DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF VECTOR MATHEMATICS FOR KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL MECHANISMS Milton A. Chace A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Michigan Department of Mechanical Engineering 1964, duly, 1964 IP-676en UMRIO32-ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author is very grateful for the interest, counsel, and support of his thesis committee--particularly that of the chairman, Professor Shigley. The contributions of Professor G. J. Van Wylen, Professor F. H. Westervelt, Mr. D. P. Hedding, and the members of the IBM Automotive and Machine Design Project are also appreciated. This work was made possible by the financial support of the Ford Motor Company, the Ford Foundation, the International Business Machines Corporation, the Shell Oil Company, and Texaco, Incorporated. To these organizations,and to their management, the author extends his most sincere thanks. ivTABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT. 2. eee ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . LIST OF FIGURES ........ LIST OF TABLES .......... NOMENCLATURE ....,... 1.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0 METHOD OF ANALYSIS . 2.1 Terminology and Basic Operations 2.2 Outline of Method. ; 2.2.1 Problem Formulation. . . neen Gaon 3.0 DIRECT SOLUTION OF THREE- DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS .... 3.1 Symmetry Solutions. Position Solution Motion Solutions Position and Motion of Any Point Force Solutions . 3.1.1 The Tetrahed=on Solutions 3.1.2 Supplemental Solutions . The Eliminant Application 3.3.1 Direct Use of the Tetrahedron Solutions 3.3.2 A Four-Bar Linkage with Turn- Slide Pairs 4.0 | MOTION 5 4.1 Development 4.1.1 Vector Loop Equations .... . 4.1.2 Expressions for Derivatives 4.1.3 Solution Procedure 4.2 Application . 34 34 35 63 67 7 7 82 91 91 1 92 96 98TABLE OF CONTENTS CONT'D 5.0 FORCE....... 5.1 Development booo ; 5.2 Application BouneoeubbbOE BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 2... 22-2 eee APPENDIX A COMPUTER PROGRAMMING ......... A.l Preliminary... 2.2... A.2 Conventions foe : A.2.1 Categorization of External Functions According to Task A.2,2 Names of Variables and External Functions ©... ee A.2.3 Order of External Function Arguments, ..... A.2.4 Value of an External Function A.2.5 Storage of Arrays and Vectors . A.3 Description of External Functions... . A.3.1 Basic Functions. ©... ee A.3.2 Intermediate Functions A.3.3 | Special Functions A.3.4 Auxiliary Functions vi 104 104 113 126 134 134 136 137 137 138 140 140 141 142 146 155 165LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Two-Dimensional Offset Slider- Crank Mechanism 2.2 Graphical Position Solution to Two-Dimensional, Offset Slider-Crank Mechanism... .....- 2.3 Dummy Reference Frame for Determination of Position and Motion of an Arbitrary Point, given Key Positions and Motions 2.4 Equilibrium Diagram for an Offset Slider- Crank Mechanism 3.1 Geometry of Case 2a. of the Tetrahedron Solutions. Unknown: r, 6,3 8. 3.2 Geometry of Case 2b. of the Tetrahedron Solutions, Unknown: r, @ 3s. 3.3 Geometry of Case 2c. of the Tetrahedron Solutions. Unknown: @, 63s x’ Pe 3.4 Geometry of Case 2d. of the Tetrahedron Solutions. Unknown: 6, 6. @ r? Oi Ns 3.5 Geometry of Case 3a. of the Tetrahedron Solutions. Unknown: rjsit 3.6 Geometry of Case 3b. of the Tetrahedron Solutions. Unknown: rj8;8,. 0. 3.7 Geometry of Case 3c. of the Tetrahedron Solutions, Unknown: 1; 6:6, . st 3.8 Geometry of Case 3d. of the Tetrahedron Solutions, Unknown: 05 658 righ 26 28 41 41 46 46 49 49 52 52Figure 4.2 4.3 LIST OF FIGURES CONT'D Page Geometry of Solution for Simultaneous Scalar Products... 2... a 64 Geometry of Solution for Five Scalar Products between Four Unit Vectors, Sixth Product Unknown... .. Se 64 Computer Time Required for Exact Computa- tion of Determinants in Simultaneous Solution of Two Polynomials : 76 Schematic of a Front Independent Suspension and Steering System a cee. 78 Variation of Camber, Castor, and Toe Angle versus Angles of Pitman Arm and Lower Hinged Link . . : 81 Three- Dimensional, Four-Bar Linkage with One Hinge Pair and Three Turn-Slide Pairs 83 Variation of Position Vectors ¥), ¥,, ¥, for a Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure 3.14 . - . 89 Relative Rotation of n Rigid Bodies 8 Variation of Velocities D¥,, D¥,, D¥, for a Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure 3.14. : ces 101 . , on coezien Variation of Accelerations D'F,, D'F;, Df; for a Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure 3.14 : 102 viniLIST OF FIGURES CONT'D Figure Page 5.1 Effect of Pair Friction on Introducing Unknown Angular Coordinates... ........... W2 5.2 Variation of Torques 75), Tyg» 7g fora Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure 3.14.00... beeeeee Wd 5.3 Variation of Transmitted Force, 7, fora Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure3.14....00..- vee 12 5.4 Variation of Output Torque and Force for a Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure3.14...0.... Pees 122 5.5 Variation of Output Power Transmitted in Rotational and Translational Motion for a Complete Cycle of the Mechanism of Figure 3.14.00 0 eee ee 1B Al Basic External Function (Subprogram) for Performing the Vector Cross Product .... 170 Az Intermediate External Function for Comparing Two Unit Vectors... .....--+++++ 170 AB Special External Function for Evaluating the Case 2d. Solution of the Vector Tetrahedron Equation be eee ee TTD A.4 Auxiliary External Function for Evaluating a Polynomial. 2 ee 1B ixTable LIST OF TABLES Vector Terminology . Kinematic Terminology Vector Relations Solutions to the Vector Triangle Equation Categorization of Solutions to the Vector Tetrahedron Equation Definition of Constants used in Case 3d Examples of Solution of Simultaneous Polynomials = Input Parameters for Example Four- Bar Linkage with One Hinge Pair and Three Turn-Slide Pairs. Restraints Introduced by Pair Design . Meaning of Letters in Names Page 11 12 20 36 60 3 88 - 108 -1394 8 NOMENCLATURE Vector constant. Subscript may be dropped. Scalar constant. The nth time derivative of ¥. PP; = 2a 3 DF and DF are the velocity PP PP, i ca) and acceleration of point p, relative to point p, and the ground reference frame The nth time derivative of uy Du, is the angular acceleration of body i relative to body j. Force exerted on body i, by body j, at point p,. Drop the subscript p, if only one force is exerted on i by j. Drop all subscripts if there is only one force in the linkage Inertial Force exerted on link i Moment of momentum of body i about its center of mass Unit vectors of the ground reference frame Mass of link i J Dummy position vectors, Subscript may be dropped Position vector to point from point p. Pi P Ps 5NOMENCLATURE CONT'D 6 Azimuthal angle of a vector relative to Rye ay v. Unit vectors of the ith dummy reference frame. Orientation relative to 7, j, & is always known. r Coefficient of Coulomb friction for trans- a lational motion of body i relative to body j. (Unitless) a, Coefficient of Coulomb friction for rota~ y tional motion of body i relative to body J. (Units of length) Inertial Torque exerted on link i (@ = -DH,) (Fp Torque exerted on body i by body j at k point p,. Drop the p, subscript if only one torque is exerted on i by j Polar angle of a vector relative to A, Bey i Angular velocity of body i relative to w body j. xii1.0 INTRODUCTION Kinematic analysis is an old but important subject in many areas of engineering. It is a,much simpler subject than dynamics because it assumes input motion instead of input force; problems can therefore be represented by algebraic equations instead of differential equations From another viewpoint kinematics is an input to dynamics, because the kinetic and potential energy terms in Lagrange's Equations are kinematic expressions. Vector analysis was ‘created in the 1870's by J. Willard Gibbs [41] in response to the need for a succinct, natural mathematics for the problems of scierice and engineering. Perhaps this mathematics was partly inspired by problems in Gibbs' own thesis work--the first doctoral thesis in engineering in the United States: "On the Form of the Teeth of Wheels in Spur Gearing." [41] Vector analysis has become increasingly popular and is now part of the background of most scientists and engineers. It seems inevitable that kinematic analysis should be pursued by vector methods. Almost every quantity involved in kinematics is a vec- tor or the magnitude of a vector. (Angular quantities are exceptions, but all orders of their derivatives are vectors.) Most kinematic prob- lems can be formulated as single or simultaneous vector equations, and these equations can usually be solved through use of vector operations.aoe However, conventional vector analysis has not been employed in kine~ matic analysis to nearly the extent possible. Instead, graphics, com- plex numbers, matrices, dual numbers, and quaternion algebra have been predominant tools. Graphics and related methods have been important because they avoid detailed computation and provide a visual perspective. Much of this work has been done in Germany by