the ICR plot and the ECP must be identified
and corrected before resuming reactor startup activities. Errors between the ECP
and the ICR plot are commonly associated with the reactivity balance calculation of
the ECP. If the reason for the discrepancy between the ECP and the ICR plot
cannot be found, the reactor engineering staff must be notified so that an
investigation into the cause for the discrepancy can be initiated.
The specific use of ICR plots during reactor startups and other evolutions will
depend on the design of the reactor and manufacturer’s requirements. Recall that
most commercial reactors in the USA are manufactured by three companies:
• Babcock & Wilcox (B&W)
• Combustion Engineering (CE)
• Westinghouse
ICR plot use for each type of plant can be seen in Appendix B.
Monitoring the Approach to Criticality
During control rod withdrawal, the source range nuclear instruments will be
responding to the increased neutron flux levels in the reactor core. With each
insertion of positive reactivity there will be an indication of a slight positive startup
rate (SUR), and the source range count rate will increase correspondingly.
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When rod motion is stopped in a subcritical reactor, the source range count rate will
achieve a new equilibrium level (stop increasing), and the reactor’s indicated SUR
will eventually decay to zero, indicating that the reactor power level is no longer
changing.
As k eff approaches 1.0, each time control rods are withdrawn, a longer period of time
is required for count rate to reach an equilibrium value. When the reactor is close to
criticality, it is possible for this time period to be several minutes.
As a minimum, the reactor operator must monitor the following reactor parameters
during the approach to criticality:
• Reactor power level
• Reactor SUR
• Control rod position
• Boron concentration
• Moderator temperature
It should be noted that the SUR meter is usually the first indication to respond to any
reactivity addition to the reactor.
The following table summarizes the parameters which affect the approach to
criticality in a nuclear reactor and how they are monitored and controlled.
Table 8-2
Approach to Criticality
Reactor Startup and Approach to Criticality

Item Comment
Parameters Monitored and/or Controlled
Source Range Monitoring Response
During hot startup, stable steam
Control Rod Position
generator water level control is very
Reactor Coolant Temperature important because a cold water injection
can have a substantial impact on
RCS Boron Concentration
reactivity due to the MTC (α M )
Startup Rate
Normal Reactivity Control Mechanisms
Control Rod Movement When close to criticality, control rod
movement is limited to 50 steps per
minute (spm)
Other Parameters Affecting Reactivity
Fission Product Poisons High xenon concentration could result in
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Core Age high worth of control rods.
Doppler Coefficient (α D )
Moderator Temperature Coefficient (α M )
Examples:
Which three of the following parameters should be closely monitored and controlled
during the approach to criticality?
• 1. Axial flux difference (axial shape index)
• 2. Reactor startup rate
• 3. Source range (neutron) count rate
• 4. Rod position
A. 1, 2, 3
B. 1, 2, 4
C. 1, 3, 4
D. 2, 3, 4
The correct answer is: D. 2, 3, 4, Reactor startup rate, Source range (neutron) count
rate, and Rod position
During a nuclear reactor startup, the first reactivity addition caused the source range
count rate to increase from 20 to 40 cps. The second reactivity addition caused the
count rate to increase from 40 to 160 cps.
Which one of the following statements accurately compares the two reactivity
additions?
A. The first reactivity addition was larger.
B. The second reactivity addition was larger.
C. The first and second reactivity additions were equal.
D. There is not enough data given to determine the relationship of reactivity values.
The correct answer is: A. The first reactivity addition was larger
A nuclear reactor startup is in progress and the reactor is slightly subcritical.
Assuming the reactor remains subcritical, a short control rod withdrawal will cause
the reactor startup rate indication to increase rapidly in the positive direction, and
then...
A. rapidly decrease and stabilize at a negative 1/3 dpm.
B. gradually decrease and stabilize at zero.
C. stabilize until the point of adding heat (POAH) is reached; then decrease to zero.
D. continue a rapid increase until the POAH is reached; then decrease to zero.
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The correct answer is: B. gradually decrease and stabilize at zero.
Reactor Criticality
A reactor that is exactly critical has a stable neutron count rate after control rod
motion has ceased. Subcritical multiplication also results in a stable neutron count
rate and a startup rate equal to zero. Due to effects of subcritical multiplication, it is
difficult to determine if a reactor is exactly critical or if the neutron population is still
maintained due to subcritical multiplication.
However, it is readily apparent when a reactor is supercritical. A reactor is said to be
critical when the reactor is actually slightly supercritical. It is common practice to call
reactor critical when reactor is actually slightly supercritical.
The reactor is supercritical when there is a constant positive startup rate and a
steadily increasing neutron population (increasing count rate) with no control rod
motion (or positive reactivity addition). Normally, source range count rate will have
doubled five to seven times during startup rod withdrawal before criticality is
achieved.
Figure 8-5 shows the difference in the neutron population between a reactor where
subcritical multiplication is making up for losses on the neutron life cycle and the
point at which criticality is announced. Note that a straight line on semi-log plot
denotes exponential rise in neutron flux.
CRITICALITY
ANNOUNCED
LOG OF NEUTRON LEVEL
SUBCRITICAL
MULTIPLICATION
TIME
Figure 8-5
Changes in Neutron Level as Control Rods are Withdrawn During Startup
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When criticality is achieved, information is recorded for “history of criticals logs”
and/or plant records. Although the exact information differs from plant to plant, the
basic information recorded is the same. The information typically recorded is time
and date of criticality, exact rod position at criticality, moderator temperature, boron
concentration, and startup rate period at criticality.
This data is used to determine the current core reactivity values (shutdown margin,
actual core reactivity as opposed to estimated, etc.) and to "fine tune" the data used
in future estimated critical position determinations.
After criticality has been achieved and reactor power is increased, the intermediate
range nuclear instruments will start to indicate increasing reactor power level. The
reactor operator will check the operation of the nuclear instrumentation by verifying
correct range overlap between the source and intermediate ranges (i.e., power
increasing at same rate on both) and then block the lower range (source range)
instrumentation.
Note: Source range nuclear instrumentation is blocked at higher power levels to
prevent the detectors from burning out due to the increased flux levels associated
with intermediate and power range reactor operation.
Examples:
In a nuclear reactor with a source, a constant neutron flux over a few minutes is
indicative of criticality or...
A. the point of adding heat.
B. supercriticality.
C. subcriticality.
D. equilibrium subcritical count rate.
Having a neutron source present causes the neutron population to increase in each
generation. The correct answer is: D. equilibrium subcritical count rate.
A nuclear reactor startup is in progress with a stable source range count rate and the
reactor is near criticality. Which one of the following statements describes count rate
characteristics during and after a 5-second control rod withdrawal? (Assume the
reactor remains subcritical.)
A. There will be no change in count rate until criticality is achieved.
B. The count rate will rapidly increase (prompt jump) to a stable higher value.
C. The count rate will rapidly increase (prompt jump) then gradually increase and
stabilize at a higher value.
D. The count rate will rapidly increase (prompt jump) then gradually decrease and
stabilize at the previous value.
The correct answer is: C. The count rate will rapidly increase (prompt jump) then
gradually increase and stabilize at a higher value.
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When a nuclear reactor is exactly critical, reactivity is...
A. infinity.
B. undefined.
C. 0.0 ΔK/K.
D. 1.0 ΔK/K.
The correct answer is: C. 0.0 ΔK/K.
A nuclear reactor is subcritical by 1.0 %ΔK/K when the operator dilutes the reactor
coolant system by 30 ppm boron. Assuming boron worth is -0.025% ΔK/K per ppm
and that no other reactivity changes occur, the reactor is...
A. subcritical.
B. critical.
C. supercritical.
D. prompt critical.
The correct answer is: A. subcritical
If, during a nuclear reactor startup, the startup rate is constant and positive without
any further reactivity addition, then the reactor is...
A. exactly critical.
B. supercritical.
C. subcritical.
D. prompt critical.
The correct answer is: B. supercritical
Reactor Operation in the Intermediate Range
After criticality has been achieved, control rods are withdrawn to increase reactor
power to 1 x 10-8 amps in the intermediate range. This power level corresponds to
about 1 x 10-3% of nominal full reactor power. The power increase is stopped at this
point and power is allowed to stabilize. Once stabilized actual critical conditions in
the reactor are recorded. Data is taken on the following:
• Control rod positions
• Coolant boron concentration
• RCS average loop temperatures
This data is typically reviewed by the plant’s nuclear engineer for accuracy, and is
used as necessary to update the reactivity curves associated with the particular
reactor.
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The intermediate range power level of 1 x 10-8 amps was selected as a standard
point for taking reactor critical data for two reasons:
• It is well above source range; therefore source neutron effects are negligible.
• It is below the point of adding heat (POAH) to the RCS; therefore Doppler and
moderator temperature effects are not present.
After critical data has been recorded, control rods are withdrawn to increase power
to the POAH (approximately 3 x 10-6 amps in intermediate range or 1% power in
power range).
Point of Adding Heat (POAH)
Fuel temperature depends on decay heat, the heat produced directly from fission,
ambient losses, and system losses. Up to about 1% power, decay heat and reactor
coolant pumps (RCPs) are the major heat producers within the reactor system. The
point where heat production from fission becomes significant enough to overcome
ambient losses and cause measurable temperature increase in coolant is defined as
the point of adding heat (POAH).
Indications Above the POAH
As reactor power increases above the POAH, fuel and moderator temperatures
increase. This results in negative reactivity addition to the reactor core, due to the
Doppler and moderator temperature coefficients. This negative reactivity addition
eventually causes startup rate to fall to zero and reactor power to stabilize in the
power range. Power is normally stabilized at approximately 2% of full power.
As the moderator temperature increases above the POAH, the reactor coolant heats
up and expands into the pressurizer causing an increased level and pressure in the
pressurizer. This pressure increase is felt throughout the reactor coolant system.
Depending on sensitivity of secondary instrumentation, increased steam flow or
pressure may also be observed.
Examples:
While withdrawing control rods during an approach to criticality, the stable count rate
doubles. If the same amount of reactivity that caused the first doubling is added
again, stable count rate will __________ and the reactor will be __________.
A. double; subcritical
B. more than double; subcritical
C. double; critical
D. more than double; critical
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Remember the thumb rule of enough reactivity added to double count rate, if the
same reactivity is added to the reactor again the reactor will be supercritical. The
doubling halves the reactivity taken to reach criticality. The correct answer is: D.
more than double; critical.
During a nuclear reactor startup, the operator adds 1.0% ΔK/K of positive reactivity
by withdrawing control rods, thereby increasing equilibrium source range neutron
level from 220 cps to 440 cps.
To raise equilibrium source range neutron level to 880 cps, an additional
______________ of positive reactivity must be added.
A. 4.0% ΔK/K
B. 2.0% ΔK/K
C. 1.0% ΔK/K
D. 0.5% ΔK/K
Using the thumb rule that states with each doubling the distance to criticality is
halved and apply it in reverse the reactivity required for the following doubling is half
the original. The correct answer is: D. 0.5% ΔK/K.
A nuclear reactor has just achieved criticality at 10-8% reactor power during a reactor
startup from xenon-free conditions. The operator establishes a 0.5 decade per
minute startup rate to increase power. Over a period of 10 minutes, startup rate
decreases to zero and then becomes increasingly negative.
Which one of the following is a possible cause for these indications?
A. Fuel depletion
B. Burnable poison burnout
C. Reactor power reaching the point of adding heat
D. Inadvertent boration of the reactor coolant system
The correct answer is: D. Inadvertent boration of the reactor coolant system
The point of adding heat is defined as that power level where the nuclear reactor is
producing enough heat...
A. for Doppler coefficient to produce a positive reactivity feedback.
B. for void coefficient to produce a negative reactivity feedback.
C. to cause a measurable temperature increase in the fuel and coolant.
D. to support main turbine operations.
The correct answer is: C. to cause a measurable temperature increase in the fuel
and coolant.
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A nuclear reactor is critical at the point of adding heat (POAH) when a small amount
of negative reactivity is added to the core. If the same amount of positive reactivity
is added to the core approximately 5 minutes later, reactor power will...
A. increase and stabilize at the POAH.
B. quickly stabilize at a power level below the POAH.
C. continue to decrease on a negative 80 second period until the shutdown
equilibrium neutron level is reached.
D. continue to decrease with an unknown period until the shutdown equilibrium
neutron level is reached.
The correct answer is: B. quickly stabilize at a power level below the POAH.
A nuclear reactor is critical below the point of adding heat (POAH). The operator
adds enough reactivity to attain a startup rate of 0.5 decades per minute. Which one
of the following will decrease first when the reactor reaches the POAH?
A. Pressurizer level
B. Reactor coolant temperature
C. Reactor power
D. Startup rate
The correct answer is: D. Startup rate
Given a critical nuclear reactor operating below the point of adding heat (POAH),
what reactivity effects are associated with reaching the POAH?
A. There are no reactivity effects because the reactor is critical.
B. The increase in fuel temperature will begin to create a positive reactivity effect.
C. The decrease in fuel temperature will begin to create a negative reactivity effect.
D. The increase in fuel temperature will begin to create a negative reactivity effect.
The correct answer is: D. The increase in fuel temperature will begin to create a
negative reactivity effect.
REACTOR OPERATION IN THE POWER RANGE
Once the reactor has been started up and is above the POAH, reactor power is
maintained at approximately 2% while the secondary plant is prepared for power
operations.
Steam Plant Startup
When the steam system is warmed up, condenser vacuum has been established
and the turbine generator is ready for startup, the reactor operator withdraws control
rods as necessary to establish approximately 7-15% reactor power.
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During the turbine generator startup, steam is bled directly to the condenser by the
steam dump system in order to maintain steam pressure. As the turbine generator
draws more steam, the steam dump system automatically reduces the amount of
steam being bled to condenser. During this period, RCS temperature and reactor
power are maintained at approximately constant levels. When the turbine generator
steam load has increased to match reactor power, the steam dumps will be fully
closed.
Plant power escalation continues by gradually opening the main turbine governor
valves. When reactor power is increased above 15%, control rods may be placed in
automatic control. The control rods will then step out automatically to raise average
reactor coolant temperature (T ave ) in accordance with a ramped “T ave versus power”
program as shown in Figure 8-6. The values shown on Figure 8-6 are for a typical
4-loop Westinghouse plant. Actual values will vary from plant to plant.
620
610 609°F
600
590
THOT
TEMPERATURE (° F)
580 580°F
570
TAVG
560
550 TCOLD 549°F

