LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK Editor-in-Chief RICHARD N. LYON (Oak Ridge National Laboratory Contributing Editors Donald L. Katz E. C, Miller University of Michigan (Oak Ridge National Labocatory R. R. Miller H. F. Poppendiek Naval Research Laboratory ‘Oak Ridge National Laboratory Carey B, Jackson Roy M. Adams Thomas Trocki Mine Safety Appliances Co. Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory I, R. Kramer Office of Naval Research Sponsored by The Committee on the Basic Properties of Liquid Metals Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy In Collaboration with THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION and THE BUREAU OF SHIPS, DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY i Google NIVER ICHIGANEngin, Library 7A 459 L777 IFS 2 Key, (954 SECOND EDITION (Revised) January 1954 SECOND EDITION June 1952 FIRST EDITION 1 June 1950 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. Price $1.25 i » Google UNPREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The need for a second edition of the Liquid-Metals Handbook be- came apparent almost as soon as the first edition had been published, The public acceptance of a reference book for liquid-metal information was much greater than anticipated. Suggestions for improvement and the discovery of new releasable data all indicated that a new edition was desirable. As mentioned in the preface to the first edition, it was published hastily in order to provide a reasonably complete compilation as quickly as possible. Time has been available for a more complete and a more unified coverage in the present edition. The larger revisions occur in Chaps. 2, 3, 4, and 7 dealing with physical properties, chemical properties, corrosion, and equipment, respectively, A large number of liquidus diagrams and a large list of multicomponent alloys have been added to Chap. 2, and, of course, the list of physical properties has been brought up to date. Chapter 3 has been rewritten, and much additional information has been added, par- ticularly on the free energies and heats of reactions involving liquid metals. Large sections of Chap. 4 have been rewritten, and the data have been brought up to date. Chapter 7 of the first edition, dealing with large-scale handling, has been divided into Chaps. 6 and 7 of the second edition and rewritten completely. Chapter 6 deals with liquid- metal systems, and Chap. 7 deals with the individual components of the systems. The arrangement of the chapters has been retained except that the short chapter on availability, Chap. 5 of the first edition, has been moved to the end of the book. References are listed at the end of each chapter and are interjected in the text as superscripts. While no plans have been made for a further revision of this hand- book, the need for additional editions will undoubtedly occur in this expanding field. Suggestions for improvement will be welcome and will be held for consideration when plans for new editions are made, RICHARD N. LYON Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee June 1952 Google NivERSITPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The Liquid-Metals Handbook has been compiled for use outside of atomic-energy military projects as well as for use within these proj- ects, It summarizes information which has been assembled in the course of a number of years during which interest has grown in the use of liquid metals as heat-transfer media. The purposes in publishing this volume are four: 1, The stimulation and encouragement of industry in the develop- ment and use of liquid metals 2, The encouragement of universities and research organizations to investigate problems associated with liquid metals 3, The compilation of a reference book on liquid metals for workers in both secret and nonsecret fields 4, The satisfaction of the obligation to publish releasable infor- mation which has been obtained with public money The use of liquid metals will considerably simplify a number of difficult industrial problems. A few examples are given in Chap. 1, “Industrial Utilization.” This chapter cannot be complete, but current uses are listed and a number of possible applications are described in detail. Development by industrial concerns as well as research at both industrial and academic laboratories will provide an invaluable supple- ment to such work by governmental agencies. The more rapidly liquid-metal-handling equipments become pro- duction items for manufacturers, and the larger the backlog of men experienced in the liquid-metal field, the more rapid and more efficient will be the development work in government laboratories. In compiling any handbook, numerous compromises must be made. For the sake of conciseness and ease in locating frequently used data, less-used information must be omitted with the mention of a reference. It has been the decision of the editors that this should be a handbook rather than an encyclopedia. On the other hand, it is to be hoped that the reference lists are reasonably complete. Thus, while there is much which cannot be learned between the covers of this book, the reader will be directed to an adequate source, if such exists. Literature references for each chapter are indicated by numbers inserted parenthetically in the text. The organization has been planned to provide rapid reference to the data desired. Summary tables of physical properties and corrosion Google VERSITY OF MICHIGALPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION bar charts have been included. Simplified property tables, equations, and plots will be found in the heat-transfer chapter. The order of the chapters has been chosen to correspond to the order in which one would usually seek his information if he were attempting to choose a liquid metal for a given application. It was originally planned to include only metallic elements which melted below 300°C, but this left out such elements as lead, cadmium, and zinc, which are components of low-melting alloys. In addition, there are indications that alloys of aluminum and magnesium may find use as liquid metals in the future. The inclusion of these elements in the handbook raises the maximum melting point of metals considered to 660°C. The only metals melting below this temperature which have been omitted are cerium, tellurium, and possibly a number of rare elements the melting points of which have never been determined, The three alloys considered in this handbook, two of sodium and potassium and one of lead and bismuth, are the only ones on which reasonably complete physical properties have been determined. The omission of other low-melting-point alloys such as Woods metal is not intended to imply that they are not good heat-transfer media, but rather it is hoped that it will stimulate determination of their physical prop- erties so that their heat-transfer potentialities can be evaluated. Metric units are used in the chapter on physical properties to en- able a rapid check to be made with values reported in the literature. A convenient table of conversion factors is provided, In the heat- transfer chapter the important properties are listed in English units, since these are more common in heat-transfer work. Long theoretical dissertations have been omitted, but, where perti- nent, short discussions of the current theories have been included. It is probable that a supplement containing the more detailed developments will be published at a later date. This first edition has been assembled hurriedly to put it in the hands of its users as soon as possible. At the time of writing of this introduction, the contents already reveal serious gaps which are not attributable to security restrictions or to the need for brevity. Since subsequent editions are planned from time to time, and since such a book is of use only to its readers, the readers have an obligation to suggest the changes in content or organization which will make it more helpful to them. All comments and criticism will be received with gratitude, since only by this means can subsequent editors make the alterations which will actually improve successive editions of the handbook. RICHARD N. LYON Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee June 1950 Google , ci. Original from Digitized by Google UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGANACKNOWLEDGMENTS Second Edition Most of the individuals who aided in the preparation and publica- tion of the first edition were also of important assistance in produc- ing the present edition, The continued support and encouragement of Dr. Lawrence R. Hafstad, Director of Division of Reactor Develop- ment, Atomic Energy Commission, and Captain H. G. Rickover, USN, of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Bureau of Ships, have been especially helpful. Important editorial assistance was provided by the staff of the ‘Technical Information Service of the Atomic Energy Commission. Their help has resulted in a much better handbook. A large number of suggestions have been received from users of the first edition, and many of these suggestions have been incorporated in the new edition. The editors wish to express their collective appre- ciation for this assistance which has been essential in making the new edition more informative and more usable. it Edition It is impossible to give credit to all of the persons and agencies who have contributed to the publication of this handbook. Dr. Alan T. Waterman, chairman of the Committee on Basic Properties of Liquid Metals, was extremely helpful in making available the facilities of the Office of Naval Research of which he is Deputy and Chief Scientist. Mr. LR, Kramer and Mr. J. W. Sheetz of this Office assisted mate- rially in the compilation of information and in assuring publication, Dr. Lawrence R. Hafstad, Director of Reactor Development, Atomic Energy Commission, has been of great assistance in clearing the way for publishing this book; his interest and encouragement have been helpful. Similarly, Dr. J. G. Beckerley, Director of Classifica- tion, Atomic Energy Commission, and Mr. David W. Lillie of the Division of Research, Atomic Energy Commission, have assisted the editor in handling numerous problems arising from the publishing of this handbook. Google VERSTY OF MICH!ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Captain H. G, Rickover, USN, of the AEC, who made the original suggestion of this handbook to the committee has lent support and en- couragement to the handbook project throughout its development. Commander L, H. Roddis, USN, of the AEC, and Commander R. V. Laney, USN, of the AEC, have been most helpful in expediting the handbook. Much of the information contained in this handbook was contributed by persons other than the chapter editors or those listed in the refer- ences. While credit is frequently given in the text, this is not always practicable. The collective appreciation of the editors is expressed to the many people whose help is not acknowledged elsewhere. Particular mention should be made, however, of the cooperation of the Bureau of Mines. The Metal Economics Branch of this Bureau took considerable pains to prepare a large body of information on the availability of low-melting metals at the request of the Editor-in-Chief, Unfortu- nately, for editorial reasons, most of this material has been omitted in the final handbook. This is no reflection on the quality of their work, and deep appreciation is felt for their effort and cooperation, In editing this volume, a number of people in addition to the chapter editors have made suggestions which have been included. Among these are Dr. Frank Foote of Argonne National Laboratory, Dr. Cyril Smith of the University of Chicago, and Professor C. F. Bonilla of Columbia University. Mr. M. E, Jansson, Technical Information Officer at the Naval Research Laboratory, devoted much time to preparing the manu- script for the Printing Office. vit Google NIVER ICHIGANCONTENTS Preface .......05 € S sureeere ee 9 9 seuIEN Tee Acknowledgments .. : : : CHAPTER 1 Industrialization Utilization of Liquid Metals . . . é Donald L. Katz CHAPTER 2 Physical Properties of Liquid Metals ............0-000 R. R. Miller CHAPTER 3 Chemical Properties and Laboratory Techniques .........+ Carey B, Jackson and Roy M, Adams CHAPTER 4 Corrosion of Materials by Liquid Metals ......... Edward C, Miller CHAPTER 5 Liquid-metal Heat Transfer 0.6.0.0. 0.0 eeeeee eens Richard N, Lyon and H, F, Poppendiek CHAPTER 6 Experimental Liquid-metal Heat-transfer Systems ........- ‘Thomas Trocki CHAPTER 7 Liquid-metal Experimental Heat-transfer System Components. . Thomas Trocki CHAPTER 8 Availability of Liquid Metals .... 26.6. e eee e cece eee LR. Kramer THUER: copremrs ¢ 3 5 6 wamees cx eae wRsoNTE ene ¢ PwTINE EELS i » Google \ iti vii 38 103 144 184 213 229 258 261Original from Digitized by Google UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGANCHAPTER 1 Industrial Utilization of Liquid Metals Donald L. Katz* 1, INTRODUCTION ‘There are three conditions under which liquid metals are handled or used. The first is the common alloying of metals and the conveying of the metal to a suitable mold for solidifi- cation. The second is the physical use of a metal, usually for heat-transfer purposes. The third is the chemical use in which the metal is consumed in a reaction. ‘This handbook should be of use to those handling liquid metals in the metallurgical in- dustries. The methods of transporting and purifying metals should assist in better production methods for castings. One company reports the use of electromagnetic pumps for conveying molten aluminum to die-cast machines," and the submerged pump is in use for conveying zinc ‘metal to die-cast machines. ‘Uses of liquid metals evolving from their physical behavior are relatively few as yet, but many proposed uses may be suggested, The development of pumps, valves, meters, and other equipment is a necessary prerequisite for industrial utilization. The properties must be known for computing pumping and heat-transfer relations. The experience of operating pilot- plant equipment continuously for more than three years with NaK at 1000°F should encourage others to develop commercial uses for liquid metals. A complete bibliography on chemical uses of sodium is availab! lead tetraethyl is the chief use for sodium today. .4 ‘The manufacture of 2, INFORMATION FOR METALS INDUSTRY ‘The metals industry has supplied much information of use to those working in the field of liquid metals. In turn, this handbook should be of use to those who design equipment or proc- esses in the metals industry. The die-casting industry 1s one in which liquid metals are con- veyed. The recent development of an electromagnetic pump to convey aluminum from a fur- nace to the die-cast machine” is an example of a common problem between the metals industry and development engineers working on the physical uses of liquid metals. ‘The following statement (The Electromagnetic Method of Pumping Molten Metals) has been prepared by the Ajax Engineering Corp. to describe the use of the electromagnetic pump for transporting aluminum.” (For a discussion of other electromagnetic pumps, see Chap. 7.) ‘Aluminum, zinc, copper and its alloys, and many other metals, when in the molten state, com- bine readily with fron, In fact, no structural metal is known that would stand up for an appreciable time when submerged in these molten metals. Only ceramic refractories, carbon, and graphite are highly resistant or impervious to their attack. To solve the problem of pumping these molten metals continuously or intermittently, one can therefpre hardly resort to the mechanical pumps of the centrifugal or reciprocating type, made of ‘*University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Google cf HICHIGANLIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK steel or heat-resisting alloys, used today to pump molten lead, tin, and magnesium. The re- fractories mentioned above, because of their low mechanical strength and other reasons, do not ‘make good structural materials for a mechanical pump. ‘The pressure created by passing an electric current through a molten metal, in combination with a magnetic field, offers a solution to the problem of pumping these metals, This electromag- netic pressure has been utilized for many years in another way. In electric-induction-melting furnaces of the low- and high-frequency type and in certain electrode-salt-bath furnaces, this pressure 1s the source of a vigorous heterogeneous circulation of the molten metal (or salt), a fundamental feature of the operation of these furnaces. But only very recently a practical elec- tromagnetic pump was developed which utilizes this pressure to pump molten metal through a re~ fractory pipeline, ‘The electromagnetic pump, developed by Ajax Engineering Corp. of Trenton, N. J., since 1945, and in use on a number of manufacturing operations since 1948, 1s designed primarily for the repeated discharge of specific quantities of molten aluminum for the mass production of cast- ings. Referring to Figs. 1.1 and 1.2, two primary induction coils A, arranged on a common lami- nated transformer core B and fed with low-frequency alternating current from a 60-cycle power supply, induce high currents in the two loops or channels of molten metal C contained in the re- fractory lining D. These channels act as the closed single-turn secondary colls of a transformer. ‘The currents of both loops combine in the common center channel E, of circular cross section, which carries a current of the order of 90,000 amp. This center-channel current is surrounded by Its own magnetic field, with flux lines forming essentially concentric circles, In accordance with the three-finger rule, all forces in the liquid conductor are directed toward the center of the cfreular cross section, resulting in a maximum of electromagnetic pressure in that center area. An orifice F, made of graphite, is inserted in this high-pressure area. The size of the ori- fice determines the rate of flow. The orifice connects to a pipe made of silicon carbide refractory G, which leads the molten metal above the level maintained inside and to a mold or casting ma- chine, Above the metal level the pipe 1s heated by electric elements H carefully arranged and con trolled to maintain it at the temperature of the molten metal. ‘A large amount of molten metal is contained in the refractory-lined hearth above the induc tion unit; this metal acts as a reservoir. The electromagnetic pump thus combines the functions of a device to discharge molten metal and of a holding furnace. Electric controls that vary the voltage applied to each coil permit close temperature control of the mass of molten metal held in the reservoir by regulating reduced power while not pumping. By energizing both coils with the full current for a time interval governed by an electric timer, these controls, when released by a push button or by a limit switch actuated by a casting machine, allow repeated pouring of specific amounts of molten metal. ‘This electromagnetic pump so far has been used principally for the mass production of qual- ity aluminum dle castings, operating in conjunction with high-pressure cold-chamber-type die- ‘casting machines. Heretofore these machines were fed with hand ladles. In addition to eliminat- ng this manval labor, the electromagnetic pump has the advantage of determining a precise time cycle. It delivers metal of a closely controlled temperature, a homogeneous alloy assured by n= ternal circulation, and free from the surface slags present with the hand-ladling method. Figure 1,3 shows the electromagnetic pump in position to supply a small die-cast machine, Other present uses include casting of small ingots and aluminum-shot and gravity permanent- mold castings. The electromagnetic pump is being considered as an element in highly mechanized permanent-mold and sand-casting operations involving conveyors or casting wheels. The unit has been used for pumping zinc, and it appears practical to apply it to pumping of copper and brass. It would lend itself to pouring under controlled atmosphere. ‘With pumping rates on the present industrial unit adjustable from % to § Ib/sec, or up to 18,000 lb/hr, the electromagnetic pump may be used for the purpose of continuous circulation of these metals. While a fair volume is easily attained, limitations inherent in this method will probably not allow it to attain pressures much above the 2 psi used in the present unit. In other words, it does not lend itself to lifting molten metals more than 1 or 2 ft above the level held in the reservotr. Because of the high currents used, a certain amount of heat 1s necessarily imparted to the molten metal while pumping. On present applications, pumping raises the temperature by 10 to 20°F. On circulating applications, the degree of superheating may be controlled within certain limits, and under certain conditions it s possible to obtain superheating of the order of several nundred degrees Fahrenhelt. While unavoidable temperature rise may be a detriment in some ‘cases, the possibility of pumping and superheating in the same unit may invite entirely new appli- cations of the electromagnetic pump. » Google \H Z l} G t AY t AM l} Nt g By BLN tA \ oy ] = f N VAAN VAR pet TS STIS E A Fig. 1.2—Blectromagnetic pump for molten metals (cross-section detall X-X of Fig. 1-1). Google4 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK Fig. 1.3— Electromagnetic pumping of aluminum to die-cast machine, (Courtesy of the Ajax Engineering Corp.) Google INIVERINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 5 3. PRESENT PHYSICAL USES OF LIQUID METALS: The literature has been studied, and many people have been questioned relative to pres- ent uses of iguid metals. The use of sodium to cool valves in aircraft engines has been very successful over a period of some 18 years and is typical of the temperature level of particu- lar interest. The Dow Chemical Co. used sodium as a coolant during World War I. Mercury bollers include vaporization and condensation phenomena; hence they are not a typical physi- cal use for low-volatility liquid metals. A shale-oll retort employs sodium cooling of the plows that are exposed to high temperatures, Baths to maintain temperature constitute anoth- er use found for liquid metals. 