Kolb & Kolb 2005 Learning Styles & Learning Spaces

Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education
Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb

Source: Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 193-212
Published by: Academy of Management
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®Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2005, Vol. 4, No. 2, 193-212.
LearningStyles and Learning

Spaces: EnhancingExperiential
Learningin HigherEducation
ALICE Y. KOLB
Experience-BasedLearningSystems
DAVID A. KOLB
Case WesternReserveUniversity
Drawingon thefoundationaltheoriesofJohnDewey and KurtLewin,we examine recent

developmentsin theoryand researchon experientiallearningand explorehow thiswork
can enhance experientiallearningin highereducation.We introducetheconceptof
learningspace as a framework forunderstandingtheinterfacebetweenstudentlearning
learningenvironmentWe illustratethe use of thelearning
stylesand theinstitutional
space framework in threecase studiesoflongitudinalinstitutional
developmentFinally,
we presentprinciplesforthe enhancementofexperientiallearningin highereducation
and suggesthow experientiallearningcan be applied throughout the educational
environment developmentprograms,includinglongitudinaloutcome
by institutional
assessment curriculumdevelopmentstudentdevelopmentand facultydevelopment
"(Thereis a) need offorminga theoryofex- tools and techniquesto providelearnerswithex-

perience in orderthateducation may be in- periencesfromwhichtheycan learn. Othershave
telligentlyconducted upon the basis of used the termto describe learningthatis a mind-
"-John
experience. Dewey less recording of experience. Yet experiential
learning is above all a philosophyof education
so practicalas a goodtheory"
"Thereis nothing based on what Dewey (1938)called a "theoryof
- KurtLewin
experience."He argued thatwhile traditionaled-
ucation had littleneed fortheorysince practice
Recentefforts to improvehighereducation,includ- was determinedby tradition, thenew experiential
ing reports from the National Research Council approach to education needed a sound theoryof
(Bransford, Brown,& Cocking2000),the American experienceto guide its conduct.In this essay we
PsychologicalAssociation(1997),and a numberof examine the theoryofexperientiallearning(Kolb,
otherscholars(Baxter-Magolda,1999;Boyatzis,Co- 1984) and related research to explore how this
wen,& Kolb 1995;Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs2002;
and Associates, knowledge can be used to enhance learning in
King,2003;Light,2001;Mentkowski highereducation.
2000; Zull 2002) have focused on improvingthe We begin witha briefsummaryof experiential
learningprocessin educationthroughtheapplica-
tion of research fromwhat has been called "the learningtheory(ELT) and an overviewof current
researchbased on the theory.This is followedby
new science oflearning"(Branford, Brown,& Cock-
of this research is focused theintroduction oftwonew developmentsin ELT,a
ing, 2000).One stream
on the conceptof experientiallearning.Experien- refinement in theassessmentofexperientiallearn-
tial learning is oftenmisunderstoodas a set of ing stylesusing the LearningStyleInventory (LSI)
and the introductionof the concept of learning
space as a framework forunderstandingtheinter-
We thankJamesBailey,Sandy Bell, RichardBoyatzis,David face betweenstudentlearningstylesand theedu-
Justice,D. ChristopherKayes, Tony Lingham,Charalampos cational learning environmentbased on Lewin's
Mainemelis,VerenaMurphy, RonaldSims,BarrySheckley,Yo-
shi Yamazaki,and JamesZull fortheirhelpfulfeedbackon this concept of life space. Use of the learning space
manuscript. framework is illustratedin case studiesoflongitu-
193

^94 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June
dinal institutional
development in threediverse periencesintoexistingconceptsand accommodat-
in
programs higher education,theClevelandInsti- ingexistingconceptstonewexperience.
tuteofArt,theCase WesternReserveUniversity 6.Learning is theprocessofcreating knowledge.
undergraduate program, and the Case Weather- ELT proposesa constructivist theoryof learning
head School of ManagementMBAprogram.Fi- wherebysocial knowledgeis created and re-
nally,we presentprinciplesfortheenhancement createdin thepersonalknowledgeofthelearner.
ofexperiential learningin highereducationand Thisstandsincontrast tothe"transmission" model
suggest how experientiallearningcan be applied on whichmuchcurrenteducationalpracticeis
throughout theeducational environment by insti- based,wherepreexisting fixedideas are transmit-
tutionaldevelopment programs thatinclude longi- tedtothelearner.
tudinaloutcomeassessment,curriculum devel- ELT defineslearningas "theprocesswhereby
opment, student development,and faculty knowledgeis createdthrough thetransformation
development. ofexperience. Knowledgeresultsfrom thecombi-
nationofgraspingand transforming experience"
(Kolb,1984:41).TheELTmodelportrays twodialec-
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY -
tically related modes of grasping experience
Experiential learningtheory drawson theworkof ConcreteExperience (CE) and Abstract Conceptu-
20th
prominent century scholars who gave experi- alization (AC) - and two dialectically related
ence a centralrole in theirtheoriesof human modesoftransforming experience - Reflective Ob-
learning and -
developmentnotably John Dewey, servation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE).
KurtLewin,JeanPiaget,WilliamJames, CarlJung, Experiential learningis a processofconstructing
PauloFreire, CarlRogersand others - todevelopa knowledge involvesa creativetensionamong
that
holisticmodeloftheexperiential learningprocess thefourlearningmodesthatis responsive tocon-
and a multilinear model of adult development textualdemands.Thisprocessis portrayed as an
(Kolb,1984).Thetheory is builton sixpropositions idealized learningcycle or spiral where the
thatare sharedbythesescholars. learner"touchesall thebases"- experiencing, re-
1.Learning is bestconceivedas a process,notin flecting,thinking, and acting- in a recursive pro-
termsofoutcomes. To improve learningin higher cess thatis responsiveto the learningsituation
education, theprimary focusshouldbe on engag- and whatis beinglearned.Immediate orconcrete
ing students in a process thatbest enhances their experiences are the basis for observations and re-
- a
learning process that includes feedback on the flections.These reflections are assimilated and
effectiveness of theirlearningefforts. As Dewey distilledintoabstractconceptsfromwhichnew
notes,"[E]ducation mustbe conceivedas a con- implications foractioncan be drawn.Theseimpli-
tinuing reconstruction of experience: . . . the pro- cations can be activelytestedand serveas guides
cess and goal ofeducationare one and thesame in creatingnewexperiences. In TheArtofChang-
thing"(Dewey 1897:79). ing the Brain: Enriching Teaching byExploring the
2. All learningis relearning. Learning is best of
Biology Learning, James Zull, a biologist and
facilitated by a processthatdrawsout the stu- founding director ofCWRU'sUniversity Centerfor
dents'beliefsand ideas abouta topicso thatthey Innovationin Teachingand Education(UCITE),
can be examined, tested,and integrated withnew, sees a link betweenELT and neurosciencere-
morerefined ideas. search,suggesting thatthisprocessofexperiential
3. Learningrequiresthe resolution of conflicts learningis relatedtotheprocessofbrainfunction-
betweendialecticallyopposedmodesofadapta- ing(as shownin Fig. 1).
tionto the world.Conflict, differences, and dis-
agreement are whatdrivethelearningprocess.In Putintowords,thefigure illustrates thatcon-
theprocessoflearningone is calledupontomove creteexperiencescomethrough thesensory
backand forth betweenopposingmodesofreflec- cortex,reflective observation involvesthein-
tionand actionand feelingand thinking. tegrative cortex at the back, creating newab-
4. Learningis a holisticprocessofadaptationto stractconceptsoccursin thefrontal integra-
theworld.Notjusttheresultofcognition, learning tive cortex, and active testing involves the
involvestheintegrated functioning of the total per- motor brain. In other words, the learning cycle
son- thinking, feeling,perceiving,and behaving. arises fromthe structure of the brain(Zull
5. Learningresultsfromsynergetic transactions 2002:18-19).
betweenthe personand the environment. In Pi-
aget'sterms, learning occurs through equilibration Theconceptoflearningstyledescribesindivid-
ofthedialecticprocessesofassimilating newex- ual differences in learningbased on thelearner's