547
540
TSTEAM
530 STEAM PRESSURE
1005 PSIA 525°F
520
510 STEAM PRESSURE

850 PSIA
500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
POWER (%)
Figure 8-6
Typical Westinghouse T ave versus Power Program Graph
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Figure 8-6 is representative of many Westinghouse plants and is also similar to
program used by CE stations. In general, the CE program will tend to hold T cold as
constant as possible, whereas the Westinghouse program will often have T cold
decrease as a function of reactor power. However, in some cases, T cold in a
Westinghouse plant will actually rise somewhat, as denoted in Figure 8-6.
The key for both Westinghouse and CE stations, however, is that T ave will rise (or
slide) as a function of reactor power, as shown in the figure. The reason for sliding
T ave upward (or holding T cold constant) is to enable the steam plant pressure to
remain higher at 100% turbine load. Figure 8-6 also shows this variation in steam
pressure that is representative of Westinghouse and CE plants.
B&W stations tend to adjust T ave differently with respect to reactor power. Figure 8-7
shows a typical T ave versus power program for a B&W Plant. Note that between 0%
and about 20% reactor power, the value of T ave varies approximately as shown on
the Figure 8-6.
However, between about 20% reactor power and 100% reactor power, B&W stations
endeavor to hold T ave constant.
605
603°F
600
THOT
590
580 TAVG = 579°F

579°F
570
TCOLD
TEMPERATURE (° F)
560
555°F
550
540
532
530
520
510
505
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
PERCENT REACTOR POWER
Figure 8-7
Typical B&W T ave versus Power Program Graph
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It is the integrated control system (ICS) at a B&W Plant that keeps T ave constant. In
doing so, the ICS also endeavors to maintain steam pressure approximately
constant.
A B&W station operates with approximately 35 °F to 50 °F of superheat on the
steam system. This gives B&W stations the added advantage of better steam
conditions (higher quality) entering the high-pressure turbine portion of the turbine
generator. It also eliminates the need for the steam separating/drying equipment
necessary in the Westinghouse and Combustion Engineering-designed steam
generators.
Raising Reactor Power to 100%
Reactor power is raised to 100% through a combination of control rod bank (or
group) withdrawal and reactor coolant boron dilution (or deboration).
If boron dilution is not being used, the reactor operator will pull control rods until the
control bank is fully withdrawn. At this point, further automatic rod withdrawal is then
inhibited. Continued plant power increases (increased steam flow rates) will cause
the RCS temperature to decrease, adding positive reactivity to the reactor (via the
MTC) to compensate for the power defect. Decreasing the RCS temperatures will
result in lower steam pressures in the secondary plant and lower overall plant
efficiency.
To prevent a decrease in the RCS temperature, boron dilution must be commenced
to compensate for the plant power increase rate.
Fission Product Poison Buildup
As soon as a nuclear reactor begins operating at power, xenon and other fission
product poisons begin to build to their equilibrium values. This buildup of fission
product poisons adds negative reactivity to reactor. Boron concentration changes or
control rod withdrawal must be used to compensate for this negative reactivity.
In a commercial nuclear reactor operating at power, the control rods are normally
kept almost fully withdrawn in order to maintain the axial neutron flux difference
within its technical specification requirements and to optimize core fuel utilization.
Because of this Xenon buildup is normally compensated for by dilution of the boron
concentration in the RCS.
Since xenon buildup is a relatively slow process, adjusting boron concentration
(dilution) presents no significant problem for the reactor operator. This is true
throughout the beginning and middle of core life. However, toward the end of a fuel
cycle, dilution becomes more difficult since there is little boron left to remove from
the RCS.
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Power Level
A change in reactor power level can result in a change in reactivity if the power level
change results in a change in system temperature. The power level at which the
reactor is producing enough energy to make up for the energy lost to ambient is
commonly referred to as the point of adding heat (POAH).
If a reactor is operating well below the POAH, then variations in power level produce
no measurable variations in temperature. At power levels above the POAH, (power
range operation) temperature varies with power level, and produces associated
reactivity changes due to the MTC.
The inherent stability and power turning ability of a negative temperature coefficient
are ineffective below the POAH. If a power excursion is initiated from a very low
power level, power will continue to rise unchecked until the POAH is reached, and
the subsequent temperature rise adds negative reactivity to slow, and turn, the rise
of reactor power. In this region, reactor safety is provided by automatic reactor
shutdown systems and operator action.
Load Changes During Reactor at-Power Operation
Normally, it is most economical to maintain the power level of a nuclear generating

plant as close to full rated power as possible, and allow fossil-fueled plants also
serving the grid to vary their output as demands on the electric distribution system
change.
This is not always possible, especially when several nuclear plants are serving same
electrical distribution system (grid). When this is the case, the power level of the
plants will vary with the electrical demand on the system.
Varying plant power level with external electrical demand is known as load follow.
The major concern during load follow operations is asymmetric xenon distribution
which can result from changes in plant required power levels.
Load Follow
A typical load follow cycle is shown in Figure 8-8. This cycle consists of 12 hours at
100%, 3-hour ramp to 50%, 6 hours at 50%, and 3-hour ramp to 100%. The cycle is
timed to coincide with demand on the distribution system: 12-hour full-load period
during high demand and 6-hour half-load period during low demand.
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REACTOR POWER
POWER 100
(%)
50
-800 +80
XENON
REACTIVITY
RCS BORON CHANGE (PPM)

-600 +60
CONTROL
REACTIVITY
-400 +40
REACTIVITY (PCM)
CHANGE
-200 +20
0 0
+200 -20
+400 -40
POWER
DEFECT
+600 -60
+800 -80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
HOURS
(REACTIVITY CHANGES BASED ON TYPICAL W 4-LOOP PLANT WITH 800 PPM RCS BORON CONCENTRATION)
Figure 8-8
Typical Load Follow Cycle
Such a cycle is repeated daily as long as load follow operations are necessary, with
adjustments in ramp rates and power plateaus made as needed to meet demand
(these adjustments are determined by system load dispatcher and implemented by
on-duty crew at the reactor plant).
As can be seen from the reactivity change portion of the graph in Figure 8-8, the
load follow cycle involves ever-changing core reactivity, with fairly abrupt changes in
direction. The reactor operator must closely monitor RCS temperature and adjust
boron concentration accordingly.
Recall that changes in RCS boron concentration are not immediate; they lag
operator action by several minutes. The operator must be able to anticipate these
changes in order to be able to maintain reactor power and temperature stable.
Load Follow Operations Near Core EOL
Load follow operations at or near the end of core life are difficult for two reasons:
• The amount of water needed to dilute the RCS at low boron concentrations is
very large.
• Xenon transients are more likely to start and are more difficult to control at the
end of core life
Towards the end of core life, water processing expense and difficulty of controlling
axial flux distribution may preclude engaging in load follow operation.
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Example:
A nuclear power plant has been operating at 75% of rated power for several weeks.
A partial steam line break occurs and 3% total steam flow is escaping. Assuming no
operator or automatic actions, stable reactor power will __________ and stable
reactor coolant temperature will __________.
A. increase; increase
B. not change; increase
C. increase; decrease
D. not change; decrease
The correct answer is: C. increase; decrease
Control Rod Motion at Power
Control rod movement at power can result in core axial xenon oscillations. A
dropped peripheral control rod can initiate radial or possibly azimuthal xenon
oscillations. Both of these conditions produce undesirable effects on core power
distribution.
Control rod movement in or out of core for reactivity control is undesirable because it
distorts the natural axial neutron flux distribution and can lead to xenon transients.
Normally, effort is made to keep the controlling bank of rods almost fully withdrawn
from the core. In general, minimizing control rod movement over core life and
handling reactivity changes with boron serves to minimize axial flux shifts that could
initiate xenon oscillations.
Power Tilt
A power tilt, or flux tilt, is a specific type of core power distribution problem. It is a
non-symmetrical variation of core power in one quadrant of the core relative to the
others. The power in one portion might be suppressed by over-insertion of control
rods in that portion of the core, which, for a constant overall power level, results in a
relatively higher flux in the remainder of the core. This situation can lead to xenon
oscillations.
Maintaining Acceptable Core Power Distribution
In order to ensure predictable temperatures and uniform depletion of the fuel

installed in a reactor, numerous measures are taken to provide an even distribution
of flux throughout the power producing section of the reactor. This shaping, or
flattening, of the neutron flux is normally achieved through the use of reflectors that
affect the flux profile across the core, or by the installation of poisons to suppress the
neutron flux where desired. The last method, although effective at shaping the flux,
is the least desirable since it reduces neutron economy by absorbing the neutrons.
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To prevent large distortions in the core axial power profile which could lead to
peaking factors outside of core design limits, there are strict technical specification
(tech specs) requirements that limit the allowed axial flux difference (ΔI). Each
facility has plant technical specification requirements in this regard.
Appendix C presents an overview of power distribution requirements for B&W, CE,
and Westinghouse nuclear reactor plants.
Examples:
A nuclear reactor is initially critical in the source range during a reactor startup when
the control rods are inserted a small amount. Reactor startup rate stabilizes at -0.15
dpm. Assuming startup rate remains constant, how long will it take for source range
count rate to decrease by one-half?
A. 0.3 minutes
B. 2.0 minutes
C. 3.3 minutes
D. 5.0 minutes
The correct answer is: B. 2.0 minutes
Which one of the following is the reason for inserting control rods in a predetermined
sequence during a normal reactor shutdown?
A. To prevent uneven fuel burnup
B. To prevent an excessive reactor coolant system cooldown rate
C. To prevent abnormally high local power peaks
D. To prevent divergent xenon oscillations
The correct answer is: C. To prevent abnormally high local power peaks
Shutdown Margin
Shutdown margin is the instantaneous amount of reactivity by which a reactor is

subcritical or would be subcritical from its present condition assuming all control rods
are fully inserted except for the single rod with the highest integral worth, which is
assumed to be fully withdrawn.
Shutdown margin is required to exist at all times, even when the reactor is critical. It
is important that there be enough negative reactivity capable of being inserted by the
control rods to ensure complete shutdown at all times during the core lifetime. A
shutdown margin in the range of one to five percent reactivity is typically required.
The stuck rod criterion refers to the fact that the shutdown margin does not take
credit for the insertion of the highest worth control rod. The application of the stuck
rod criterion ensures that the failure of a single control rod will not prevent the control
rod system from shutting down the reactor.
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Other Reactor Parameters Affecting Operation in the Power Range
During reactor operation, numerous parameters such as temperature, pressure,

power level, and flow are continuously monitored and controlled to ensure safe and
stable operation of the reactor. The specific effects of variations in these parameters
vary greatly depending upon reactor design, but generally the effects for thermal
reactors are as follows.
Temperature
The most significant effect of a variation in temperature upon reactor operation is the
addition of positive or negative reactivity. Reactors are generally designed with
negative temperature coefficients of reactivity (moderator and fuel temperature
coefficients) as a self-limiting safety feature. A rise in reactor temperature results in
the addition of negative reactivity. If the rise in temperature is caused by an
increase in reactor power, the negative reactivity addition slows, and eventually
turns the increase in reactor power. This is a highly desirable effect because it
provides a negative feedback in the event of an undesired power excursion.
Steam Demand
Negative temperature coefficients can also be utilized in water cooled and