3.1 Sodium Cooling of Valves Valves on aircraft engines have been cooled for many years by the use of sodium in the hollow stem and head." This type valve is shown in Fig. 1.4. The valve head is heated at A by ‘exposure to the combustion process. The exhaust gases deliver heat to the underside of the head at B, The objective is to transfer the heat down the stem to D and dissipate the heat through the cooled valve guide at E. Sodium, which is in the liquid state at the temperature of engine operation, has been very effective in reducing the temperature of the valve head and surface in contact with the valve seat. Figure 4 from Colwell" represents the decrease in valve temperatures obtained by tests on truck valves when employing sodium as a heat-tranafer medium in the hollow valve. The valves are forged from austenitic steel, with TPA (14 Cr, 14 Ni, 0.55 St, 0.50 Mo, 0.45 C, 2.5 W) the most commonly used steel. Sodium was inserted in the valve stem as a stick of solid sodium during the first years of manufacture. During the war, a process was de- veloped to charge liquid sodium to the valves. A volume of sodium equal to about 60 per cent of the volume of the void space was used. The valve stem was forged to seal the sodium and air in the remainder of the space in the valve and to complete the stem. It has been learned that any oll or contamination of sodium reduces its cooling effect. The interior of the valve stems 1s hand-polished to remove scratches, which induce fatigue break- age. Sodium oxide quickly attacks steel, especially at high temperatures. Heat is transferred from the head of the valve to the stem by the splashing of the liquid ‘sodium, The resistance of the valve material and the clearance space at the guide constitute the major resistance to heat transfer. Figure 1.5 shows that cooling by sodium can reduce the temperature of the valve material at the seat from 1280 to 980°F under conditions in a truck engine, This temperature reduction materially increases valve life in engines operating at high temperatures, 3.2 Sodium in Cor for Die Casting The Doehler-Jarvis Corp. of Toledo, Ohio, used sodlum-filled cores for magnesium cast- ings during the war. The usual custom of water-cooling the core was not followed because of Possible contact between water and the molten magnesium. The cores, which are about 1 in. in diameter and some 12 in. long, were made of steel (5 per cent chromium, 1 per cent molybde- num) and were partially filled with sodium. During the casting cycle the core was changed from a vertical to a horizontal position to permit the liquid sodium to absorb heat from the top of the core and to dissipate it through the bottom. The rapid heat transfer gave longer core life and permitted faster operation of the die-cast machine. 3.3. Industrial Cooling with Liquid Sodium by the Dow Chemical Co. In October 1948, F.C. Bennett of the Dow Chemical Co. reported the use of liquid sodium as follows: GoogleLIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK Fig, 1.5—Etfect of sodium cooling on valve temperature (after Colwell"), GoogleINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 1 During World War II the Dow Chemical Company operated a process which necessitated the removal of large quantities of heat at high temperature levels. After spending considerable effort on other unsatisfactory media, we found that metallic sodium was the ideal fluid, Centrifugal Pumps were used to circulate the metal through steel pipes to the hot zone (400 — 650°C.) and then to an air cooled coil where the heat was given up before the sodium returned to the source, ‘The largest such installation had a capacity of 1,500,000 Btu/Hr. ‘The plant was closed after the war ‘‘because of economic reasons not in any way con- nected with the sodium.” ‘The report! proceeds to describe the heat-exchange experiments conducted with sodium at Dow. Over-all coefficients of heat transfer were measured through a steel tube (1.002-in. OD, 0.795-in. 1p), in the range 1960 to 3090 Btu/hr-tft?-°F for velocities in the tube in the range 10.3 to 21.6 ft/sec. 3.4 NaK Bath as Research Heat-treat Furnace Heat-treat furnaces giving long flat temperature regions have been used for research pur- poses.” The unit furnace consists of a vertical closed tank with a thin-walled axial tube, all made of stainless steel (Fig. 1.6a). The tank is filled with NaK; room for thermal expansion is provided by a surge tank. Heat is applied by a metal-sheathed resistance heater immersed in the NaK or by external heating of the tank. Thermal circulation of the NaK results ina very uniform temperature along the specimen tube. In one application, variations of less than 1°C were obtained along a specimen tube 2 ft long. The specimen tube also may be filled with NaK to provide rapid temperature changes in the specimen to be treated, In most applications it 1s desired to use a minimum amount of NaK in each furnace. Test results indicate that the minimum annulus of NaK around the specimen tube that will allow suf- ficient thermal circulation of the NaK depends on the diameter of the center tube and the height of the unit. A 2-in. annulus is probably adequate to maintain constant temperature in a 1-in. specimen tube from 1% to 2 ft high. By placing a series of tanks around a specimen tube, as indicated in Fig. 1.6b, heat-treat- ment may be carried out at a series of temperatures. When the specimen tube is filled with NaK, it is necessary that any tank be at a higher temperature than the tank below it in order to minimize thermal circulation of the NaK inside the specimen tube. The furnace must be pro- vided with means for raising and lowering specimen and control of temperatures and inert at- mospheres. Automatic repetition of any heat-treatment is possible by use of proper timing de- vices on the mechanism for transferring the specimen. The temperature range is limited by the freezing and boiling points of the liquid metal used; for NaK of 44 wt % K, it is 65 to 1500°F. Arrangement of three furnaces in series allows for such thermal treatments as isothermal quenching followed by a low-temperature quench with any desirable time cycle. This arrange- ment also allows for quenching from a high temperature (top furnace, T,) to a low temperature (T;), followed by an anneal at an intermediate temperature (T;), provided the annealed specimen can be moved through the hot zone quickly enough to prevent rebieating. A very sharp temperature gradient can be attained in a specimen tube by joining two fur- naces with a single dividing plate, The NaK in the top tank is heated, and the NaK in the lower tank 1s cooled. Single crystals can be prepared by the Bridgman technique in such a furnace arrangement. 3.5 Mercury Boilers for Power Generation Mercury boilers have been in commercial use since 1922 (see Refs. 14 and 32) for the purpose of increasing the efficiency of power generation. Mercury vapor abaorbs heat at a high-temperature level (950 to 1050°F), expands through a turbine, and evaporates water at 400 to 600 pai in the mercury condenser. Figure 1.7 presents a comparison of the heat rate for typical steam plants with the six mercury steam plants. The heat rate of 8400 Btu/kwh(net) foria mercury plant with mercury vapor at 140 psia and 958°F is the lowest on record. Google NIVERSINY OF MLIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK ENTRANCE TO SPECIMEN TUBE 1 = ‘SURGE TANK THERMAL R CIRCULATION OF Nok SPECIMEN TO BE HEAT-TREATED TANK OR OUTER TUBE CALROD HEATER (b) Fig. 1.6— Research heat-treat f-mnaces using NaK. (a) Single-temperature unit. (b) Multiple- temperature unit. The latter requires that T, >T, >T; to prevent circulation of NaK between zones. GoogleINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS on sumed ureays Asnosow pue squeld ureays TeoydAs 40} saves yeaY Jo wostsedwiog —)-T “Big (0004 x mx “ALIO¥AYO AINA Of om of oz! o_OL_ OGL UNIVERSITY10 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK Mercury-boiler tubes are made from Sicromo 5S steel (0.12 C, 0.5 Mo, 5.0 Cr, 1.5 St), which has a very low solubility in the mercury. The use of 0.000005 to 0.001 per cent titanium and 0,002 to 0.012 per cent magnesium in the mercury assures that the mercury wets the steel in the boiler tubes and reduces the solubility of tube metal. Safe methods have been developed for handling mercury and for detecting leaks in operating equipment. 3.6 Mercury for Industrial Heating or Cooling ‘A mercury-vapor process for distilling reduced crude ofl into lubricating-oil fractions ‘was adopted by the Sun Oil Co, in April 1926, and it has been in operation since that time. Mercury boilers, following the design of General Electric or Babcock & Wilcox, generate vapor at 15 to 52 psig and 750 to 850°F. This vapor condenses on the bottom side of a horizon- tal steel plate to heat a thin film of oil flowing on top of the plate under a vacuum.’