2005 Kolb and Kolb 195
Active
^T y^ Premotor/-^^ *\ ^^
W j^XFrontal and / 1 Sensory V ^
/ J motor/ J and ^J^^^. Concrete
Abstract integrate- ^/ / experience
^^f ^postsensory^X^^"
hypotheses~"^^\ cortex ( J*^' ) ) I
^^^^^^^^ Reflective y^^^^

observation
FIGURE 1
The ExperientialLearningCycle and Regions ofthe Cerebral Cortex.Note.Reprintedwithpermission
from(Zull 2002).
preferenceforemployingdifferent phases of the particularlearning style and life path- develop-

learning cycle. Because of our hereditaryequip- mentof CE increases affectivecomplexity, of RO
ment,our particularlife experiences,and the de- increases perceptualcomplexity, of AC increases
mands of our presentenvironment, we develop a symboliccomplexity,and of AE increases behav-
preferred of
way choosingamong the fourlearning ioral complexity.
modes.We resolvetheconflictbetweenbeing con-
creteor abstractand between being active or re-
RESEARCH ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
flectivein patterned,characteristicways.
THEORY
ELTas definedbyKolbpositsthatlearningis the
major determinantof human development,and ELT was developed followingLewin's plan forthe
how individuals learn shapes the course of their creationof scientificknowledgeby conceptualiz-
personal development.His previousresearchhas ing phenomena throughformal,explicit,testable
shownthatlearningstylesare influencedby per- theory.In Lewin's approach,"beforea systemcan
sonality type,educational specialization, career be fullyusefultheconceptsin ithave tobe defined
choice,and currentjob role and tasks (Kolb,1984). in a way that(1) permitsthe treatment ofboththe
Yamazaki (2002,2003)has recentlyidentifiedcul- qualitative and quantitativeaspects of phenom-
tural influencesas well. The ELT developmental ena in a single system,(2) adequately represents
model (Kolb, 1984)definesthreestages: (1) acqui- the conditional-genetic(or causal) attributesof
sition,frombirthto adolescence, wherebasic abil- phenomena,(3) facilitatesthemeasurement(orop-
ities and cognitivestructuresdevelop; (2) special- erationaldefinition) ofthese attributes,and (4) al-
ization,fromformalschooling throughthe early lows both generalizationto universal laws and
work and personal experiences of adulthood, concretetreatmentof the individual case" (Cart-
where social, educational, and organizational wright,1951:ix). A theorydeveloped by this pro-
socialization forcesshape the developmentof a cess can be a powerfulinstrument forstimulating
particular,specialized learningstyle;and (3) inte- and focusingscholarlyresearchconversation.
gration in midcareerand later life, where non- Since its firststatementin 1971(Kolb,1971;Kolb,
dominantmodesoflearningare expressedin work Rubin,& Mclntyre,1971),therehave been many
and personal life. Development throughthese studies using ELT to advance thetheoryand prac-
stages is characterizedby increasingcomplexity tice ofexperientiallearning.The July2005update
and relativismin adapting to the world and by of the ExperientialLearningTheoryBibliography
increased integrationof the dialectic conflictsbe- (Kolb & Kolb,2005)includes 1876entries.Because
tweenAC and CE and AE and RO. Developmentis ELT is a holistictheoryof learningthatidentifies
conceivedas multilinear, based on an individual's learning style differencesamong differentaca-

196 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June
demicspecialties,it is notsurprising to see that again in 1999.Recentcritiquehas been morefo-

ELTresearchis highlyinterdisciplinary, address- cusedonthetheory thantheinstrumentexamining
ing learning and educational issues in many the intellectualoriginsand underlying assump-
fields.Ananalysisofthe 1004entriesin the 1999 tionsofELTfromwhatmightbe called a critical
bibliography (Kolb,Boyatzis,& Mainemelis, 2001) theoryperspective, wherethe theoryis seen as
shows207studiesin management, 430in educa- individualistic, and technological
cognitivist, (e.g.,
tion,104ininformation science,101inpsychology, Vince,1998;Holman,Pavlica,& Thorpe,1997;Hop-
72inmedicine, 63innursing, 22inaccounting and kins,1993).Kayes (2002)has reviewedtheseand
5 in law.About55%ofthisresearchhas appeared othercriticsofELTand offered his owncritiqueof
inrefereed journalarticles,20%indoctoraldisser- the critics.He suggeststhatcriticshave over-
tations,10% in booksand book chapters, and 15% lookedtheroleofVygotsky's social-constructivist
in conference proceedings, research reports, and learningtheory in theELTtheory ofdevelopment
othervenues. and the role of personalknowledgeand social
Therehave beentwocomprehensive reviewsof knowledgein experiential learning.He proposes
the ELT one
literature, qualitative and one quanti- an extension ofELTbased onLacan'spoststructur-
tative.In 1991Hickcoxextensively reviewedthe alistanalysisthatelaboratesthefracturebetween
theoretical originsofELT and qualitatively ana- personaland social knowledgeand therolethat
lyzed81studiesthatfocusedon theapplicationof languageplaysin shapingexperience.
theELTmodelas wellas on theapplicationofthe
conceptoflearningstylein accounting and busi-
LEARNING STYLE ASSESSMENT
ness education, helpingprofessions, medicalpro-
fessions,postsecondary educationand teachered- Muchoftheresearchon ELT has focusedon the
ucation.She concludedthatoverall61.7%of the conceptoflearningstyleusingtheLearningStyle
studiessupported ELT,16.1%showedmixedsup- Inventory (LSI)toassess individuallearningstyles
port,and 22.2%did notsupportELT.In 1994Iliff (Kolb1971,1999a,b; see also Hickox, 1991).Although
conducted a meta-analysis of101quantitative LSI individualstestedon theLSI showmanydifferent
studiesculledfrom 275dissertations and 624arti- patternsofscores,previousresearchwiththein-
cles thatwerequalitative, theoretical,and quanti- strument has identified fourlearningstylesthat
tativestudiesofELTand theKolbLearningStyle are associatedwithdifferent approachestolearn-
Inventory (LSI; Kolb 1971,1985,1999a;see also ing:diverging, assimilating, converging, and ac-
Hickox,1991).Ilifffoundthat49 studiesshowed commodating. The following summary ofthefour
strongsupportfortheLSI,40 showedmixedsup- basic learningstylesis based on bothresearch
port, and 12studiesshowednosupport. Abouthalf and clinicalobservation of thesepatternsofLSI
ofthe 101studiesreported sufficient data on the scores(Kolb,1984,1999a).
LSI scales tocomputeeffect sizes bywayofmeta- An individualwithdiverging stylehas CE and
analysis.Moststudiesreported correlations that RO as dominantlearningabilities.People with
fellin the.2 to .5 rangefortheLSI scales. In con- thislearningstyleare best at viewingconcrete
clusionIliff suggestedthatthemagnitude ofthese situations from manydifferent pointsofview.The
statisticsis notsufficient tomeetstandardsofpre- styleis labeled"diverging" becausea personwith
dictivevalidity, whilenotingthattheLSI was not itperforms betterin situations thatcall forgener-
intended tobe a predictive psychological testlike ationofideas,suchas a "brainstorming" session.
IQ, GRE,or GMAT.The LSI was originally devel- Peoplewitha diverging learningstylehavebroad
oped as a self-assessment exerciseand a means culturalinterests and like to gatherinformation.
forconstruct validationofELT.Judged bythestan- Theyare interested inpeople,tendtobe imagina-
dardsofconstruct validity,ELT has been widely tiveand emotional, have broadculturalinterests,
acceptedas a usefulframework forlearningcen- and tendtospecializein thearts.In formal learn-
terededucationalinnovation, includinginstruc- ingsituations, peoplewiththediverging stylepre-
tionaldesign,curriculum development, and life- fertoworkin groups,tolistenwithan openmind,
long learning. Academic field and job and toreceivepersonalized feedback.
classification studiesviewedas a wholealso show Anindividualwithan assimilating stylehas AC
a pattern ofresultsconsistent withtheELTstruc- and RO as dominantlearningabilities.People
tureofknowledge theory. withthislearningstyleare bestat understanding
Mostofthedebateand critiquein theELT/LSI a wide rangeof information and puttingit into
literature has centeredon thepsychometric prop- concise,logicalform. Individualswithan assimi-
ertiesoftheLSI. Resultsfromthisresearchhave latingstyleare less focusedon peopleand more
beenofgreatvalue in revisingtheLSI in 1985and interested in ideas and abstractconcepts.Gener-

