Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176

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Technology in Society
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc

The benefits of blockchain for digital certificates: A multiple case

study analysis
Shuyi Pu, Jasmine Siu Lee Lam *
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Certificates in either hard or soft copies are common documents in our day-to-day activities. However, they are
Blockchain vulnerable to be tampered and inefficiencies exist in the current verification systems. Blockchain technology is
Digital certificate considered a feasible solution to protect certificates from being forged and simplify the current verification
Case study
systems. As an attempt to understand the potential of blockchain for digital certificates in a holistic view, this
research aims to conduct a deep analysis of the benefits of blockchain for digital certificates using a multiple case
study approach. A benefits analysis model is developed for mapping the benefits of an information system
comprehensively and systematically covering benefits in technical, individual, organisational and societal di­
mensions. Although contextual variations exist, some common benefits are identified such as reduced costs of
verification, improved decision making and planning, attracting new customers and supporting business growth.
Lastly, future research opportunities in this research field are identified.

1. Introduction
A certificate is an official document stating that the information on it
is true or an official proof confirming that a person receives a qualifi­
cation according to the Cambridge dictionary. For a long time, certifi­
cates exist in a physical paper form. With the development of
information technologies, the concept of digital certificates arises. In
modern society, the definition of a digital certificate varies in different
scenarios: 1) it could mean a digital version of a document which aims to
be equivalent to paper certificates; 2) it could also refer to a file of data
which is to enable secure digital communication and data exchange
between people, systems and devices online [1]. The first type of digital
certificate is visible in a computer or a digital gadget and have been
commonly used in our daily life like a PDF document. The second type of
digital certificate applies in a technical virtual environment that runs
underlying various digital technologies and cannot be easily seen or
understood by ordinary persons. Since this research focuses on practical
business use cases of blockchain for digital certificates rather than the
applications underlying technologies to ensure safety and security of
data transmission, the term of digital certificates in the remaining part of
the paper except for section 2 only refers to the first definition.
Nowadays it is common to encounter incidents of counterfeit cer­
tificates in various industries. Paper certificates can be easily forged,
damaged or lost. Scanned copies of paper certificates are also vulnerable
to be forsified with image-auditing tools. The Ministry of Manpower of
Singapore claimed that every year an average of 660 foreigners were
banned from working in Singapore due to fake educational certificates
in the last five years [2]. The forgery of certificates could be hampered
by effective and efficient verification. However, the existing verification
systems are limited in terms of ownership, availability, dependency on
third parties, time consumption and costs [3,4]. Blockchain is regarded
as a promising technology to address these problems in the current
certification and verification systems, considering its ability to provide
traceability, immutability, transparency and verifiability [5]. An
increasing number of organisations including government agencies are
seen to leverage blockchain technology for digital certificates [6–9]. The
outbreak of Covid-19 necessitates digital certificates to avoid physical
interaction and hence to some extent expedites the application of
blockchain to enhance the security, authenticity and reliability of digital
certification systems.
Although adopting blockchain for digital certificates becomes
increasingly popular in industries, there is a lack of comprehensive
understanding of its potential beyond its technical advantages in this
application area. Most current literature only focuses on the prescriptive
level proposing blockchain technology to solve current problems of
digital certificates in general or in a specific case, rather than the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sllam@ntu.edu.sg (J.S.L. Lam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102176
Received 7 July 2022; Received in revised form 10 November 2022; Accepted 17 November 2022
Available online 21 November 2022
0160-791X/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam
descriptive level based on real-life observations to provide deeper in­
sights on blockchain’s potential in digital certificates. This research
takes an effort to provide a holistic understanding of blockchain’s po­
tential for digital certificates by analysing its benefits in this application
area with a multiple case study approach. A benefits analysis framework
is proposed to provide a systematic roadmap for analysing the benefits of
an information system (IS) in multiple dimensions through the lens of
individuals, organisations and society.
The remaining of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 reviews
related literature. Section 3 explains the method used in the study.
Section 4 presents detailed results of within-case and cross-case ana­
lyses, followed by discussions on implications and future research in
section 5. At last, conclusions are made in section 6.
2. Literature review
2.1. Blockchain for certificates
Many researchers propose a new blockchain-based solution to be
applied in the underlying technologies of digital certificates such as
public key infrastructure (PKI) and certificate authority (CA) with sys­
tem designs and implementation of prototypes. They usually focus on
the technical level only, aiming to improve the current technical per­
formance from different perspectives. For instance, Madala et al. [10]
propose a blockchain-based system to solve a security problem in cur­
rent CA systems so that a CA cannot issue a certificate for a domain
without the consent of the domain owner. Kubilay et al. [11] suggest a
blockchain-based PKI architecture to avoid the split-world attacks and
improve certificate transparency and revocation transparency. Wang