moderated power reactors (PWR) to allow reactor power to automatically follow
energy demands (steam flow) that are placed upon the system when operating in
the power range.
For example, consider a PWR operating at a stable power level with the heat
produced being transferred to a steam generator for use in the secondary plant.
If the steam demand in the secondary system increases, due to increased turbine
generator loading, steam dumping, etc., more energy is removed from the reactor
system causing the temperature of the reactor coolant to decrease. As the reactor
temperature decreases, positive reactivity is added to the reactor and a
corresponding increase in reactor power level results. As reactor power increases to
a level above the level of the new energy demand, the temperature of the moderator
and fuel increases, adding negative reactivity and decreasing reactor power level to
near the new level required by steam flow.
Some slight oscillations above and below the new power level occur before steady
state conditions are achieved. The final result is that the average temperature of the
reactor system is below the initial temperature, with the reactor operating at the new
higher required power level. The reactor operator would then be required to adjust
control rod height or boron concentration to return reactor coolant temperature to the
original value at the new higher reactor power. In this case, the reactor operator
would withdraw control rods or lower boron concentration (dilution) to add positive
reactivity to the core. The increase in reactor power would result in an increase in
coolant temperature, assuming a new constant level of steam demand.
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Conversely, decreasing energy demand (steam flow) on a PWR operating in the
power range results in a corresponding increase in reactor coolant temperature (due
to less heat removal in the steam generator). The increased temperature results in
negative reactivity added to the core and a corresponding decrease in reactor
power. When steady state conditions are reached, reactor power will be at a level
equal to the new steam demand required by the secondary system with reactor
coolant temperature higher than before the transient. Again, the reactor operator
would have to adjust control rod height or reactor coolant boron concentration to
return coolant temperature to its previous value. In this case control rods would be
inserted or boron concentration increased to add negative reactivity to the core.
Because of the above response of reactor power to steam demand in a PWR it is
often said that reactor power follows steam demand in the power range.
Pressure
The pressure applied to the reactor system can also affect reactor operation by
causing changes in reactivity. The reactivity changes result from changes in the
density of the moderator in response to the pressure changes.
For example, as the system pressure rises, the moderator density increases and
results in greater moderation, less neutron leakage, and therefore the insertion of
positive reactivity. A reduction in system pressure results in the addition of negative
reactivity.
Typically, in pressurized water reactors (PWR), the magnitude of this effect is
considerably less than that of a change in temperature. In two-phase systems such
as boiling water reactors (BWR), however, the effects of pressure changes are more
noticeable because there is a greater change in moderator density for a given
change in system pressure.
Flow
At low reactor power levels, changing the flow rate of the coolant through the reactor
does not result in a measurable reactivity change because fuel and moderator
temperatures and the fraction of steam voids occurring in the core are not changed
appreciably.
When the flow rate is varied, however, the change in temperature that occurs across
the core (outlet versus inlet temperature) will vary inversely with the flow rate. At
higher power levels, on liquid cooled systems, increasing flow will lower fuel and
coolant temperatures slightly, resulting in a small positive reactivity insertion.
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A positive reactivity addition also occurs when flow is increased in a two-phase
(steam-water) cooled system. Increasing the flow rate decreases the fraction of
steam voids in the coolant and results in a positive reactivity addition. This property
of the moderator in a two-phase system is used extensively in commercial BWRs.
Normal power variations required to follow load changes on BWRs are achieved by
varying the coolant/moderator flow rate.
Core Burnup
As a reactor is operated, atoms of fuel are constantly consumed, resulting in the

slow depletion of the fuel frequently referred to as core burnup. There are several
major effects of this fuel depletion.
The first, and most obvious, effect of the fuel burnup is that the control rods must be
withdrawn or chemical shim concentration reduced to compensate for the negative
reactivity effect of this burnup.
Some reactor designs incorporate the use of supplemental burnable poisons in
addition to the control rods to compensate for the reactivity associated with excess
fuel in a new core. These fixed burnable poisons burn out at a rate that
approximates the burnout of the fuel and they reduce the amount of control rod
movement necessary to compensate for fuel depletion early in core life.
As control rods are withdrawn to compensate for fuel depletion, the effective size of
the reactor is increased. By increasing the effective size of the reactor, the
probability that a neutron slows down and is absorbed while it is still in the reactor is
also increased. Therefore, neutron leakage decreases as the effective reactor size
is increased.
The magnitude of the moderator negative temperature coefficient is determined in
part by the change in neutron leakage that occurs as the result of a change in
moderator temperature. Since the fraction of neutrons leaking out is less with the
larger core, a given temperature change will have less of an effect on the leakage.
Therefore, the magnitude of the moderator negative temperature coefficient
decreases with fuel burnup.
There is also another effect that is a consideration only on reactors that use
dissolved boron in the moderator (chemical shim). As the fuel is burned up, the
dissolved boron in the moderator is slowly removed (concentration diluted) to
compensate for the negative reactivity effects of fuel burnup. This action results in a
larger (more negative) MTC in a reactor using chemical shim. This is due to the fact
that when water density is decreased by rising moderator temperature in a reactor
with a negative temperature coefficient, it results in a negative reactivity addition
because some moderator is forced out of the core.
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With a coolant containing dissolved poison, this density decrease also results in
some poison being forced out of the core, which is a positive reactivity addition,
thereby reducing the magnitude of the negative reactivity added by the temperature
increase. Because as fuel burnup increases the concentration of boron is slowly
lowered, the positive reactivity added by the above poison removal process is
lessened, and this results in a larger negative temperature coefficient of reactivity.
The following effect of fuel burnup is most predominant in a reactor with a large
concentration of uranium-238. As the fission process occurs in a thermal reactor
with low or medium enrichment, there is some conversion of uranium-238 into
plutonium-239. Near the end of core life in certain reactors, the power contribution
from the fission of plutonium-239 may be comparable to that from the fission of
uranium-235.
The value of the delayed neutron fraction (β) for uranium-235 is 0.0064 and for
plutonium-239 is 0.0021. Consequently, as core burnup progresses, the effective
delayed neutron fraction for the fuel decreases appreciably. It follows then that the
amount of reactivity insertion needed to produce a given reactor period decreases
with burnup of the fuel.
Response to a Reactor Trip
A reactor trip is a rapid, unplanned shutdown of a reactor by insertion of control rods,

usually caused by some sort of equipment failure, uncontrolled transient or reactor
protective function. The actions taken by reactor operators following reactor trip are
dictated by approved station procedures. These procedures ensure that the reactor
is shut down, the turbine generator is tripped, normal and/or emergency power
sources are available, and overall plant response is as expected. If needed,
compensatory actions are taken in accordance with applicable procedures.
Figure 8-9 shows the behavior of reactor power drop following a reactor trip. The
fission rate decreases to below the power range immediately upon insertion of the
control and shutdown rods. This rapid reactivity insertion is denoted by neutron flux
trace (power drop) from A to B in the figure. This is referred to as prompt drop
following reactor trip.
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100% A
REACTOR POWER (%)
D
0%
TIME AFTER TRIP
Figure 8-9
Reactor Power Response to Reactor Trip
During the period from B to C on Figure 8-9, the neutron population is dominated by
the appearance of delayed neutrons from shorter and intermediate-lived delayed
neutron precursors. These precursors, which were formed when reactor was at
100% power, decay within a few minutes.
Once the shorter-lived precursors have effectively all decayed, the neutron
population is controlled by the appearance of delayed neutrons from the longest-
lived precursors.
From C to D, power falls at a constant -80 second period based on the mean life of
the longest lived delayed neutron precursor, bromine-87 (half-life of about 56
seconds). The -80 second period is equivalent to about a -1/3 decade per minute
(DPM) startup rate (SUR). This continues until neutron population is low enough for
effect of source neutrons to be seen and subcritical equilibrium is reached.
Core thermal power remains high for several seconds after the trip (as shown by
points B to C). There is a time lag of a few seconds for the heat generated in the
fuel to be conducted into the coolant. The decay heat generated in the reactor
immediately following the prompt drop is approximately 7% of rated thermal power
(RTP), assuming a trip from equilibrium full power operation. This occurs at about
point C.
RCS temperature is reduced by the steam dump system and stabilizes at the no-
load T ave . Ten seconds after the trip, the decay heat being produced by the reactor
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is still approximately 5% RTP, and it decreases to about 1% RTP in a little less than
three hours after the trip (between points C to D).
REACTOR SHUTDOWN OPERATION
A reactor is considered to be shut down when it is subcritical and sufficient shutdown

reactivity exists so there is no immediate probability of regaining criticality.
Shutdown is normally accomplished by insertion of some (or all) of the control rods,
or by introduction of soluble neutron poison into the reactor coolant.
Power Decay During Shutdown
The rate at which the reactor fission rate decays immediately following shutdown is
similar for all reactors provided a large amount of negative reactivity is inserted.
After a large negative reactivity addition the neutron level undergoes a rapid
decrease of about two decades (prompt drop) until it is at the level of production of
delayed neutrons. Then the neutron level slowly drops off as the delayed neutron
precursors decay, and in a short while only the longest-lived precursor remains in
any significant amount. This precursor determines the final rate of decrease in
reactor power until the neutron flux reaches the steady state level corresponding to
the subcritical multiplication of the neutron source.
The half-life of the longest lived delayed neutron precursor results in a reactor period
of around -80 seconds or a startup rate of -1/3 DPM for most reactors after a reactor
shutdown (same as for reactor trip described above).
One noticeable exception to this is a heavy water reactor. In a heavy water reactor,
the photo neutron source is extremely large after shutdown due to the amount of
deuterium in the moderator and the large number of high energy gammas from
short-lived fission product decay. The photo-neutron source is large enough to have
a significant impact on neutron population immediately after shutdown. The photo-
neutron source has the result of flux levels decreasing more slowly so that a heavy
water reactor will have a significantly larger negative reactor period after a
shutdown.
Nuclear Instrument Monitoring During Shutdown
Throughout the process of reactor shutdown the nuclear instrumentation is closely

monitored to observe that reactor neutron population is decreasing as expected, and
that the instrumentation is functioning properly to provide continuous indication of
neutron population. Instrumentation is observed for proper overlap between ranges,
comparable indication between multiple instrument channels, and proper decay rate
of neutron population.
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A distinction should be made between indicated reactor power level after shutdown
and the actual thermal power level. The indicated reactor power level is the power
produced directly from fission in the reactor core, but the actual thermal power drops
more slowly due to decay heat production. Although a reactor is shut down, it must
be continuously monitored to ensure the safety of the reactor. Automatic monitoring
systems are employed to continuously collect and assess the data provided by
remote sensors. It is ultimately the operator who must ensure the safety of the
reactor.
Decay Heat Removal
Decay heat, although approximately 5 to 6% of the steady state reactor power prior
to shutdown, diminishes to less than 1% of the pre-shutdown power level after about
one hour.
After a reactor is shutdown, provisions are provided for the removal of decay heat. If
the reactor is to be shut down for only a short time, operating temperature is
normally maintained. If the shutdown period will be lengthy or involves functions
requiring cooldown of the reactor, the reactor temperature can be lowered by a
number of methods.
The methods for actually conducting cooldown of the reactor vary depending on
plant design, but in all cases limitations are imposed on the maximum rate at which
the reactor systems may be cooled. These limits are provided to reduce the stress
applied to system materials, thereby reducing the possibility of stress induced
failure.
Example:
A nuclear reactor was shut down one week ago following several months of
operation at 100% power. Reactor coolant is being maintained at 500EF and all
reactor coolant pumps are operating. The principle source of heat input to the
reactor coolant is from...
A. reactor coolant pumps.
B. subcritical thermal fission of U-235 and Pu-239.
C. subcritical fast fission of U-238.
D. fission product decay.
The correct answer is: A. reactor coolant pumps
Shutdown and Cooldown Procedure
A normal plant shutdown and cooldown is performed periodically at a commercial

nuclear reactor to facilitate refueling or maintenance.
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Reactor power reduction is performed by decreasing the external electrical load on
the turbine generator in conjunction with boration of the RCS. Reducing power in
this manner maintains control rod position and satisfies reactor axial flux difference
requirements and rod insertion limits.
As power is decreased below 15%, control rods are placed in manual control and
the reactor operator manipulates the rods as necessary to control the RCS
temperature.
When turbine generator load has been decreased to approximately 50 MW, the
turbine is tripped and the control rods are positioned to maintain approximately 2%
reactor power.
After reactor power has been stabilized at approximately 2%, the reactor operator
records information required for Reference Reactivity Data (RRD): power level, rod
position and actual boron concentration. This data will be used for the calculation of
shutdown margins and for subsequent ECPs.
Once RRD data has been recorded, the reactor is shutdown by fully inserting all
control banks.
Before starting reactor system cooldown, the RCS is borated to achieve the xenon-
free shutdown margin required by the plant technical specifications for RCS
temperature below 200°F (typically -1000 Δk/k).
Once this boration is completed and RCS boron concentration has been verified by
chemical analysis, reactor cooldown is performed.
When cold shutdown conditions are reached, the shutdown margin is re-verified. If
the shutdown margin is adequate, the shutdown banks are fully inserted and the
reactor trip breakers are opened.
DECAY HEAT
Approximately 200 MeV of energy is released per fission event. The majority of this
energy is in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragments and fission neutrons,
and appears instantaneously after fission. Approximately 6-7% of this energy is
released some time later as the fission products decay. This energy is absorbed by
the surrounding fuel matrix and core materials and is known as decay heat.
The majority of the decay heat in a reactor core is produced by gamma and beta
decay of fission products. Once the reactor is shut down and the fission rate is very
low, these fission fragments continue to decay, releasing heat into the reactor core.
The number of fission fragments undergoing decay is determined by the number of
fissions that occurred and the time since they occurred. The amount of decay heat
being released in the core depends upon the core power history, including the time
since shutdown.
Figure 8-10 illustrates reactor decay heat levels after trip or shutdown.
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(AS A FUNCTION OF REACTOR POWER HISTORY)