ally, people withthis stylefindit moreimportant tion."Thispersonhas difficulty in conceptualizing

thata theoryhave logical soundness than practi- or making meaning of experience;consequently,
cal value. The assimilatinglearningstyleis impor- the cycle runs fromfeelings to reflection(which
tant foreffectivenessin information and science remains unconsolidated) to action. The conse-
careers.In formallearningsituations,people with quence ofthisNortherly patternis thatthe flowis
thisstylepreferreadings,lectures,exploringana- discontinuous and the actions are poorly or-
lytical models, and having time to thinkthings ganized since theyare not informedby the foun-
through. dation ofAC meaning"(Hunt,1987:155).
An individual witha convergingstyle has AC The Easterneremphasizes reflecting(RO) while
and AE as dominantlearningabilities.People with balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The
this learning style are best at findingpractical learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for
uses forideas and theories.Theyhave the ability deep reflectioninformedby the abilityto be both
to solve problemsand make decisions based on feelingorientedand conceptual."Personswithan
findingsolutionstoquestionsorproblems.Individ- Easterlypatternhave troubleputtingplans into
uals with a converginglearning style preferto action. Consequently,theyspend muchtimebur-
deal withtechnicaltasksand problemsratherthan ied in thought.Because the action is shortcir-
withsocial and interpersonalissues. These learn- cuited, their thoughtsare about their feelings
ing skills are importantforeffectivenessin spe- ratherthan about theirdirectactions; this imbal-
cialist and technologycareers.In formallearning anced cycle lacks the rejuvenationprovided by
situations,people withthis stylepreferto experi- actions" (Hunt,1987:155).
mentwithnew ideas, simulations,laboratoryas- The Southerneremphasizes thinking(AC) while
signments,and practicalapplications. balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The
An individualwithan accommodatingstylehas learning strengthsof this styleare highlydevel-
CE and AE as dominantlearningabilities. People oped conceptualand analyticcapabilities thatare
withthis learningstylehave the abilityto learn informedboth by reflectionand action. "Persons
fromprimarily"hands-on"experience.Theyenjoy witha Southerlypatternare notin touchwiththeir
carryingout plans and involvingthemselves in feelings. They reflecton the mechanics of their
new and challengingexperiences.Theirtendency actionswithoutbenefitofemotionalfeedback.The
may be to act on "gut" feelings ratherthan on reflectionmay lead to reformulation of concepts
logical analysis. In solvingproblems,individuals but the revisionis mechanical and sterile"(Hunt,
withan accommodatinglearningstylerelymore 1987:155).
heavily on people forinformation than on their The Westerneremphasizes acting (AE) while
own technicalanalysis. This learningstyleis im- balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The
portantforeffectiveness in action-oriented
careers learningstrengthsof this style are highlydevel-
such as marketingor sales. In formallearningsit- oped action skills thatare informedbothby con-
uations,people withthe accommodatinglearning ceptual analysis and intuitiveexperience."In this
stylepreferto workwithothersto get assignments pattern,the Westernergoes directlyfromfeelings
done,to set goals, to do fieldwork,and to testout to conceptualizingwithoutsortingouttheconcrete
different approaches to completinga project. experience. Consequently,the initial conceptual
Recenttheoreticaland empiricalworkis show- framework is likelyto be unclear,withlittlepossi-
ing thatthe originalfourlearningstyles- assimi- bility to correct it throughreflection"(Hunt,1987:
lating, converging,accommodating,and diverg- 155).
ing- can be expanded toshowninedistinctstyles. A "Balancing"learningstylehas been identified
David Hunt and his associates (Abby,Hunt, & by Mainemelis,Boyatzis,and Kolb (2002)thatinte-
Weiser,1985;Hunt1987)identifiedfouradditional gratesAC and CE and AE and RO. In thisstudywe
learning styles,which they identifiedas North- employed the Learning Style Inventory(Kolb
erner,Easterner,Southerner,and Westerner.The 1999a),the AdaptiveStyleInventory (ASI,Boyatzis
following descriptions of these styles include & Kolb 1993),and the LearningSkills Profile(LSP,
Hunt'sanalysis, which emphasizes the impactof Boyatzis& Kolb, 1991,1995,1997)to test a funda-
thestyle'sweakest learningmode on the learner's mentalELT hypothesis:The morebalanced people
learningprocess. are in theirlearning orientationon the LSI, the
The Northerner emphasizes feeling (CE) while greaterwill be theiradaptive flexibility on theASI.
balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The To assess a balanced LSI profile,we used two
learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for indicatorsof a balanced learning profile,using
deep involvementwhile being comfortablein the absolute LSI scores on the Abstract/Concrete and
outerworldofactionand theinnerworldofreflec- Active/Reflective dimensions. The results sup-

^98 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June
portedourhypotheses, showingthatpeople with Thisresearchthatincreasesthe"resolution" of

balancedlearningprofilesin bothdimensionsof thelearningstyletypegridfrom fourtoninepixels
theLSI are moreadoptivelyflexiblelearnersas mayhelptodeal witha common misconception of
measuredbytheASI.Therelationship was stron- ELTlearningstyles;thatis, thetendency to treat
ger forthe profilebalanced on theAbstract/Con- thefourlearningstylesas fourcategoricalentities
cretedimension thantheActive/Reflectivedimen- ratherthancontinuouspositionson the dimen-
sion.Otherresultsshowedthatindividualswith sionsofAC-CEandAE-RO.Gould(2003)inhislast
specializedLSIlearningstyleshavea greater level bookwritesextensively aboutthebias in science
of skill development in the commensurate skill thatarises fromsuch dichotomous thinking. Al-
quadrant oftheLSP. The also
study produced some the
though simple formatofthe LSI may limit em-
unexpected results.Forexample,althoughwe pre- piricalidentification; thereare many
theoretically,
dictedthatspecializedlearningstyleswouldshow identifiablelearningstylesalong these two di-
less adaptiveflexibility on the ASI, the results mensions(nottomention otherdimensions identi-
showedthatthisis truefortheabstractlearning fiedby otherlearningstyletheories). Elsewhere
stylesbutnotfortheconcrete styles. we have attempted toaddressthisbias:
Theninelearningstylesoutlinedabove can be
definedbyplacingthemonthelearningstyletype
grid(Kolb1999a:6).Insteadofdividingthegridat Whenit is used in the simple,straightfor-
the50thpercentiles oftheLSI normative distribu- ward,andopenwayintended, theLSIusually
tionsforAC-CE and AE-RO,thenine stylesare an
provides interesting and
self-examination
definedby dividingthe two normative distribu- discussionthatrecognizesthe uniqueness,
tionsintothirds.(On the AE-ROdimensionthe complexity in individualap-
and variability
activeregionsare definedby raw scores ^ 12, proaches learning. dangerlies in the
to The
whilethe reflective regionsare definedby raw oflearningstylesintofixedtraits,
reification
scores< -1. On theAC-CE dimensionthecon- suchthatlearningstylesbecomestereotypes
creteregionsare definedby< - 1and theabstract used topigeonholeindividualsand theirbe-
regionsby> 12.(See Fig 2.) havior(Kolb,1981:290-291).
CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW N NE
Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
Accommodating Northerner Diverging
ACTIVE Zm Fefung RefiLg REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feelmg-Thinking + Reflecting Feeling-Thinking
Acting OBSERVATION
Thinking
Westerner Balancing Easterner
SW S SE
Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Acting-Reflecting
Converging Southerner Assimilating
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE2
The Nine-RegionLearningStyleTypeGrid