! Plain car- bon-steel equipment with ring-flanged Joints 1s used throughout except for boiler tubes, which are carbon-steel calorized, carbon-moly calorized, or weldable 13 per cent chrome. ‘A mercury-vapor cracking unit was constructed by the Sun Oil Co. in 1930, and it operated for four years, Mercury vapor was generated in a boiler and was condensed outside of hori- zontal cracking tubes at temperatures up to 950°F, It was possible to control the temperature of the oil to within 1 to 2°F by means of pressure control on the condensing mercury. The process was generally satisfactory, but it did have a high maintenance cost due to occasional failure of the 18-8 stainless-steel boiler tubes. The process was discontinued after four years in favor of pipe stills of newer design. Mercury has been used as an alternate to molten lead for cooling catalyst reactor tubes in a phthalic anhydride converter" (Fig. 1.8). Air containing naphthalene passes downward inside a bank of tubes through a preheat zone and then a reactor zone. Mercury is confined in the chamber outside the tubes. The mercury level was above the reactor zone which gave off heat, and the boiling mercury absorbed the heat. The condensing vapor maintained the temperature of the upper portion of the tube in which air was preheated. Temperature control is obtained by inert-gas pressure on top of the air-cooled reflux condenser, which, in turn, controls the boiling and condensing pressure for the mercury. Canon and Andrews! have been issued patents on the use of a variety of amalgams for con- trolling the temperature of exothermic reactions. In particular, mercury-cadmium, mercury lead, and mercury-tin-lead alloys are covered for the production of organic compounds such as phthalic anhydride and anthraquinone, Tasker“ reports the use of a cadmium-mercury amalgam to control the temperature of reaction tubes in a phthalic anhydride pilot plant. 3.7 Sodium Cooling of Plows in Shale-oll Retort ‘The shale-oll retort constructed and operated by the Union Oll Co." (see Fig. 1.9) em- ployed plows to move the shale while it was heated to recover the oll. The plows were cooled by sodium in natural connection. ‘These plows are hollow and elliptical in cross section and extend 3 ft into the shale-retorting dln on a spiral. Details of their construction are illustrated in Fig. 1.9, which shows the plows and their drive mechanism. ‘The tips of these plows are in the actual burning zone at a tempera- ture of approximately 2200°F. The temperature distribution in this kiln is given in Fig. 1.10. The rapid heat transfer through the walls of the plows to the molten sodium keeps the plow tips prob- ably below 1000°F. Heat is transferred to the top of the plow by thermal convection of the molten sodium and is dissipated by radiation from the exposed surface of the plow above the bed. After prolonged operation of this unit, wherein the tips of the plows are exposed constantly to temperatures in the neighborhood of 2200°F, no appreciable deterioration of equipment has been found, Google NIVERINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS n INERT GAS CONDENSER. AIR AND NAPHTHALENE ‘MERCURY VAPOR CATALYST MERGURY Liquid PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE Fig. 1.8— Use of mercury for control of catalyst temperature. Google Unive astack—+ ULTRASONIC GENERATOR: AFTER CLEANER, LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK GEAR REDUCER HYDRAULIC LOW ORIVES ‘MOTOR ‘comeusTION} air. SPENT SHALE SPENT SHALE ‘SPIRAL PLOWS ASH ZONE IN WHC AIR IS PREMEATED A ‘COOLING 3 ‘VENT COKE BURNING ZONE Eh1—zone IN WHICH HOT GASES SHALE. ‘TRANSFER HEAT TO SHALE BEET ERGECOVER AND RELEASE OL. AIR FOR COOLING KILN on | SPENT SHALE OUT / SHALE IN | | ou } fou our DISENGAGING SLOTS | FLUE Gas our Luvtrasomic /_snave (C)] cvawer —HYORAULIC PISTON FEED INSPECTION TANK — ik OSCILLATING SHOE 7} —Pivor Pont g STORAGE hyopauuic Wwe TORS DIR I Fig. 1.9— The Unfon Oil Co, shale-oil retort. veay Google or UNIVERSI ITY OF MICHIGAN3 INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 14 ‘NOIL93S ONISVONISIO @31101S 3A08V H1d30 038 1200 1600 2000 2400 TEMPERATURE, °F 800 400 Fig. 1.10—Temperature profile of the Union Oil Co. shale kiln. Google“ LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK 3.8 Miscellaneous Uses ‘Lead baths are used for a large number of metallurgical operations” or for controlling temperature in reaction units.” Lead may be used from 650 to 1700°F at atmospheric pres- sure provided it 1s covered with some material such as charcoal to reduce oxidation. Lead baths provide higher heating rates for stee] than do furnaces or salt baths. Molten lead at 825 to 925°F surrounds the catalyst tubes in converters of naphthalene to phthalic anhydrides in equipment similar to that in Fig. 1.6. The natural-convection coefficient between the tube wall and the molten lead is approximately 465 Btu/nr-ft?-°F at a heat flux" of 9000 Btu/nr-ft?. A large number of bismuth-lead-tin alloys are available for use as liquids in the range™ of 150 to 300°F. They are used as heat-transfer baths because of high conductivity as com- pared to oils. Low-melting alloys are poured into tubing and are solidified in order to assist {n the bending of the tubing. These liquid metals are used to impress finishes on fabrics by passing the cloth through a dye or finish and then down through a bath of metal to give the de- sired pressure, at a controlled temperature. Pressure seals and special furnace valves at high temperature are filled with liquid metals, Alkali-metal alloys have been used successfully to trap mercury vapor from vacuum systems.” A trap employing an alloy of 5 per cent potassium and 95 per cent sodium main- tained a vacuum of 5 x 10°" mm Hg after use and contact with air for 20 days. A pipe filled with sodium was used as a bus bar for carrying 4000 amp of direct current by the Dow Chemical Co.’ Liquid metals are used successfully as “‘brushes” in electrical equipment. 4. ALTERNATE METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER, Most industrial processes involving the heating of fluids have alternative methods of ac- complishing the heating. Condensing steam is commonly used to heat fluids up to about 450°F, but the same results may be attained by heat interchange with a hot liquid. Condensing Dow- therm vapor or circulating Dowtherm liquid may be used for heating fluids at higher tempera- tures (400 to 750°F), but the fluid may be heated in a furnace coil or pipe still instead. The molten salt mixtures NaNO;, NaNOs, and KNO, (heat-transfer salt, HTS) are used to control the temperatures of catalyst cases at temperatures”*" around 800 to 850°F. Steam is passed in ‘a thin fllm between the furnace tube and the tubes containing coal paste in the U. 8. Bureau of Mines synthetic-fuel plant™ to provide uniform heating. In all cases, the objective is to obtain temperature control in an economical manner. Ex- perience with liquid metals in heat-transfer processes on a large scale has not been available except for mercury boilers. As more knowledge about the handling of liquid metals becomes available, the uses of them will receive consideration as alternate methods of heating. The need at present 1s for fluids in the range of 800 to 1400°F or higher, and liquid metals show great promise of being such satisfactory heating media. ‘The trend of building a central efficient heating plant for a circulating fluid to service sev- eral units or processes has been observed in Dowtherm installations. A recent natural-gaso- line plant installed a circulating-hot-oll aystem® in which a gas-oil is heated to 560°F in two pipe stills rated at 60,000,000 Btu/hr each. The hot oil is used in rebollers and exchangers, cooling to about 360°F before returning to the reheater. ‘The factors which must be considered in choosing a heating medium are as follows: 1, Heat sensitivity of product or necessity for close control 2. Corrosion or life of equipment 3. Stability of heating media 4. Power requirement for circulating media 5. Heat-transfer coefficients and size of exchanger 6. Hazards involved and safety precautions 7. Over-all economics Google NIVER CHICINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 15 ‘One example of the continued changes which are taking place in methods of heat transfer ia the catalytic cracking of petroleum. The early Houdry fixed-bed unit passed oil vapors over ‘a catalyst around vertical tubes. The regeneration of the catalyst involved burning carbon from the surface of the catalyst, thereby generating heat. The first unit employed boiling water inside tubes to absorb the heat from the catalyst bed. At the time the larger units were being designed, liquid sodium and the molten salts NaNO;, NaNO, and KNO, (HTS) were all consid- ered as possible heat-transfer media to control the temperature of the catalyst. The lack of experience in handling sodium at 800 to 850°F and the possible hazards with the liquid metal because steam was in the catalyst cases tipped the scales in favor of the use of molten salt, Several large-scale units have operated for 10 years or more using the salt. Pumps are de- scribed for salt having capacities up to 17,000 gpm with 45 {t of head developed.”” Later devel- opments in cracking petroleum move the catalyst and eliminate the necessity for the special heat-transfer media in plants constructed today." Before choosing liquid metals as heat-transfer media, the advantages and disadvantages relative to alternate methods of heat transfer must be compared. The statements concerning Liquid metals will be based on experiences with sodium and sodium-potassium (NaK alloys). ‘The greatest disadvantage is the hazards involved in case of equipment failure. Alkali metals react violently with liquid water and chlorinated hydrocarbons." These metals generally ignite spontaneously in air at the elevated temperatures at which they are considered. However, many organic fluids will also ignite at temperatures of 900 to 1000°F. Customary fire-fighting equipment may not be used on alkali-metal fires. ‘The advantages of liquid metals are several. The heat-transfer coefficients are among the highest known. They are elementary substances and do not decompose, polymerize, carbonize, etc. Oxygen reacts to form oxides, which become a factor in corrosion. Pilot-plant units constructed of stainless steel have operated continuously for more than three years at a hot-metal temperature" of 1000°F. It is quite possible that purification procedures will permit ‘operation of liquid-metal units at any temperature to which the heat-exchanger material will perform from the structural standpoint. It appears that the ability to use electromagnetic Pumps without moving parts or stuffing boxes will be a marked advantage for liquid metals. ‘The alternate methods of heat transfer in the light of these advantages and disadvantages may be considered. Table 1.1 lists the properties of several substances which are significant in heat transfer. Following comments on individual substances, a comparison of the power re- quirement for circulation and heat-transfer area is made (see Sec. 4.1). Dowtherm A (diphenyl—dipheny! oxide eutectic) is commonly used like steam but at a higher temperature for the condensing vapor for a given pressure, i.e., 50 psig instead of 650 psig. At temperatures up to 700°F, no particular problems arise for vapor systems, except that enough Dowtherm may leak to the air to give an odor. When circulating liquid, the Dow- therm pump maintenance may cause problems. As the temperature is raised toward 750 to 80°F, the rate of decomposition increases to the point where continuous removal of the prod~ ucts of decomposition may be necessary. At 923°F, 21 per cent of phenyl ether will decompose in 500 hr, while, at 850°F, 5 per cent will decompose in 1400 hr.? Molten salt (HTS) has operated in carbon-steel equipment”™ at temperatures of 800 to 90°F, with 925°F estimated as the top temperature for such equipment. Oil has entered the salt stream and salt has entered the oil stream through equipment failure without any serious chemical reaction. It is necessary to control oxidation of NaNO; to NaNO, or the formation of carbonate since such reactions raise the melting point appreciably. The top temperature for practical operation is not known, but corrosion rates™ at 1100°F are 0.01 to 0.05 in./month and become prohibitive for carbon steels. For alloy steels the rate is reported as 0.001 to 0.006 in./month at 1100°F. One laboratory which uses molten salt at 800 to 900°F in pilot-plant oper- ations had no great problems, but immersion electric heaters were abandoned in favor of ex- ternal heating of salt pots or baths. Apparently, at the temperature of the sheath, corrosion was very rapid. Experiences with mercury have indicated that it can be used satisfactorily at temperatures corresponding to moderate pressures. As the temperature reaches 1194°F, the condensing pressure becomes 500 psia, » Google ERSITY OF MICHIGAN16 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK ‘Table 1.1—Comparison of Heat-transfer Fluids for High Temperatures Max . Po-Bi Sodium gg 5g) BTS Dowthorm At Mercury Lend Bt Melting point, F 200 “6s 20 8 -3 on ar Boling point, “F om ie a8 aos es oso 100 pata 0 son 500 pela oo) 194 Liquid density, ee at mp. 197 102 or on 138 1000"F arm 18 123 100 pectic heat, Btu/to-"F oss-030 028 = osTs eso. asso Aiquid) s00 780 Latent heat of ‘vapor, a/b 1000 40-0 m 08 ‘Thermal conduc tity, Btufar-tt?-*F/tt 4-16 0.105 5-9 400~000 °F Heat-tranater ‘cootlclent Buf 400 3800 200-2800 200-300-8700 1Oit/ece —10ft/ane depending condensing 10 /e onvel. thd top. Latent heat of fusion, Btu/Ib oe 5 us Viscosity, centipeie at mp. 10 rn 5 Le 2 0o'P os om 20 035 115 1000"F oa 1a ur 4 250-1500 100-1400 400-1000 380-750 -S7 to 1000 880-1700 300-1700 ‘Heat-transter salt composed of NaNO,, NaNO,, and KNO,. ‘eutectic mixture of diphenyl and dipbeny! oxide, ive» Google IVERINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS w One factor which may be important is the melting point of the substance. For those sub- stances which are liquid at room temperature (Dowtherm, NaK, ofls), housing of the equipment 1s sufficient protection. For higher melting substances (Na, Pb-B!, HTS), all lines must be traced and the vessels must be jacketed. Electrical heating, steam tracing, and hot-oil jackets are used depending upon the fluid under consideration. 4.1 Comparison of the Pumping Requirement and Heat-transfer Area for Fluids In the selection of circulating fluids for heat transfer, the equipment cost and the operating expense will be large factors. The pumping power is one factor which may be compared for a given situation.” The heat-transfer area may or may not be influenced by the heat-transfer characteristics of the fluid because the fluid on the other side of the surface may be controlling. ‘The quantity of fluid to be circulated depends upon the permissible temperature drop and the heat capacity of the fluid. To compare such fluids as sodium, sodium-potassium alloys, mercury, lead-bismuth, and HTS, the horsepower requirements for circulating the fluld through 100 ft of equivalent length of 1-in. pipe has been computed as a function of velocity. Likewise, the heat-transfer coeffi- cient has been computed for the inside of a 1-in. tube at these velocities. A third item 1s re- quired to complete the comparison, {.e., the heat transferred per unit temperature change for the fluid as a function of velocity. These three sets of curves are shown in Figs. 1.11, 1.12, and 1.13. ‘A comparison between NaK and Pb-Bi may be made for conveying 600,000 Btu/hr from a. heater to a unit in continuous circulation. The metal enters the unit at 1000°F and leaves at 900°F, and may be assumed to pass through 100 ft of 1-in, tubes in the complete circuit. From Figs. 1.11, 1.12, and 1.13, the following values are read, starting with the heat rate to obtain the fluid velocities: Heat-transfer Velocity coeffictent, Liquid in 1-in, tube, metal to tube, Horsepower for ft/sec Btu/hr -ft?-"F circulating liquid metal Nak 19.0 5000 0.8 Pb-Bi 11.6 4050 21 ‘Thus, it may be seen that the NaK requires less than one-half the power for circulating the metal than s required for Pb-Bi even though the velocity of the NaK is considerably higher. Comparisons may be made for other tube diameters or equivalent lengths for frictional pressure drop, but relative comparisons would be expected to be indicated by the chart. 5. PROPOSED USES FOR LIQUID METALS ‘Men in some 25 companies have been interviewed in order to find possible uses for liquid metals. From the information given in this handbook, development engineers will be able to suggest their own uses. However, it should be helpful if certain uses could be suggested to givo examples of the advantages to be enjoyed and the hazards involved. From experiences (see Refs. 4, 23, 25, and 42) with sodium and sodium-potassium alloys (NaK), it is assumed that steel equipment, preferably stainless, can be fabricated to circulate Uquid metal from room temperature up to 1400 to 1600°F. Methods of pumping, metering, heat- ing, and cooling of the metal are available. Equipment which has been properly constructed may be cleaned, dried, filled with inert gas, and charged with sodium or NaK so as to operate {for two to five years without any particular corrosion or deterioration of the Liquid-metal sys- tem, provided it does not contact oxygen or moisture. Google18 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK eo ° BTU x 10YHR PER 100°F CHANGE IN FLUID TEMPERATURE 8 gu— ° 1 —— 1 1 L o 5 10 1S 20 26 VELOCITY IN A 1=IN. TUBE, FT/SEC Fig. 1.11— Comparison of flulds for heat transfer. Velocity in a 1-in. tube vs. Btu x 10Yhr transferred per 100°F change in fluid temperature. Google _ UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGANfh =BTU/HR-FT-°F INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 19 x5, 100°" F 18 St A SOF a 10 15 20 25 30 VELOCITY IN A 1-IN. TUBE, FT/SEC Fig. 1.12—Comparison of fluids for heat transfer. Velocity in a 1-in. tube vs. h (Btu/hr-ft-"F). Google WiiveRSry OFHORSEPOWER PER 100 FT OF TUBING 10.0 50 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK L | | l l 10 5 20 VELOCITY IN A TIN. TUBE, FT/SEC ‘Fig. 1.13—Comparison of flulds for heat transfer. Velocity in 2 1-In. tube vs. horsepower Per 100 ft of tubing. Google / eRINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS a ‘The hazards of using sodium or NaK are treated elsewhere in this handbook. It ts suffi- cient to say that contact of the liguid metal with liquid water, such as through equipment fail- ure, would result in reactions of an explosive nature. However, it has been observed in pilot units that maintenance of a pressure of about 200 pel on the fluids will permit normal relief- valve equipment to release the products of the reaction without damage to the equipment. Steam reacts with NaK to cause a reduction in pressure. Organic halides may react with Nak with detonation. Fires involving liquid sodium or NaK are extinguished by powdered solids such a8 NaxCO;. ‘The advantages of using liquid metals lie to a great extent in their high thermal conductiv- ity and hence high heat-transter coefficients (see Refs. 4, 25, 42). Thetr stability at high tem- peratures and the large range of temperatures over which they are liquids are beneficial. ‘The examples chosen to illustrate the possible uses of liquid metals surely are only a ‘small fraction of the total possible uses which should be considered by forward-looking devel - opment engineers. 5.1 High-temperature Reaction Kettles Reaction kettles such as those used for cooking varnish are often heated with Dowtherm at temperatures from 400 to 600°F, The coil-O-clave by Union Iron Works, shown in Fig. 1.14, has a stainless-steel coil welded on the back of a stainless-steel sheet in contact with the con- tents of the kettle, This unit, when supplied with liquid metal inside the pipe coil, should be capable of operating at 1200°F or more. ~ _ Figure 1.15 shows two methods of supplying liquid metal to the coll around the kettle. Al~ though natural-circulation rates would be high enough to give liquid-metal heat-transfer coeffi- cients considerably in excess of the requirement for heat transfer at the reactor wall, pumping may be necessary to obtain a relatively uniform temperature in the kettle. To give some specific sizes, consider a kettle which requires 150,000 Btu/hr at a temper- ature of 1200°F. A temperature drop of 40°F for the liquid metal might be reasonable. The iquid-metal (NaK) circulation would be (NaK density, 0.76 g/cm; ep. ht., 0.28; viscosity, 0.20 centipoise): 150,000 = w x 0.28 x 40 ‘w= 13,400 Ib metal per hour If the coil had an inside diameter of 1% in,, the velocity of the NaK in the coll at 1200°F would be ee 18,400 x4 x 144 . 62.4 x 0.76 x wx 1.37" x 3600 .85 ft/sec ‘The pressure loss due to friction could be computed for any length of pipe. The work of circu- lation will be computed for 150 ft of equivalent length of coil and conduit tube. 1,37 x 13,400 12 x 0.0102 x 0.20 x 2.42 = $10,000 0.023 ‘Reynolds number = Friction factor 0.023 x 150 x 7.65? x 62.4 x 0.76 x 12 2X 92.2X 1.97 x 144 = 9.05 pat 9.05 x 144 x 13,400 _ 0,76 x S600 x 650 ~ °-166 hp Pressure drop = Power requirement = Google R ICHIGANLIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK Fig. 1.14—Reaction kettle, (Courtesy of the Union Iron Works.) ores y GoogleINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 23 NITROGEN (o) Fig. 1.15—Two methods of heating reaction kettle with liquid metal. (a) Electric heater. (©) Combustion heater. Google NINERS OF PRCAIGANFy LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK ‘The heat-transfer coefficient between the NaK and the wall of the coll would be about 3000 Btu/hr-ft?