100
80
60
HEAT
40
20
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000
TIME AFTER SHUTDOWN (SEC)
Figure 8-10
Decay Heat Production versus Time After Reactor Shutdown
As shown in Figure 8-11, decay heat is present for long period after reactor
shutdown. This figure plots decay heat for uranium-fueled reactor versus time
assuming infinite operating time (i.e., all fission products are in equilibrium).
DECAY HEAT (% FULL POWER)
2.78 hr 1.16d 1.65 wk 4.1 mon 3.17 yr 31.7yr
10.0%
1.0%
0.1%
0.01%
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
TIME AFTER SHUTDOWN (sec)
FOLLOWING INFINITE OPERATING TIME
Figure 8-11
Decay Heat versus Time for Uranium Fueled Reactors
For decay heat considerations, a reactor which has been operating at full power for
about a month can be considered to have been operating infinitely.
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Immediately after shutdown, reactor decay heat is approximately 7% of RTP and
decreases to about 1% RTP in about 104 (10,000) seconds or roughly 2¾ hours.
For a 3000 MW power reactor, the heat generation in core is reduced to 45-50 MW
one hour after shutdown from an extended run at full power.
As a general rule of thumb, decay heat drops to approximately 1% of initial reactor
power level within 4-6 hours after shutdown. This amount of heat production is more
than sufficient to damage the reactor’s fuel if cooling is lost. This discussion of
decay heat production in a shutdown reactor illustrates the importance of shutdown
heat removal, not just after a reactor trip or shutdown, but literally for months
afterward.
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SUMMARY
• An installed neutron source, together with the subcritical multiplication process,

may be needed to increase the neutron population to a level where it can be
monitored throughout a reactor startup procedure.
• Withdrawing shutdown control rods first on a reactor startup provides an
adequate reserve of negative reactivity that can be rapidly inserted into the
reactor if problem occurs during the heatup.
• In a subcritical reactor, as rods are withdrawn positive reactivity is added to the
core. Adding positive reactivity combined with subcritical multiplication yields an
ever-increasing value as criticality is approached in the reactor.
• Each time counts double the negative reactivity remaining in core has been
halved, meaning that the distance to criticality has been halved.
• Count rate ratio is a comparison of two count rates (final count rate divided by
initial count rate). Count rate ratio can be expressed as:
=
• Various heat sources may be used to heat up the RCS, including:

 Reactor coolant pumps
 Pressurizer heaters
 Reactor decay heat
 Combinations of the above sources.
 Typically, plant heatup procedures limit the heat up rate of the RCS to 50 °F
per hour.
 Shutdown margin can be adjusted by adjusting boron concentration during
heatup.
• The inverse of the multiplication factor, the ratio of CR 1 to CR 2 (inverse count
ratio) is plotted (1/M plot) following each reactivity addition during rod withdrawal
to criticality.
 ECP can then be extrapolated from this 1/M plot.
• Reactivity balances, such as Estimated Critical Position calculations, typically
consider the basic reactivity of the core and the reactivity effects of temperature,
direct xenon, and indirect xenon.
• A reactivity balance called an Estimated Critical Position is used to predict the
position of the control rods at which criticality will be achieved during a startup.
 To arrive at an ECP of the control rods, the basic reactivity, direct and indirect
xenon reactivity, and temperature reactivity are added together to determine
the amount of positive reactivity that must be added by withdrawing control
rods or adjusting born concentration to attain criticality.
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 A graph of control rod worth versus rod position is used to determine the
estimated critical position.
• As a minimum, the reactor operator must monitor the following reactor
parameters during the approach to criticality:
 Reactor power level
 Reactor SUR
 Control rod position
 Boron concentration
 Moderator temperature
• On startup, a reactor is said to be critical when the reactor is actually slightly
supercritical.
 The reactor is supercritical when there is a constant positive startup rate and
a steadily increasing neutron population (increasing count rate) with no
control rod motion (or positive reactivity addition)
• When criticality is achieved the operator records:
 Time and date of criticality
 Exact rod position at criticality
 Moderator temperature
 Boron concentration
 Startup rate period at criticality
• When overlap between the source and intermediate range nuclear
instrumentation is verified, the reactor operator blocks the source range
instruments to protect them from burnout.
• At 1x10-8 amps in the intermediate rage, critical rod height data is taken:
 Control rod positions
 Coolant boron concentration
 RCS average loop temperatures
• The point where heat production from fission becomes significant enough to
overcome ambient losses is defined as the point of adding heat (POAH)
• As reactor power increases above the POAH, fuel and moderator temperatures
increase. This results in negative reactivity addition to the reactor core, due to
the Doppler and moderator temperature coefficients
• Steam plant startup:
 When steam plant is ready, rector operator established reactor power at 7-
15% by withdrawing control rods
 Turbine Generator is then started up
 Turbine Generator loading begins
 When reactor power is above 15%, control rods can be placed in automatic
 Once the steam plant is started up and the control rods are in automatic, the
reactor control rods will step out automatically to raise average reactor
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coolant temperature (T ave ) in accordance with a ramped “T ave versus power”
program specific to the reactor manufacturer.
• Reactor power is raised to 100% through a combination of control rod bank (or
group) withdrawal and reactor coolant boron dilution (or deboration).
• The buildup of fission product poisons to equilibrium as a reactor is operated at
power adds negative reactivity to reactor.
 Boron concentration changes or control rod withdrawal must be used to
compensate for this negative reactivity.
• Varying reactor plant power level with external electrical demand is known as
load follow
• Numerous measures are taken to provide an even distribution of flux throughout
the power producing section of the reactor in order to ensure predictable
temperatures and uniform depletion of the fuel installed in a reactor.
 To prevent large distortions in the core axial power profile which could lead to
peaking factors outside of core design limits, there are strict technical
specification (tech specs) requirements that limit the allowed axial flux
difference.
• It is important to maintain shutdown margin in a reactor at all times to ensure
there is enough negative reactivity capable of being inserted by the control rods
to ensure complete shutdown at all times during the core lifetime.
• Temperature variation can affect reactor operation through the addition of
positive or negative reactivity, due to the MTC and the FTC.
• Reactor power level tends to follow steam demand in a PWR operating in the
power range.
• Changes in pressure can affect reactor operation by causing changes in
reactivity due to changes in the density of the moderator.
• At higher power levels, increasing flow will lower fuel and coolant temperatures
slightly in a PWR, resulting in a small positive reactivity insertion.
• Fuel Burnup
 Magnitude of the moderator negative temperature coefficient decreases with
fuel burnup.
 As fuel is burned up, dissolved boron in the moderator is slowly removed
(concentration diluted) to compensate for the negative reactivity resulting in a
larger (more negative) MTC.
• Response of reactor to trip:
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100% A
REACTOR POWER (%)

B
D
0%
TIME AFTER TRIP
• Half-life of longest lived delayed neutron precursor results in a reactor period of

around -80 seconds or a startup rate of -1/3 DPM for most reactors after a
shutdown
• Reactor Shutdown and Cooldown
 Reactor power reduction is performed by decreasing the external electrical
load on the turbine generator in conjunction with boration of the RCS
 As power is decreased below 15%, control rods are placed in manual control
and the RCS temperature is maintained manually.
 When turbine generator load has been decreased to approximately 50 MW,
the turbine is tripped and the control rods are positioned to maintain
approximately 2% reactor power.
 Reactor operator records information required for Reference Reactivity Data
 Reactor is shutdown by fully inserting all control banks.
 Before starting reactor system cooldown, the RCS is borated to achieve the
xenon-free shutdown margin
 Once boration is completed and RCS boron concentration has been verified
by chemical analysis, reactor cooldown is performed.
 When cold shutdown conditions are reached, the shutdown margin is re-
verified and reactor trip breakers are opened.
• Decay heat is always present following reactor operation due to energy resulting
from the decay of fission products.
• The amount of decay heat present in the reactor is dependent on three factors.
 The pre-shutdown power level
 How long the reactor operated
 The amount of time since reactor shutdown
• Decay heat immediately after shutdown is approximately 6-7% of the pre-
shutdown power level.
• Decay heat will decrease to approximately 1% of the pre-shutdown power level
within approximately 2 ¾ hours after reactor shutdown
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. During a nuclear reactor startup, the first positive reactivity addition caused
the count rate to increase from 20 to 30 cps. The second positive reactivity
addition caused the count rate to increase from 30 to 60 cps. Assume K eff
was 0.97 prior to the first reactivity addition.
Which one of the following statements describes the magnitude of the

reactivity additions?
A. The first reactivity addition was approximately 50% larger than the
second.
B. The second reactivity addition was approximately 50% larger than the
first.
C. The first and second reactivity additions were approximately the same.
D. There is not enough information given to determine the relationship of
the reactivity values.
2. Which one of the following is not required to determine the estimated critical
boron concentration for a nuclear reactor startup to be performed 48 hours
following an inadvertent reactor trip?
A. Reactor power level just prior to the trip

B. Steam generator levels just prior to the trip
C. Xenon reactivity in the core just prior to the trip
D. Samarium reactivity in the core just prior to the trip
3. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress following a one-month shutdown.

Upon reaching criticality, the operator establishes a positive 80-second period
and stops control rod motion.
After an additional five minutes, reactor power will be __________ and

reactor period will be __________. (Assume reactor power remains below
the point of adding heat.)
A. constant; constant
B. constant; increasing
C. increasing; constant
D. increasing; increasing
4. A nuclear power plant is operating at equilibrium 50% of rated power level.

Control rods are manually withdrawn for 5 seconds. Which one of the
following plant parameter changes will be observed when the plant stabilizes?
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A. Reactor coolant temperature will be higher.
B. Reactor coolant system pressure will be lower.
C. Reactor power will be higher.
D. Pressurizer level will be lower.
5. A nuclear power plant has been operating at 80% of rated power for several
weeks. A partial steam line break occurs and 2% total steam flow is
escaping. Turbine load and control rod position remain the same.
Assuming no operator or automatic actions, when the plant stabilizes, reactor

power will be ____________ and average reactor coolant temperature will be
____________.
A. higher; higher
B. unchanged; higher
C. higher; lower
D. unchanged; lower
6. A nuclear power plant has been operating at 100% power for several weeks
when a reactor trip occurs. How much time will be required for core heat
production to decrease to 1% following the trip?
A. 1 to 8 days
B. 1 to 8 hours
C. 1 to 8 minutes
D. 1 to 8 seconds
7. Which one of the following is responsible for the negative 1/3 DPM SUR
experienced shortly after a reactor scram/trip?
A. The longest-lived fission product poisons.

B. The shortest-lived fission product poisons.
C. The longest-lived delayed neutron precursors.
D. The shortest-lived delayed neutron precursors.
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8. Which of the following describes the most significant source of core heat
generation 30 minutes after a reactor trip?
A. Fission product decay.

B. Delayed neutron-induced fission.
C. Fast fission of uranium-238.
D. Fast fission of plutomium-239.
9. During a nuclear reactor startup, equal increments of positive reactivity are

being sequentially added and the count rate is allowed to reach equilibrium
after each addition. Which one of the following statements concerning the
equilibrium count rate applies after each successive reactivity addition?
A. The time required to reach equilibrium count rate is the same.