et al. [12] develop an append-only public blockchain-based storage
scheme to record the certificates and revocation status for better cer­
tificate and revocation transparency. Lei et al. [13] and Elloh Adja et al.
[14] focus on improving the certificate revocation process with block­
chain in terms of efficiency and security.
Beyond technical advancements, some researchers develop
blockchain-based systems for certificates in specific real-life application
scenarios. The most discussed use case in literature is the educational
certificate. Various systems are proposed for issuing, managing and
verifying educational certificates, based on Bitcoin blockchain [15],
Ethereum [16–18], dual platforms of both Bitcoin and Ethereum [19]
and Hyperledger Fabric [20]. Apart from educational certificates, other
use cases of blockchain-enabled certification systems are also proposed.
For instance, Chang et al. [21] develop a conceptual framework using
blockchain to enhance the current product record systems for better
food safety and counterfeit prevention. Zhang et al. [22] propose a
blockchain-based green energy certification system including functions
of issuing and trading green certificates to simplify verification pro­
cedures and improve system robustness. Jeong and Choi [19] suggest
using a blockchain system to store and verify certificates of individuals
for better assessment during the recruitment stage. Ahmad et al. [23]
mention blockchain’s potential for waste related certificates and docu­
ments in the oil and gas industry.
The main contributions of the above studies are to provide new
system designs either technically or conceptually to solve current
problems relating to digital certificates. Very few papers analyse
blockchain’s application for digital certificates from a business man­
agement perspective. There is one paper from Choi [24] which uses
game theory to analytically analyse the benefits of blockchain systems
for diamond certification and authentication and the conditions when
the systems are preferred by users. Relevant studies in the research field
from commercial or societal perspectives are even more scarce. There­
fore, this research attempts to extend the literature by analysing the
commercial and societal benefits of blockchain for digital certificates
based on the insights from multiple case studies.
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Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176
2.2. Benefits models for information systems
While there are various benefits models used to identify the benefits
of IS, most of them make the measurement at the organisational level
[25–27]. Among them, the Shang and Seddon’s [26] benefits framework
(hereinafter referred to as S&S framework) is one of the most
well-known ones in the literature. The S&S framework is a multidi­
mensional model to analyse the benefits of enterprise systems from the
perspective of business managers in five dimensions: operational,
managerial, strategic, IT infrastructure, and organisational. Since its
development, the framework has been widely used in literature to
analyse the benefits of a system [28–31]. For instance, Wang et al. [31]
adopt the S&S framework to map the benefits of big data analytics and
find that the two most important benefits lie in the IT infrastruce and
operational dimensions. Sithambaram and Tajudeen [32] apply the S&S
framework to investigate the impact of artificial intelligence based
human resource systems in Malaysia.
There are models addressing benefits at more than the organisational
level. The DeLone and McLean’s [33] IS success model (hereinafter
referred to as D&M model) is one widely cited one suitable for analysing
the benefits of an IS in this stream. In the model, the success of an IS
attributed to six dimensions: system quality, information quality, service
quality, use (intention to use), user satisfaction and net benefits. DeLone
and McLean [33] highlight that net benefits cannot be well understood
without the analysis of system quality and information quality. The
D&M model is initially for analysing the factors influencing the success
of an IS [34–39]. Recent examples include Ji el al. [37] and Çelik and
Ayaz [40] who apply the model to identify the success factors for clinical
decision support systems and student information systems, respectively.
But the D&M model can also serve as a useful tool for analysing the
benefits of an IS. The first three dimensions of the D&M model reflects
the benefits of IS from IT and service prospects. The net benefits
dimension allows researchers to address other IS benefits at their
defined scopes such as the individual, organisational and societal levels.
This research will refer to both the D&M model and the S&S
framework to analyse the benefits of blockchain-based certification
systems. Although the D&M model has the potential to cover benefits at
different levels, it does not specifically elaborate on the details of net
benefits, which is left to researchers to define. To solve this problem and
realise a more comprehensive analysis, we will develop a new benefits
analysis framework by integrating the S&S framework into the D&M
model, which will be explained in detail in section 3.
3. Method
3.1. Multiple case analysis
This study adopts a qualitative approach using multiple case studies.
Case study research has been commonly used in various research areas
such as business, social sciences, and information systems [41–46]. It is a
useful approach in the early stage of a research topic [47] and to answer
why and how questions for contemporary events [48]. This study is an
attempt to understand the adoption of blockchain certificates in business
scenarios from a commercial and societal perspective. The benefits
analysed by the study can refer to why and how questions. Therefore,
the case study approach is considered suitable for this research.
Compared with single case analysis, multiple case analysis provides
more robust findings with strength in replication logic [48].
For multiple case analysis, there is no direct answer of how many
cases are needed, but typically 6–10 cases are recommended to allow
both similar and contrasting results [49]. When selecting cases, we
adopt the strategy of a diverse case method [50] so that relevant cases
for different applications are considered to ensure variety. We first
collect data and information from literature, commercial publications,
newspapers and magazines on blockchain’s applications for certificates.
The collected data/information are evaluated and classified into
S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176