-°F temperature difference. With an electromagnetic pump, the metal system would not have any packing glands. ‘The electrical heaters, to supply 150,000 Btu/hr, would require 44 kw. From Fig. 1.16 an overload factor of 2.5 would apply. Heaters rated for 18 kw with ordinary Liguids could be in- stalled in the electric heater, and the extra power could be provided to give the heating re- quirement. ‘The fuel-tired heater suggested for use is one that was designed by A. W. Peters of the Surface Combustion Co, for a similar use. The liquid metal is outside a center burner tube and return flues. A unit having the following dimensions should supply the 150,000 Btu/hr: Distance between tube sheet, 36 in, Diameter of burner tube, 8 in. Number of flue tubes, 1% in. OD, 16 gauge, 32 Diameter of shell, 18 in. ‘The flue tubes are to be welded to the tube sheet on 13- and 15-in. circles. The unit should be constructed of stainless steel. ‘This design of heater will give a compact unit and has advantages over a coll in a refrac- tory chamber. Special burners were constructed for the unit after which this design is pat- terned. 5.2 Control of Mold and Die Temperatures In many industries it is desirable to control the temperature of molds and dies. For plas- tic molding, the temperatures seldom exceed 250 to 400°F, and control is possible by the con- ventional use of steam and water. However, many industries employ molds or dies at higher temperatures at which liquid metals could be used to an advantage. Glass molds for bottle machines operate over the temperature range of 800 to 1200°F. The circulation of liquid metal through the interior of the molds is one way to assure the desired temperature, In the forming of glass containers," the molds go through a cycle of temperature change: ‘The mold absorbs heat when in contact with the glass, and the temperature of the metal ad- Jacent to the glass may rise from 100 to 300°F. This heat is conducted to other parts of the mold and finally is dissipated by blowing air over the mold. ‘The temperature of the blank mold is important in that it controls the surface temperature of the glass and hence its viscosity in the blowing operation. Since the blowing operation may require different viscosities of the glass at various points in the mold, it may be desirable to keep one part of the mold some 100 to 200°F hotter than another. Figure 1.17 is a proposed process for controlling the temperature of the mold at two dif- ferent levels, An electric heater, pump, and air cooler might service a group of molds. The electric immersion heater would use a stainless-steel sheath and have some three times its rated capacity. The electromagnetic pump would have no moving parts and no seals. The air cooler could be made of finned nickel tubing with thermostatic control on the blower air. Al- though the connection to moving parts would not be simple, flexible stainless hose has been used to 1000°F for short periods without difficulties. ‘The mold cycle of absorbing heat from the glass and giving off heat when empty brings problems of glass sticking when the mold is too hot at the end of the blowing operation and of glass checking when the mold is too cold. Liquid metal at constant temperature could absorb heat during part of the cycle and contribute heat when the mold is empty. Glass at some 2100°F is cooled to about 1100 to 1300°F in the blank and blowing molds. For an 8-o2 bottle, this represents some 250 Btu to be dissipated from both in a period of some 5 sec out of an 8-sec cycle, or a rate of 180,000 Btu/hr for a total of 112,000 Btu total loss per hour. If the liquid metal (NaK) were circulated to give a 50°F temperature rise, the rate to each mold would be 4000 Ib of liquid metal per hour or 1.1 Ib/sec or 10.2 gpm. ‘The temperature difference between the mold and the liquid metal would be relatively small, For a film coefficient of 4000 Btu/hr-ft*-"F and a rate of 180,000 Btu/hr, a 45°F tem- Google NIVERSITY OF MICHIGINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 25 > OVERLOAD FACTOR TEMPERATURE OF BATH (NOK) , °F Fig. 1.16— Overload factors for electric heaters in NaK; based on a heat-transter rate of 0.105 watts/in.!-*P, with a heater rated at 1000 watts, 115 volts, 60-cycle alternating current. Google vive26 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK ELECTRIC pry HEATER 4 a oO LIQUID-METAL SYSTEM A LIQUID-METAL SYSTEM B GLASS CONTAINER MOLD COOLER ELECTRIC HEATER Fig. 1.17— Proposed temperature control for glass molds. Google \INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS ar perature difference would occur if 1 ft? of surface were extracting heat, or a 9°F difference if 5 ft? of interior surface were transferring heat to the liquid metal. ‘The use of liquid metals would likely entail many modifications in molds, such as reduc~ tions in metal thickness between the surface in contact with glass and the circulating metal. Circulation of liquid metals through the heads of presses or dies for machines pressing glass block may improve operation and the ease with which a uniform product is made. Die-casting machines operate at different temperature levels for zinc, aluminum, and brass castings. Temperature control for the dies and cores is obtained by multiple streams of water and the speed of operating the machine. On shutdown, gas flames may be used to main- tain the temperature, Liquid metal could be circulated through the dies and cores to maintain temperature. For the die-casting of brass, one would expect a great increase in die life and considerable length- {ng of the life for aluminum dies. The uniform temperature should increase the output of the machines and decrease the scrap. The accuracy of production for parts depends somewhat on the uniformity of die temperatures. Maintenance of greater uniformity of temperature of the die should reduce the tolerances allowed in normal production. 5.3. Fractional Condensers for Metallic Vapors Certain recovery processes for nonferrous metals such as magnesium™*™ include a vapor- ization step at low pressure followed by condensation of the metal as crystals. The condensa- tion is normally accomplished by water or air cooling without careful control of the condensing temperature. Even under these conditions, the purity of the metal is enhanced over other pro- duction processes.” ‘The use of a fractional condenser for metallic vapors is suggested as a means of obtaining extremely pure metals. Figure 1.18 shows a process by which careful control of condensing temperature could be accomplished. Liquid metal circulates through alloy-steel tubes, and metal condenses on the outside of the tubes. By control of the liquid-metal temperature, the first bank of tubes would remove primarily the substances with a lower vapor pressure and ‘would permit the desired metal to be condensed on a second or third condenser bank. The tem- perature of the first tubes might be controlled in order to condense the desired metal as a liquid film on the first tube. This metal would condense and reevaporate at the proper temper- ature—partial-pressure relations, but it would provide a solution with the small amounts of impurities condensing ahead of the desired metal. ‘The condenser could be unloaded of its condensed solid by circulating liquid metal through the tubes at temperatures above the melting point. The latent heat of condensation from the vapor to the solid state is very high for many of the metals (magnesium, 2574 cal/g at the boll- ing point), and therefore relatively large quantities of heat are involved. A pump would circu- Jate the metal through each condenser or through all condensers in parallel as indicated. Indi- vidual finned coolers with air blowers would remove the heat from the circulating metal during metal deposition in the condenser. The heater would maintain temperature or provide the heat when melting the metal in the condenser. 5.4 Liquid-metal Baths for Electric Heaters A common experience with liquid metals 1s that electric immersion heaters operate with- out burning out even at severe overloads. Likewise, it 1s common for electric heaters to burn out whenever the heat load on the surface of the heater is reduced considerably below the de- sign value. The permissible temperature for electric resistance wire in immersion heaters is about 1900°F for long service, with an instantaneous burnout assured at 2550°F, the melting point of the wire. The heater must be designed in order that the heat developed in the wire at a stated voltage will be dissipated through the insulation and sheath without reaching a tempera- ture above 1900°F on the average or without ever reaching 2550°F. Heaters designed for water ‘will burn out in air because the temperature in the heater rises to compensate for the low co- efficient of heat transfer between the sheath and air. E Google aweneey oF GH28 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK PUMP FOR LIQUID METAL Fig. 1.18— Proposed process for fractional condensation of metallic vapors. ELECTRIC POWER A—- |-—--A LIQUID METAL €) SECTION A-A Fig. 1.19— Proposed use of liquid-metal bathe for electric heaters. GoogleINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 20 A proposed use for liquid metals is illustrated in Fig. 1.19. The liquid metal would remove the heat from the sheath and rapidly transfer it to the surface of the retaining tube for the liquid metal. The enlarged surface of the tube which retains the liquid metal, as compared to the sur- face of the sheath, will facilitate the heat transfer to the surrounding fluid. Fins could be put on the retaining tube, or the irregular-shaped containers for the liquid metal may be used. The heat capacity of the liquid metal and containing tube would even out any short-time temperature rises for the electric element. ‘The unit could be filled with NaK to such an extent that it would not become liquid full at ‘any temperature it might attain and that it would always cover the sheath containing the electric ‘element. It could be used in a vertical or horizontal position. One advantageous use would be the heating of heat-sensitive substances. ‘An approximation has been made of the overload capacity of immersion resistance heaters‘! (see Fig. 1.16). For steady loads, the curve for 1900°F resistance-wire temperatures should be used. At a liquid-metal temperature of 1200°F, an overload factor of 2.5 may be expected to give a normal life for a heating element immersed in liquid NaK. 5.5 Liquid Metals for Reheating Steam Reheat cycles in steam power plants have received considerable attention over the years.'