B. The time required to reach equilibrium count rate is shorter.
C. The numerical change in equilibrium count rate increases.
D. The numerical change in equilibrium count rate is the same.
10. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress with the reactor currently subcritical.
Which one of the following describes the change in count rate resulting from a
short control rod withdrawal with K eff at 0.99 as compared to an identical
control rod withdrawal with K eff at 0.95? (Assume reactivity additions are
equal, and the reactor remains subcritical.)
A. Both the prompt jump in count rate and the increase in stable count rate
will be the same.
B. Both the prompt jump in count rate and the increase in stable count rate
will be smaller with Keff at 0.95.
C. The prompt jump in count rate will be smaller with Keff at 0.95, but the
increase in stable count rate will be the same.
D. The prompt jump in count rate will be the same, but the increase in
stable count rate will be smaller with Keff at 0.95.
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11. During a nuclear reactor startup, control rods are withdrawn such that 1.05%
ΔK/K of reactivity is added. Before the withdrawal Keff was 0.97 and count
rate was 500 cps.
Which one of the following will be the approximate final steady-state count
rate following the rod withdrawal?
A. 750 cps
B. 1000 cps
C. 2000 cps
D. 2250 cps
12. During an initial fuel load, the subcritical multiplication factor increases from
1.0 to 4.0 as the first 100 fuel assemblies are loaded. What is the
corresponding final Keff?
A. 0.25
B. 0.5
C. 0.75
D. 1.0
13. During a nuclear reactor startup, the first reactivity addition caused the count
rate to increase from 20 to 40 cps. The second reactivity addition caused the
count rate to increase from 40 to 80 cps. Assume Keff was 0.92 prior to the
first reactivity addition. Which one of the following statements describes the
magnitude of the reactivity additions?
A. The first reactivity addition was approximately twice as large as the

second.
B. The second reactivity addition was approximately twice as large as the
first.
D. There is not enough data given to determine the relationship between
reactivity values.
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14. As criticality is approached during a nuclear reactor startup, equal insertions
of positive reactivity will result in a ____________ absolute change in
equilibrium neutron count rate and a ____________ time to reach each new
equilibrium neutron flux level.
A. smaller; shorter
B. smaller; longer
C. greater; shorter
D. greater; longer
15. The following data were obtained during a nuclear reactor startup:
Control Rod Units Source Range

Withdrawn Count Rate (cps)
0 20
10 25
15 29
20 33
25 40
30 50
Assuming uniform differential rod worth, at what approximate control rod
position will criticality occur?
A. 66 to 75 units withdrawn
B. 56 to 65 units withdrawn
C. 46 to 55 units withdrawn
D. 35 to 45 units withdrawn
16. An estimated critical rod position (ECP) has been correctly calculated for a
nuclear reactor startup that is to be performed 6 hours after a trip from a 60
day full power run. Which one of the following events or conditions will result
in the actual critical rod position being lower than the ECP?
A. The startup is delayed for approximately 2 hours.

B. Steam generator feedwater addition rate is reduced by 5% just prior to
criticality.
C. Steam generator pressures are decreased by 100 psi just prior to
criticality.
D. A new boron sample shows a current boron concentration 20 ppm higher
than that used in the ECP calculation.
17. With Keff = 0.985, how much reactivity must be added to make a nuclear
reactor exactly critical?
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A. 1.54% ΔK/K
B. 1.52% ΔK/K
C. 1.50% ΔK/K
D. 1.48% ΔK/K
18. A nuclear reactor is initially critical at 10,000 cps when a steam generator
atmospheric relief valve fails open. Assume end of core life conditions, no
reactor trip, and no operator actions are taken.
When the reactor stabilizes, the reactor coolant average temperature (Tave)
will be __________ than the initial Tave and reactor power will be ________
the point of adding heat.
A. greater; at
B. greater; above
C. less; at
D. less; above
19. Which one of the following indicates that a nuclear reactor has achieved
criticality during a normal reactor startup?
A. Constant positive startup rate during rod withdrawal

B. Increasing positive startup rate during rod withdrawal
C. Constant positive startup rate with no rod motion
D. Increasing positive startup rate with no rod motion
20. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress. Control rod withdrawal was stopped
several minutes ago to assess criticality. Which one of the following is a
combination of indications in which each listed indication supports a
declaration that the reactor has reached criticality?
A. Startup rate is stable at 0.0 dpm; source range count rate is stable.
B. Startup rate is stable at 0.2 dpm; source range count rate is stable.
C. Startup rate is stable at 0.0 dpm; source range count rate is slowly
increasing.
D. Startup rate is stable at 0.2 dpm; source range count rate is slowly
increasing.
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21. During a nuclear reactor startup from a xenon-free condition, and after
recording critical data, the operator establishes a positive startup rate to
continue increasing power. Within a few minutes, and prior to reaching the
point of adding heat, reactor power stops increasing and begins to slowly
decrease.
Which one of the following changes could have caused this behavior?
A. Inadvertent boration of the RCS

B. Xenon buildup in the core
C. Gradual cooling of the RCS
D. Fission-induced heating of the fuel
22. After taking critical data during a nuclear reactor startup, the operator
establishes a stable 1 DPM startup rate to increase power to the point of
adding heat (POAH). How much negative reactivity feedback must be added
at the POAH to stop the power increase?
A. 0.16% ΔK/K
B. 0.19% ΔK/K
C. 0.23% ΔK/K
D. 0.29% ΔK/K
23. During a xenon-free reactor startup, critical data was inadvertently taken two
decades below the required intermediate range (IR) level. The critical data
was taken again at the proper IR level with the same reactor coolant
temperature and boron concentration.
The critical rod position taken at the proper IR level ________ the critical rod
position taken two decades below the proper IR level.
A. cannot be compared to
B. is greater than
C. is the same as
D. is less than
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24. A nuclear reactor is operating just above the point of adding heat. To raise
reactor power to a higher stable power level, the operator must increase...
A. steam generator levels.

B. steam demand.
C. T ave
D. reactor coolant system boron concentration.
25. With a nuclear reactor on a constant period of 30 minutes, which one of the
following power changes requires the least time to occur?
A. 1% power to 6% power
B. 10% power to 20% power
C. 20% power to 35% power
D. 40% power to 60% power
26. A nuclear power plant is operating at 100% power near the end of a fuel cycle
with all control systems in manual. The reactor operator inadvertently adds
100 gallons of boric acid (4% by weight) to the reactor coolant system (RCS).
Which one of the following will occur as a result of the boric acid addition?
(Assume a constant main generator output.)
A. Pressurizer level will decrease and stabilize at a lower value.

B. RCS pressure will increase and stabilize at a higher value.
C. Reactor power will decrease and stabilize at a lower value.
D. Average RCS temperature will increase and stabilize at a higher value.
27. One week after a refueling outage, a nuclear power plant is operating at 80%
of rated power with control rods fully withdrawn. During the outage, the entire
core was replaced by new fuel assemblies and new burnable poison
assemblies were installed at various locations in the core.
Assume reactor power and control rod position do not change. If no operator
action is taken, how and why will reactor coolant average temperature change
during the next week?
A. Decrease slowly due to fuel burnup only.

B. Decrease slowly due to fuel burnup and fission product poison buildup.
C. Increase slowly due to burnable poison burnout only.
D. Increase slowly due to burnable poison burnout and fission product
poison decay
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28. A refueling outage has just been completed in which one-third of the core was
replaced with new fuel assemblies. A reactor startup has been performed to
mark the beginning of the sixth fuel cycle and reactor power is being
increased to 100%.
Which one of the following pairs of reactor fuels will be providing the greatest
contribution to core heat production when the reactor reaches 100% power?
A. U-235 and U-238

B. U-238 and Pu-239
C. U-235 and Pu-239
D. U-235 and Pu-241
29. A nuclear reactor is critical at 2 x 10-8% power. The operator withdraws rods
as necessary to immediately establish and maintain a 0.10 Dpm startup rate.
How long will it take for the reactor to reach 7 x 10-8% power?
A. 2.4 minutes
B. 5.4 minutes
C. 7.4 minutes
D. 10.4 minutes
30. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress and criticality has just been achieved.
After recording the critical rod heights, the operator withdraws a control rod
for 20 seconds to establish a stable 0.5 dpm startup rate (SUR). One minute
later (prior to reaching the point of adding heat), the operator inserts the same
control rod for 25 seconds.
During the insertion, when will the SUR become negative?
A. Immediately when the control rod insertion is initiated.

B. After the control rod passes through the critical rod height.
C. Just as the control rod passes through the critical rod height.
D. Prior to the control rod passing through the critical rod height.
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31. A nuclear power plant is operating at 85% of rated power and 580°F average
reactor coolant temperature (T ave ) at the end of core life. A failure of the
turbine control system opens the turbine control valves to admit 10% more
steam flow to the main turbine. No operator actions occur and no protective
system actuations occur. Rod control is in manual.
Following the transient, reactor power will stabilize ____________ 85% and
T ave will stabilize ____________ 580°F.
A. above; above
B. above; below
C. below; above
D. below; below
32. The major reason boron is used in a nuclear reactor is to permit...
A. a reduction in the shutdown margin.

B. an increase in the amount of control rods installed.
C. an increase in core life.
D. a reduction in the effect of resonance capture.
33. During a core refueling, fuel assemblies with higher enrichments of U-235
were installed to prolong the fuel cycle from 12 months to 16 months. What is
a possible consequence of offsetting all the excess positive reactivity of the
new fuel with a higher concentration of boron in the reactor coolant?
A. Boron will precipitate out of the reactor coolant during a cooldown.

B. An RCS temperature decrease will result in a negative reactivity
addition.
C. Power changes requiring dilution of RCS boron will take longer.
D. The differential boron worth will become positive.
34. Shortly after a reactor trip, reactor power indicates 0.5% where a stable
negative startup rate is attained. Reactor power will be reduced to 0.05% in
approximately ______________ seconds.
A. 90
B. 180
C. 270
D. 360
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35. Nuclear reactors A and B are identical and have been operated at 100%
power for six months when a reactor trip occurs simultaneously on both
reactors. All reactor A control rods fully insert. One reactor B control rod
sticks fully withdrawn.
Which reactor, if any, will have the longest reactor period five minutes after
the trip?
A. Reactor A due to the greater shutdown reactivity.

B. Reactor B due to the smaller shutdown reactivity.
C. Both reactors will have the same reactor period because, after five
minutes, both reactors will be stable at a power level low in the source
range.
D. Both reactors will have the same reactor period because, after five
minutes, only the longest lived delayed neutron precursors will be
releasing fission neutrons.
36. A nuclear reactor is exactly critical below the point of adding heat when a
single control rod fully inserts into the core. Assuming no operator or
automatic action, reactor power will slowly decrease to...
A. zero.
B. an equilibrium value equal to the source neutron strength.
C. an equilibrium value greater than the source neutron strength.
D. a slightly lower value, then slowly return to the initial value.
37. Which one of the following describes the process for inserting control rods
during a normal reactor shutdown?
A. Control rods are inserted in reverse order one bank at a time to maintain
acceptable power distribution.
B. Control rods are inserted in reverse order one bank at a time to maintain
a rapid shutdown capability from the remainder of the control rods.
C. Control rods are inserted in reverse order in a bank overlapping
sequence to maintain a relatively constant differential control rod worth.
D. Control rods are inserted in reverse order in a bank overlapping
sequence to limit the amount of positive reactivity added during a rod
ejection accident.
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38. The magnitude of decay heat generation is determined primarily by...
A. core burnup.
B. power history.
C. final power at shutdown.
D. control rod worth at shutdown.
39. A nuclear power plant has been operating at rated power for six months when
a reactor trip occurs. Which one of the following describes the source(s) of
core heat generation 30 minutes after the reactor trip?
A. Fission product decay is the only significant source of core heat

generation.
B. Delayed neutron-induced fission is the only significant source of core
heat generation.
C. Fission product decay and delayed neutron-induced fission are both
significant sources and produce approximately equal rates of core heat
generation.
D. Fission product decay and delayed neutron-induced fission are both
insignificant sources and generate core heat at rates that are less than
the rate of ambient heat loss from the core.
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REVIEW ANSWERS
1. During a nuclear reactor startup, the first positive reactivity addition caused
the count rate to increase from 20 to 30 cps. The second positive reactivity
addition caused the count rate to increase from 30 to 60 cps. Assume K eff
was 0.97 prior to the first reactivity addition.
Which one of the following statements describes the magnitude of the

reactivity additions?
2. Which one of the following is not required to determine the estimated critical
boron concentration for a nuclear reactor startup to be performed 48 hours
following an inadvertent reactor trip?
B. Steam generator levels just prior to the trip
3. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress following a one-month shutdown.

Upon reaching criticality, the operator establishes a positive 80-second period
and stops control rod motion.
After an additional five minutes, reactor power will be __________ and

reactor period will be __________. (Assume reactor power remains below
the point of adding heat.)
C. increasing; constant
4. A nuclear power plant is operating at equilibrium 50% of rated power level.