Altman [2-4], Beyer [7-18], Federhofer [39], Hein [44], Keler [45], and others, With the advent of the digital computer the computational advantage of graphical methods is diminished. Of course, it has always been difficult to apply graphi- cal methods to three-dimensional analysis. Analysis and synthesis by conventional complex mathematics has been very successful for two-dimensional problems, partly because of the convenience of polar notation. Work by this method has been done by Freudenstein, McLarnan, Raven [61], Roth, Sandor, and others. Extension to three-dimensional analysis was suggested by Raven, but otherwise conventional complex mathematics has remained a two-dimensional tool. Matrix methods have been developed and applied by Hartenberg, Denavit, and Uicker (26-31, 71-73]. A computer program, based on this mathematics, will obtain position, motion, and force solutions for the complete motion cycle of any single loop, three-dimensional mechanism connected by lower pairs. Two or three minutes (IBM 7090)3. are required for a cycle. The method has not been extended to complex spatial mechanisms and is more detailed than necessary for mechanisms of four links or less. Iteration is required for the position solutions,and interpretation of the matrix equations is difficult. However, it isa beautifully formulated approach and it affords the only immediately avail- able numerical solution to an important category of mechanisms. Dual numbers, quaternions,and other less familiar mathematics have been applied to three-dimensional mechanism analysis. Diment- berg [31-33], Denavit [26,27] and Dobrovolskii [35,36] have done work with dual numbers. More recently, Yang has developed an approach based on dual quaternions [79,80]. These approaches have advantages in the representation of spatial problems, but any advantages they may have for obtaining solutions have not been made clear. The most difficult problem in kinematic analysis is determina- tion of position; all other problems except frictional force analysis are linear. Physically, a mechanism may have two, four, eight, or many possible positions--depending on its complexity. Which position it actually takes depends on its initial assembly and subsequent behavior at locking positions. Because of these physical effects, probably the simplest position solution for any given mechanism is an algebraic polynomial of degree equal to the number of possible positions. No matter how the solution is formulated, there is the basic difficulty of obtaining the roots of this polynomial.ve However, there are practical difficulties associated with ad- vanced systems of mathematics. In obtaining polynomial solutions, it is of critical importance to fully exploit the symmetry of the problem. Otherwise a polynomial of artificially high degree must be generated There is a danger that the mathematics itself will obscure the symme- try, Also, the very familiarity of the mathematics becomes important if no one method affords relative advantages in solution There have been many other contributions to three-dimensional kinematics besides those mentioned here. Several involve use of con- ventional vector mathematics--particularly those of Beggs [5], Kislitsin [47], Mangeron and Dragan [50-53], and Rim [64]. These do not overlap material in this thesis, but are included in the reference section as a convenience to those with general interest. In addition, there is probably a large amount of proprietary work that is unavailable Several texts are included because of their usefulness as references, ‘The author's interest in three-dimensional kinematics was initiated by simultaneous exposure to the theory of vector analysis and Professor J. E. Shigley's practical observations on the “unit vector method" [67]. It has always been clear that mechanism problems can be represented by vector equations, but emphasis on the idea of factor- ing magnitude and unit vector leads to convenient means of solving the equations. Some of the author's preliminary work was published [21-23] and served as a basis for discussion and further generation of ideasMethods of analysis are described in later sections; a summary of the motives of analysis is appropriate here: 1) The wide range of current mechanism problems and the avail- ability of the digital computer suggest a need for more uniform, familiar, definitive methods for kinematic analysis. The same approach should apply to two- and three-dimensional mechanisms, connected by lower or higher pairs into any number of loops. The mathematics should be simple and familiar, so that it can be interpreted, taught, and pro- grammed easily. Solutions should be exact, or at most require itera~ tion on only one variable. 2) Position solutions are inherently difficult because of their nonlinearity. However, direct solutions are important for purposes of interpretation, reliability, computation speed, and obtaining all the real roots, Emphasis is therefore placed on obtaining solutions as single polynomials. Optimum solutions to relatively simple, common conditions are derived and categorized. These include the Tetra- hedron Solutions--a "complete" set of solutions to the single equation, sum of vectors is zero. The Tetrahedron Solutions apply to most prac- tical three-dimensional mechanisms of four links or less. Most of the solutions are interpretable and can reasonably be evaluated by hand computation; all can be evaluated by the digital computer in hundredths ofa second. More complicated conditions reduce to the problem of simultaneous solution of polynomials in two or more variables, evenwhen maximum use has been made of problem symmetry. An approach to these problems utilizing tensor formulation, the eliminant, and digi- tal computation is described. At present capability any two low-degree polynomials can be reduced to a single resultant polynomial in a few minutes or seconds. Extension to the solution of more than two simul- taneous polynomials of higher degree will require statistical methods, iteration, and/or a clearer insight to the nature of systems of poly- nomials 3) Motion solutions are intrinsically linear. Moreover, they are dependent only on input motions of the same order, all lower order motions and position, This basic simplicity should be exploited, so that the means are clear for calculating velocity, acceleration, and higher order motions for any mechanism. In particular, direct differ- entiation of position solutions must be avoided. 4) Force solutions are intrinsically linear when the joints are frictionless. However, they are more detailed than motion solutions because two vector equations must be written for every link but one in the mechanism. A method for reducing these vector equations to a de- terminate set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations must be made clear. Also, specialized procedures for obtaining more interpretable solutions should be investigated.2.0 METHOD OF ANALYSIS 2.1 Terminology and Basic Operations The fundamentals of vector analysis are clearly explained in many texts. Notation and terminology vary; Table 2.1 and the nomen- clature section (p. xi ) explain that employed here. In particular, the symbols a, 4, and a, respectively, denote vector, unit vector, and magnitude of “a. Table 2.2 defines kinematic terminol- ogy. Table 2.3 summarizes important vector relations. 2.2 Qutline of Method Sections 3.0 through 5.0 are devoted to an ordered development of vector methods for the analysis of linkages in general. Before this is begun the essentials of the approach will be illustrated via application toa simple planar example. 2.2.1 Problem Formulation Consider the two-dimensional, offset, slider-crank mechanism shown in Figure 2.1: Known Design Constants: Vector: ¥ PIP Unit vectors: = al G., Do. 7,TABLE 2.1 VECTOR TERMINOLOGY Item Explanation Addition and sub- Perform by adding or traction of subtracting correspond- vectors ing components Component Magnitude of the pro- jection of a vector on Ground reference Reference frame which K frame is considered fixed. { Express numerical re- sults in terms of this A frame. Magnitude Scalar quantity (no di- rection). The magnitude of a vector is always a-(¢-a? positive. Ifa solution for magnitude is nega- tive, the associated unit vector is reversedItem Pavallel vectors Reference frame Rotation Scalar (dot) product Unit vector Vector TABLE 2.1 CONT'D Explanation Vectors which are either co-directed or oppositely directed. Three mutually perp- endicular unit vectors. No origin. Right- handed if the rotation of the first unit vector into the second is co- directed with the third. Angular displacement or motion. A vector quantity with unit vec- tor directed perpen- dicularly to the instan- taneous plane of motion. Magnitude positive if counter-clockwise; neg- ative if clockwise A scalar product of the magnitudes of two vec- tors and the cosine of the smallest angle be- tween them The basic directional quantity. A vector of unit magnitude. Product of magnitude Representation a, A a, uy 2 ° zit) Zlt+At) ZB ab cosa Ap (a;b,)#@;P))+(a_b,) = NSxot a3 a Aa 6, ¢: a =1 = sin ¢[cos 0 A + sin 04] +é0s ov D: right-hand dummy reference frame azimuthal