*"¥ The superheated steam which has expanded through the high-pressure turbine is re- heated to give it a superheat for the secondary turbine. This reheating normally involves con- ducting steam at pressures from $00 to 500 pai from the turbine room to the boiler, through reheat colls, and back to the low-pressure turbine. It is proposed that the steam be reheated by an exchanger between the two turbines and that Liquid metal convey the heat from the furnace to the location of the exchanger and turbines. ‘The advantages of such a process are as follows: 1. The pressure drop on the steam passing through the reheater can be reduced appreci- ably and thus increase the power delivered by the steam. 2, The size of the pipes between the boiler and turbine and in the boiler can be reduced appreciably. 3. The nature of the heat-exchange surface between liquid metal and steam may be chosen to take advantage of the low coefficient of heat transfer for superheated steam. 4. The use of intercepting valves may not be required because the steam storage would be very small. The disadvantages in the process lie in the secondary circulation system with attendant hazards of using liquid metals and the need for an extra pump and heat exchanger. Figure 1.20 gives the temperature-entropy diagram for reheating steam between turbines. Line AB is for the reheating portion of the cycle and occurs with a pressure drop of the order of 10 per cent of the absolute pressure. Figure 1.21 is a flow diagram of the proposed use of Liquid metals to reheat the steam as it transfers from the high-pressure to the low-pressure turbine. The reheater could consist of an extended surface on the steam side to take advantage of the high ratio of coefficients of heat transfer from the liquid metal to tube walls as compared to the coefficient from a metal wall to superheated steam. Under these conditions, the pressure drop for the transfer lines and much of the pressure drop in the usual furnace tubes could be avoided in the exchanger of appropriate design. Figure 1.22 shows the added work area AFB ‘when reheating with less pressure drop and to the same entropy. A similar diagram could be drawn for reheating to the same temperature. Harris and White" give curves to show the effect of pressure drop while reheating steam on the heat rate. For 1450 1b, 1000°F, initial steam reheating to 1000°F, the 10 per cent pres- sure drop costs 1 per cent of the heat rate. Thus if the pressure drop through the heat ex- changer were 1.5 per cent, one might expect a saving of 0.85 per cent in the heat rate when eliminating the pressure drop. It is interesting to project a Liquid-metal system for the conditions described at the Philip Sporn plant™ in which 844,670 lb/hr is reheated from 652 to 1000°F. The pressure drop given 4s from 450 to 407 peta, or 43 psi. It 1s suggested that 8 pei 1s suffictent to pass the steam E Google eae OF GHLIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK PRESSURE CONDENSER PRESSURE TEMPERATURE ENTROPY Fig. 1.20—Temperature-entropy diagram of reheat cycle. REHEATER LIQUID - METAL PUMP. TO HEATERS AND BOILER Fig. 1.21— Liquid metal for reheating steam. GoogleINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS FROM HIGH-PRESSURE TURBINE > CONDENSING PRESSURE ENTROPY Fig. 1.22— Influence of lower pressure drop on reheater cycle, a2 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK through a properly designed reheat exchanger to liquid metal and that 35 pai out of the 43-pal Pressure drop could take place in the turbine rather than in the reheat system. Since this plant has an initial pressure of 2000 psi, Harris and White would predict a heat-rate saving of 0.7 er cent or 0.007 x 9220 = 64.5 Btu saving per kwh ‘This corresponds to a fuel saving of about $11,000 per year. ‘The heat load on the reheater is 1522-1383 (189) Btu per pound of steam or 159,500,000 Btu/hr. It is assumed that liquid metal (NaK) would be circulated so as to give a 200°F driving force in the exchanger to steam, or 1200°F from boiler or furnace, and 852°F from the ex- changer. With a specific heat of 0.28 for quid metal, the iquid-metal circulation rate would be 159,500,000 _ 0.28 x 348 ~ 1680,000 Ib/ar or 33,500 ft?/ar, 9.3 ft?/sec, or 4180 gpm. At a velocity of 11,8 ft/sec for the NaK, a 12-in. -ID pipe will transfer the liquid metal be- tween the furnace and the exchanger. The power of pumping this liquid metal is computed from the head required for 600 ft of equivalent length of pipe. The Reynolds number is for which f = 0.0182.* ‘The pressure drop equals 800 x 0.0132 x 11.8% x 48.6 2x S2.2K1x 144 or is equal to 5.8 pal. The pumping-power requirement in horsepower 1s 5.8 x 144 x 1,680,000 _ 14 5 48.6 x 3600 x 550 ‘This seems low as a circulating-pump theoretical horsepower for 4180 gpm, but the head is only 5.8 psi. The pump cost and power requirement for circulating the metal should be very small items in the investment and operating expense. Consider now the heat exchanger from NaK to steam. One might suggest a finned tube bank housed in a cylindrical shell with NaK inside the tubes and steam outside the tubes. Using a steam face velocity of 25 ft/sec, the face area becomes 844,670 x 1.68 : 3600 x 25 15.8 ft? ‘Two vessels 4.5 ft in diameter would give tube banks 3 ft square and would provide more than the necessary face area. ‘The over-all heat-transfer coefficient can only be approximated, but an estimate of 135 Btu/hr-ft-"F (outside surface) is within the range expected for stainless finned tubes. The +heat-transfer area thus becomes 159,500,000 Area per exchanger = 3x 135% 200 = 2050 ft? surface (2 required) *Moody, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1944. Google arvanaINDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS: 33 If one uses a finned tube with an over-all diameter of % in., a %-in. root, and an effective surface of 0.52 ft? per 1 ft of tube, 5700 ft of tubing is required per unit. Using 30 tubes per row, 1.2-in. centers, and triangular spacing, 64 rows are required. The pressure drop through the bundle is roughly estimated as 6.0 pai. ‘The heating of the Liquid metal should require less furnace coll than the usual reheater coil, The heat-transfer coefficient from the pipe wall to the Liquid metal should be around 4000 Btu/hr-ft?-°F, The coll could well be in the radiant section of the furnace without danger of overheating of the tubes. Considerable experience would be required to give the exact size of coll required for liquid metal, but it will probably be in the range of 20 to 60 per cent af that for the usual steam reheater. ‘The economics of construction are reduced to the following: Does the cost of the liquid-metal coil in the furnace, transfer lines, heat exchangers, and the liquid metal cost more or less than the usual steam-transfer lines and furnace coil? With the assistance of H. A. Wagner of the Detroit Edison Company, a comparison has been made between the two installations as follows: Standard Liguid-metal reheater reheater Lines from turbine to boiler and return $90,000 $42,000 Heat exchangers 30,000 ‘Two pumps 18,000 $90,000 $90,000 ‘These items do not include the expected savings in the furnace coll and in the elimination of in- terceptor valves used to remove steam from the reheater in case of load failure. On the other hand, no allowance was made for safety devices and liquid-metal storage or ‘‘run-down”’ tank. ‘The study indicates that installation of liquid-metal reheaters probably would cost no more than usual installations and that 2 small but significant saving in fuel costs would be gained, 0.7 per cent or about $11,000 per year for 2 141,000-kw plant from a single reheat. 5.6 Double and Continuous Reheat ‘Ten papers on the program at the 1951 annual meeting of the American Society of Mechani- cal Engineers treated the subject of heat in power plants. One speaker stated that he had given serious study to double reheat. The use of liquid metals for conveying heat from the furnace to the turbine would simplify double reheat as compared to returning the steam to the boiler a second time. In order that the advantages of double and multiple reheat might be evaluated, the Detroit Edison Company was asked to make a preliminary study of the problem. If quid metal were pumped to the turbines, it could be used to reheat the steam each time it left the turbine case. ‘The ultimate in reheat would be continuous reheating, and it was considered to set a final goal beyond which no advantage could be forthcoming. H. A. Wagner and his associates at the Detroit Edison Company have prepared the follow- ing statement based on their studies. It should be pointed out that these studies do not in them- selves contemplate the use of liquid metals, but multiple reheating would not seem practical ‘without some means of conveying the heat to the turbine. ‘Thermodynamic Gain Attributable to Additional Reheat. In an effort to determine the ther- ‘modynamic gain for additional reheat, an efficiency analysis was made through the use of temper- ature-entropy diagrams corresponding to the steam conditions for our new St. Clair Power Plant. ‘The St. Clair cycle has throttle conditions of 1800 psig, 1000°F, with a single reheat to 1000°F. Six feedwater heaters are used with a final feedwater temperature of 450*F. The turbine exhausts at 1.0 in. Hg absolute. E Google aweneey oF GHu LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK ‘Thermodynamic gain is that portion of the efficiency improvement that results from the ac~ ‘tual heat-cycle change. The analysis assumed 100 per cent turbine and pump efficlencies with no Pressure drop in the reheater circuit. As shown in Fig. 1.23, the thermodynamic gain for double Feheat over single reheat was about 1.3 per cent, and that for continuous reheat referred to sin— gle reheat was about 6.8 per cent. ‘The double reheat cycle was based on optimum reheat pres: sures for the St. Clair cycle whereas the continuous reheat cycle was constructed go that the ex- Pansion-line end point would result in dry and saturated exhaust steam. ‘We selected the St. Clair eycle since we have at hand turbine state lines and other data needed to evaluate these propositions. Should it be desired to select the optimum reheat cycle, it 48 probable that one extraction point for feedwater heating would be taken from the high-pressure turbine with a resulting botler-feed temperature of the order of §50°F. Correspondingly, for an 1000 to 2000 psi throttle pressure, the first reheat pressure might be about 800 to 850 