Control rods are manually withdrawn for 5 seconds. Which one of the
following plant parameter changes will be observed when the plant stabilizes?
A. Reactor coolant temperature will be higher.
5. A nuclear power plant has been operating at 80% of rated power for several
weeks. A partial steam line break occurs and 2% total steam flow is
escaping. Turbine load and control rod position remain the same.
Assuming no operator or automatic actions, when the plant stabilizes, reactor

power will be ____________ and average reactor coolant temperature will be
____________.
C. higher; lower
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6. A nuclear power plant has been operating at 100% power for several weeks
when a reactor trip occurs. How much time will be required for core heat
production to decrease to 1% following the trip?
B. 1 to 8 hours
7. Which one of the following is responsible for the negative 1/3 DPM SUR
experienced shortly after a reactor scram/trip?
C. The longest-lived delayed neutron precursors.
8. Which of the following describes the most significant source of core heat
generation 30 minutes after a reactor trip?
A. Fission product decay.
9. During a nuclear reactor startup, equal increments of positive reactivity are

being sequentially added and the count rate is allowed to reach equilibrium
after each addition. Which one of the following statements concerning the
equilibrium count rate applies after each successive reactivity addition?
C. The numerical change in equilibrium count rate increases.
10. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress with the reactor currently subcritical.
Which one of the following describes the change in count rate resulting from a
short control rod withdrawal with K eff at 0.99 as compared to an identical
control rod withdrawal with K eff at 0.95? (Assume reactivity additions are
equal, and the reactor remains subcritical.)
B. Both the prompt jump in count rate and the increase in stable count rate
will be smaller with Keff at 0.95.
11. During a nuclear reactor startup, control rods are withdrawn such that 1.05%
ΔK/K of reactivity is added. Before the withdrawal Keff was 0.97 and count
rate was 500 cps.
Which one of the following will be the approximate final steady-state count
rate following the rod withdrawal?
A. 750 cps
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12. During an initial fuel load, the subcritical multiplication factor increases from
1.0 to 4.0 as the first 100 fuel assemblies are loaded. What is the
corresponding final Keff?
C. 0.75
13. During a nuclear reactor startup, the first reactivity addition caused the count
rate to increase from 20 to 40 cps. The second reactivity addition caused the
count rate to increase from 40 to 80 cps. Assume Keff was 0.92 prior to the
first reactivity addition. Which one of the following statements describes the
magnitude of the reactivity additions?
A. The first reactivity addition was approximately twice as large as the

second.
14. As criticality is approached during a nuclear reactor startup, equal insertions

of positive reactivity will result in a ____________ absolute change in
equilibrium neutron count rate and a ____________ time to reach each new
equilibrium neutron flux level.
D. greater; longer
15. The following data were obtained during a nuclear reactor startup:
Control Rod Units Source Range

Withdrawn Count Rate (cps)
0 20
10 25
15 29
20 33
25 40
30 50
Assuming uniform differential rod worth, at what approximate control rod
position will criticality occur?
C. 46 to 55 units withdrawn
16. An estimated critical rod position (ECP) has been correctly calculated for a
nuclear reactor startup that is to be performed 6 hours after a trip from a 60
day full power run. Which one of the following events or conditions will result
in the actual critical rod position being lower than the ECP?
C. Steam generator pressures are decreased by 100 psi just prior to

criticality.
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17. With Keff = 0.985, how much reactivity must be added to make a nuclear
reactor exactly critical?
B. 1.52% ΔK/K
18. A nuclear reactor is initially critical at 10,000 cps when a steam generator
atmospheric relief valve fails open. Assume end of core life conditions, no
reactor trip, and no operator actions are taken.
When the reactor stabilizes, the reactor coolant average temperature (Tave)
will be __________ than the initial Tave and reactor power will be ________
the point of adding heat.
D. less; above
19. Which one of the following indicates that a nuclear reactor has achieved
criticality during a normal reactor startup?
C. Constant positive startup rate with no rod motion
20. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress. Control rod withdrawal was stopped
several minutes ago to assess criticality. Which one of the following is a
combination of indications in which each listed indication supports a
declaration that the reactor has reached criticality?
D. Startup rate is stable at 0.2 dpm; source range count rate is slowly
increasing.
21. During a nuclear reactor startup from a xenon-free condition, and after
recording critical data, the operator establishes a positive startup rate to
continue increasing power. Within a few minutes, and prior to reaching the
point of adding heat, reactor power stops increasing and begins to slowly
decrease.
Which one of the following changes could have caused this behavior?
A. Inadvertent boration of the RCS
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22. After taking critical data during a nuclear reactor startup, the operator
establishes a stable 1 DPM startup rate to increase power to the point of
adding heat (POAH). How much negative reactivity feedback must be added
at the POAH to stop the power increase?
A. 0.16% ΔK/K
23. During a xenon-free reactor startup, critical data was inadvertently taken two
decades below the required intermediate range (IR) level. The critical data
was taken again at the proper IR level with the same reactor coolant
temperature and boron concentration.
The critical rod position taken at the proper IR level ________ the critical rod
position taken two decades below the proper IR level.
C. is the same as
24. A nuclear reactor is operating just above the point of adding heat. To raise
reactor power to a higher stable power level, the operator must increase...
B. steam demand.
25. With a nuclear reactor on a constant period of 30 minutes, which one of the
following power changes requires the least time to occur?
D. 40% power to 60% power
26. A nuclear power plant is operating at 100% power near the end of a fuel cycle
with all control systems in manual. The reactor operator inadvertently adds
100 gallons of boric acid (4% by weight) to the reactor coolant system (RCS).
Which one of the following will occur as a result of the boric acid addition?
(Assume a constant main generator output.)
A. Pressurizer level will decrease and stabilize at a lower value.
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27. One week after a refueling outage, a nuclear power plant is operating at 80%
of rated power with control rods fully withdrawn. During the outage, the entire
core was replaced by new fuel assemblies and new burnable poison
assemblies were installed at various locations in the core.
Assume reactor power and control rod position do not change. If no operator
action is taken, how and why will reactor coolant average temperature change
during the next week?
B. Decrease slowly due to fuel burnup and fission product poison buildup.
28. A refueling outage has just been completed in which one-third of the core was
replaced with new fuel assemblies. A reactor startup has been performed to
mark the beginning of the sixth fuel cycle and reactor power is being
increased to 100%.
Which one of the following pairs of reactor fuels will be providing the greatest
contribution to core heat production when the reactor reaches 100% power?
C. U-235 and Pu-239
29. A nuclear reactor is critical at 2 x 10-8% power. The operator withdraws rods
as necessary to immediately establish and maintain a 0.10 Dpm startup rate.
How long will it take for the reactor to reach 7 x 10-8% power?
B. 5.4 minutes
30. A nuclear reactor startup is in progress and criticality has just been achieved.
After recording the critical rod heights, the operator withdraws a control rod
for 20 seconds to establish a stable 0.5 dpm startup rate (SUR). One minute
later (prior to reaching the point of adding heat), the operator inserts the same
control rod for 25 seconds.
During the insertion, when will the SUR become negative?
D. Prior to the control rod passing through the critical rod height.
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31. A nuclear power plant is operating at 85% of rated power and 580°F average
reactor coolant temperature (T ave ) at the end of core life. A failure of the
turbine control system opens the turbine control valves to admit 10% more
steam flow to the main turbine. No operator actions occur and no protective
system actuations occur. Rod control is in manual.
Following the transient, reactor power will stabilize ____________ 85% and
T ave will stabilize ____________ 580°F.
B. above; below
32. The major reason boron is used in a nuclear reactor is to permit...
C. an increase in core life.
33. During a core refueling, fuel assemblies with higher enrichments of U-235
were installed to prolong the fuel cycle from 12 months to 16 months. What is
a possible consequence of offsetting all the excess positive reactivity of the
new fuel with a higher concentration of boron in the reactor coolant?
B. An RCS temperature decrease will result in a negative reactivity addition.
34. Shortly after a reactor trip, reactor power indicates 0.5% where a stable
negative startup rate is attained. Reactor power will be reduced to 0.05% in
approximately ______________ seconds.
B. 180
35. Nuclear reactors A and B are identical and have been operated at 100%
power for six months when a reactor trip occurs simultaneously on both
reactors. All reactor A control rods fully insert. One reactor B control rod
sticks fully withdrawn.
Which reactor, if any, will have the longest reactor period five minutes after
the trip?
D. Both reactors will have the same reactor period because, after five
minutes, only the longest lived delayed neutron precursors will be
releasing fission neutrons.
36. A nuclear reactor is exactly critical below the point of adding heat when a
single control rod fully inserts into the core. Assuming no operator or
automatic action, reactor power will slowly decrease to...
C. an equilibrium value greater than the source neutron strength.
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37. Which one of the following describes the process for inserting control rods
during a normal reactor shutdown?
C. Control rods are inserted in reverse order in a bank overlapping sequence

to maintain a relatively constant differential control rod worth.
38. The magnitude of decay heat generation is determined primarily by...
B. power history.
39. A nuclear power plant has been operating at rated power for six months when
a reactor trip occurs. Which one of the following describes the source(s) of
core heat generation 30 minutes after the reactor trip?
A. Fission product decay is the only significant source of core heat

generation.
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APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A: EXAMPLE INVERSE MULTIPLICATION PLOTS
INCORRECT DETECTOR
LOCATION
1.0
0.8
1/M
0.6
0.4
OCCURS WHEN:
1. FUEL LOADED TOWARD DETECTOR
2. DETECTOR INITIALLY TOO FAR FROM CORE
0.2 3. DETECTOR TOO CLOSE TO SOURCE
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
FUELS ASSEMBLIES LOADED
Figure A-1
1/M Plot During Refueling with Incorrect Detector Location
DETECTOR TOO FAR

AWAY FROM SOURCE
1.0
0.8
0.6
1/M
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
FUELS ASSEMBLIES LOADED
Figure A-2
1/M Plot During Refueling with Fuel Loaded Between Source and Detector
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APPENDIX A
DETECTOR IS IN FIXED
LOCATION OUTSIDE OF CORE
1.0
OUTER FUEL
ASSEMBLIES
MOVED TO INNER
CENTER FUEL REGIONS OF
ICRR (1/M)
CORE NEW FUEL

ASSEMBLIES ASSEMBLIES
SHUFFLED LOADED IN
SOME MOVED OUTER REGIONS
OUT OF CORE OF CORE
0.5
0
0 50 100 150
NUMBER OF FUEL ASSEMBLIES LOADED
Figure A-3
1/M Plot During Fuel Shuffle
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
ICRR
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
A
0 40 80 120 160 200 228
B
0 40 80 120 160 200 228
C
0 40 80 120 160 200 228
D
0 40 80 120 160 200 228
ROD HEIGHT (STEPS)
Figure A-4
Plot Using Rod Bank Approach to Criticality (Westinghouse)
GSE Systems Proprietary Information

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APPENDIX A
TIME BORON CONCENTRATION COUNT RATE ICRR (1/M)
0 1100 PPM 10 CPS 1.0
1 1000 PPM 13.3 CPS 0.75
2 900 PPM 20 CPS 0.50
3 800 PPM 40 CPS 0.25
4 750 PPM 80 CPS 0.13
TAKE NEW REFERENCE COUNT RATE

AND DRAW NEW 1/M PLOT
1.00
0.75
1/M
0.50
0.25
0.00
1100 1000 900 800 700 600
BORON CONCENTRATION (PPM)
Figure A-5
1/M Plot During Boron Dilution

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APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B: ICR PLOTS FOR VARIOUS PLANTS
INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR B&W PLANT
To use an inverse count rate ratio plot (1/M plot) during startup at a B&W Plant, a
baseline inverse count rate ratio (ICRR) is typically established after the first four
control rod assembly (CRA) groups are withdrawn. These groups are referred to as
safety groups.
During periods when the reactor is operated, these first four groups are maintained
at their full-out position. The function of these groups is to provide an adequate
shutdown capability in the event of a reactor trip.
Groups 5, 6, and 7 are the regulating rod groups and are used to establish reactor
criticality and to control the power output of the core. The ICRR plot will begin with
the withdrawal of Group #5. A point is then plotted on the graph of rod position for
the safety group being fully withdrawn on the horizontal axis and 1.0 at the top of the
vertical axis, denoting the ICRR as shown on Figure B-1.
PLOT FIRST
POINT HERE
1
ICRR
0.5
0
CRA REGULATING ROD
GROUP POSITION
Figure B-1
Initial ICR Plot at B&W Plant
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APPENDIX B
At this point, plant procedures are to be followed for incremental withdrawals of
control rod assemblies (CRAs). One scheme is to withdraw the regulating rod
groups until the count rate approximately doubles. This means that k eff of the
reactor has gone half way to criticality from its original value.
After allowing the count rate to stabilize, the count rate is recorded, and the ICRR is
calculated. The ICRR is the plotted against current rod position.
The reactor operator again withdraws the control banks until the count rate again
approximately doubles. Another ICRR is calculated, plotted, and extrapolated to
determine the approximate critical rod height, as shown in Figure B-2. This
sequence may be repeated two or more times during the approach to criticality.
(Note: Individual plant procedures will vary on CRA withdrawals to develop the ICRR
plot).
EXTRAPOLATING THE LINE FROM THE BASELINE ICRR

1 THROUGH THE CURRENT ICRR YIELDS AN APPROXIMATE
CRITICAL ROD HEIGHT, WHICH CAN BE COMPARED
AGAINST THE CALCULATED CRITICAL ROD HEGHT.
ICRR
ICRR VALUE WHEN

0.5 THE COUNT RATE
DOUBLED
PREDICTED CRITICAL
POSITION FOR CRA’S
0
CRA REGULATING ROD
GROUP POSITION
Figure B-2
ICRR Plot for Initial Doubling of Count Rate at B&W Plant

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APPENDIX B
Each successive extrapolation should indicate a more accurate estimate of the
critical rod height. If the estimated critical rod height determined from the ICRR plot
is outside the bounds of the calculated ECP, the startup must be terminated and all
control rods fully inserted. The reasons for the difference must be identified and
corrected before resuming startup activities. Again, the most common errors are
found in the reactivity balance calculation of the ECP. If the reason for the
discrepancy cannot be found, the reactor engineering staff must be notified so that
an investigation can be initiated.
At many B&W facilities inverse multiplication plots are required for the following plant
evolutions:
• While shutdown and reducing boron concentration greater than 50 PPM
• Plot ICRR versus gallons of water added
• Plant heatup to 525°F
• Plot ICRR against temperature every 50°F and plot ICRR against safety rod
positions
• Approach to criticality
• Plot ICRR against control rod (regulating rod) withdrawal
• Plant cooldown
• Plot ICRR against safety rod positions
• During refueling operation
• Plot ICRR values against new fuel assemblies in core (usually two plots are
required using two separate detectors).
Figure B-3 shows an example of the ICRR plot during the approach to criticality at a
B&W Plant where the regulating (control) rod groups 5, 6 and 7 are being withdrawn.
The ICRR plot assumes a 25% CRA group overlap.