Is learningstylea fixedtraitor dynamicstate? thingelse thatmighthave directeffecton behav-

ELT clearly defines learning style as a dynamic ior.The various factorsin a given lifespace are to
statearisingfroman individual'spreferential res- some degree interdependent, and Lewin strongly
olutionof the dual dialectics of experiencing/con- maintainsthatonly the dynamicconceptsof ten-
ceptualizingand acting/reflecting. sion and forcecan deal withthese sets ofinterde-
pendentfacts.This is what led himto definepsy-
The stabilityand enduranceofthese states in chological needs as tension systems and their
individuals comes not solely fromfixed ge- topologicalrepresentation as vectorstodenotemo-
neticqualities orcharacteristics
ofhumanbe- tion.Lewin postulatedthatthe particularorgani-
ings: nor,for that matter,does it come from zationofa person'slifespace was determinedbya
the stable fixed demands of environmental fieldof forces- both internalneeds and external
circumstances.Rather,stable and enduring demands- thatpositionedthe individualin a life
patternsof human individualityarise from space composed of different regions.Using map-
consistentpatternsof transactionbetween like representation,the life space could be de-
the individualand his or herenvironment ... picted topologically.Life spaces can vary in a
The way we process the possibilitiesofeach numberofdimensions,includingextension,differ-
new emergingeventdeterminesthe range of entiation,integration, and level of conflict.Lewin
choices and decisions we see. The choices introduceda numberofconceptsforanalysis ofthe
and decisions we make to some extentdeter- lifespace and a person'srelationshipto itthatare
mine the events we live through,and these applicable to the studyoflearningspaces, includ-
events influenceour futurechoices. Thus, ing position, region, locomotion,equilibriumof
people create themselvesthroughthe choice forces,positiveand negative valence, barriersin
of actual occasions they live through(Kolb the personand the world,conflict, and goal.
1984:63-64). Three othertheoreticalframeworksinformthe
ELT conceptof learningspace. UrieBronfrenbren-
Nonetheless,in practice and research there is a ner's (1977,1979)work on the ecology of human
markedtendencyto treatlearningstyleas a fixed developmenthas made significantsociological
personalitytrait (e.g., Garner,2000). Individuals contributions to Lewin's life space concept.Bron-
oftenreferto themselves and others as though frenbrenner definesthe ecologyoflearning/devel-
learningstylewas a fixedcharacteristic:"I have opmentspaces as a topologicallynested arrange-
trouble making decisions because I am a di- mentofstructures, each containedwithinthenext.
verger.""He likes to workalone because he is an The learner'simmediatesetting,such as a course
assimilator."To emphasize the dynamicnatureof or classroom, is called the microsystem, while
learning style,the latest version of the LSI has otherconcurrent settings in the person's life such
changed the stylenames fromdivergerto diverg- as othercourses,thedorm,orfamilyare referred to
ing,and so on. as the mesosystem.The exosysfemencompasses
the formaland informalsocial structuresthatin-
fluencetheperson'simmediateenvironment, such
LEARNING SPACE
as institutionalpolicies and proceduresand cam-
To elaborate further the complex,dynamicnature pus culture.Finally,themacrosystem refersto the
of learningstyleand its formation throughtrans- overarching institutional patterns and values of
actions between the person and environment we the wider culture,such as the culturalvalues fa-
introducethe conceptof learningspace. The con- voringabstract knowledgeover practical knowl-
ceptoflearningspace builds on KurtLewin'sfield edge, thatinfluenceactorsin theperson'simmedi-
theoryand his concept of life space. For Lewin, ate microsystemand mesosystem.This theory
bothperson and environment are interdependent provides a frameworkforanalysis of the social
a
variables, concept Lewin translated intoa math- systemfactorsthatinfluencelearners'experience
ematical formula,B = f(p,e)where behavior is a oftheirlearningspaces.
functionof person and environment. As Marrow Anotherimportantcontribution to the learning
puts it, "the life space is the total psychological space concept is situated learningtheory(Lave &
environment whichthepersonexperiencessubjec- Wenger 1991). Like ELT, situated learning theory
tively"(1969:35).Lifespace includesall factswhich draws on Vygot sky's(1978)activitytheoryofsocial
have existenceforthe person and excludes those cognitionfora conceptionofsocial knowledgethat
which do not. It embraces needs, goals, uncon- conceivesoflearningas a transactionbetweenthe
scious influences,memories,beliefs,events of a person and the social environment. Situationsin
political,economic,and social nature,and any- situated learning theorysuch as life space and

learningspace are notnecessarilyphysicalplaces learning regions and integrativeor balancing

but constructsof the person's experience in the learningregions.The regionsof the ELT learning
social environment. These situationsare embed- space offera typologyof the different types of
ded in communitiesofpracticethathave a history, learning based on the extentto which theyrequire
norms,tools,and traditionsofpractice.Knowledge action versus reflection,experiencing versus
resides notin theindividual'shead but in commu- thinking, therebyemphasizingsome stages ofthe
nities of practice.Learning is thus a process of learningcycle overothers.
becominga memberof a communityof practice The learningprocess in specialized learningre-
throughlegitimateperipheralparticipation(e.g., gions, accommodating,diverging,assimilating,
apprenticeship).Situatedlearningtheoryenriches and converging,stronglyemphasizes one pole of
the learningspace conceptby remindingus that the feeling/thinking dialectic and one pole of the
learningspaces extendbeyondtheteacherand the acting/reflectingdialectic. Individuals in the NW
classroom.Theyinclude socializationintoa wider regionlearn primarilythroughactingand feeling.
community of practicethatinvolvesmembership, In theNE regionlearnersemphasizereflecting and
identity formation,transitioning fromnoviceto ex- feeling.In the SE region learners emphasize re-
pert throughmentorship, and experience in the flectingand thinking. In theSW regionindividuals
activitiesof the practice,as well as the reproduc- learn throughthinkingand acting.
tionand developmentofthecommunity ofpractice In the integrativelearningregions,N, E, S, W,
itselfas newcomersreplace old-timers. and C, thelearningprocess integratesthepoles of
Finally,in theirtheoryof knowledge creation, one or both of the two dialectics. The learning
Nonaka and Konno (1998)introducethe Japanese
process in the N regionintegratesacting and re-
conceptof ba, a "contextthat harborsmeaning," flectingwitha primaryemphasis on feeling.In the
whichis a shared space thatis the foundationfor E region the learning process integratesfeeling
knowledgecreation."Knowledgeis embedded in and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on reflect-
ba, where it is then acquired throughone's own
on theexperiencesofoth- ing. In the S regionlearnersintegrateactingand
experienceorreflections reflecting witha primaryemphasis on thinking. In
ers" (Nonaka & Konno, 1998:40). Knowledge em- feel-
the W regionthe learningprocess integrates
bedded inba is tacitand can onlybe made explicit
ing and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on ac-
throughsharingof feelings,thoughts,and experi- tion.In thecentralregionlearnerstake an integra-
ences of persons in the space. For this to happen
tive approach to learning that balances feeling,
theba space requiresthatindividualsremovebar-
riersbetweenone anotherin a climatethatempha- thinking, acting,and reflecting.
sizes "care,love,trust,and commitment." The ELT learningspace conceptemphasizesthat
Learning
spaces similarlyrequire normsof psychological learningis notone universalprocessbuta map of
learning territories, a frameof referencewithin
safety,serious purpose, and respect to promote
learning.
whichmanydifferent ways oflearningcan flourish
In ELTtheexperientiallearningspace is defined and interrelate.It is a holisticframework thatori-
bytheattracting and repellingforces(positiveand ents the many different ways of learningto one
another.As Lewin put it,
negative valences) of the two poles of the dual
dialectics of action/reflection and experiencing/
conceptualizing,creating a two-dimensional map
of the regionsof the learningspace. Individuals' Actually,the termlearningrefersto a multi-
learningstyle positionsthemin one of these re-
tude of different phenomena.The statement,
"Democracy, one has to learn, autocracyis
gions depending on the equilibrium of forces
among action, reflection,experiencing,and con- imposed on the person,"refersto one typeof
ceptualizing.As withtheconceptoflifespace, this learning.Ifone says thatthespastic childhas
positionis determinedby a combinationof indi- to learn to relax one is speakingofa different
vidual dispositionand characteristicsofthelearn- type of learning. Both types probablyhave
ingenvironment. The LSI measuresan individual's verylittleto do withlearningFrenchvocabu-
preference fora particularregionof the learning lary,and thistypeagain has littleto do with
space, that individual's"homeregion"so to speak. learningto like spinach.Have we any rightto
Learners'scoreson theLSI place themin one ofthe classify learning to high-jump,to get along
nine regionsdepictedin Figure2, each ofwhichis withalcohol, and to be friendlywithpeople
associated witha specificprocessoflearningfrom underthe same term,and to expectidentical
experience.These regionsare named forthepoints laws toholdforany oftheseprocesses?(Cited
of the compass and are divided into specialized in Cartwright, 1951:65).