pet. and the second, 250 to 300 psi. This has been studied in a preliminary way only by one of the turbine ‘manufacturers. The gain in this case would be about 2 per cent instead of 1.5 per cent using dou- ble reheat. In order to apply the thermodynamic gain to practical modern power plants, it is necessary to make an adjustment for the over-all turbine efficiency and pressure drop in the reheater and feedwater piping. Assuming an 85 per cent over-all efflelency for the turbine and a 90 per cent cycle factor to account for pressure drop, the thermodynamic gain will be 1.0 and 5.0 per cent, respectively, for the double and continuous reheat. Nonthermodynamic Gain Attributable to Additional Reheat. The actual gain resulting from reheat Is greater than the thermodynamic gain. ‘This is due to the improvement in turbine Pansion efficiency resulting from reduction in moisture loss, reduction in exhaust loss, and a slight improvement in stage efficiency because of the relatively higher superheat at the entrance to the various turbine stages in the intermediate pressure turbine. An effort was made to evaluate the nonthermodynamic gains, using our St. Clair single -reheat machine-expansion lines, ‘The effect of reduced moisture in the last stages of a turbine with additional reheat was de- termined by comparing the loss in available energy due to the presence of moisture in both the single and double-reheat turbines. ‘The moisture loss would, of course, be less in a double=re~ heat turbine since the exhaust steam is drier than in a single-reheat turbine. The per cent of improvement in efficiency attributable to reduced moisture {s about 0.42 when comparing double-reheat turbine to a single-reheat turbine. The improvement afforded by continuous reheat ‘would be little more, since for double reheat, the exhaust steam is almost saturated. Reheating makes available more work output per pound of throttle steam. Consequently, ad- ditional reheating will result in reduced throttle flow which, in turn, means reduced condenser flow. Assuming that the same last-stage turbine wheel would be used for single, double, or con- tinuous reheat, the reduced volume flow for progressive reheating should result in reduced leav~ ng loss. One offsetting condition arises, however, and that is the increase in specific volume of steam as the moisture is reduced. The gain in cycle efficiency resulting from reduced exhaust loss of a double-reheat turbine compared to a single-reheat turbine is of the order of 0.04 per cent. Continuous reheat would not effect additional gain, since the volumetric flow would be Little different from the volumetric flow for double reheat. Economies of Additional Reheat: A preliminary economle study indicates that it is difficult to justify double reheat with our present coal prices. Based on the heat rate used in the informa~ tion we submitted to you for the Liquid-Metals Handbook, double reheat would provide about a $31,000 annual saving over single reheat, Additional investment in turbine and steam piping alone, for a conventional steam-reheating clrcult, would be approximately $290,000. This includes no investment for the additional reheater in the boller. It Is evident, therefore, that there would not be sufficient return on the investment to justify double reheat. ‘Although we have not made detailed calculations on the economics of liquid metal for double reheat, it appears that its use might be marginal. Additional time would have to be spent in order to derive realistic results. Further, we have made no attempt to evaluate continuous reheat, on an economle basis at this time, in accordance with our previous conversations. The cycle gain ‘with continuous reheat merely indicates the maximum that might be achleved without regard to the feasibility of securing it. Summary. The results of our preliminary investigation may be summarized as follows: ‘The total gain in efficiency of a double-reheat cycle over a single-reheat cycle is of the order of 1.5 to 2 per cent. 2, The total gain in efficiency of a continuous-reheat cycle over a single-reheat cycle 1s of the order of 5.5 per cent. ive» GoogleTHERMODYNAMIC GAIN OVER SINGLE REHEAT, PER CENT INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS DOUBLE REHEAT: 700 PSIA, 1000°F, 271 PSIA. 1000°F ‘CONTINUOUS REHEAT WITH ISENTROPIC EXPANSION TO DRY AND SATURATED STEAM CONTINUOUS REHEAT WITH ISENTROPIC EXPANSION TO 200°F CONTINUOUS REHEAT WITH ISENTROPIC EXPANSION TO 3OO*F ‘BASE: ONE REHEAT AT 700 PSIA TO 1000°F Fig. 1.23— Thermodynamic gain in efficiency of double- and continuous-rebeat cycles over single-reheat cycle. Constant conditions: back pressure, 1 in. Hg absolute; initial Pressure, 1900 pelg; initial temperature, 1000°P; number of feedwater heaters, 6. Google wn 3836 LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK 3. Double reheat, using the conventional system of returning the steam to the boiler, 1s, difficult to Justify with today’s coal cost. 4. No attempt has been made to make a detailed economic study of iquid metal for double reheat. ‘The possible benefits from multiple reheat of steam would indicate that it would be worth while to consider further the possible application of liquid metal to convey heat to steam at the turbines. 5.7 Miscellaneous Suggestions ‘Several additional uses for liquid metals have been suggested. Jn preheating blast-furnace air, liquid-metal circulation systems might permit construc- tion of more efficient equipment for obtaining higher temperatures on the air. ‘The cooling of rotating machinery which 1s at high temperature could be accomplished with liquid metals. Jet turbine blades could be cooled by small streams of Liquid-metal cireu- lating through them. Pasteurizing of milk in rapid processes requires high heat-transfer rates. Liquid metals would be ideal for this process if the hazards could be reduced to the point where they would not be objectional for this industry. ‘Heat exchange to heat-sensitive substances in place of furnace operation should be advan- tageous. Processing of tars or high-boiling aromatic substances could utilize the conditions provided by the circulation of liquid metals. Methods of heating for chemical reaction and distillation may be developed which bring the reactants into direct contact with liquid metals. ‘The conveyance of heat into, or out of, high-pressure vessels may be accomplished by circulation of liquid-metal streams. Any heat-exchange problem which requires a fluid at 800 to 1400°F as a source of heat should consider Hquid metals. ‘Alternate heating and cooling with close control of temperature 1s possible with liquid metals over a wide temperature range. Whenever high coefficients can be utilized, liquid metals have added advantages. SUMMARY A survey has been made of the present uses of liquid metals excluding the metals industry and chemical reactions. Sodium-cooled valves for aircraft engines, industrial cooling by cir- culation of sodium, molten-metal baths for temperature control or heat-treating, and mercury boilers were the chief uses found. ‘The place that liquid metals may take in the industrial heat-transfer field 1s described by comparing the characteristics of alternate fluids. Several industrial applications for liquid metals are proposed for heating or cooling in the temperature range of 800 to 1400°F: 1, Reaction kettles 2, Control of mold and die temperatures 3. Fractional condensers for metallic vapors 4, Baths for electric resistance heaters 8. Reheating of steam in power plants 6, Miscellaneous REFERENCES 1, Badger, W. L., Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensing Dowtherm Flakes, Ind. Eng. Chem., 29: 910 (1987). 2. Banchero, J. T., Thermal Decomposition of Phenyl Ether, Ph.D. thesis, University of Michigan, February 1950. Google NIVERSITY OF MICHIGua. 15. 16. 1. 18. 19. 37. 38. 39. 0. a. 42. a. . Bellah, J. 8., R. V. Mertz, and J. W. Kilmer, Splt }. Staudinger, H. Z., Elect. Chemfe, 31: 549 (1925), about explosions with alkali metale INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF LIQUID METALS 37 Flow Gas Sweetening Unit Features Slaughter Plant, Petroleum Refiner, 28: 6, 154 (1949). |. Bennett, F. C., Liquid Sodium Heat Transfer, Magnesium Laboratories, Dow Chemical Co., Report 14854, October 1948, reproduced by Argonne National Laboratory. Berg, Clyde, Union Oil Co. , personal communication, 1951. Berg, Clyde, U. 8. Patent 2501153, Shale Oil Education. - Boundy, R. H., Sodium Bus Bar—A 4000-ampere Conductor, Trans. Electrochem. Soc., 62: 151 (1932) . Canon, F. A., and C. E. Andrews, U. 8. Patents 1894679, December 1931; 1735951, November 1929; 1689860, October 1928; Re16824, December 1927; and 1614185, January 1927. 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Mayer, A., AIME, Plant for Production of Magnesium by Ferrosilicon Process, Metals Technol., vol. IT, T.P. 1670, August 1944. |. Mercury Vapor Process for Lubricating Oils, Composite Catalogue of Oil Refinery and Natural Gaso- Une Plant Equipment (16), Gulf Publishing Company. |. Morkovits, J. A., Coal Hydrogenation, Mech. Eng., 71: 553 (1949). . Parsons, P, W., and B. J. Gafiney, Comparing Fluids as Heat Transfer Agents, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 655 (1944). . Pidgeon, L. M., et al., Am. Soc. Metals, Book of Pine Lectures on Magnesium. - Schenck, R. B., Lead Baths, ASM Metals Handbook, 1948, p. 291. ‘Smith, A. R., and E. 8. Thompson, The Mercury Vapor Process, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 64: 625 (1942). ‘Smith, W. C., Low Temperature Melting Alloys as Production Aids, Metals & Alloys, August 1945. Sodium booklet by National Distillers Chemical Corporation. - Sporn, Philip, The 2000 psi, 1050°F, and 1000°F Reheat Cycle at the Philip Sporn and Twin Branch Steam lectric Stations, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 70: 287 (1948). Stepanoff, A. J., Circulation of Molten Salt, Petroleum Refiner, 19: 474 (1940). ‘Tama, Mario, Blectromagnetic Pumping of Molten Metals, Iron Age, Dec. 4, 1947. ‘Tama, Mario, private communication, Ajax Engineering Corp., Trenton, N. J. ‘Tasker, G. J. H., Calculation of Heat Transfer and Reaction Rate in Catalyst Beds (Application of ‘Theory to Phthalic Anhydride Pilot Plant Data), Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 24: 84 (1946). Werner, R. C., private communication, Mine Safety Appliances Co., Callery, Pa. Werner, R. ., B.C. King, and R. A. Tidball, Heat Transfer with Sodium Potassium Alloys, Chem. Eng. Progress, 1950; presented in Pittsburgh, December 1949. Wiegand, Edwin L., Co., private communication, Pittsburgh, Pa. Google