Curtin University

Engineering Foundation Year

Engineering Mechanics

Statics: Practical Test 2a

(45 minutes hands-on + 45 minutes analysis/interpretation)

Title Truss Structures

Activity Type Reinforcement

Concepts Studied

Trusses, or pin-jointed frameworks, are used in many structural applications. They consist
entirely of slender members that are subject to tension or compression. A truss is built up
of triangles formed by the slender members. This forms a stiff, but low weight, structure.
When operating loads are applied to the truss they are transferred to the supports via the
members. In order to design any of its members (select material, cross sectional shape and
area, etc.), the tensile or compressive force supported by each member must be
determined.

This activity compares measured member forces with those determined analytically.

Definitions
Tension or Compression Force – internal stress action that transfers a load along a
member in the direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member. This force may
be taken to be collinear and coincident with the centroidal axis of the member. When the
force acts to separate the particles of the material it is termed ‘tension’. Conversely, when
the force acts to move the particles of the material closer together, it is termed
‘compression’.

Axial Force – one whose line of action is collinear and coincident with the centroidal axis
of the member. The centroidal axis coincides with the centroid of area of the perpendicular
cross-section. By design, the pin joints at both ends of a member will also coincide with
the centroidal axis.

Pin Joint – a connection point where two or more structural members are joined together
in such a way that the end of each member is free to rotate about the pin (in the plane of
the truss) independently of other members. For analysis, the members are assumed to be
joined by a frictionless pin.

Pin

Figure 1. Schematic (left) and an actual structure (right)

1
Description of the Apparatus
The trusses in these experiments are supported within a rigid aluminium frame as shown
in Figure 2.

Truss member
Electrical resistance
strain gauge

Figure 2. Typical experimental layout

Each of the truss members has an electrical resistance strain gauge sensor bonded to its
surface. The sensors are used to measure the forces in the member. (See Appendix 1
for an explanation of the nature and operation of electrical resistance strain gauges.)

By selecting the appropriate channel on the Digital Strain Display, the change in strain in
a member is displayed. The Digital Strain Display displays the strain multiplied by 106.
So, for example, if the strain is 0.0002 metres extension per metre length of material, the
display will show 200 (i.e. 0.0002  106). While the units of strain are dimensionless
(length per length), it is common in engineering to use the ‘descriptive unit’ of ,
pronounced ‘micro-strain’. The  is the standard metric prefix multiplier of 10 -6, and  is
the symbol used for strain. The example above would be written as 200 . Appendix 2
provides an explanation of how a measured strain can be used to estimate a member’s
tension or compression.

The trusses are supported by two supports. One is a pinned support that is fixed both
vertically and horizontally, but allows rotation, while the other roller support allows
rotation and linear translation in one direction only.

Preparation Required to Perform Each of the Two Experiments

1. Make sure the Digital Force Display STR1A is “on” and check that the mini DIN
lead from the socket marked “Force Output” on the left-hand side of the load cell
STR8A is inserted into “Force Input 1” on the Digital Force Display. Set the display
input knob to 1.

2. By turning the loading screw (see Figure 3), ensure that there is no load on the load
2
 cell STR8A. In this condition pin ‘P’ should be free to rotate between your thumb
and first finger. Approximately zero the reading on the Digital Force Display using
the ‘set zero’ control on the front of the load cell.

3. Make sure the Digital Strain Display in “on”. Check that the number on the strain
gauge leads corresponds to its input channel socket. Leave the system for five
minutes to warm up and reach a steady state.

4. By turning the loading screw clockwise (when looking from above), apply a preload
of 100 N and again zero the load cell. Carefully apply an additional load of 500 N
and check the frame is stable and secure. Return the load to zero as shown on the
Digital Force Display (this leaves the 100 N preload in place).

Experiment 1: Member Forces in a Simple Cantilever Truss

The arrangement of the apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 3(a) and again
schematically in Figure 3(b).

pinned

A
pinned
Pin ‘P’

rollers

load
cell
C
B

loading
screw

Figure 3(a). Apparatus arrangement Figure 3(b). Schematic diagram

1. If not already done, perform the procedure above ‘Preparation Required to Perform
Each of the Two Experiments’.
2. Record the member strain readings, in turn, for each of the applied loads, in the columns
headed ‘Reading’ in Table 1 below. Note that the output of the strain gauges at zero load
is not set to zero and hence the change in readings is used here. After the maximum load
(500 N) has been applied, the load is removed and the stains at zero load are recorded
again. This procedure is good experimental practice as it checks that no permanent
change has occurred during the experiment.
3. Subtract the zero-load strain reading from the measurements to give the change in strain,
recording your results in the column headed ‘Change’ in Table 1. Be careful with the
signs.

3
 Strain Readings for Members (  )
Load (N) AB AC BC
Reading Change Reading Change Reading Change

0 0 0 0

100
200
300
400
500
0 (repeat) Should be near zero Should be near zero Should be near zero

Table 1. Member strains recorded for Experiment 1.