different applications. A typical case from each application is identified
based on representativeness of the organisation in the industry and
completeness of relevant data. Finally, a total of six cases are selected,
covering blockchain’s adoption in certification of diamonds, Covid-19
tests and vaccination results, classification societies, artwork, educa­
tion and renewable energy. The details of the six cases are provided in
Table 1. To ensure data quality, we mainly rely on information from the
official websites of participating organisations and reputable third
parties.
3.2. Proposed benefits analysis framework
This research proposes a multidimensional benefits analysis frame­
work combining the D&M model and the S&S model, as shown in Fig. 1.
In order to capture the benefits more comprehensively, the context of
net benefits is defined to be at three levels: individual, organisational
and societal. The individual benefits look at individual users of the
blockchain systems. The organisational benefits focus on any organisa­
tions which adopt the systems as an initiator or a user. The societal
benefits look at the welfare of mankind and the economic and envi­
ronmental development of national, regional and international societies.
When analysing the benefits of each blockchain case, the first step is
to access the respective industry and organisation background, which
forms the basis for benefits analysis. This step is usually adopted in
qualitative analysis [26,27] but are seldom explicitly shown in analysis
models.
When conducting benefits analysis, the D&M model is used as the
basis with modifications. In this study, the dimensions of system quality,
information quality, service quality and net benefits are retained, while
the other two dimensions of use and user satisfaction are removed in our
framework with the following considerations. Firstly, the dimension of
user satisfaction can be grouped into individual or organisational ben­
efits and hence is removed to avoid repetition. Secondly, the dimension
of use, which measures the behaviour of users in a tangible way [26]
such as by the number of website visits, is considered more related to
measure the success than the benefits of an IS. Since this study focuses on
benefits, the dimension of use is removed too.
However, the D&M model does not provide detailed elaboration on
net benefits, particularly on organisational benefits which can be com­
plex to define. Therefore, we integrate the S&S model into the D&M’s
net benefits dimension so that the organisational benefits are well
defined. It is worth mentioning that the dimension of IT infrastructure in
the S&S model is excluded in our framework since it has been covered by
the dimensions of system quality and information quality in the D&M
model. The organisational dimension in the S&S model, which focuses
on employees such as increased employee morale [26], can be classified
as human resource management and regrouped under the managerial
dimension. This restructuring avoids confusion with the organisational
benefits in the D&M model.
Following the proposed model, the benefits of blockchain-enabled
certification system are analysed by comparing it with the current
mainstream system for each case. For instance, the blockchain system is
compared with the paper-based system for case 1, 3, 4 and 5, a world
without such a certification system for case 2 and a non-blockchain
based digital system for case 6.
4. Result analysis
This section discusses detailed benefits of the blockchain-enabled
certification system for each case through a within-case analysis. The
results are summarised in Table 2 and the definition of each benefit is
provided in Appendix A. Based on that, a cross-case analysis is further
conducted to understand the similarities and differences in blockchain’s
benefits for different certification cases.
4.1. Within-case analysis
In this section, we look at the selected cases one by one via studying
their background, motivations, technical mechanisms and operational
processes.
4.1.1. Diamond certificates - tracr
Conflict diamonds and trust in provenance have been the concerns of
the diamond industry for a long time. Tracr is a permissioned blockchain
system that certifies a diamond with its key attributes such as colour,
cut, clarity and carat and transactions from mining, cutting and pol­
ishing to end customers. It enables a tamper-proof, reliable and complete
digital record for each diamond, whose provenance and history can be
easily traced and verified by a third party.
In terms of individual benefits, Tracr makes it easier for individual
customers to verify whether a diamond is conflict-free with blockchain
technology. Customers can be guaranteed that their purchased di­
amonds are ethically sourced with complete and trusted evidence of
diamonds’ full information from rough to polished and their chains of
ownership.
To organisations that use the system for registering or sourcing di­
amonds, the benefits they can enjoy vary from different aspects. Oper­
ationally, Tracr improves product quality and reduces costs of