Experientiallearningcan be viewed as a pro- dentdevelopmentworkshops,and facultydevelop-

cess of locomotionthroughthe learning regions mentseminars(A.Kolb& Lingham2002;Eickmann,
that is influencedby a person's position in the A. Kolb, & D. Kolb, 2003). The Case programto
learningspace. Researchusing theAdaptiveStyle enhance experientiallearningin the undergradu-
Inventory(ASI; Boyatzis& Kolb, 1993)has shown ate curriculuminvolves longitudinaloutcomeas-
thatindividualsvaryin theirabilityto moveabout sessment,curriculumdevelopment,facultydevel-
the learningspace fromtheirhome region(e.g.,a opment,and studentdevelopment.
personscoringin thesouthernregionmovingfrom
the thinking-oriented southernregionto the feel-
northern ComparingLearningStylesofCase Management
ing-oriented region)and thatthiscapac- and CIA ArtStudents
ity adapt flexibly changinglearningcontexts
to to
is related to higherstages of adult development Figures 3 and 4 show how the learningstyles of
(Kolb,1984,chap. 8). One's positionin thelearning managementand art studentsare distributedin
space defines that person's experience and thus thelearningregions.Artstudentsare concentrated
definestheir"reality".Lewin stresses the impor- in the feeling-orientednorthernregions of the
tance foreducationofdefiningthe learningspace learning space, while managementstudentsare
in termsofthe learner'sexperience: concentratedin the thinking-oriented southernre-
gions. Forty-twopoint one percent of art students
One ofthebasic characteristics offieldtheory are in the northernregions,while 23.6%are in the
in psychology,as I see it,is the demand that south.Forty-five point seven percentof manage-
the field which influences an individual ment studentsare in the southernregions with
shouldbe describednotin objectivephysical- 21.2% in the north.More art studentsare in the
istic terms,but in the way that it exists for easternregionsthanin thewesternregions(35.2%
that person at that time... A teacher will to 26.3%).More managementstudentsare in the
neversucceed in givingproperguidance to a westernregionsthanin theeasternregions(36.3%
child if he does not learn to understandthe to 30.4%).Amongartstudentsthe SW regionis the
psychological world in which that child least populated (3.7%),while the least-populated
lives ... To substituteforthat world of the regionformanagementstudentsis the NE (5.1%).
individual the world of the teacher,of the Ten pointtwopercentofmanagementstudentsare
physicist,or ofanybodyelse is to be, notob- in the balancing centralregion,while 12.5%ofart
jective,but wrong(Cited in Cartwright, 1951: studentsare there.Boyatzisand Mainemelisfound
62). significantcorrelationsbetweenabstractlearning
styles and grades and GMAT indicatinga bias
toward abstraction in evaluation and selection
LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
practices.For BFA graduates,therewas no rela-
To illustratethe concept of learning space, we tionshipbetweengrades and learningstyle.
presentdata showing the distributionof student
learningstylesin threeinstitutions ofhigheredu-
cation that are engaged in ComparingLearningSpaces in Managementand
longitudinalinstitu- the Arts
tionaldevelopmentprogramsto promotelearning:
the Case Weatherhead School of Management Our observationsof the way the educational pro-
MBAprogram,theCleveland InstituteofArtunder- cess is conductedin art schools and management
graduateprogram,and the Case WesternReserve schools reveal some strikingdifferencesthatgive
Universityundergraduate program. The Case insightintothe natureof learningin the different
Weatherheadinstitutionaldevelopmentprogram, learningregions.Dewey's distinctionbetweenar-
reportedin Innovationin ProfessionalEducation: tisticand scientificlearninghelps us understand
Steps on a JourneyFrom Teaching to Learning the differencebetween the kinds of learningthat
(Boyatzis,Cowen, & Kolb 1995),focusedon curric- occurin arteducationand in managementeduca-
ulumdevelopment,studentdevelopment,and lon- tion:
gitudinaloutcomeassessment(Boyatzis,Stubbs,&
Taylor,2002).MBA studentlearningstyle data is The rhythm of loss of integrationwithenvi-
fromBoyatzisand Mainemelis(2000).The program ronmentand recoveryof union not onlyper-
at the Cleveland InstituteofArtis partofa longi- sistsin man,butbecomesconsciouswithhim;
tudinalstudyofartisticlearningconductedby the its conditionsare material out of which he
Ohio Consortiumon Artisticlearninginvolvinga formspurposes.Emotionis theconscioussign
longitudinalstudyof artisticlearningstyles,stu- of a break,actual or impending.The discord

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW N NE
Acting-Reflecting
10.1% 6% 5.1%
ACTIVE AIg ^ J*^ REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + ReflectingFeeling-Thinking
Acting OBSERVATION
Thinking
13.5% 10.2% 9.3%
SW S SE
Acting-Reflecting
12.7% 17% 16%
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE3
LearningStyles MBAStudents(N = 1286)
of
is theoccasionthatinducesreflection. Desire tive remotenessof his end, the scientific

forrestoration of the unionconvertsmere workeroperateswithsymbols,words,and
emotionintointerest in objectsas conditions mathematical signs.Theartistdoeshisthink-
of realizationof harmony. Withthe realiza- ing in theveryqualitativemediahe worksin,
tion,material ofreflection is incorporated into and thetermslie so closetotheobjectthathe
objects as their meaning. Since the artist is producing thattheymergedirectly intoit
cares in a peculiarway forthephase ofex- (Dewey, 1934:
15-16).
periencein whichunionis achieved,he does
notshunmoments ofresistanceand tension. awarenessofdifferences
A first in themanage-
He rathercultivatesthem,notfortheirown mentand artslearningspaces came as we were
sake but because of their potentialities, preparinga learningstyleworkshop forart stu-
bringing to livingconsciousnessan experi- dents.We asked whatreadingswe shouldgive
encethatis unified and total.Incontrast with and theprovost, Paul Eickmann, said,"Youknow,
thepersonwhosepurposeis esthetic, thesci- forartstudentslearningis nottextdriven."This
entificmanis interested in problems, in situ- stoodin dramaticcontrast withmanagement edu-
ationswhereintensionbetweenthematter of cation,whichis almostentirely organizedaround
observationand of thoughtis marked.Of textsthatdeliveran authoritative dis-
scientific
coursehe cares fortheirresolution. Buthe course.The scientific basis of the management
does notrestin it; he passes on to another curriculum was establishedin 1959byan influen-
problem usingan attainedsolutiononlyas a tialCarnegieFoundation report thatsoughttoim-
steppingstoneon whichtoseton footfurther prove the intellectualrespectability of manage-
inquires. menteducationbygrounding itin threescientific
Thedifference betweentheesthetic andthe disciplines:economics, mathematics, and behav-
intellectualis thusone of the place where ioralscience.
emphasisfalls in the constantrhythm that The text-drivenapproachofmanagement edu-
markstheinteraction ofthelivecreature with cation contrastswiththe experientiallearning
hissurroundings . . . Becauseofthecompara- process of demonstration-practice-production-