4. Further analysis of the results will be done after Experiment 2 has been performed.

Experiment 2: Member Forces in a Warren Truss

The arrangement of the apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 4(a) and again
schematically in Figure 4(b). This arrangement of members is called a Warren Truss.

This experiment is similar to Experiment 1 in that the member forces are determined by
measuring their strains under load. In addition, the vertical deflection of pin joint C is
measured with a displacement
indicator. Note that the body of the
indicator is supported by a rigid bracket
fixed at the left hand ‘fixed’ pin joint.
Therefore the vertical deflection at C is
relative to the vertical position of pin
A. Make sure that the plunger of the
indicator is vertical and centred on pin
C.

Following the same three steps as for

Experiment 1, complete Table 2 below,
including the vertical deflection at pin
joint C.

Figure 4(a). Apparatus arrangement

4
 B C

A E D

Figure 4(b). Schematic diagram

Strain Readings for Members (  )

Load (N) AB BE AE BC
Reading Change Reading Change Reading Change Reading Change

0 0 0 0 0

100
200
300
400
500
0 (repeat) Should be near zero Should be near zero Should be near zero Should be near zero

Strain Readings for Members (  ) Vertical

Load (N) DE CE CD deflection at C
Reading Change Reading Change Reading Change (mm)

0 0 0 0 0 (Press ‘zero’ button)

100
200
300
400
500
0 (repeat) Should be near zero Should be near zero Should be near zero Should be near zero

Table 2. Member strains and deflection recorded for Experiment 2.

5
Analysis

1. Linearity

An important assumption made (see Appendix 2) in relating the measured strains to

member forces is that the load and resulting strain are linearly related; that is, when the
load is doubled, the strain also doubles. A good way to check a linear relationship is to
plot, on rectangular coordinates, the input and output quantities. It will be easy to observe
visually whether the relationship is linear or not. On Figure 5 plot the data for members
AC and BC in Table 1 and for members AE and BC in Table 2. Place the load on the
abscissa (x – axis) and the strain on the ordinate (y – axis). Label each line with its identity.

2. A Note Regarding Plotting Your Data

The only information you know is your recorded data at loads 0, 100, 200, 300, 400 and
500 N. Between these loads no measurement has been taken. Unless further
measurements were made, you can only speculate about what might occur at intermediate
loads. Therefore, plot the measured points with a small clear ‘point’ symbol (e.g. , , ).
If they appear to lie on a straight line, rule a dotted line of best fit, in order to show that
the suggested relationship is linear. In this case, Appendix 2 suggests that the relationship
will be linear if the load-extension characteristic of the material is linear.

Figure 5. Linearity of Load vs Strain response

Does your plotted data suggest that the relationship is linear? ____________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

6
3. Deflection

We have performed no theoretical analysis of how the vertical deflection of pin C is

related to load. However, having measure the response experimentally, we may be able
to discern a relationship graphically if the data was plotted, as for strain above. So, on
Figure 6, plot the data for the vertical deflection of pin C (Table 2). Place the load on the
abscissa and the deflection on the ordinate.

Figure 6. Relationship of Load vs Deflection response

Does your plotted data suggest any particular relationship? ______________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

4. Experiment 1 Member Forces

Using the Method of Joints and an applied load of W = 500 N, calculate the theoretical
forces in the three members, stating whether tension or compression. [Hint: By inspection,
state the force in member AB, and then analyse the force balance at joint C.]

x
F y  0 : FAC sin 45  W  0

45 C
F x  0 :  FBC FAC cos 45  0

W Show that FAC  2W tension and FBC  W compression.

7
Now complete Table 3. The experimental force can be determined by equation (A2) of
 
Appendix 2. F  EA  E 14 d 2 where E = 193 GPa (for grade 303 stainless steel) and
d = 5.99 mm. (Make sure you use fundamental units. Don’t forget the 10-6 factor in ,
the 109 factor in GPa and the 10-3 factor in mm.)

Member Experimental Theoretical %

Force (N) Force (N) Difference
+ for tension, + for tension,
- for compression - for compression
AB 0
AC
BC

Table 3. Comparison of Measured and Calculated Member Forces when W = 500 N.

Comment on the possible causes of any difference that is recorded in the last column of
Table 3.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

5. Experiment 2 Member Forces

Using the Method of Joints and a vertical load of W = 500 N applied at pin E, calculate
the theoretical forces in members AB, AE, BE and BC, stating whether tension or
compression. Notice that all of the remaining member forces can be inferred from the
symmetry of the structure. The support reaction forces RA,x and RA,y can be determined by
inspection by considering the whole truss as a free body and observing symmetry.

FAB y
B
x FBC
RA,x 60
A 60
FAE 60
FAB FBE

RA,y

Show your working here.

8
Now complete Table 4. Again, the experimental force can be determined by equation
(A2) of Appendix 2.

Member Experimental Theoretical %

Force (N) Force (N) Difference
+ for tension, + for tension,
- for compression - for compression
AB
BE
AE
BC

Table 4. Comparison of Measured and Calculated Member Forces when W = 500 N.