Table 1
Cases of blockchain’s applications for digital certificates.
Case Case Organisations Details of blockchain certificates
No.

1 Diamond certificates
2 Covid-19 certificates
3 Classification society
certificates
4 Artwork certificates
5 Educational
certificates
6 Renewable energy
certificates
De Beers
Government Technology Agency and
Ministry of Health, Singapore
DNV*
Artory
MIT and Learning Machine#
The Energy Exchange Istanbul
It launched a blockchain platform, Tracr, to create a unique certificate for each diamond with
information of its key attributes and transaction history from mining, cutting and polishing to end
customers.
They developed HealthCerts which is a series of open standards and schema based on blockchain
technology for issuing and managing digital Covid-19 vaccination or test results certificates.
It collaborated with Deloitte EMEA Blockchain Lab to develop a private blockchain system to
issue and manage its certificates. From September 2017, it started to use the blockchain system for
all new and re-issued certificates.
It employed Ethereum blockchain to provide digital certificates of authenticity for artworks and
other collectibles.
They jointly developed Blockcerts using blockchain technology to provide credentials for diplomas
and exams.
It launched the Renewable Energy Guarantees of Origin (YEK-G) System and YEK-G Market
which use blockchain technology to provide verification, certification and trading of electricity
from renewable sources in Turkey.

Notes: *DNV was formerly known as DNV GL before March 1, 2021.

#
MIT is Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Learning Machine was acquired by Hayland and renamed as Hyland Credentials since 1 Feb 2020.
Source: Compiled by authors.

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S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176

Fig. 1. The proposed benefits analysis model through a multiple case study approach.

Table 2
Benefits analysis of selected cases.
Dimension Benefits Tracr HealthCerts DNV Artory BlockCerts YEK-
G

System quality Ease of use ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Security ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Reliability ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Privacy ✓ ✓
Flexibility ✓ ✓
Information Accuracy ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
quality Variety of information ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Traceability ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Customisation ✓
Dynamic content ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Service quality Instant and easy verification ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Assurance ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Net benefits Individual benefits Reduced costs of verification ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
More seamless and safe travel experience ✓
Realise personal ethics ✓ ✓
Better management of certificates ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Improve personal morale and encourage professional growth and ✓ ✓
career development
Organisational Reduced costs of verification and documentation ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
benefits Competitive advantage ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Improved decisions making and planning ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Better resource management ✓ ✓
Attract new customers/suppliers & support business growth ✓ ✓ ✓
Legal compliance ✓ ✓
Realise corporate ethics ✓ ✓
Societal benefits Facilitate recovery of economies and normalcy in life ✓
Stimulate the development of IT capability of society ✓
Facilitate (inter)national efforts of environmental protection ✓
Better national workforce planning and development ✓

Source: Authors.

verification by providing transparent and trusted proof of diamonds’
transformation and ownership history. Managerially, it improves deci­
sion making for sourcing diamonds. Strategically, organisations could
achieve a competitive advantage in the diamond industry through
providing service differentiation and establishing a leading role in
providing traceability and confidence to consumers. Besides, it has the
potential to attract new customers, support business growth considering
consumers’ increasing concerns about conflict diamonds. In addition,
with the passing of tighter regulations on conflict minerals (e.g., Dodd-
Frank Act in the US) and human rights (e.g., Modern Slavery Act in the
UK about restrictions on child labour), Tracr facilitates organisations to
achieve legal compliance and realise corporate ethics with responsible
sourcing of diamonds.
4.1.2. Covid-19 certificates – HealthCerts
With the prolonged Covid-19 pandemic and ongoing global mass-
vaccination programmes, Covid-19 health status certificates are
considered promising to bring life to normal. The World Economic
Forum estimated that digital identity for Covid-19 needs would be one of
the four key predictions of blockchain applications in 2021 [51].
HealthCerts, as a government effort for Covid-19 certificates, brings
more significant benefits at the individual and societal levels.
Safeguarded by blockchain technology together with the notarisa­
tion of Singapore’s Ministry of Health, HealthCerts ensures the
authenticity of information recorded in the system. It also enables ease
of verification of Covid-19 related certificates and improves decision
making and planning for immigration and event activities. With easy