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APPENDIX B
GROUP - 5 GROUP - 6 GROUP - 7 CR (CPS) ICRR
1.0 0% 0% 0% 40 1.00
25% 0% 0% 43.5 0.92
50% 0% 0% 50 0.80
75% 0% 0% 58.8 0.68
0.8 100% 25% 0% 76.9 0.52
100% 50% 0% 111.1 0.36
100% 75% 0% 285.7 0.14
ECP 100% 92% 17% — 0.00
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
GROUP - 5
0 25% 50% 75% 100% GROUP - 6
0 25% 50% 75% 100%

GROUP - 7
0 25% 50% 75% 100%
PREDICTED CRITICALITY AT
92% ON GROUP - 6 OR 17%
ON GROUP - 7
Figure B-3
ICRR Plot for Regulating Groups 5, 6 and 7
INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR CE PLANT
To use an inverse count rate ratio plot (1/M plot) during a startup at a CE Plant, a
baseline inverse count rate ratio (ICRR) during control element assembly (CEA)
withdrawal is typically established after the first two of six CEA groups have been
withdrawn. An ICRR plot is nominally established for CEA groups 3, 4, 5, and 6.
The ICRR plot can then begin with the withdrawal of group 3.
A point is plotted on graph of rod position for CEA group 3 at zero inches withdrawn
on the horizontal axis, and 1.0 at the top of the vertical axis denoting the initial ICRR,
as shown in Figure B-4.

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APPENDIX B
1.0 PLOT FIRST
POINT HERE
.9
.8
.7
.6
ICRR
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 160
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150

GROUP 3 GROUP 4 GROUP 5 GROUP 6
CEA (CONTROL) GROUP POSITION

(INCHES WITHDRAWN)
Figure B-4
Initial ICRR Plot at CE Plant
At this point, plant procedures are followed for incremental withdrawal of the CEA
control rod groups. Then by following plant procedures for the ICRR plot,
successive CEA group withdrawals can be made using the ICRR plot.
This ICRR plot assumes 50-inch overlap for groups 3 thru 6. It also assumes each
CEA is a nominal 150 inches in length as shown in Figure B-5.

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APPENDIX B
3 4 5 6 C.R. RATIO
0 0 0 0 20
75 0 0 0 31.7 0.63
110 10 0 0 35.7 0.56

140 40 0 0 40 0.50
70 0 0 52.6 0.38
110 10 0 74.1 0.27
EXTRAPOLATING THE LINE FROM THE

135 35 0 83.3 0.24
BASELINE ICRR THROUGH THE CURRENT
1.0 ICRR YIELDS AN APPROXIMATE CRITICAL 60 0 100 0.20
ROD HEIGHT, WHICH CAN BE COMPARED
.9 AGAINST THE CALCULATED CRITICAL 100 0 117.6 0.17
ROD HEIGHT.
.8 130 30 153.8 0.13
.7 150 50 222.2 0.09
.6
ICRR
80 500 0.04
.5
.4 ECP FOR
.3 CRITICALITY
.2
.1
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150

GROUP 3 GROUP 4 GROUP 5 GROUP 6
CEA GROUP POSITION (INCHES WITHDRAWN)
Figure B-5
Typical CE Plant ICRR Plot
The reactor operator then continues to withdraw the CEA groups incrementally per
procedure to determine the approximate ECP for the CEA groups. Each successive
extrapolation should indicate a more accurate estimate of the critical rod height. If
the estimated critical rod height determined from ICRR plot is outside the bounds of
the ECP, the startup must be terminated and all rods must be fully inserted. The
reasons for difference must be identified and corrected before resuming startup
activities.
Most commonly, errors are found in the reactivity balance calculation of the ECP. If
the reason for the discrepancy cannot be found, the reactor engineering staff must
be notified so that an investigation can be initiated.

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APPENDIX B
Other uses of ICRR (1/M) plots at CE Plants include:
• While shutdown and reducing boron concentration greater than about 50
PPM
• Plot of ICRR vs. gallons of water added to RCS
• During refueling operations
• Plot 1/M values against new fuel assemblies loaded into core (usually two
plots are required using two separate detectors)
INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR WESTINGHOUSE PLANT
To use an inverse count rate ratio plot (1/M plot) during a reactor startup at a
Westinghouse Plant, a baseline inverse count rate ratio (ICRR) during rod control
cluster assembly (RCCA) withdrawal is typically established after the shutdown
banks have been withdrawn. The first point is established with Bank A at zero steps
after all shutdown banks have been fully withdrawn, as shown in Figure B-6.
1.0
PLOT FIRST
0.9 POINT HERE
0.8
0.7
0.6
ICRR
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK D
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK C
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK B
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK A
RCCA BANK POSITION (STEPS)
Figure B-6
Initial ICRR Plot at Westinghouse Plant
Figure B-7 shows a typical ICRR plot for a Westinghouse Plant.

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APPENDIX B
1.0 ROD AVERAGE 1

i Ci (cps) Ci/Co
HEIGHT
0.9 0 0 9.0 1.000
1 A 50 9.4 0.958
2 A 100 10.0 0.900
0.8 3 A 150 10.5 0.857
4 B 22 11.5 0.783
0.7 5 B 72 14.7 0.612
6 B 122 18.8 0.478
0.6 7 B 172 22.5 0.400
ICRR
8 C 44 27.5 0.327
9 C 94 65.0 0.138
0.5 10 C 119 150.0 0.060
11 C 134 325.0 0.027
0.4 12 C 142 660.0 0.014
0.3
CRITICAL ROD HEIGHT:
0.2 BANK C @ 151 STEPS
0.1
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK D
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK C
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK B
0 50 100 150 200 228
BANK A
RCCA BANK POSITION (STEPS)
Figure B-7
Typical ICRR Plot for Westinghouse Plant
The following outlines the ICRR Plot process for a Westinghouse Plant.
The plot begins with zero steps on Bank A, as shown on horizontal axis on Figure
B-7. An initial ICRR value of 1.0 is plotted on vertical axis as shown. At this point,
plant procedures are followed for incremental withdrawals of RCCA control banks.
By following plant procedures for the ICRR plot, successive RCAA bank withdrawals
can be made and plotted on the ICRR.
The ICRR plot shown in Figure B-7 is from a Westinghouse Plant with a 12-foot core
employing 50 steps of bank overlap (12 ft corresponds to 228 steps).

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APPENDIX B
Beginning with Bank A and then the remaining RCCA banks, the banks are
successively withdrawn in 50 step intervals until criticality is approached. The
reactor operator continues to withdraw RCCA control banks incrementally per
procedure to determine the approximate ECP for the control banks. Each
successive extrapolation should indicate a more accurate estimate of the critical rod
height.
If the estimated critical rod height determined from the ICRR plot is outside the
bounds of the ECP, the startup must be terminated and all rods must be fully
inserted. The reasons for the difference must be identified and corrected before
resuming reactor startup activities. The most common errors are found in the
reactivity balance of the ECP. If the reason for the discrepancy cannot be found, the
reactor engineering staff must be notified so that an investigation can be initiated.
Other uses of the ICRR (1/M) plot at Westinghouse Plants include:
• While shutdown and reducing boron concentration greater than about 50

PPM
• Plot ICRR vs. gallons of water added to RCS
• During refueling operations
• Plot 1/M values against new fuel assemblies loaded into core (usually two
plots are required using two separate detectors)

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APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C: PLANT POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS
BABCOCK &WILCOX POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS
To prevent large distortions in the core axial power profile that could lead to peaking
factors outside of design limits, there are strict technical specification requirements
that limit the allowed axial power imbalance in B&W reactors.
Figure C-1 compares four upper power range detector outputs to four lower range
detector outputs, looking at axial power imbalance.
Prepared By:
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APPENDIX C
Figure C-1
B&W Allowed Axial Power Imbalance MOL
𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑝 − 𝜙𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝜙𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣.𝑜𝑓 100% 𝑝𝑤𝑟
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APPENDIX C
The reactor operators are required to operate the reactor within the “Permissible
Region” shown under the curve in Figure C-1. Different curves are employed for
allowed imbalance at different times in core life, based on of fuel depletion. The
curve in Figure C-1 represents core middle-of-life (MOL) conditions.
In this case, the allowed axial flux imbalance for a B&W reactor must be maintained
according to the technical specifications, as represented by this MOL axial power
imbalance curve. Normally, this is accomplished by maintaining control rods almost
fully withdrawn from core. Minimizing control rod movement during power operation
minimizes axial flux shifts that can result in xenon oscillations.
Some B&W facilities employ axial power shaping rods (APSRs) which are
constructed with 6 feet of active absorber positioned near the center of the core to
provide flux (power) shaping.
Because most nuclear facilities are “base loaded,” the load dispatcher tries to ensure
that the nuclear units on the grid maintain constant power levels. If load follow
operations are warranted, reactivity changes during load follow operations are made
by changing the RCS boron concentration. This helps to keep the control rods out of
the core except where the APSRs are being used.
When reactor power does change, axial flux tends to shift because of the reactivity
effects associated with moderator temperature (MTC). Changing reactor power
upsets core equilibrium conditions and induces transient xenon behavior. The
APSRs are most useful for handling these axial power imbalances. For reactors
without APSRs, boron concentration changes are necessary to move rods in or out.
Rod movement in or out of core for reactivity control is undesirable because it
distorts the natural axial neutron flux distribution and can lead to xenon transients.
The reactor operator must be aware of the direction of the reactivity changes due to
rod motion and compensate for it with boron concentration adjustments in order to
maintain RCS temperature. For negative power imbalances, boration is required to
move control rod assemblies (CRAs) out. For positive power imbalances, dilution is
required for CRA inward movement.
Core imbalance must be monitored a minimum of once every two hours during
power operation above 40% of rated power
Except for physics tests, corrective measures (reduction of imbalance by APSR
movement if allowed, and/or reduction in reactor power) must be taken to maintain
operation within the envelope defined by Figure C-1.
If axial flux imbalance is not within the envelope defined by this figure, corrective
measures must be taken to achieve an acceptable imbalance. If an acceptable
imbalance is not achieved within four hours, reactor power must be reduced until
imbalance limits are met according to Figure C-1.

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APPENDIX C
Control Rod and APSR Recommendations (B&W Procedural Examples)
Movement of control rods and/or adjustment of boron concentration to control core

power:
• Control rods should be maintained within steady-state operating rod position
range (Control Rod Group- 7 > 90% withdrawn) whenever steady load
conditions exist for more than one-two hours or during load changes less than
0.5% per minute.
 This action will minimize imbalance changes
• Greater rod insertion is used during all transients over 0.5% per minute and
whenever power changes greater than 15% are expected.
• The APSRs should be maintained within position limits established by plant
operations director via lead nuclear engineer (Control Rod Group 8 > 30%
withdrawn) within eight hours after obtaining steady-state conditions
If these position limits cannot be maintained, lead nuclear engineer is notified per
station procedures
COMBUSTION ENGINEERING POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS
To prevent large distortions in axial power profiles that could lead to peaking factors
outside plant design limits, CE power stations place strict requirements on the axial
shape index in plant technical specifications. The axial shape index (ASI) is
calculated using excore nuclear instruments and is an indication of core power
distribution. The axial shape index (ASI) is given by symbol Y E, where Y E is defined
as:
𝐿−𝑈
𝑌𝐸 =
𝐿+𝑈
Where:
Y E = axial shape index
L = power at lower excore instrument detectors
U = power at upper excore instrument detectors
The ASI is the shape of power density (neutrons/cm3) and not the shape of neutron
flux (neutrons/cm2 sec).
(Remembered as LULU)
The axial shape index (Y I ) used for trip and pre-trip signals in the Reactor Protection
System takes the value of Y E for a given detector channel and modifies it by an
approximate multiplier (A) and a constant (B) to determine the true core axial power
distribution for that particular channel.