Comment on the possible causes of any difference that is recorded in the last column of
Table 4.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

6. Comment on Method of Joints

Comment on what these experiments have revealed to you concerning the validity, or
otherwise, of the Method of Joints for determination of member forces in pin-jointed plane
trusses.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Assessment

The marking scale for this exercise will be as follows:

 Experiment 1 – experimental procedure performed correctly (0.25)

 Experiment 1 – accurate results, well presented (0.50)
 Experiment 2 – experimental procedure performed correctly (0.25)
 Experiment 2 – accurate results, well presented (0.50)
 Analysis:
- analysis poorly attempted and wrong (0)
- analysis mostly correct and shows an average level of understanding (0.5)
- analysis fully correct and shows an average level of understanding (1.0)
- analysis fully correct and shows a high level of understanding with accurate
comments etc. (1.5)

9
Appendix 1 – Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

In 1856 Lord Kelvin reported the phenomenon that an electrical conductor alters its
electrical resistance when stretched. The electrical resistance strain gauge is essentially a
long wire which is stretched or compressed (i.e. strained) when intimately attached to a
surface which itself is strained. Ideally, the strain in the component and the attached
transducer wire have identical thermal expansion properties. By measuring the change in
electrical resistance, and with suitable calibration, the change in strain experienced by the
test material can be estimated.

While the total gauge resistance is usually either 120 or 350 , the actual changes in
resistance are small – in the m range. This leads to some challenges to accurate
measurement.

Modern strain gauges are etched from metal foil and consist of a grid of conductors which
are connected in series. Figure A1 shows a typical gauge (magnified). They are attached
to the test component with cyanoacrylate adhesives (‘super glue’). The large pads are for
soldering the sensing wires to the gauge.

Strain sensitive
direction 

Figure A1. Magnified view of an etched foil electrical resistance strain gauge.

10
Appendix 2 – Estimating Member Force Using a Strain Gauge

When a rod-like component is loaded by the application of an axial force, it will stretch
(tension) or shrink (compression). Figure A2 shows a rod of length l being stretched by
amount l when an axial force F is applied.

Cross-sectional
Area A

F F

l l

Figure A2. Rod-like component loaded in tension by force F.

When this test is performed, and F is not too large, many materials exhibit a linear
relationship between F and l. Furthermore, many materials are will return to their
original length when the load is removed. They are then called elastic. Many metals and
alloys, including common structural and machine materials like steel and aluminium have
both of these characteristics. It is not the case for many plastics. Elastic materials with
a linear load-extension characteristic are called Hookean after Robert Hooke (1635-1703),
the scientist who first recorded the observation.

Materials differ in the size of load F required to cause a given extension l. For example,
to stretch by the same amount, steel would require more force than wood. How can this
‘stiffness’ property be characterized?

Firstly, we note that two other parameters will affect the magnitude of l for a given F.
When the cross-sectional area A is larger, l will be smaller. Also, when the length of the
rod l is longer, l will increase.

The area can be incorporated into the analysis by defining a new quantity, being the force
supported per unit area of the cross section. This is called ‘stress’ and is allocated the
Greek symbol . So,   F A with units of N/m2 or Pascals, and can be considered as
an internal pressure on a plane. The stress in Figure A2 will be tensile (given a positive
sign). If the directions of the forces are reversed so as to compress the rod, the stress will
be compressive (given a negative sign).

The component’s length can be incorporated by again defining a new quantity, being the
change in length per unit of original length. This is called ‘strain’ and is allocated the
Greek symbol . So,   l l which is dimensionless.

If our material is Hookean (limited to some maximum stress), then the load-extension, or
stress-strain relationship may be measured and plotted as a straight line (Figure A3). One
way of characterising the material’s ‘stiffness’ is by the slope of the stress-strain curve.
From Figure A3 it is seen that the slope is:

 F l F
slope  E     (A1)
 A l A

11
The slope is called the ‘elastic modulus’ or ‘Young’s modulus’ (after Thomas Young,
1773-1829) and is assigned the symbol E. It has units of N/m2 or Pascals. Young’s
modulus is a property of the material. Measured values are available in reference works.

In this laboratory exercise, we wish to relate the measured strain, , to the member force,
F. From equation (A1):

F  EA (A2)

where, in our apparatus, the truss members are manufactured from grade 303 stainless
steel with E  193 GPa, and have a measured average diameter of 5.99 mm.

Note that Young’s modulus varies from batch to batch and also is difficult to measure
accurately. Hence the third significant figure (‘3’ above, implying an accuracy of one part
in 193, or 0.5%) should not be considered precise.

tension

slope = E

compression

Figure A3. Stress-strain characteristic of a Hookean material

Notice that Figure A3 shows the slope to be the same for tension and compression. For
many structural and machine materials this is the case.

What are some typical numbers for steel? A low-carbon structural steel will remain elastic
and linear for stresses up to about 250 to 300 MPa where, since Young’s modulus is about
205 GPa, the stain will be 1300  10-6, or 1300 . However, materials are not usually
loaded to this level and typical strains might be in the 200-300  range. ‘High tensile’
steels can have a linear elastic stress range to over 1000 MPa.

12