4
S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam
verification, individuals could enjoy a more seamless and safer travel or
event experience as only qualified individuals are allowed to travel or
attend events. For society, the adoption of HealthCerts facilitates the
reopening of regional and even international travel and hence expedites
the recovery of economies and normalcy in life. Since HealthCerts pro­
vides the flexibility to allow private companies to develop their own
versions of verification systems with their own recognised clinics or labs,
it could also stimulate the development of IT capabilities of the society.
4.1.3. Classification society certificates – DNV
DNV is an international classification society and accredited regis­
trar, serving various industries like maritime, oil&gas and renewable
energy. By issuing and managing certificates in a private blockchain,
DNV is the first among the classification societies to provide digital
assurance and verification for customers to easily show their compliance
to rules and standards.
Since classification society certificates are more for business pur­
poses, the benefits of DNV’s blockchain certification system are mainly
at the organisational level. Previously, it is difficult to verify the
authenticity of a paper certificate. Enabled by blockchain technology,
particularly its asymmetric cryptography, it is very easy for any third
party to verify certificates by just scanning a QR code or a public online
checker provided by DNV. With that, it becomes easier for third parties
to make decisions. For instance, port authorities can verify the certifi­
cates of vessels easily during inspections of port state control and hence
make faster decisions on whether a ship complies with necessary regu­
lations. Besides, the blockchain-based certification system could facili­
tate internal business learning of DNV as employees need to upgrade
their skills to operate and manage the new system. Strategically, by
initiating an internal digital transformation with the cutting-edge
technology blockchain, DNV successfully establishes a leading image
in technical transformation in the industry. The company also demon­
strates its technical capabilities and builds trust among customers,
which in turn aids to attract new customers.
4.1.4. Artwork certificates - artory
Provenance search is very important in the art industry to prove the
authenticity and ownership history of an artwork [52]. However, many
artworks have poor provenance [52]. Meanwhile, with the rising of
digital art, the proof of ownership and originality for digital artworks
becomes another important concern in the industry as they can be easily
reproduced [53]. In order to solve these problems, Artory provides a
blockchain system to certify artworks with their verified owners, history
and other relevant information.
The system allows individuals to easily verify the provenance and
authenticity of artworks who usually have limited resources to check an
artwork’s authenticity in a traditional art system. It also assists to in­
crease the morale of individual artists of digital artworks as the
uniqueness, originality and copyright of their works are well protected
through a unique code being issued in blockchain to each original digital
artwork. In addition, the names of collectors and their collections are not
exposed to both Artory and the public, hence the anonymity of collectors
are ensured.
For organisations such as art galleries and auction houses who join
the Artory system, they can provide better customer service with easy
verification of artworks. Artory helps organisations to better manage
their artworks and also improves decision making for sales and pur­
chases of artworks. The system could also help organisations to attract
new customers, particularly those who value highly secured, reliable
and immutable certificates, who are interested in investing in digital
artwork and who appreciate a safe vault to manage their collections. At
the same time, it helps to attract new artists who wish to secure their
originality and maximise their interests by registering in the system.
4.1.5. Educational certificates - BlockCerts
The problem of forged educational credentials has existed for a long
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Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176
time. The earliest fake education certificate can be traced back to 1883
when a few certificates were found being issued from a university that
did not exist [54]. Blockchain is a promising technology to tackle this
problem with its security, immutability and ease of verification [15,55].
BlockCerts was jointly developed by MIT and Learning Machine by
employing blockchain technology to issue digital educational certifi­
cates and enable third parties to authenticate credentials easily. It was
later developed as an open standard for any type of digital certificates.
The analysis reveals that BlockCerts makes it easier for individual
users to view, manage and share their certificates. With ease of verifi­
cation and increased credibility, it also promotes the recognition of
personal alternative credentials such as professional or industrial cer­
tificates which are issued by educational training outside the scope of
formal educational programmes in schools or universities but may be
easier accessible online and at lower prices [56]. This in turn could
encourage individuals to pursue professional growth and career
advancement through obtaining alternative credentials.
For both educational institutes and future employers, BlockCerts
reduces their time and costs to verify educational qualifications. These