and polar angles aa-10- TABLE 2.1 CONT'D Item Explanation Representation Vector (cross) A vector. Magnitude 2xb = (absin a) @ equals the product of the magnitudes of two vectors and the sine (€ directed according to positive rotation of the smallest angle of a into Bb.) between them. Unit > 4g vector directed ac- ~~ {i323 * cording to positive axb = a rotation of first vec- tor into second. b,-1- TABLE 2.2 KINEMATIC TERMINOLOGY Item Dwell position Force Link Linkage Locking position Moment Motion Pair Position Rotational or angular motion Torque Translational motion Definition Mechanism position at which a zero velocity occurs with finite input velocity Fundamental. Two uses: (1) Pure translational force; (2) Both translational and rotational force. Rigid body. A component of a mechanism. A system of interconnected links. Simple linkage if only one closed loop of links; complex linkage if more than one closed Toop. Mechanism position at which output power is zero, regardless of the magnitude of input force. Rotational force from both torque and (fF XT) terms. All orders of the time derivative of position. Includes translational and angular velocity and acceleration. Joint connecting and constraining rela- tive motion between adjacent links. Higher pair: line or point contact. Lower pair: area contact. Instantaneous geometric configuration. Defined by position vectors between essential points Motion of one reference frame relative to another Pure rotational force. Motion of one point relative to another.la, b 6a, b Ta, bic 8a 8b 10 la 11b -12- TABLE 2.3 VECTOR RELATIONS Algebraic Operations et be + 2 t 3 i K FD=@, tb)2+ Gt dT +@, tak 2 (ab) + (p)) + @,b,) jp 7 ey] axD= la, ay aR = fade aybi)i + (aby - ab.) Ib be by B ’ + (a,b, - a,b.)k 4°57 Pa +@ ay? (2xb): (Ex d= (a xb) a Z- (BX) changes sign if the cyclic order of the vectors is changed (e.g., a) b,c to a, Cy b). Otherwise, the value is unaffected by interchange of vectors and/or by exchange of cross and dot, (E. Bx Tavek {aa - ob - ae- ay- @- 6? -(@+ a) +1}12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 -13- TABLE 2.3 CONT'D Differentiation Formulas n=1,2,3... Dra = (D"a,ji + ways + (DE Di =uxa D(u+v)=Du+Dv D(xu ) = (Dx)u +x(DU) D(a Vv) = (Du)+ Vv +u% (Dv) D(w Xv) = (Du) XV +UX (Dv) Du = D(u G) = (Dua + (XU) 2 = D°U= DIDu) = (Dua + 0 X (OX U) + (DOX UE) +2[ 0X (Du) a]“M4 Figure 2.1 Planar Offset Slider-Crank Mechanism-15- Magnitudes: ror PoP) P3P2 Pairs: (21), (32) hinge; (43) turn-slide Mass distribution Frictional characteristics (linear) Negligible elastic effects Known functions of time: Vectors: U,,, Du,» 7%, (allin k direction) Unit vector: 7 PP. Unknown: Unit vector: Foo, all f, P3P2 id Magnitudes: x); ), Dr, 3 Duy, Dr; P4P3 P4P3 P4P3, all f,, and (except 7)) This is a kinematic problem, in which the forces are dependent on input positions and motions. Such problems are much simpler than dynamic problems (positions and motions dependent on input forces),and their so- lution can be obtained in an ordered, compartmented manner: ) (1) Determine the unknown key positions (7. r. vr P4P3 P4P3 @) Determine the unknown key velocities (Wy,, Dry.) regarding all positions as known and expressed as single symbols.(3) (4) (5) (6) -16- Determine the unknown key accelerations (Dw, Dr, »,) regarding all positions and velocities as known and expressed as single symbols Determine any higher order key motions desired, regard- ing all lower order motions as known. Determine the position and motion of any point in the mechanism (besides p,, P), Pz, Py) regarding the design of the individual links and the key positions and motions as known. Determine the force and torque exerted at the mechanism joints, regarding joint design and the key positions, velocities, and accelerations as known 2.2.2 Position Solution In general, mechanism position solutions are nonlinear and require solution of simultaneous vector and scalar equations. The present solution is of second degree and is determined from a single vector equation: a ee ee (2.1) iP, PoP) PsP, PyPs Ata given instant T. and ¥ are both known and PAP, PP 1P4 21 can be summed into a single constant, CG. Vectors % p, and = 3P2 Fp.p, aze factored into magnitude and unit vector (a very frequent 4P3 and convenient operation).-17- ? tro oF + (2.2) P3P2 P3P2 P4P3 P4P3 c= +P (2.3) PyPyg PoP) Equation (2.2) contains two scalar unknowns, 7, |, and the angle 4P3 defining r). The equation represents two scalar equations, P3P2 being a two-dimensional vector equation, and is therefore a sufficient condition for the determination of and =>. The actual P4Ps P3P2 solution proceeds as follows: root oF + ¢) (2.4) P3P, PP, P4P3 P, Take the scalar product of each side of Equation (2.2) with itself, thereby eliminating 7. y © Pop 2 x = +c) (2.5) P3P2 Rearrange and factor, 2 ~ a r + 2F + S)r H(i? y= 0 (2.6) P4Ps P4P3 P4P3 P3P2 From the quadratic formula, -@ 7 te | OP -- ) P4P3, P4Ps PP, r P4P3 Vectors ¥ and P4Ps PsP) terms of known quantities. can now be explicitly expressed in18+ ea) XE inter section for solution me intersection for spurious solution Figure 2.2 Graphical Solution to Two- Dimensional Offset Slider Crank-MechanismP4P3 P5P2 Observations: a) (2) (3) Graphically, the solutions to Equation (2.2) are obtained simply as the intersections of a straight line with a circle (Figure 2.2) Both the graphical and analytical solutions show that two physically real solutions exist--the first because of dual intersections, the second because of dual signs More complicated mechanisms may have several physically real solutions. This poses the intrinsic difficulty that any solution in polynomial form must have a degree Cans greater than the number of physically real solutions. The higher the degree of the polynomial, the more difficult it is to obtain the solutions. Of course, a given mechanism can only have a single in- stantaneous position, depending on how it was initially assembled and its subsequent behavior at locking positions. Complex roots (negative radicals in Equations (2.8) and (2.9)) indicate that the design parameters prohibit-20- TABLE 2.4 SOLUTIONS TO THE VECTOR TRIANGLE EQUATION Fee+E=o Case | Unknown | Known | Solution 1 16, ras Fe-(e+C) Pon ets 00,8 F -(S ex), eo x®) j : od 2b ors | Gre F [cE says (2-1 GxeR]s i 26 i Gin0 fee tps pe xk)mole) assembly. Such a situation results here if ae is made small relative to C. (4) In the analysis of simple planar mechanisms, an equation of the form of Equation (2.1) is very often the only equa- tion that must be solved. There are only four unique arrangements of two unknown scalars in this equation, assuming that each unknown occurs in only one term, The solutions for each of these arrangements are sum- marized in Table 2.4, Note that the solution for the present mechanism corresponds to case 3. (5) Conceivably, expressions for velocity and acceleration could be obtained by differentiating Equations (2.8) and (2.9) with respect to time. This would be difficult even for the explicit second degree solution obtained here. Explicit solutions to third and fourth degree polynomials are very detailed; for degrees higher than four they are theoretically impossible [75]. Thus, a more practical means for expressing motions is required. 2.3 Motion Solutions Equation (2.1) can be differentiated as often as desired DF, +Dr +Dr,) +Dr (2.10) PyPgP2P} PsP), D +D°F +p 70 (2.11) P3P2-22- In Equations 19 and 20, Table 2.3, the quantities u and w can be physically interpreted as the position vector ¥, and the . PigrPi angular velocity vector W;,. In three dimensions the unit vectors of angular velocity are time-dependent, anda certain development is required because of this. In two dimensions these vectors all have direction K (perpendicular to the plane of motion), and Equations 19 and 20, Table 2.3, become Dr (Dr dF + w(K xe ) (2.12) Pig? PistPi PaniPG Pili 2. 2 2 ° D'r = [(D"r, > uF lr. PasrPy PuPi UP PPE Piya! (2. 13) + [(Dw, Mer. )+2(o,,)(Dr Wie x F ) aD! iPy e PinPi Pir Ph To obtain a solution for the key velocities substitute Equation (2. 12) into Equation (2.10) term by term. Note that physically Dr, PyPq Dr » Dr » and w, are zero. P2P) P3P2 41 wy EXE, tw (EXE |) +: 0 (2. 14) 21 PP) 31 P3P2 There are only two unknowns in Equation (2.14): w. and Dr. : ay P4P3 Equation (2.14) can be reduced to two scalar equations in these unknowns simply by taking the scalar product throughout--first with i, then with j. However, a more direct solution is obtained by taking scalar products throughout with kX > and f Pq P3P,-23- wy (KX EF ye (kx )+u,(KXF | )ekXE | )+0=0 21 P2P) 31 Pp (2.15) aipp, |, oy) 2 2 (2,16) P3P. te +7, ) ue P3P2 P4P3. 6, EXE F +04 (Dr yt Fy =0 (2.17) an 2P) P3P2 P4P3 PgP3 — P5P2 RX? (exe, Dry => (war) (2.18) P4P3 PP) (Ge) PsP2 P4P3. Equations (2.17) and (2.18) would have been much more detailed uf had been expressed in full, via Equation (2.9). Instead, P3P2 it is assumed to be completely known--having been determined in the 3, and Dr determined, a P4P3 very similar solution for the key accelerations can be obtained position solution. Now, with Substitute Equation (2.13) into Equation (2.11) term by term. 2 * lyst 2 - -(w5 Fr. dr, + (Dw, )r, Vk Xr d- (wy) dr, ee P2P) P2P) a P2P) PaP) op P3P2° P3P2 an 2 . F(a Mr KX +’, VF = 0 19) av P3P2 P3P2 P4P3 P4P3 For convenience, sum the three known terms into a single constant C,. The equation is then so similar to Equation (2. 