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW N NE
Acting-Reflecting
13.8% 17.2% 11.1%
ACTIVE Ac*g pJLg RefiLg REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + Reflecting Feeling-Thinking
Acting OBSERVATION
Thinking
8.8% 12.5% 13%
SW S SE
Acting-Reflecting
3.7% 8.8% 11.1%
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 4
Learning Style Distributionof CIA Graduating Students (N = 216)
critiquethatis used in mostartclasses (see Table spenton studentperformance, mostofwhichoc-

1).Thisprocessis repeatedrecursively in artedu- curson testsand papers.In artclasses, thema-
cation,while management education is primarily jorityofthetimeis spenton studentexpression
witheach topiccoveredin a linearse-
discursive, of ideas and skills. Arteducationtends to be
quence withlittlerecursiverepetition. Manage- withsmall classes and individ-
individualized,
menteducationfocuseson telling;arteducation ual attention,while managementeducationis
emphasizes showing. Managementeducation organizedintolarge classes withlimitedindi-
tendsto emphasizetheory; arteducationempha- vidualizedattention.An assistant dean at the
sizesintegrationoftheoryand practice. Arteduca- ColumbusCollege of Artand Design who ma-
tionfocusesonthelearners'inside-out expression; joredin musicas an undergraduate and latergot
management educationon outside-in impression. an MBA,contrasted the3 hoursa weekhe spent
Mosttimein managementclasses is spentcon- in individualtutorialwithhis mentorwiththe
veyinginformation with relativelylittle time shockhe experiencedin enteringa tieredMBA
classroomof200students.Finally,arteducation
TABLE 1 tendstobe represented byfacultymemberswith
Comparison of Arts Education and Management diverse learningstyles,whereas management
Education education tends to favor specialized faculty
memberswitha primarily abstractlearningori-
ArtsEducation ManagementEducation entation.
Aesthetic Scientific
Demo-practice-production-critique Textdriven LongitudinalLocomotion in theArtsLearning
Recursive Discursive
Theoryand practice Theory
Space
Showing Telling LongitudinalLSI scoresfromCIA studentsat the
Expression
Individualized
Impression
Batched beginningoftheirfreshman andjunioryearsshow
Diversefaculty Abstractfaculty a significant
movement amongstudentsfromthe
reflective
easternregionsto the active western

regions,perhaps indicatingstudentgrowthand Skill Developmentand LearningRegions

developmenttoward a more active role in their
own learningas a resultoftheempowering, active Table 3 shows the relationshipbetween the posi-
structure ofthe CIA learningenvironment (see Ta- tionofCase freshmenin the learningregionsand
ble 2). Longitudinalstudies ofLSI changes among theirlearningskills as measured by the Learning
undergraduates in Alverno College's program, Skills Profile.Five of the 12 learning skill areas
which emphasizes competency development show significantF values. All three conceptual
throughactive experientiallearning,show similar skill areas, TheoryBuilding,QuantitativeAnaly-
movementfromthe reflectiveto active learning sis, and Technologyskills show significantdiffer-
regionsacross thefreshmanto senioryears (Ment- ences among regions.Tukeyand Scheffetestsin-
kowski& Strait1983;Mentkowskiand Associates, dicate thattheoryskills are highestin the S and
2000). SW and lowestin theNE region.Quantitativeanal-
ysis skills are highestin the S and lowest in the
NW,N, and NE regions.Amongthe interpersonal
skillareas, onlyhelp skillswere significant across
LearningStylesofCase Undergraduates regions, with the NW higher
significantly than the
of Case freshmen S region.In the action skills area, only initiative
Figure5 shows the distribution
in thelearningregions.As mightbe expectedfrom skills were significantwiththe NW area signifi-
a researchuniversityliberal arts programwitha cantlyhigherthantheE, SE, and C regions.Noneof
theinformation skillareas weresignificantamong
strongemphasis on science and engineering,the
regions.
patternof LSI scores shows a distributionacross
the learning regions that is similar to the Case
MBA programin its emphasis on the abstract
southernregions.Forty-nine percentofCase fresh- Summary
men are positioned in the southernregions (vs. The portraitsof institutionallearningspaces pre-
47.5%MBAs) and 16.8%of the freshmenare in the sented above suggest thatstudentlearningstyle
northern regions(vs. 21.2%MBAs).As withtheMBA scores may be a way to describe the institutional
students,there are significantcorrelationsbe- learningspaces experiencedby students.In par-
tweenabstractselectioncriteria,(SAT scores),and ticularthecomparisonbetweentheobservededu-
abstractLSI scores (r = .32). However,the Case cational programsand teaching methodsof CIA
freshmen are moresimilarto theCIA graduatesin arts education and Case MBA education seems
theirdistributionin the eastern and westernre- consistentwith respective student LSI distribu-
pointfivepercentof Case fresh-
gions. Thirty-five tionsin the nine-regionlearningspace, withMBA
men are in the eastern regions (vs. 35.2% CIA). studentsprimarilyin the southernthinkingand
Twenty-three pointthreepercentofCase freshmen westernacting regions,and arts studentsfalling
are in thewesternregions(vs. 26.3%CIA). The NW mainlyin the northern feelingand easternreflec-
is theleast populatedlearningregion(3.5%),while tionregions.The corresponding discursive,telling,
theS regionhas thegreatestnumberofCase fresh- educational methodsofthe MBAprogramand the
men (19.4%). recursive,showing,techniques of the art school
TABLE2
Year
CIA Students'LearningStyleat the Beginningofthe Freshmanand Junior
Freshman(2000) (2001)
Junior
LSI Scores n M SD M SD ta
Experiencing(CE) 77 26.31 6.07 26.87 6.64 -0.66

(RO)
Reflecting 77 31.36 6.56 29.23 7.00 2.42**
Conceptualizing(AC) 77 28.88 6.28 29.34 7.47 -0.54
Acting(AE) 77 32.88 6.48 34.56 6.80 -1.95*
AC-CE 77 2.57 9.97 2.47 11.88 0.08
AE-RO 77 1.52 11.40 5.32 11.56 -2.61**
a
Significancelevels are forpaired sample t testsas two-tailedtests.
*p < .05.**p < .01.

CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
NW N NE
Acting-Reflecting
3.5% 6.7% 6.6%
ACTIVE Alg FeJfag J*^ REFLECTIVE

EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking +
ActingReflecting Feeling-Thinking
OBSERVATION
Thinking
7.6% 14.2% 11.5%
SW S SE
Acting-Reflecting
12.2% 19.4% 17.4%
ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
FIGURE 5
Case 2002 Undergraduate Freshman LSI Distribution (N = 288)
recall Dewey's descriptionofthe scientificworker lyticskills makes sense in that its mission is to
who "operates with symbols,words and mathe- prepare studentsforcareers thatrequireabstrac-
matical signs" and the artistwho "does his think- tionand analysis. However,to learn skills outside
ing in the veryqualitativemedia he worksin." of theirhome region,learners need to move to
The verysimilarlearningspace distributions of otherregionsand thelearningprocessforany skill
Case undergraduateand MBA studentssuggest requirestheabilityto movethroughtheexperienc-
theinstitutional exosysteminfluenceoftheuniver- ing,reflecting,
thinking,and actingcycle.To fully
sity'sresearchmissionand cultureon thelearning develop thewhole personrequiresan educational
spaces experiencedbystudents.Bothstudentsand culturethatpromotesdiverselearningspaces and
facultyare selected for their abstract learning locomotionamong them.
skills, so it is not surprisingthat the university
learningspaces would predominatein the south- CREATING LEARNING SPACES FOR THE
ernregions.
ENHANCEMENT OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
As the undergraduatedata on learning skills
and learningregionssuggest,the nine regionsof The enhancement of experiential learning in
the experiential learning space are associated highereducationcan be achieved throughthecre-
withspecificlearningprocesses.The learningpro- ation of learning spaces that promotegrowth-
cesses in each regionare in turnmosteffective for producingexperiencesforlearners.A centralcon-
theachievementofcertainlearningoutcomes.For cept in Dewey's educational philosophy is the
example,thefeeling-oriented northernregionsare continuumofexperiencein whichexperiencesthat
most effectivefor learning interpersonalskills, promoteor inhibitlearningare arrayed."The be-
while the thinking-oriented southernregions are lief that all genuine education comes about
mosteffectiveforlearninganalyticand quantita- throughexperiencedoes notmean thatall experi-
tive skills. Individuals' learning styles represent ences are genuinelyeducative. . . For some expe-
their preferencesfor particular regions of the riencesare mis-educative.Anyexperienceis mis-
learningspace, theirhomebases so to speak. That educative that has the effectof arresting or
Case specializes in education forabstract,ana- distortingthe growthof furtherexperience . . .