organisations can achieve better human resource management since
relevant staff can shift their work focus from time-consuming manual
verification to more value added services. For future employers, this
system also makes their decision making for employment easier due to
easy verification of applicants’ credentials.
BlockCerts also brings societal benefits. Firstly, it helps to improve
the development of national economy with better human resource
management because a more suitable workforce can be employed
without concerns of forged credentials. Secondly, the ease of verification
procedure provided by BlockCerts facilitates employers’ recognition of
alternative credentials, which could stimulate the upskilling and res­
killing of national workforce through continuing education or industrial
professional training.
4.1.6. Renewable energy certificates – YEK-G
With the global emphasis on decarbonisation, renewable energy
certificates (REC, equivalent to Guarantees of Origin (GO) in the Euro­
pean Union) are important tools for companies or individuals to
contribute to sustainability and renewable energy generation. However,
the current centralised REC systems have disadvantages of tedious
processes, low efficiency, high operational costs and high errors [22].
With that, the Energy Exchange Istanbul (EXIST), which is responsible
for managing and operating the energy markets in Turkey [57],
launched the Renewable Energy Guarantees of Origin (YEK-G) system
leveraging blockchain technology. YEK-G certifies electricity from
renewable sources such as hydropower and solar and enables trading of
these certificates.
With the technical advantages brought by blockchain technology,
YEK-G exhibits benefits at the individual, organisational and societal
levels. YEK-G provides a reliable platform for environmentally con­
cerned individuals to purchase sustainable energy and realise their
personal values. For organisations, YEK-G provides easier documenta­
tion and proof of origin of renewable energy generation. With block­
chain technology, YEK-G is considered to optimise the process of
certifying and trading renewable energy and reduce the operational
costs compared with centralised platforms. It facilitates relevant deci­
sion makings for environmental protection [22]. More importantly, it
assists organisations to achieve legal compliance such as a court’s order
to cut emissions like the case of Shell [58]. It also provides a useful way
to realise corporate ethics for environmentally conscious organisations
that make voluntary efforts to purchase GO to reduce the greenhouse gas
impact of their organisations. In terms of society, the
blockchain-enabled GO systems provides a reliable and secure way to
facilitate national and international efforts of environmental protection.
S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam
4.2. Cross-case analysis
Based on the within-case analysis, this section analyses the similar­
ities and differences among different cases.
Regarding system quality, the blockchain systems in all cases provide
ease of use, security, reliability due to the special features of blockchain.
Among them, only Artory and BlockCerts highlight the privacy of indi­
vidual users. This may be due to the limited involvement of personal
identity in other cases, except for HealthCerts which requires personal
identity for travel purposes. Since HealthCerts and BlockCerts focus on
providing open standards rather than developing a particular system,
they have the flexibility to be applied in different types of blockchain.
For instance, BlockCerts started with Bitcoin blockchain and then has
expanded to Ethereum. It aims to expand to other blockchains in the
near future [59].
In terms of the quality of information, all cases ensure accuracy and
provide traceability of information. It is worth mentioning that the ac­
curacy of information in blockchain systems rely on the authenticity of
data at the starting point of blockchain record provided by the creator
[53]. The accuracy of information can be deteriorated in some cases,
especially when the information is uploaded without a proper ver­
ification/consensus mechanism. A famous example in the art industry is
that a man named Terence Eden uploaded a picture of “Mona Lisa” from
Wikipedia to Verisart Blockchain and successfully claimed himself in the
system the artist of this masterpiece which is well known to be created
by Leonardo da Vinci in 1503 [60]. In order to avoid this problem,
Artory only lists artworks that have been verified by reputable auction
houses or galleries. Another similarity of all cases in information quality
is that they all allow a variety of information to be recorded and these
information can be updated or revoked later on. For instance, Health­
Certs can record the basic identify of individuals, the results of Covid-19
test, status of Covid-19 vaccination and expiry date. Among of the six
cases, only Artory presents content personalisation as it allows the col­
lectors of artworks to update any information that they think could help
to retain or even increase the value of their artworks. In other blockchain
systems, the information that can be recorded is relatively standard.
For service quality, the systems provide service differentiation in two
ways. Firstly, they provide easy verification simply by scanning a QR
code or use a web checker. The verification results can be shown
instantly. Secondly, they assure that the data recorded in the systems is
tamper-proof and provide confidence and trust to users.
In terms of the net benefits, although those cases target different
Fig. 2. The original and modified versions of Pu and Lam’s conceptual framework of blockchain adoption in a specific context.