14) that the-24- solution can be written by comparison. Formally, it is obtained from scalar products with the same two quantities P3P. tC, + (Du, EX F, )+ (Dr (2.20) P3P2 z= z= oF - wr 21"pp, °31"p,p, + Dw, (XFL) (2.21) Ci e(kxF _) 2 P3P2 Du,, =- (2.22) 5 zo) r (2 oF, P3P2 P3P2 P4P3 Dr z= (2.23) Pas ( Suggested Generalizations: (1) Kinematic motion solutions will always be linear. Equations (2.12) and (2.13) can never introduce unknown unit vectors into Equations such as (2. 10) and (2,11), and the unknowns that are introduced occur in additive terms, not in products with each other. (2) The denominators of the motion solutions will be the same regardless of the order of motion. Thus in Equations (2.14), (2.19), and corresponding-25- higher order equations, the directions associated with terms of possible unknown magnitude will always cor- respond from order to order. Here w,, and Dw», have vector Cee Oy, and Dus), 2 and Dor (Rx F Dr Pr. P3P2 P4P3 P4P3 P4P3, Mechanism locking positions can be identified by the on zeros of the motion denominator. Here all output motions approach infinity, but input motion and out- put power approach zero. 2.4. Position and Motion of Any Point With the essential positions and motions determined, the posi- tion and motion of any point fixed anywhere in the mechanism can be determined, For example, consider a point q fixed in link 3, Figure 2.3. The position of this point relative to link 3 is specified by the design of the link. That is, in the following equation TF, qP, is dependent upon = » bythe design constants c, and P3P2 Foote to(kxe) (2.24) ap, © “1l'p3p, 2 PsP) The vector Fy can be determined by a vector sum of known 1 vectors: zr ero 4¢r (2.25) ® r @P, oP,” “P2P)=26« Figure 2.3 Dummy Reference Frame for Determination of Position and Motion of an Arbitrary Point, Given Essential Positions and Motions-27- Motion can be determined by differentiating Equation (2,25) and substituting Equations (2. 12) and (2. 13) ry, 7 Dr, +Dr (2.26) IP) 9P, PLP) Drg, = Us (KXF P+ wy (RXT ) (2.27) ap, > 31 ap,’ * “21 PoP) Dr = Dr + Der (2.28) ap) 9P, PoP) a z= a D Tap, 63) “ap, + (Dwg (kX "ap (2.29) KX, # (Dw, VEX, 4) 2.5 Force ‘The force equilibrium solution to the mechanism of Figure 2.1 will be obtained assuming Coulomb friction in the pairs and signifi- cant link mass. This will illustrate that frictional effects can intro- duce nonlinearity and that inertial effects introduce only additional detail Figure 2.4 is an equilibrium diagram for the mechanism of Figure 2.1. The mechanism is driven against a known force, “li go)® » by meahs of an input torque, (7,,,)k. The input torque varies in response to output, frictional and inertial forces. Equilibrium conditions:=28- Figure 2.4 Equilibrium Diagram for an Offeet Slider- Crank Mechaniem(2, 30) (2.31) (2.32) Fa Bat Bi XA GF oH ee ess) cr - xp)! + &, XFasc,) +5, =0 (2.34) "hy - a + @ a etl + «, ci ove +3, 0 (2.35) A force and moment equilibrium equation has been written for each link in the mechanism, including the ground link. Of the three equations in each set, only two are independent. A solution can be obtained from any four equations, two from each set. The and G, are inertial forces and torques. These must / terms be included even for the ground link.» Pairs (21), (32), and (43) are affected by Coulomb friction. The direction of the frictional torque is opposite to the direction of rotation (7, and the magnitude is proportional to the transmitted force. "Mathematically, any one equation ina set must be the sum of the other two. Physically, the acceleration of the ground link approaches zero, but its mass approaches infinity. The product, mass times accel- eration, will in general be comparable in magnitude to the inertial terms of the other links-30- Te Ta? Car ibyy (2.36) Faq = “spf y2)By2 (2.37) "3 7 (43% 13)915 (2.38) The force fj, is the sum of three terms: output force, (f,,)8 5 reaction force, (f,,,)(k X §); and frictional force, “Wy sisy)# aC rage x8) = myg8] 4 5,)8 (2.39) If Equations (2. 36) through (2.39) are substituted into Equations (2. 30) through (2.35), the only unknowns in the resulting equations are Ty Tar teyq aPd fyg,- These amount to six scalar unknowns. Only four of the equations are independent. Of these, the two force vector equations are each two-dimensional (i, j); the two moment equations are each one-dimensional (k). Thus, six scalar conditions are available for determining the six unknown scalars. A procedure for reducing equilibrium conditions to simulta~ neous linear algebraic equations in a determinate number of unknowns is explained in Section 5.0. Such a reduction is impossible here be- cause of the frictional terms. Instead, a specialized approach is taken. Use Equations (2.31) and (2.32) to express Z,, and f,, interms of f. This effectively eliminates four unknown scalars 13-31- at the expense of four scalar conditions ty * (2.40) z 2, By (2.41) Two unknown scalars remain: /,. and 7,,,. Fortunately, 71 does not occur in Equation (2.34); to obtain f,4,, only one equation must be solved. Substitute Equations (2.37) and (2.38) into Equation (2. 34) ~(safsa)® a2 * (3%13)%13 * (fg % Fpip,) * Bs X Pp 6.) t=O (2.42) Nonlinearity is introduced when fj), fy,» and f,, are expressed in terms of f,,.. Using Equations (2.31) and (2. 39), . 1/2 aie ty > (By = (tly - ey), + 85) (2.43) — + 1 A 2 ve fig = gs Ag) = MO agg, = Casha iar * fi30l (2.44) Substitute Equations (2.39), and take the scalar product with k (2.43), and (2.44) into Equation (2.42), throughout.-32- Mya tyy * RL + Halse” @Hishaoliar tal = 2agll1 4 ug) ap ~ Cysfisolhiae * aa” +65 ye + 35,3 * HUT His a, ~ CiystyaoM ae t a” +f), {Ue x 8) - 4,81 or Pek +e), 08 x PsP, +1, XE, RTH k= 0 2°3 If all frictional and inertial terms are retained, Equation (2.45) can at best be developed into a fourth degree polynomial in f),,- If 32 is zero the problem is second degree; if both p,, and 5 are zero the problem is linear. The terms y,,, 83, and 9, have no influence on the degree of the solution. Suggested generalizations: (1) The equilibrium solutions for mechanisms with rigid links and no friction can always be obtained via a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. The num- ber of sithultaneous equations can be substantially re- duced if the mechanism is simple, possibly to the point that the solution can easily be physically interp- reted (2) Inertial terms introduce more detail, but the solution remains linear. (2.45)(3) =33- Frictional terms may introduce nonlinearity if the magnitudes of the frictional forces are dependent on the magnitudes of the transmitted forces. This would be the case with journal bearings, but not with ideal roller bearings.3.0 DIRECT SOLUTION OF THREE- DIMENSIONAL VECTOR EQUATIONS Kinematic problems in position, motion, and force can usually be represented by single or simultaneous vector equations. The un- known quantities in these equations may not be distributed in a simple manner, especially in position problems. This section discusses two means by which direct (noniterative) solutions can be obtained: (1) use of symmetry, as in the Tetrahedron Solutions; (2) use of the eliminant, for more complicated problems. Examples are presented of the application of these techniques to position solutions of actual mechanisms 3.1 Symmetry Solutions ‘The known unit vectors ina set of vector equations define a natural geometry or symmetry, Exploitation of this symmetry usually reduces the degree and number of algebraic polynomials in the eventual solution. Symmetry solutions dre those which are obtained in general terms entirely by exploitation of symmetry. Typically such solutions are of first, second, fourth, or eighth degree ina single variable, and the expressions for the coefficients are interpretable Several important symmetry solutions are obtained and cate- gorized in this section. Outlines of derivations and geometric =34--35- interpretations are included to explain techniques of identifying and exploiting symmetry. When only a few quantities are known, symme- try is strong, because there is little conflict over which quantities should define the orientation of a dummy reference frame. When many quantities are known, more than one frame may be required and symmetry is weaker. Symmetry solutions to more than one or two vector equations are usually prohibitively difficult 3.1.1 The Tetrahedron Solutions The most common condition in kinematic analysis is the equation, sum of vectors equals zero: Frert+O=0 (3.1) Equation (3.1) is named the Vector Tetrahedron Equation because, geometrically, it outlines four of the six edges of a tetrahedron This is analogous to the Vector Triangle Equation in two dimensions (Table 2.4). ‘The utility is also analogous; in many situations a single Vector Tetrahedron Equation is either the only condition im- posed or it can be solved independently of other conditions Equation (3.1) is limited to four terms because,as a three- dimensional equation, it can determine only three scalar unknowns These unknowns can be distributed throughout at most three vectors, provided no unknown occurs in more than one term. All other vectors must then be known and can be summed into the single vector con- stant C.