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Hencethecentralproblemofan educationbased workswhichcannotbe erasedby a teacher'sco-

onexperience is toselectthekindofpresentexpe- gent explanation.Instead the effectiveteacher
and creativelyin sub-
riencesthatlive fruitfully builds on exploration of what studentsalready
sequent experiences"(Dewey, 1938: 25-28).A knowand believe,onthesensetheyhavemadeof
numberofeducationalprinciplesflowfromthis theirpreviousconcreteexperiences.Beginning
philosophy. withtheseorrelatedconcrete experiencesallows
thelearnerto re-examine and modifytheirprevi-
ous sensemaking in lightofthenewideas.
RespectforLearnersand TheirExperience
A growth-producing experiencein thephilosophy
notonlytoa direct Creatingand Holdinga Hospitable Space for
ofexperientiallearningrefers
relatedto a understudy Learning
experience subjectmatter
butalso to thetotalexperiential lifespace ofthe To learnrequiresfacingand embracing differenc-
learner.Thisincludesthelearner'sphysicaland es; whethertheybe differences betweenskilled
social environment and qualityof relationships. expertperformance and one'snovicestatus,differ-
We referto thisas the cheers/jeers experiential encesbetweendeeplyheldideas and beliefsand
continuum. Atone end learnersfeelthattheyare newideas,ordifferences inthelifeexperience and
members ofa learningcommunity whoare known values of othersthatcan lead to understanding
and respectedby facultyand colleagues and them.These differences can be challengingand
whose experienceis taken seriously,a space threatening, a
requiring learningspace thaten-
"whereeverybody knowsyourname."Attheother courages the expressionof differences and the
extremeare "mis-educative" learningenviron- psychological to
safety support the learner in fac-
mentswherelearnersfeelalienated,alone,unrec- ing these challenges(Sanford,1966). As Robert
ognized,anddevalued.Learning andgrowth inthe Kegansays,"peoplegrowbestwheretheycontin-
jeers environment "where nobody knows your uouslyexperience an ingenious blendofchallenge
name"can be difficult ifnotimpossible. Whilethis and support"(1994:42).As Kegan impliesby his
principlemayseemobviousoreven"preachy," it use ofthetermingenious blend,creating andhold-
is problematicforeventhefinesteducationalin- ing thislearningspace is noteasy. He notes that
PresidentLawrenceSummersof Har-
stitutions. while educationalinstitutions have been quite
varddedicatedhis2003commencement addressto successfulinchallenging students,theyhavebeen
the introductionofa comprehensive examination muchless successfulin providingsupport.One
oftheundergraduate program, motivated in part reasonforthismaybe thatchallengestendtobe
by a letter
he received from a top science student specificand immediate, while supportmustgo
whichcontained thestatement, "I am intheeighth beyond an immediate "You-can-do-it" statement.
of
semester college and there is nota singlesci- Creatingand holdinga learningspace requiresa
ence professor here who could identify me by climateor cultureofsupportthatthelearnercan
name."Summersconcludes:"Theonlytruemea- trustto "hold"themovertime.In Conversational
sureofa successfuleducationalmodelis ourstu- Learning(Baker, Jensen, & Kolb,2002),we drawon
dents'experience ofit"(Summers, 2003:64). the worksof HenriNouwen(1975)and Parker
Palmer(1983,1990,1998)todescribethischalleng-
ingand supportive learningspace as onethatwel-
BeginLearningWiththe Learner'sExperienceof comesthestranger in a spiritofhospitality where
the SubjectMatter
"studentsand teacherscan enterintoa fearless
To learnexperientially learnersmustfirstof all communication witheach otherand allow their
ownand value theirexperience. Studentswillof- life
respective experiences tobe theirprimary and
tensay, "ButI don't have anyexperience," mean- mostvaluable sourceofgrowth and maturation"
ingthattheydon't believe thattheirexperienceis (Nouwen,1975:60).
of any value to the teacher or for learningthe
subjectmatter at hand.Thenewscienceoflearn-
Brown, & Cocking2000)is based on MakingSpace forConversationalLearning
ing(Bransford,
thecognitiveconstructivist theoriesofPiagetand Humanbeingsnaturally makemeaningfrom their
that
Vygotsky emphasize that people construct experiencesthrough conversation.
Yet genuine
newknowledge andunderstanding from whatthey conversationin thetraditional
lectureclassroom
alreadyknow and believe,based on theirprevious can be extremelyrestricted
ornonexistent.Atthe
experience.Zull (2002)suggeststhat this prior breakorend oftheclass thesometimes painfully
knowledgeexistsin the brainas neuronalnet- silentclassroomwill suddenlycome alive with

spontaneousconversationamong students.Signif- sions maybe so relatedto factsthattheirvalue is

icant learning can occur in these conversations, tested and organized" (1934: 45). Yet many pro-
althoughit may not always be the learning the gramsin highereducationare muchmorefocused
teacherintended.Making space forgood conver- on impressinginformationon the mind of the
sation as partofthe educational process provides learner than on opportunitiesforthe learners to
theopportunity forreflectionon and meaningmak- expressand testin actionwhattheyhave learned.
ing about experiencesthat improvethe effective- Many courses will spend 15 weeks requiringstu-
ness ofexperientiallearning(Keeton,Sheckley,& dentsto take in volumesofinformation and onlya
Griggs 2002;Bunker1999).For example, the cre- couple ofhours expressing and testingtheirlearn-
ation of learning teams as part of a course pro- ing, often on a multiple-choice exam. This is in
motes effectivelearning when psychologically contrastto arts educationbuilton the demonstra-
safe conditionsare present (Wyss-Flamm,2002). tion-practice-critiqueprocess where active ex-
ConversationalLearningpresentsthe dimensions pressionand testingare continuouslyinvolvedin
of spaces that allow forgood conversation.It is the learningprocess. Zull (2002)suggests thatac-
morelikelyto occurin spaces thatintegratethink- tionmaybe themostimportant partofthelearning
ing and feeling,talkingand listening,leadership cycle because it closes the cycle by bringingthe
and solidarity,recognitionofindividualityand re- inside worldofreflection and thoughtintocontact
latedness,and discursiveand recursiveprocesses. withthe outside worldof experiencescreated by
When the conversationalspace is dominatedby action (cf. Dewey, 1897). Keeton, Sheckley and
one extremeof these dimensions,for example, Gross (2002)proposeanotherlevel ofaction/reflec-
talkingwithoutlistening,conversationallearning tion integration,emphasizing the importanceof
is diminished. active reflectionin deepeninglearningfromexpe-
rience.
MakingSpace forDevelopmentofExpertise
Withvast knowledgebases in everyfieldthatare MakingSpaces forFeeling and Thinking
ever changingand growing,many highereduca- We have seen a polarizationbetweenfeelingand
tioncurriculaconsistofcourseaftercourse "cover- thinkingin the contrast between the feeling-
ing" a series of topics in a relativelysuperficial orientedlearningspace ofCIA artseducationand
factualway. Yet as theNationalResearchCouncil the thinking-orientedlearningspaces ofthe Case
in its reporton thenew science oflearningrecom- undergraduateand MBA programs.It seems that
mendson thebasis ofresearchon expertlearners, educationalinstitutions todevelop a learning
tend
effective learningrequiresnotonlyfactualknowl- culturethat emphasizes the learningmode most
edge, but theorganizationofthese factsand ideas related to theireducational objectivesand to de-
in a conceptual framework and the abilityto re- value the opposite learning mode. Yet, Damasio
trieveknowledgeforapplication and transferto (1994,2003),LeDoux (1997),Zull (2002),and others
different contexts(Bransford,Brown,& Cocking offerconvincingresearch evidence that reason
2000).Such deep learningis facilitatedby deliber- and emotionare inextricably relatedin theirinflu-
ate, recursivepracticeon areas thatare relatedto ence on learningand memory.Indeed it appears
the learner's goals (Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs thatfeelingsand emotionshave primacyin deter-
2002).The process of learningdepicted in the ex- miningwhetherand whatwe learn.Negativeemo-
perientiallearningcycle describes this recursive tionssuch as fearand anxietycan blocklearning,
spiral ofknowledgedevelopment.Space needs to while positive feelingsof attractionand interest
be createdin curriculaforstudentsto pursuesuch may be essential forlearning.To learn something
deep experientiallearningin orderto develop ex- thatone is notinterestedin is extremelydifficult.
pertiserelatedto theirlifepurpose.
Negative emotionssuch as fearand
MakingSpaces forActingand Reflecting anxietycan block learning,while
Learningis like breathing;it involvesa takingin positivefeelingsof attractionand
and processingofexperienceand a puttingout or interestmay be essential forlearning.
expressionof what is learned. As Dewey noted,
"nothingtakes rootin mindwhen thereis no bal-
ance betweendoing and receiving.Some decisive MakingSpace forInside-OutLearning
actionis needed in orderto establish contactwith David Hunt(1987,1991)describesinside-out
learning
therealitiesoftheworldand in orderthatimpres- as a processofbeginningwithoneselfinlearningby