Source: Drawn by authors, adapted from Ref. [61].
6
Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176
industries, they still share some common benefits, such as ease of veri­
fication, improved decision making and planning, attracting new cus­
tomers or users and supporting business growth. We also notice that
each case has its own specific benefits due to different push and pull
factors. For instance, some blockchain certification systems are used for
better legal compliance or better realisation of corporate or individual
ethics, while some other blockchain systems are more for societal
benefits.
5. Implications and future research opportunities
Based on the above case study analysis, this section discusses im­
plications and proposes future research directions referring to a modi­
fied version of Pu and Lam’s [61] conceptual framework of blockchain
applications in an industry from a case study perspective (as shown in
Fig. 2). The original Pu and Lam’s [61] framework consists of five di­
mensions regarding new technology adoption in a specific context,
namely technical features, commerical benefits, applicable areas,
stakeholders and adoption challenges. We integrate the key factors from
the proposed benefits model, namely technical quality and net benefits,
into Pu and Lam’s [61] conceptual framework. The sequence of di­
mensions have been rearranged by starting from application areas since
we focus on analysis from the case study perspective. The modified
conceptual framework could provide a holistic view of blockchain
adoption in a specific context from a case study perspective and assist to
guide future research.
Observed from the six selected cases, the adoption of blockchain in
certification systems mainly lies in three areas: namely ownership or
identity management, provenance tracing and ownership transfer.
While some cases such as HealthCerts only focus on one application
area, some others such as YEK-G contain two or even three areas.
Depending on the different backgrounds and requirements of each case,
focusing on one application area may be sufficient enough. However, it
becomes increasingly popular for organisations to support blockchain
certification functions in all the three application areas in order to
provide users with one-stop services from issuing, managing to trading
certificates along their entire life chain. Future research could explore
the possibilities of other application areas of blockchain certificates to
create more business value. For instance, there is a potential of using
blockchain certificates to realise fractional ownership which is an
emerging trend in art, vintage cars and other esoteric investments [62].
Taking art as an example, blockchain technology can be used to divide
S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam
the ownership of the artwork into multiple shares in the forms of tokens
and hence enables fractional ownership of the artwork like the case of
company Maecenas which sold 31.5% ownership of an Andy Warhol’s
artwork using blockchain technology at USD 5.6 million [63].
The understanding and development of a new technology’s adoption
in a specific area require the knowledge of stakeholders. The interaction
of dynamic strategies among stakeholders could affect the evolution of
blockchain adoption in digital certificates. For example, although Alrosa
(one of the world’s largest diamond producers) joined De Beers’ Tracr
blockchain system as a partner since 2018, it started to offer a new laser
technology in 2021 which could physically engrave a nano mark in the
atomic structure of diamonds [64]. This new technology is considered a
strong competitor with the Tracr system as the nano physical mark al­
ways exists, unlike digital records which may be no longer available
after the holding company goes bankrupt. With the introduction of the
new laser technology by Alrosa, the future of Tracr adoption becomes
more uncertain. Therefore, future research could investigate the impact
of dynamic interactions among stakeholders on the adoption of block­
chain for digital certificates. Besides, it is meaningful for future re­
searchers to conduct stakeholder analysis to better understand the
possible reactions and the impact of different stakeholders for indus­
trywide adoption of blockchain certificates.
Our case study analysis shows a strong relationship between the
technical quality of blockchain certification systems and their benefits
for individuals, organisations and society. We hereby propose that 1) the
system quality of blockchain certification systems is positively related to
the individual, organisational and societal benefits of the systems; 2) the
information quality of blockchain certification systems is positively
related to the individual, organisational and societal benefits of the
systems; 3) the service quality of blockchain certification systems is
positively related to the individual, organisational and societal benefits
of the systems. These relationships are proposed based on the qualitative
analysis of previous sections. Future research could consider conducting
empirical studies to test these relationships making use of the measures
identified in the study. Some other research opportunities lie in the
investigation of critical technical qualities of blockchain certification
systems and their impact on blockchain certification adoption.
Our analysis reveals challenges of adopting blockchain for certifi­
cation systems. A major common challenge is how to link blockchain
records with physical objects, such as physical artworks [53]. Inspired
by the nano mark provided by Alrosa for diamonds, it is worth studying