-36- TABLE 3.1 CATEGORIZATION OF SOLUTIONS TO THE VECTOR TETRAHEDRON EQUATION rHestse Degree of Case Unknown Known Polynomial Number Vectors Vectors Solution 1 € 1 (trivial) 2a ¢c 5, o, 4, 2 = aR 4 2b Cc Wr Ws, O58 o, 2e | ¢ 3 r 2 za | é¢ é 586 | 2 i 6, 8, 6, { -= 3a rj 83 t Cc 8,8 1 | 58, ce #, 8, 6, 5 3b ri 8; 8 ¢ 3, 6, 8 6 2 , eS laa | Be} rh 85 8 c | FO. my 8, dgity Be | + ' | | i eisaeotk | 3d | Cc | Met Met Wy ie Br $s) 8 i i be ' : Remarks: Q) Unit vectors %,, &,, &, are the known directions (2) from which the known angles and @ are measured. Whenever any’of the vectors ¥, 8, or t are com- pletely known they are added into the single constant C.-37- Different solutions are obtained to Equation (3.1) for different distributions of the three unknowns. Vectors r, s, and t are expressed in spherical coordinates, so that the unknowns may be any three of the nine coordinates*/ zr, 6, 6: (The angular coordinates can be measured from any known unit vector, not just from the ground reference frame.) It will be shown that there are only nine basic distributions of unknowns that lead to distinctly different solutions. These are called cases and are summarized in Table 3.1 Two effects limit the number of cases in Table 3.1: (1) The terms in Equation (3.1) are commutative. Combinations of unknowns suchas rj 0:9, and 0; 6; 0 are therefore in the same case (2) When only one angle of a vector is unknown, it may be either the azimuthal or the polar angle. However, the same solution suffices for both situations. Combinations suchas 0, 6.3 0, 9.1 6,5 6, are therefore in the same case. To see this, assume that a solution to Equation (3.1) has been obtained with 9 unknown, ¢, known. The unit vector #, may be written, F, = {sin 4, [cos 0, R, + sin oa) teos 6 vt (3.2) 1 1 1 z In listing coordinates, semicolons are used to separate co- ordinates from different vectors. Commas separate coordinates from the same vector-38- Now assume a solution is desired for the situation @ un- 2 known, @, known. The remaining two unknowns are the same as 2 in the first solution. The unit vector #, is written, 8, = {sin ¢, [cos a, X, +ein® fi] + cos 4 d,} (3.3) 2 2 2 "2 Define a second dummy reference frame.in terms of the first. A, = [cos @ A, + sine fy) (3.4) 2 2 ied (3.5) = 4, xa, (3.6) Unit vector can now be expressed in exactly the same form as ¥, in Equation (3.2) Bs om 4 a nm » #, = {sin 7 [cos OA, + sin 6. Hi] + (cos 5) ¥, } (3.7) 2 Thus the same general solution for which 9, was unknown will 1 suffice for unknown $_ , provided the following replacement of 2 constants ismade: @ ~ 1/2, X)~%,, fwd, 9, ~d,. 1 In fact, solutions for unknown $ are simple special cases of solutions for unknown because of the simplifications introduced by the angle 1/2. Each of the Table 3.1 cases has 's own symmetry. This symmetry is strong for cases in which few knowns enter (1, 2c, 2d)-39- but becomes weaker as the number of known quantities increases (2b, 3c, 3d). As the symmetry weakens, the solutions become more difficult as indicated by the degree of the polynomial from which the solution is obtained, An outline of the derivation and the solution for each of the nine cases will now be presented. The derivations are included to provide insight into the use of vector methods for identifying and ex- ploiting symmetry. In most cases, if symmetry is ignored, a general solution is prohibitively difficult. Case}. r, 6, $ Unknown. The unknowns all occur in the single vector YF. Vectors 8 and t are known and are added into C. Equation (3. 1) becomes F+E=0 (3.8) Solution: r=-C (3.9) Gases 2a - 2d The unknowns are distributed throughout only two vectors ¥ and S. Vector © is known and is added into C. The geometry of the individual cases ie shown in Figures 3.1 through 3.4 Equation (3.1) becomes +E =0 (3.10)2a. tr, Ch s Unknown. Expand Equation (3.10), expressing F ina dummy reference frame 4, i, 0 r{sin ¢ [eos oR + sin Ofil+cosd d}+s8+E=0 (11) Define a unit vector, $, perpendicular to vectors © and 3. pe Skt (3.12) |ex 3] ‘Take the scalar product throughout Equation (3.11) with p. r{sin 4 [(cos aa +p) + sin 6a » Bi] + cos O(0 + pl} =0 (3.13) Provided ¥ is non-zero, Equation (3.13) is a condition involving only one unknown, 9,, This condition can be made even simpler by suitably defining X, i, 7. The angle ¢, between F and a ia known; therefore, 7 {s set equal to a. However, & can still be defined to cause the product (+p) tobezero. The definition of jj follows from that of Y and f. pa, (3.14) ~ xo ia — > (3.15) [px o,| (3.16)ake on ej a Figure 3.1 Case 2a, 1,88 Unknown. Two Solutions Possible Figure 3.2 Case 2b. r,0.30, Unknown. Four Solutions Possible-42- Equation (3. 13) can now be solved directly for sin @ because the term involving cos 8 is zero. sin @ = -2-B) cot g. (3.17) Gp) An explicit expression for * can now be written in terms of the X, a, % frame andthe vector p, using the form of Equation (3.2). Express cos @ by means of Equation (3.17) and the identity cos @, = # [1 - sin’o Solution: a2 le, ws Fe t{sin?g LB cos?g FL - EL Bhicos ¢ ii + (coe 4) Gu py -p) Unknowns x and s can now be obtained from cases 2a and 1, Table 2.4, where k is identifiedas p- y. Le Bxa: (3.19) [F- @x aT - (E+) (3.20) 2b. x, 8; 6. Unknown. FS Unknow In this cage it is impossible to eliminate two of the unknowns with a single scalar product. Instead, two scalar products must be taken, each eliminating the same unknown, A second unknown, r r, is eliminated between the two equations resulting from the scalar-43- products. Finally, the equation resulting from the elimination is 6 transformed toa fourth degree polynomial in tan e Expand Equation (3.10), expressing F and ‘§ in terms of dummy reference fr: shy d Ro B. fdummy reference frames 1, i, V, and A, A, ¥, For convenience represent groups of known terms by single constants S and C, r{sin ¢,[cos ak, + sin of] + cos o0,} = (3.21) - S[cos 0X, + sin 8.4] - C, o é, (3.22) S = ssin¢, T= THs cos 4.) 5, (3.23) Eliminate 6 for the first time by taking the scalar products of both sides of Equation (3.21) by themselves. s° +02 +25[(G, “k_)cos 6 + (CG, - a_)sin 8] (3.24) 2 2° "8 o 7 M2 He MN Eliminate @, for the second time by taking the scalar product throughout Equation (3.21) with a. The two terms involving will be zero, because A+ and fi +b. are zero. Unit vectors A, A i, are mutually perpendicular and D a, ) » The term involving cos 6, can be made zero by defining F Hy ce as in Equations (3.26) through (3.28)-44- rcos $= -[Sti, + a) sin 0, +(C,+ oo Square both sides of Equation (3.25), then divide by cos ,. Subtract the resulting equation from Equation (3.24), to eliminate x. The difference is an equation involving only 0, sin @,, and cos @, terms, Transform these terms by the identities cos 6 8 sin 6 za Sites 6 us tan (>) A fourth degree polynomial in u is generated by multiplying throughout by (1 + u2)*; (3.25) (3.26) (3.27) (3.28) » in sin’, . (3.29) (3.30) (3.31)-45- Solution: 2c. 4 3 2 Py + Pw + Pu +P ye tPy=0 a + 2) - costs [$2 se 2 Wh) - cos g[S" - 280, + C,) + C2] a 2 wy) cos é uy C2) ~ 2 26 ta ce +O) - cos" 6 (8° + C))) w7 2 2 2 o a 2. Py (G: 0.) - cos 6s" +288,» 6) +3] sing ne . . 5 5 (1 - wih | + Gulia.) + cos 4,,} l+u F+-(8+) 6,146,586 Unknown. Rearrange Equation (3.10) explicitly in terms of r and eliminate by taking the scalar product of both sides of the equation with themselves. Equation (3.40) is a second degree polynomial in s and can be Fee ect + 2sc(s- €) solved by means of the quadratic formula. The full vector = is expressed.as the product of s and the known unit vector (3.32) (3.33) (3.34) (3.35) (3.36) (3.37) (3.38) (3.39) (3.40)~46- Figure 3.3 Case 2c. 01, 63s Unknown Two Solutions Possible Figure 3.4 Case 2d. Oo Os 9, Unknown. Two Solutions Possible,-47- Solution: . 1z 5 att? -en-¢- ay} fs (3.41) F=-(s+6) (3.42) 2d. 6, 950, Unknown, Obtain Equation (3.40) as in case 2c. Two conditions on § are now known: (3 (3.43) fe (3.44) The solution to a set of equations of this form is obtained in Section 3.1.2, Equation (3.131), Some rearrangements are made so that $ can be evaluated with a minimum number of operations Solution T= (s cos 6,10, +—+>—} | {6"11 - cosa - (E0071 a ayy 4s? - 2? + 261F- d.r(cos 6,) 2, 1/2 fa ry (C Xo.) st 2420S Gycors,) | 2c IME Xo) XG )} =-(84é) (3.46)-48- Cases 3-34. Here the unknowns are distributed throughout all three vectors ¥, F, and T. Therefore, Equation (3.1) is employed as stated. The geometry of the individual cases is shown in Figures 3.5 through 3.8 3a. x; 8; t Unknown Restate Equation (3.1) with ¥, 5, and t factored into magnitude and unit vector ri tss+tt+e oO (3.47) Equation (3.47) can immediately be reduced to three simultaneous linear algebraic equations in three unknowns simply by taking scalar products throughout with any three known, non-parallel vectors, suchas i, j, kk. However, for purposes of interpretation and ease of computation it is preferable to take these products with the vectors (8X7), (EX) and (7X8). The resulting equations will contain only r, s, and t, respectively, Solution: 7. 