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APPENDIX C
𝑌𝐼 = 𝐴𝑌𝐸 + 𝐵
Where:
YI = axial shape index for Reactor Protection System
A = Approximate multiplier
Y E = axial shape index
B = Constant
There are a number of different parameters that affect the ASI:
• Core ∆T effects
• CEA effects
• Xenon oscillations
• Core age effects
• CE Core Differential Temperature Effects
Because the RCS hot leg temperature (T H ) is greater than the cold leg temperature
(T C ), the density of the moderator is greater near the bottom of the core than near
the top. Since greater density provides better thermalization of neutrons, power
density and flux distribution tends to increase toward the lower portion of the core.
Cold Leg Temperature (T C ) Program Effect
CE stations program cold leg temperature (T C ) with power in an effort to maintain

proper steam conditions at the outlet of the steam generators. Since secondary
steam pressure remains relatively constant, TC increases as power increases
because reactor power is related to the difference in temperature between T C and
T H . This difference also increases as reactor power increases. The design of the
reactor is such that T H increases by 4 °F for each 1 °F increase in T C .
Because of the greater density change associated with the greater temperature
change, power density will shift toward the bottom of the core on a power increase
and toward the top of the core on power decrease.
Control Element Absorber (Control Rod) Effect
Insertion of control element assemblies (CEAs) into the top of the core adds
negative reactivity in the form of local poisons. If steam demand is kept constant,
reactor power will remain relatively constant. This implies a constant neutron flux
level. Since CEAs depress the neutron flux in the area around the CEAs, the flux
increases in the bottom of the core.

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APPENDIX C
Xenon Oscillations
In large nuclear reactors, xenon can cause slow axial oscillations in reactor power
(neutron flux). If the CEAs are partially inserted into the core while power is held
constant, the flux in the upper portion of the core will decrease while the flux in the
lower portion will increase. As a result of the increased flux in the lower portion of
the core, xenon will be consumed at a faster rate. The rate of iodine formation will
also increase, but because of its 6.7 hour half-life, there will be a delay in the
increase of xenon from iodine decay.
The result is that in the lower part of the core, xenon concentration decreases,
reducing neutron capture and further increasing neutron flux. This process
continues until the delayed production of xenon from iodine decay causes an
increase in the amount of xenon, which then decreases the neutron flux in the lower
part of core.
Meanwhile, the decreased flux in upper portion of core means fewer neutrons
captured by xenon. This causes the flux to decrease still further until it is halted and
reversed by xenon decay and a lower rate of iodine production in the decreased flux.
As a result, there are continuous oscillations in flux between the upper and lower
portion of the core. As flux increases in one portion, it decreases in the other. The
period of these oscillations is about 24 hours.
For the most part, xenon oscillations are self-dampening or converging. Because
the upper and lower portions of the core are separated by the fuel-rich middle
portion, neutrons on the high-flux region can “cross-over” into the low-flux region and
in doing so maintain a higher flux in the low flux region than would be possible if the
fuel in middle of core were depleted. This effect acts as a negative-feedback
mechanism that lowers the magnitude of the xenon oscillations so that they
eventually dampen out in a few cycles. Near the end of core life, however, the
conditions and effects are different.
Core Age Effects
At core BOL, due to the even axial fuel load, axial flux shape tends to peak near the
center of the core. The difference in densities between T H and T C tends to shift the
flux shape more toward the lower portion of the core than the upper portion. This
results in preferential burnout of the fuel in the middle and lower portions of core.
As core age progresses, preferential burnout has the effect of causing a shift in the
flux shape away from the middle and toward the upper and lower parts of the core.
Flux shape shifts to the upper part of the core because more fuel remains in the
upper part of core near EOL than at the bottom of the core.

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APPENDIX C
Flux shape shifts to the lower part of the core because of more positive reactivity
added at the bottom due to the temperature difference between T H and T C . The
axial shape index (ASI) will still be positive, but the flux shape will assume a double-
hump shape characteristic at this time in core life. This can have deleterious effect
on reactor operation because the reactor exhibits “split-core” characteristics. The
upper and lower cores act almost independently of each other because of the
greater depletion of the fuel in the middle of the core than in the upper or lower
regions. The reactor tends to act like two cores operated by a non-multiplying
region, but since the total power demand of the secondary system is felt by both
halves of the core they must attempt to operate as a duel unit.
If a perturbation occurs such that flux is suppressed somewhat in one part of core, it
must increase in other. The buildup of xenon in the high flux portion tends to
exaggerate flux shift.
Since the middle portion of core is essentially non-multiplying, there is no transfer of
neutrons between the upper and lower portions and therefore no self-dampening
effect (as would occur at earlier times in core life). Again, the reactor would
experience oscillations as power shifted back and forth between the two halves of
the core, but since the self-dampening effect has disappeared each swing would be
larger than the previous one. This is known as divergent ASI swing and must be
compensated for by the reactor operator to prevent severe thermal transients in the
fuel or an APD trip of the reactor.
Axial Shape Index (ASI) Control
The Reactor Protective System generates both positive and negative ASI limits for
trip and pre-trip setpoints. It is up to the reactor operator, however, to ensure that
these values are not reached during normal reactor operation. The most critical
period of time is near the end of the fuel cycle when the ASI swings become
divergent.
Because the primary method of ASI control is CEA movement, the reactor operator
must plan for expected ASI swings and operate the CEAs so as to limit the severity
of the swings and remain within allowable CEA insertion limits. A gradual approach
is perhaps best. In other words, instead of waiting for the ASI to cross the mid-plane
and become negative before inserting rods, the reactor operator should start the
CEA insertion while the ASI is still positive, but approaching zero. In this way, small
rod movements resulting in small increments of insertion are accomplished. The
final rod level will then be higher and the thermal fuel transients will be minimized.
The same approach should be utilized when withdrawing rods as the ASI goes
positive. Figure C-2 displays the axial shape index (Y I ) as a function of power level.
The graph is from the CE Owner’s Group Technical Specifications.

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APPENDIX C
Figure C-2
CE ASI Graph
WESTINGHOUSE POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS
For Westinghouse designed reactors, the indicated axial flux difference must be
maintained within the allowable target band shown by the dotted lines on Figure C-3,
which is typical for a Westinghouse plant employing a constant axial offset control
(CAOC) where the axial offset (AO) is defined as:
𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑝 − 𝜙𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐴. 𝑂. =
𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑝 + 𝜙𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

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APPENDIX C
Figure C-3
Westinghouse Allowed Axial Flux Difference Graph
Figure C-3 shows the domain of allowed axial flux difference, ∆I or ∆φ where:
𝛥𝜙 = 𝜙𝑡𝑜𝑝 − 𝜙𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Outside the domain given by the “envelope” of acceptable ∆φ conditions, plant

technical specifications require that ∆I or ∆φ be restored in a timely manner.
If ∆flux is too negative, this generally would indicate that the control rod bank of rod
control cluster assembly (RCCAs) is partially inserted and needs to be withdrawn.
To effect this change, the reactor would have to be borated, in order to withdraw the
control rod bank.

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APPENDIX C
If ∆flux is too positive, this generally indicates that the control rod bank needs to be
partially inserted to correct the axial flux imbalance. This would be accomplished via
dilution to move the control rods in.
Normally, effort is made to keep the controlling bank of rods almost fully withdrawn
from the core. In general, minimizing control rod movement over core life and
handling reactivity changes with boron serves to minimize axial flux shifts that could
initiate xenon oscillations.
As previously discussed, most nuclear units are operated as “base-loaded” on the
grid. That is to say, the load dispatcher does not try to have these units follow load
fluctuations on the grid. If load follow operations are required, reactivity changes
during load follow operations are made by changing RCS boron concentration. This
helps keep control rods out of core. As reactor power changes, however, axial flux
tends to shift because of moderator temperature reactivity effects.
Control rods are used to maintain axial flux distribution within the limits of Figure C-
3. Changing reactor power upsets core equilibrium conditions and induces transient
xenon behavior. The reactor operator must be aware of the direction of the resulting
reactivity change and compensate for it with boron concentration adjustments to
maintain constant RCS temperature.
Relaxed Axial Offset Control (RAOC)
Some number of Westinghouse facilities have more recently qualified for relaxed
axial offset control (RAOC), which allows a larger operating space than afforded by
the constant axial offset control (CAOC).
RAOC is a calculational procedure that defines the allowed operational space of
axial flux difference (AFD) versus thermal power. The AFD limits are selected by
considering the range of axial xenon distributions that could occur as a result of
large variations of AFD.
Subsequently, power peaking factors and power distributions are examined to
ensure that loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA), loss-of-flow accident, and anticipated
transient limits are met. Violation of AFD limits would invalidate conclusions of the
plant’s accident and transient analyses with regards to fuel cladding integrity.
Although RAOC defines limits that must be met to satisfy these analyses, typically
the operating scheme called constant axial offset control (CAOC) will be used to
control axial power distribution in day-to-day reactor operation.
CAOC requires that AFD be controlled within a narrow tolerance band around a
burnup-dependent target, to minimize the variation of axial peaking factors and axial
xenon distribution during unit maneuvers.

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APPENDIX C
The AFD is a measure of axial power distribution skewing to either the top or bottom
half of the core. The AFD is very sensitive to many core related parameters such as
control bank positions, core power level, axial burnup, axial xenon distribution, and,
to a lesser extent, reactor coolant temperature and boron concentration.
The allowed range of AFD is used in the nuclear design process to confirm that
operation within these limits produces core peaking factors and axial power
distributions that meet safety analysis requirements.
Further, RAOC methodology establishes a xenon distribution library with tentative,
very wide AFD limits. The tentative limits are adjusted as necessary to meet safety
analysis requirements.

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GENERIC FUNDAMENTALS

REACTOR THEORY COURSE

The policy of GSE is to periodically improve and update documentation. Therefore,

GSE Systems logo is a registered trademark of GSE Systems, Inc.

Program Generic Fundamentals

Author Eric Johnson Date 2/15/10

Approved Chuck Kelly Date 2/15/10

0 2/15/10 Initial Development EJJ CWK

FUEL DEPLETION AND BURNABLE POISONS ................................................... 10

REACTOR OPERATIONAL PHYSICS ................................................................... 37

APPENDIX A: EXAMPLE INVERSE MULTIPLICATION PLOTS ........................ 106

APPENDIX B: ICR PLOTS FOR VARIOUS PLANTS.......................................... 109

INVERSE COUNT RATE RATIO PLOT FOR CE PLANT .................................. 112

APPENDIX C: PLANT POWER DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS ................... 118

Figure 7-1 Burnable Poison Depletion over Core Life .............................................. 17

Figure C-2 CE ASI Graph ...................................................................................... 125

Table 1 RO and SRO Importance Ratings ................................................................. 9

Rating Importance for Safe Operation

FUEL DEPLETION AND BURNABLE POISONS

GFRT0307.00 DESCRIBE how fuel depletion and burnable poison

GFRT0307.01 DESCRIBE fuel depletion for a nuclear reactor and how it

GFRT0307.02 DESCRIBE the following terms:

GFRT0307.03 EXPLAIN the purpose and use of burnable neutron poisons in a

GFRT0307.04 DESCRIBE the following concerning installed burnable poisons

GFRT0307.05 DESCRIBE the construction and use of Integrated Fuel

GFRT0307.06 LIST the advantages and disadvantages of chemical shim over

GFRT0307.07 DESCRIBE two reasons why fixed non-burnable neutron

GFRT0307.08 STATE an example of a material used as a fixed non-burnable

GFRT0307.11 DESCRIBE the effect of changes in boron concentration on

Associated K/A Knowledge Importance

In some reactors, neutron-absorbing materials called poisons are intentionally

Conversion ratio, as applied to commercial nuclear reactors, refers to the number of

Objective of Burnable Poisons

Isotope Cross Section

Burnable Poison Purposes

APPROXIMATELY – 8000 PCM (OR –8% ∆k/k) AT BOL

In commercial PWRs, it is necessary to supplement the boron dissolved in the

Burnable Poison Rod Construction

Burnable Poison Rod Positioning

Integrated Fuel Burnable Absorbers

Soluble poisons, also referred to as chemical shim, produce spatially uniform

A non-burnable poison is one that maintains a constant negative reactivity worth

CHANGES OVER CORE LIFE DUE TO FUEL DEPLETION AND POISON

Effect on Moderator Temperature Coefficient

Effect on Doppler Coefficient

Effect on Control Rod Worth

Control rods are considered to be non-burnable poison in a nuclear reactor core. As

Effect on Core Thermal Flux

EXCESS MULTIPLICATION FACTOR OVER CORE LIFE

CRITICAL BORON CONCENTRATION (ppm)

CHANGES IN BORON CONCENTRATION DURING NATURAL CIRCULATION

• Fission results in the destruction of fissionable nuclei in reactor fuel. This is

1. Which of the following terms refers to the number of plutonium-239 nuclei

2. Instead of using a higher concentration of soluble boric acid, burnable

A. prevent boron precipitation during normal operation.

A. The negative reactivity from burnable poisons is greater at BOC than at

A. To prevent boron precipitation during normal operation.

6. Just prior to a refueling outage, a nuclear power plant is operating at 100%

A. Reactivity from power defect at beginning of core life (BOL) is much

A. buildup of fission product poisons and decreasing control rod worth.

1. Which of the following terms refers to the number of plutonium-239 nuclei

2. Instead of using a higher concentration of soluble boric acid, burnable