the potential of integrating blockchain technology with laser technology
or other technologies which could leave a special mark on physical
objects to solve the challenge. There are also challenges regarding
governance or regulations of blockchain systems. So far, laws regarding
the use of blockchain systems are still unclear in most countries,
particularly when cryptocurrency is involved. Related research ques­
tions can be how to design the governance mechanisms to ensure the
healthy development of blockchain certification systems and what are
the effective business strategies to handle the uncertainties caused by
unclear regulations. Challenges also exist for stakeholder management,
in view of their different market power, attitudes and possible conflicts.
Future research could consider the challenges of engaging different
stakeholders in the adoption of blockchain certification systems and
provide potential solutions.
6. Conclusions
This research analyses the benefits of blockchain for digital certifi­
cates using a multiple case study approach. In order to provide a
comprehensive and systematic analysis, a new benefits analysis frame­
work is proposed based on DeLone and McLone’s [33] IS success model
and Shang and Seddon’s [26] benefits framework. The proposed
framework enables a deeper understanding of the benefits of blockchain
certification systems. The investigation into six blockchain certification
cases indicates that although contextual variations exist, most of them
7
Technology in Society 72 (2023) 102176
share common benefits with enhanced quality of systems, information
and services, ease of verification, improved decision making and plan­
ning, attracting new customers or users and supporting business growth.
Future research opportunities are also identified from the analysis.
This research makes several contributions. Firstly, the research
makes an attempt to understand blockchain’s application in digital
certificates in a commercial context by analysing its benefits under
various case scenarios through the lens of stakeholders at different
levels. The results assist stakeholders and researchers to have a more
holistic view of the potential of blockchain certificates across industries.
Secondly, the proposed benefits analysis framework makes a theoretical
contribution to current literature on providing a roadmap to analyse the
benefits of an IS from multiple perspectives and at various levels. The
proposed framework also serves as a useful tool for organisations or
governments to identify the benefits of potential IS a doption and assess
if the expected benefits support their objectives or if the anticipated
benefits are realised after implementation. Lastly, this paper suggests
abundant future research directions and provides a research agenda
covering various dimensions of blockchain’s application in digital
certificates.
A major limitation of this paper is that it takes a qualitative study
method for benefits analysis. Due to the nature of this method, the re­
sults obtained in the study are qualitative in nature and are not validated
empirically. Future research could consider empirical testing to validate
the results by collecting relevant data through surveys or other
approaches.
Declaration of competing interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Data availability
The authors are unable or have chosen not to specify which data has
been used.
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore, under Project 04SBS000097C120.
Appendix A. Benefits model for blockchain certification system
I. Benefits in system quality
a. Ease of use
• Easy for users to navigate, enter, manage and retrieve information.
b. Security
• Ability to protect users’ online identity, data and assets in the
system.
c. Reliability
• The performance and data in the system can be trusted.
d. Privacy
• Ability to use the system without releasing users’ real-life
identities.
e. Flexibility
• Extendibility to external parties and expandability to a range of
applications.
II. Benefits in information quality
a. Accuracy
• Customers are assured of accuracy of data entered into the system.
b. Variety
• Ability to store, manage and provide various types of information
(e.g., year, author, ownership and condition report of an artwork).
S. Pu and J.S.L. Lam
c. Traceability
• Historical data such as ownership can be easily traced.
d. Customisation
• Ability of individual users to add any content appended to their
certificates to suit their needs.
e. Dynamic content
• Individual users are able to update information.
III. Benefits in service quality
a. Instant and easy verification
• Third parties can easily verify the certificates on the spot through
an app, a QR code or a URL.
b. Assurance
• Customers can be assured of the quality and authenticity of in­
formation provided in the digital certificates.
IV. Net benefits - individual
a. Positive impacts on individual users in terms of well-being, conve­
nience, and personal satisfaction through the entire user experience
cycle.
V. Net benefits - organisational
a. Operational benefits
• Cost reduction, time reduction, productivity enhancement and
quality improvement.
b. Managerial benefits
• Improvement in resource management, decision making, planning
and financial and sustainable performance.
c. Strategic benefits
• Improvement in competitive advantage, alignment, customer re­
lations, business growth and innovation.
VI. Net benefits - societal
a. Positive impacts on society from various aspects such as health, en­
ergy, climate, water, weather, biodiversity, disasters and ecosystems.
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