1e Gx (3.48) F. @xf)] zr. Te exis 6.49) G-@xe) yp Ae x ae (3.50)w> 49 ay Figure 3.5 Case 3a. r,s,t Unknown. Figure 3.6 Case 3b. r,s, 0, Unknown. Two Solutions Possible.-50- with F and 5S known, t may be found most easily by 3.51) Expand Equation (3.1), expressing f in terms of a dummy reference frame 2, fi, 0. rites tt{sin¢ [cos ok + sin 0f)} + C, 0 (3.52) C= tteos Ho, + C (3.53) Define a unit vector, p, perpendicularto = and 8. (3.54) Both x and s can be eliminated from Equation (3.52) by taking a scalar product throughout with p. Moreover, the “A, fi, o, frame can be defined sothat X- p is zero and the term involving cos 8, drops out. t(sin @)(sin 0) GB) + C,-§ =0 (3.55) bed (3.56) (3.57) fepxk-——+t—+ (3.57)“51. Equation (3.55) can be solved for sin @, and cos 4a can be expressed by the identity cos 0, = #[1- ein?o J? These expres- sions are substituted in the spherical coordinate expansion of f in the X, 4, % frame. A few rearrangements are made for com- putational convenience. Solution: at 1g x 1 on ag = Gea xd) xen Ll (3.58) UE, BUG, + B+ t1d,x BReos yroin od, - (E- BB With T determined, Equation (3.1) reduces to the plane Vector Triangle Equation. Unknowns r and s can therefore be obtained from cases 2aand1, Table 2.4, where Kk is identifiedas p. y-- +O): wx) (3.59) [F-@x%) Be-@+t+) (3. 60) In this case, as in case 2b, it is impossible to eliminate two of the unknowns with a single scalar product. However, two scalar products can be taken to eliminate the unknown r. By careful defi- nition of reference frames the first result will contain @, only in the form cos @,; the second only in the form sin @,. The unknown @, can be eliminated by squaring and adding. Finally, the equation~52- Figure 3.7 Case 3c Figure 3.8 Case 3d. 0. 0. Possible. Unknown, Four Real Solutions-53- resulting from the addition is transformed to a fourth degree polynomial 4 t intan GS). in terms of Expand Equation (3.1), expressing = and dummy reference frames i, by v. For convenience represent groups of known terms by single constants S, T, and C,. rF + S[cos 6.4, + sin 04.) + Theos oa, + sin 041) +E, = 0 (3. 61) S=s sin 6, (3.62) Tet sing (3.63) C, = (s cos o.)u, + (t cos H)0, + © (3, 64) Define the dummy reference frames and the vector p as follows: a2 5, (3.65) (3. 66) So Fe bee FO, ays 0, x Xj=——- (3.67) |r x 26 (3, 68)-54- (3.69) (3.70) pe ixi 3.71 pe Fxk, (3.71) Take scalar products throughout equation (3.62), first with Ky then with p Scos0,+TU,- A.) sin 8, + (C, A.) = 0 (3.72) su, +p) sin 0, + TEA, - B) cos 8 + Gi, - p) sind] + (E+ p)=0 (3.73) Multiply through Equation (3.72) by (i, p). Transfer the second and third terms in Equations (3.72) and (3. 73) to the right side. Then square both sides of both equations and add to eliminate @,. The sum is an equation involving only @,, in sin’, (sin @, cos @) sin@, and cos terms. Transform these by the identities. (3.74) (3.75) (3.76)-55- A fourth degree polynomial in u is generated by multiplying through- out by (1 +ue)?. Solution: 3 2 Pu + Pw + Piu + Pyu t+ Py = 0 (3.77) ~ ne es 2. sg. ay? Gy PMC, A - Ss] + (TR, p)- (CQ - BB. 78) py =4r{a,- prG, ME, t+ G,- aE, B- TA, pI} (3.79) P= 2G, - BPE, Ry = s+ EB - 178, - BN) sera: ad, Ay + BI} 3.80) Party: BG, AE, A+ G+ BIE, B+ TR, BI} (3.81) as a os 2 soos moos Py sli, BYUE, 8)" s°]+ (ra, B+ E,- BP G.82) sin ¢ {#—u- we, + Quy] + cos 6,5,} (3.83) (itu”) Expand § in spherical coordinates in the a frame, then substitute expressions for cos @, and sin 9, from Equations (3.74) and (3.75). s=- '[T(,+ X,) sin 6 + (C, + aK, (3. 85) ims 5 ita, + B) cos 4, + Gi, « B) sin 0] +(C, + Bia .| +(scos 6)i,-56- =-(e4+teG (3.86) This case has so little symmetry that three dummy reference frames are required, one each for ¥, % and t. A general solution can be obtained, but the difficulty involved suggests that a practical upper limit has been reached. Beyond this limit the exploi- tation of symmetry is helpful, but it is not sufficient for obtaining a complete solution. Additional tools are required, such as those of Denavit, Hartenburg, Razi, and Uicker [29, 63, 73], or the approach discussed in Section 3.2 To obtain the present solution, three scalar products are taken. This yields three scalar trigonometric equations in (8,5 9,)s » and (8,3 0,5 0), respectively. The second equation contains 6, only inthe form cos 9; the third only in sin 6. The unknown 6, can therefore be eliminated by squaring and adding, although this causes a large build-up of terms. The equation formed by the sum and the first equation from the scalar product contain only @, and 6,. The latter equation is simple in form and is solved for cos @, interms of cos 0,; the result is then substituted for all @, terms in the former equation, using the identity, pe. sino=t[1- cos”8, The resulting equation contains only 6, but must be squared again to eliminate square roots from the sin 0,-57- substitution. The last equation is transformed to an eighth degree 8, polynomial in tan (> Even this tenuous solution would be pro- hibitively difficult without careful definition of the three dummy reference frames to minimize the number of terms and prepare for the elimination of 6 and 6 t s Expand Equation (3.1), expressing T, 8, and t interms of dummy referen f.0; %,f.05 8, 4.8 dummy reference frames AL Bo ds Ay ay oy ye Be Be For convenience represent groups of known terms by single constants R, S, T, and C). R[cos OA, + sin Of,] + S[cos 0X, + sind ji] (3.87) + T[cos of, + in Of] + C) Rr ein 6. (3. 88) S=s sin ¢, (3.89) T #t sin o (3.90) Ger cos 6.4 +8 com ou, +t cos 6 +e (G.91) Define the dummy reference frames as follows oe oO, (3.92) axe San (3.93) la, x Gl adhe (3.94) z oF (3.95) 3 4, = (3. 96) a, = (3.97) y= (3.98) ae (3.99) a = (3. 100) Take scalar products throughout Equation (3.87) with ay. by and fi, a))008 8 +0 +a,,cosd, +040+0+a,,40 (3,101) a, coe 4. +a,zein 4. +040 +a,,cos or +0 ta, (3.102) ay) C08 e + a,2ein 4, +04 aggein OF +0+ aygein a + a375 0 (3, 103)-59- The definitions of all constants, including the a,., are included in Table 3.2. The solution itself proceeds as described above. The equation resulting from the final squaring operation has the following form: 4 3s a 3 2 8,cos* 0, + g,cos* 9, sin @ + g,c0s°0, + g,cos" sin 0, + g,008"@ +g,cos @ sin @ +g_cos 8 +g,sin 0 so08 8, + Bgcos O.8in 0, + g7c08 0, + Bgsin 0 +8,70 3.104 &, (3.104) Transform this equation by the identities, (3.105) sing = 8 (3. 106) leu o u Stan (> (3.107) An eighth degree polynomial in u is generated by multiplying throughout the transformed equation by (1 + u2)# Solution: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Pye t Pp +P + Pow + Pwd Pw + Plu + Plu + Py = 0 (3. 108) (3, 109) (3.110)-60- TABLE 3.2 DEFINITION OF CONSTANTS USED IN CASE 3d R=r sing, S=ssing, T=tsing, srcos $a + ol+ a+e C, =r cos 6G +s cos gb, +t cos 40, +E al a1 "25 . “RIG GMO.» (GX SI ow BW 8+ 6, = ONG, 9) 31 Parner 32° ar 18, x G18, x 3,1 16, x G116, x dl a,,=58 a4,=T 257 = (Cy ° a)-61- TABLE 3.2 CONT'D Psi 31 P32 bag 7 18,% 8 logy 37 4a eg = 2b51P37 eg = 2P32P37 45 at on 21829 7 P3152) £, = 21827 +3137 ° M1187) 20,9827 * Py2P57) eet beee, tae, + be, - any age) aye, +288 dye, +e, #264, - 26 fy By = deg tage + 2h fy +E 2 tage, +i, 2G 48 de, + doe. 1°5, 3 8, = dae4 #dge, + 2iyf, + 2F fy + i = dye, + dye, + 2if, + 261, Bg = 4,24 + 28,8, = ae 2 By 5°54 4~62- Py = 2[-28) +83 - 8, + 289] 3 P, = 2[3g, 8, + 38g) GB 2[38, - 8, + 326] B P, = 2[-3g, - 84 + 8, + 38g] GB. P, =2[-28, - 8, + By + 286] GB P, =2[g, +8, +8, + 8g) G3. Po = [a1 + 83 + 85 + 8, + Bgl (3. Ses ae re (a - uA, + Quy) + cos 6.) (3 atu) ‘= {sin ¢[cos 0X, + sin 01] + cos 6.0} B In Equation (3.119), cos 9, and sin, are determined qld) 112) 113) 114) 115) 116) 117) 118) 119) from Equation (3.101) and the equation resulting from the elimination of 9, between Equations (3.102) and (3.103). 2b, 4(b3 C08 @ + bs, sin 8 +B, 7) 2 P34 2b, 4(b, cos 0 +b, sin F +b, -) (1 - cos?@) 6 3. G. 120) 2 ~ (by C08 8 +b, ssin 8 +b, 7) 121) 2-63- (3.122) 3.1.2 Supplemental Solutions In many position problems, conditions are imposed which cannot be stated in the form of Equation (3.1). These are difficult to categorize. However, two cases are of particular importance and their solution will be discussed here. The geometry of these solutions is shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10 (1) Two simultaneous scalar products containing an unknown unit vector (3,123) (3.124) Here @ and 6 are known unit vectors; c, and c, are known scalar constants. Unit vector 7 is completely unknown Expand ¥ in spherical coordinates ina dummy 4%, ji, b reference frame: f= sin é,[eos ak + sin 0 a] + cos ov (3.125) Define ) 0 that only cos @, will remain when the scalar product indicated in Equation (3.124) is performed. Define so that the term will be zero in the scalar product of Equation (3. 123). (3.126)sao Figure 3.9 Geometry of Solution for Simultaneous Scalar Products kK a1 a, = cos "(e,,) A “1 pa a, = cos (cy) 1 ay, = 608 "(e54) -1 ag, = C08 "(e4,) 4 = unknown, Figure 3.10 Geometry of Solution for Five Scalar Products between Four Unit Vectors, Sixth Product Unknown(3.127) (3. 128) Perform the scalar products, ~ sin ¢, cose. |ax6| + cos oa by=e) (3.129) cos 6 = c, (3.130) Equations (3.129) and (3. 130) are the source of expressions for sin, cos @; sing, cos ¢. These are substituted back into Equation (3.125). Solution: - 1 a R a r a {[c,(@ > )- c JA + [2le, Me)ta- 8) a app 2 1 ey ea by? eayp at +6,6 (3.13) (2) Five scalar products between four unit vectors, sixth product unknown. Given: (F) °F) (3,132) @,- 8) (3.133) @, + Fy) (3.134)-66- @,-F)se (3. 135) @): Fee (3. 136) Determine (+ 4) in terms of the constants ¢,, Using Equation (3.131), first express F, in terms of and c),) then express #, in terms of 12” °23" 13 37 5qr Sqyh and chy. - 1 Re we are2| ep {leases > yal ®y #Leyaeo3%y3 > oe 13 1/2 « sll By +eyaF, (3.137) (3.138) (3.139) ca,]i, + [2e,,¢,,¢,, - 34052 34°41°13 34 2 2 1/2~ s why og ta, + egy (3.140) (3.141) (3.142)-67- Obtain @, ?,) as the scalar product of Equations (3.137) and 4 (3.140) Solution: 5B . . + ; 2° 4 T Uleas%15 ~ Syalleaiey3 ~ 34! t Reya%es%as f- ¢),) 13 202 2 ap 202. ~ 127 S237 S13 FH Te 4eqiey3 ~ 347 San” S13 1/2 FU} + en 5%ag (3.143) 3.2. The Eliminant The solution of difficult vector equations is likely to require simultaneous solution of algebraic polynomials. This is suggested by the solutions to cases 2b, 3c, and 3d of the Tetrahedron Equation. In each of these cases the solution can be obtained as a polynomial in a single unknown. However, in more complicated problems it might only be feasible to reduce the problem to two polynomials, each in the same two unknowns. The direct mathematical approach to obtaining roots in such a situation involves use of the eliminant (also known as the resultant determinant or Sylvester's determinant). Several texts on algebra derive and discuss the eliminant [75]; only its use will be described here. Development of the eliminant approach as a major tool for the solution of three or more simultaneous polynomials is yet to be achieved. This will probably require use of statistical or iterative methods,-68- because of the astronomical number of operations involved in an exact procedure. The present development is a reasonable tool for simul- taneous solution of two polynomials of low degree, but is primarily an exploratory device. Consider the problem of obtaining the same y root in exch of the following two equations. m m-1 LV te yy +. tf tty = 0 (3.144) n nol By te yy tee tay te = 0 (3.145) A necessary and sufficient condition for this is that the following determinant be zero: (3.146) ———. 3 —---69- In Equation (3, 146) all blanks should be filled with zeros. For example, when m=3 and n=2, Equation (3.146) becomes 0 3 & fi fo 0} =0 (3. 147) ° © 8 8 8 i B 8, 8 In Equation (3.146), the quantities f, and g, may be functions of any number of variables (u, v, ™, x, --.). However, for present purposes let the {, all be kth degree polynomials in x; the g, all th degree polynomials in x. The result of expanding Equation (3.146) is therefore a single polynomial in x, of degree (nk + ml). However, the number of multiplications involved in the expansion prohibits doing it by hand, unless all but a few of the coef- ficients of the f, and polynomials are zero. This presents two i alternatives, both of which require the digital computer. (1) Determine the roots of Equation (3. 146) by iteration on the determinant itself, Equation (3. 146) is identical in form to the determinant that must be solved in an eigen- value problem, such as that of a multidegree-of- freedom vibrating system. Well-developed iterative methods exist for determining the roots [60].-70- (2) Derive a tensor expression for the coefficients of the resultant polynomial and evaluate the coefficisnts-exactly or statistically. Determine the roots by iteration on the resultant polynomial. ‘The latter approach is taken here because it seems easier to extend to the solution of more than two simultaneous polynomials In tensor notation [69], a determinant al is written 7 ) (t) (3. 148) m+n (3.149) <1 2°" isa permutation symbol and takes the following values: (1) #1 when §,3)...4) i an even permutation of the numbers 1, 2, ...4 te 2) | -1 when iji,. isan ermutation (2), -1 when iji, igy is an odd pr tation of the numbers 1, 2, ...5 t (3) 0 inallother cases, (Other cases occur when there are two or more duplicate integers among the i,i,---iq)) In Equation (3.148), each of the hi , terms isa polynomial in x. ‘w (The zero terms are regarded as polynomials with all zero coefficients.) - te k wad x a 2 (3. 150) Xe Awa-71- the of , correspond to coefficients inthe f or g polynomials ‘oo (Equations (3.144) and (3.145)), depending on whether ig exceeds or is less than m, in Equation (3.146). Substitute Equation (3. 150) into Equation (3, 148). spegte Ma 2 ) |h. ik (t} (3.151) j A nk Ley ky* * The 2t summations indicated in Equation (3.151) may be carried out by whatever procedure is most convenient. The following approach is designed to compute the individual coefficients of the resultant polyno- mial in the course of the summation. (1) Increment an integer p, in steps of one, over the range 0< p< (nk +mg). (2) At each value of p, evaluate Equation (3.151) for every combination of ys Ky +1 Kay totaling p. ” Bach such evaluation can be performed by a standard determinant routine. This ie because the x'U) terms can be factored outas x", and because the remaining terms have the form of Equation (3.148) when the Kj) are fixed, (3) For each value of p, sum all of the determinant values obtained in (2). This sum is the pth coeffi- cient of the resultant polynomial in x.-T2- (4) When p_ has completed its range, all coefficients of the resultant polynomial in x wsll be availabie, Solve this polynomial for 211 {ak +m¢) x roots (a standard routine may be employed). Substitute each of these roots, one at a time, back into both Equations (3. 144) and (3.145), to evaluate the f and g coefficients. Then for each x root, Equations (3. 144) and (3.145) are solved for their several roots. Ordinarily one and only one pair of the y roots from Equations (3.144) and (3.145) will match, for any one c root. The x root and the matching y root will constitute one of the (nk +m) solutions to Equations (3.144) and (3.145). A computer subprogram written to perform this work is described in Appeniix A.3.3. Results from two example problems are presented in Table 3.3. In theory there is no limit to the degree or the number of simul- taneous polynomials that can be solved by 2n approach of this kind. The present program has no theoretical restriction on the degrees of the polynomials. (This is suggested by Example 2, Table 3.3.) More than two simultaneous polynomials can be solved by a Gauss-Jordon kind of reduction process, pairing one polynomial against all the others to eliminate an unknown throughout, then repeating until all but one unknown is eliminated. Of course, the eliminant (Equation 3.151) )-73- TABLE 3.3 EXAMPLES OF SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS POLYNOMIALS Example 1, Execution Time = 5.12 sec (3x2 + 2x + Uy? + (6x2 - 1x + 3)y + x” + 5x- 1) =0 (07 + Sx - 3)y? 4 (3x7 + Lx + 2)y + (x 1 ° 2, 2x + 1)=0 oe = a | caetttetent af [Root |x soos Deg. of | Resultant x |/No. | real part real par Coeff. | Polynomial imag. part | imag. part 8 '-5.000000x10° i 1 | 9,as6tosxio® ~ -3,017123%107 7 | 9.100000x101 10 0 6 =5.820000X10" jj 2 | 2.876584x10") —- 1, 809936x10 5 1. 794000x10° ° 0 4 -1.089000x10° || 3,4) 3.811290x10° , -1.463227x10 3 2.220000x10! i 43,748579x10° .j3,.414708X10. 2 4,400001x10! || 5,6 |-3.283790x10"* -034719X10 1 1.610000x107 43. 626602x10! 931192x10 ° i -5.100000x10" -402081x10"7! 141178x10 833163x10"! 829509X10-14- TABLE 3,3 CONT'D Example 2, Execution Time = 49.6 sec. 4 3 2 (Tx = Dy" + (Ox +5)y” + (+ 7x + 2)y” = (-3x + Dy + G Bx +2) = 0 (2x? + 5x2 + Om = Sy? + (5x? + 1x? + 5x = Ly + (7x? + 6x? = 3x 45) = 0 Coefficient of |/Root |x roots | _y._ roots Deg. of| Resultant x ||No. |realpart | real part Coeff. Polynomial imag. part | imag. part 4 1.323100x10° 3 2,024010x10° 0 12 | -9.715408x10° -1z04axi107! | 8.797837x10"! 11 | +6.882907x104 ° 1.989712x10° | 301638X10° po | | 10 232323X10° 1, 432858X10- 9 +3. 34842810" .584016x107! | +7. 117867x10"! 8 el 238512x10° 5,6) 1 483417X10° -7 254179x107! 7 1,371025x10° lt. 324904x10°! | £1, 445311x10° 6 — | -4,126246x10° |} 7,8 | 6, 743634x10"! | 5, 733167x10"! 5 | 8.232079x104 [t3. 781570X10° £1, 454501x10° 4 iP 085100x10° || 9,10] 3.279200x10"! | -1.994073x10°° 3 3,719302x10% it7.15666ax10"! | 72, 938320x10"! 2 | 2,529890x108 }] 11, 12|-3, osageaxi07! | 49, 671565x107! 1 =1,522590x10° Ite, 224477x10"! | 33. 212334x107! 0 2.468700x10* |! 13,14] 2. 99¢680x10"! | -9. 472472x107! i 2 t9.074256x10"* | +9, 358603x10"°-75- is required for each pairing rather than the multiply-through-and- subtract- operation used with simultaneous linear equations. The coefficients of the eliminant are polynomials of more than one variable, until the very last elimination. There are probably other more efficient procedures, but this is at least one possibility. In practice, there are several effects which severely limit application: (1) Time required for exact computation. The coefficients of the resultant polynomial are computed by successive evaluation of determinants. Even when only two simultaneous polynomials must be solved, a total of (k +1)"(g +1)™ determinants must be evaluated, each of size (m+n) X (m+n). The approximate IBM 7090 time required per determinant is, At = 56(m +n)° + 72(m +n)” + 320(m +n) + 157 (3.152) (At in microseconds) Figure 3.11 is a plot of the time required for determinant evaluation alone, versus m, for several combinations of n, k, g. Significant additional time is required for the iterative solution of the single- variable polynomials obtained in the procedure. Clearly, the compu- tational time can become excessive. It may be that the computation time limitation can be substantially eased by a Monte Carlo procedure. Equation (3. 151) is then evaluated for many sets of indices, chosen@14,4,4) 10000 @64,3) @ 12.2.2) B24, 1000 816.5,6) 2,22 82,4.) ee 100) a 8 (2.8,8) 2 (21,3) a 8(2,8,4) © @12,8,2) ' @12,4,2) @ (2,22) Sy tty gy thy A= 0: Gof Ath degree in x By tea tte te tess CG of Mth degree in x Numbers in brackets = (a, i, () oul ! 2 3 3 . 6 7 ° m——- Figure 3.11 Computer Time Required for Exact Computation of Determinante in Si- multaneous Solution of Two Polynomials-77- at random. The coefficients of the resultant polynomial are then statistical estimates (except for the very high and very low degree coefficients, which can be obtained exactly with the evaluation of only a few determinants). Approximate roots can be obtained, then used as initial approximations for an iterative procedure. (2) Round-off error. This has not been a problem for exact computation (involving degrees less than 3 or 4) performed so far. However, such difficulty is expected in view of the amount of multi- plication and subtraction that takes place (3) Excessive degree of the resultant polynomial. For simul- taneous solution of only two polynomials the resultant polynomial has degree p=nk+mg. Ingeneral, p will rapidly increase with increase in the number of polynomials to be solved. For p> 1000 the iteration time to obtain the roots may become a serious limitation. Perhaps larger polynomials must be represented by power series approximations ina smaller number of terms, before being used in the eliminant. 3.3 Application 3.3.1 Direct use of the Tetrahedron Solutions Figure 3,12 is a schematic of the front independent suspension and steering system of a conventional automobile. To achieve good handling characteristics the automotive designer must have a means-79- of calculating all the position vectors in this sytem, given a steering angle and some input suspension parameter. Assume that the instantaneous position of the automobile frame relative to the road is known. Ifthis is so, vectors F , ¥_ , _ tool PeP7 ~—P2o’Pig FygPe’ S21" Part Serr Big axe all known, For evaluating the performance of the linkage system itself, the two input quantities can Fr and ¥ . P16P20 PoPg Gig: These angles be the azimuthal angles of the rotations of about their respective axes, Oey and determine Yr. and ¥ because the corresponding magni- PieP20 PePs tudes and polar angles are known from design. The solution can begin with loop P+ As Piet Piz? Pig: a three- dimensional linkage this loop is over-determined. However, it is very nearly two-dimensional in its motion, and the hinge pairs at Pyg and p,, are slightly elastic. The solution is obtained from case 2d of the Tetrahedron Solutions, because only fF PirPi6 and the azimuthal angle of YF are unknown. The vector Py oP. . 19P17 is then determined from = ~ PisPi6 constants ¢), c), and c. 1 Gog, and design PypPig) 76 (3.153)-80- Case 2d also solves the loop py, ps» Py Pg because the only unknowns there are and the azimuthal angle of © _ P5Po a This determines ¥ and ¥_) , but cannot determine the PsP6 PaPs rotation of link 3 in the two spherical pairs at_p, and p,. In fact, this loop would thereby be underdetermined, if not for the constraint from link 5. A third loop can be solved, using information Pia’ Pair Pe from the results of the first two solutions. Here the unknowns are 2 andthe @ of ¥ » and case 2d again applies. Two PriPs Pea king-pin unit vectors, F. and fF » are now known, The . PsPo PriPo spindle vector ¥ can therefore be determined from these unit PioP9 vectors and the design constants c4, ¢,, cy. & x? = 5 : PsPo P1iP6 Fy e4Fy p, tos" p, * 6 [FE ProP9 P5Pe P11P6 Pg "P1P6 ) (3. 154) All unknown vectors have now been determined. However, other quan- tities such as camber, castor, and toe angle are of importance to the automotive designer, These can easily be calculated from the vector output as follows: cs fyek Camber angle = cos. |——*—___ (3.155) |F xf]-8l- yurT peSury somo] pue uty weunig jo sopsuy +sa ap8uy of pue toyseD ‘ToquIeD jo LOTIeTAeA ETE ONBLT ——(sa3u030) JIONV WHY NVWLId se of sz oz si ol g ° sooz8ep t seozBop ¢ YUrT peBury remo7 Jo opsuy 101829 I YB1LSVo ~+—(S33u930) SITONY Y3EWV9 ‘ FOL *-82- -@ -G)sek PsP "P5P6 vb) Castor angle = cos = at (3.156) Ir ote ii PePg PsP Toe angle = cos [7 “CN (3.157) A computer program was written on the basis of these solutions to evaluate all unknown positions for several input sets of the azimuthal angles of ¥. and T. Design constants were evaluated P16P20 PePg from the "static position" of a 1962 Ford Galaxy. Figure 3.13 shows 3/ families of curves based on results of the computer program.~ Camber, castor, and toe angles are plotted versus Pitman arm angle, for constant values of the azimuthal angle of the lower hinged link Of course, much more information than shown is required in actual design work. Figure 3. 13 only suggests that concrete results are in fact obtained and that high accuracy is required to correctly predict the small variations in angles. 3.3.2 A Four-Bar Linkage with Turn-Slide Pairs Figure 3.14 shows a three-dimensional four-bar linkage with one hinge pair and three turning and sliding pairs. The axes of the pairs are skew and all links are "bent." There are several reasons why this linkage was chosen as an example. 3 Most of the programming of this computer work was performed by Mr. De Witt Cooper of the IBM Automotive and Machine Design Project, and his assistance here is especially appreciated-83- “safed @pHS-Wn, 9aIYL pue Ifeq aBuTH ou WIM aSexury] reg-rnoy ‘euorsusuNq-seIyL, FI"E aan 3 [WLa) (2) 8) (4) ~84- ‘The linkage has so far found no use in practical design, to the author's knowledge. It may be that availability of its position, motion, and force solutions--in terms of conventional mathematics--will encourage such ap- plication. Only the position solution is derived in this section. Motion and force solutions are derived in Sections 4.0 and 5.0. Solution of combined vector and scalar conditions is required. This suggests a source of difficulty in linkages with higher numbers of links, but does not prevent a relatively simple solution here. Position, velocity, and force solutions have been explored by A. T. Yang, by use of quaternion mathematics [79, 80]. ‘This may provide a common basis of comparison between the use of quaternion and ordinary vector mathematics in the analysis of three-dimensional mechanisms All terms are present in the motion analysis, because the link motion involves both relative rotation and relative slide. Likewise power is transmitted through the three turn-slide joints by both force and torque, so that the force equilibrium analysis has a generalized nature The example is therefore valuable as a check against the-85- vector approach itself, especially against the accelera- tion and force equilibrium methods. Three conditions govern the position of the linkage in Figure 3. 14: ¥,+@, +4) + 8, +9,)+ 0, +a) =0 (3.158) (6, (3.159) (6, (3. 160) In Equations (3,159) and (3.160), c, and c, are design constants. For example, c, can be determined from bench measurements of Link 3 before the linkage is assembled Fortunately Equations (3. 159) and (3. 160) can be solved inde- pendently of Equation (3. 158); otherwise a symmetry solution would not be feasible. The input angle is ,, (the azimuthal angle of rotation of p, about @,,). This determines p,, because py, and the polar angle 4), are already known. 21 y = p,{sin , [cos @,,%,, + sin 0, ,i,,] + cos ¢,0,,} (3.161) B= oy (3, 162) ¥ xa ha pa ale 28 (3.163) Ir) x 4,1 i* Hy, 7 ¥,) XA) (3,164)-86- The orientation of G3, relativeto p, and G), is known from the design of link 2. With P and G,, both known, a5, is also known. Gya = sin d,,[cos 845, + sin 8,115] + cos 4,75, (3.165) by7 (3. 166) . B, x &, i, 2 22! (3. 167) 3 xa | Pa Mey Bz = B52 X45. (3.168) (84. and $,, are design constants.) The unit vector @), is known, because it is fixed in orientation relative to ground. Equations (3. 159) and (3. 160) therefore have the form required for solution by Equation (3.131), because only 0,4 is unknown, of the three unit vectors G,,, 0,5, dj4. Determine G,, from Equation (3.131). The plus or minus sign is chosen plus if (o45 (fi) ds plus, minus if (ogy “By te minus--for the mechanism as initially assembled. In Equation (3.158), vectors 7, » and ¥, have been 2! expressed as sums of component vectors: (Bp, +4), (P; + 9)» ®, +a). This is done because the pair axes are skew. The a vectors are defined parallel to the slide axes, G,,, ,, butare