focusingon one's experiencedknowledge,thatis, their own learning by understandinghow they

the implicittheories,metaphors,interests,desires learn best and the skills necessary to learn in
and goals thatguide experience.Makingspace for regions that are uncomfortableforthem.Work-
inside-outlearningby linkingeducationalexperi- shops on experientiallearningand learningstyles
ences to thelearner'sinterestskindlesintrinsic
mo- can help studentstodevelop meta-cognitive learn-
tivationand increaseslearningeffectiveness.Under ing skills. At CIA and the Case undergraduate
thepropereducationalconditions, a sparkofintrin- programs,studentworkshopshelp studentsinter-
sic interest intoa flameofcommitted
can be nurtured prettheirLSI scores and understandhow to use
lifepurpose(Dewey,1897).Yet learningspaces that this information to improvetheirlearning effec-
emphasizeextrinsicrewardcan driveout intrinsi- tiveness. JohnReese at the Universityof Denver
cally motivatedlearning(Deci & Ryan,1985;Kohn Law School conducts"ConnectingwiththeProfes-
1993;Ryan& Deci, 2000).Longago Deweydescribed sor"workshopsin whichstudentsselectone offour
the trendtowardemphasis on extrinsicrewardin teaching styles based on the fourpredominant
educationand theconsequencesfortheteacherwho learningstylesthattheyhave difficultyconnecting
wieldsthecarrotand stick: with. The workshopgives multipleexamples of
remedialactions thatthe learnermay take to cor-
Thus in education we have that systematic rect the misconnectioncreated by differencesin
depreciation of interest which has been teaching and learning styles.Peer group discus-
noted . . . Thus we have the spectacle of sions among law studentsgive an opportunity to
professional educators decryingappeal to create new ideas about how to get the mostfrom
interestwhile they uphold with great dig- professorswith differentlearning and teaching
nity the need of reliance upon examina- styles(Reese, 1998).
tions, marks, promotions and emotions,
prizes and the time honoredparaphernalia
of rewards and punishments.The effectof PROMOTING LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
this situation in crippling the teacher's THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
sense of humorhas not received the atten-
To implementthese educational learning space
tion which it deserves (1916:336).
principlesrequires a holisticprogramof institu-
tional developmentthat includes curriculumde-
MakingSpace forLearnersto Take Charge of velopment,facultydevelopment,studentdevelop-
TheirOwn Learning ment,administrativeand staffdevelopment,and
resource development.Programsin these areas
Manystudentsenterhighereducationconditioned need to be coordinatedaroundan institutional vi-
by theirprevious educational experiences to be sion and missionto promotelearning.Such a co-
passive recipientsofwhattheyare taught.Making ordinatedinstitutionalapproach can providethe
space forstudentsto take controlofand responsi-
synergynecessary for dramatic organizational
bilityfortheirlearningcan greatlyenhance their
change,while fragmented approaches in one area
abilityto learn fromexperience.Some authorsuse are oftenfrustrated lack of interestor under-
thetermself-authorship to describethisprocess of by
standing in others.
One can develop a state ofthe
constructingone's own knowledge versus pas- art learning-focusedcurriculumthatis doomed to
sivelyreceivingknowledgefromothers,consider- failureiffacultymembersare noton board withit
ing self-authorshipto be a majoraim ofeducation
philosophicallyand technically.If administrative
(Kegan, 1994; King, 2003; Baxter-Magolda,1999).
Othersdescribe this goal as increasingstudents' leadership has prioritiesfocused on income and
ratings,the resourcesforlearningpromotionwill
capacity forself-direction(Boyatzis,1994;Robert- notbe available in otherdevelopmentalareas.
son, 1988).The ManagementDevelopmentand As-
sessmentcoursein theCase MBAprogramaims to
develop studentself-direction throughassessment By developing theireffectiveness as
and feedbackon learningskillsand competencies
and thedevelopmentofa learningplan to achieve
learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs,
each student'scareer/lifegoals (Boyatzis,1994). 2002),studentscan be empoweredto take
Bransford, Brown,and Cocking(2002)argue forthe responsibilityfortheirown learningby
developmentof meta-cognitiveskills to promote understandinghow theylearn best and
active learning.By developingtheireffectiveness the skillsnecessaryto learn in regions
as learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs,2002),stu- thatare uncomfortable forthem.
dentscan be empoweredto take responsibility for

in Professional
In thelast chapterofInnovation vision thatstartswitha commitment to experien-
Educationtitled"WhatifLearningWerethePur- tial learningwithrigorousscholarshipin under-
pose ofEducation" Cowen,& Kolbf1995),
(Boyatzis, graduate, graduate and professional education
we proposedfivedesignprinciples tohelpeduca- programstoproduceeducated learners- educated
focuson thepromotion
tionalinstitutions oflearn- learners who are awake to new possibilities"
ing. (Campus News,2003:2).
To support thenewSAGEScurriculum, Case has
1. Evaluationofeducationalstructuresand pro-
launcheda 5-yearfaculty development program to
cesses againstpromotionoflearningcriteria.
be organizedand deliveredthrough CenterforIn-
2. Longitudinal outcomestudiesto determine
learning valueadded. novationin Teachingand Education(UCITE).Ac-
3. Becoming institution.
a learner-centered cordingto theplan ofthisprogram, a totalof80
4. Continuousresearchand inquiryabout the facultymembersacross the university will un-
learningprocess. dergoan intensedevelopment onhowtodevelopa
5. Becominga learningorganizationthrough courseorothereducationalexperiences
continuous conversation.
stakeholder particular
based onexperiential learningovertheperiodof5
The institutionaldevelopmentprogramto pro- years.In thisprogram, faculty members meetreg-
moteexperientiallearninginitiatedbyCase West- ularlyto discuss the philosophyof experiential
ernReserveUniversity (Case) providesan example learning,themethodsofimplementation thatre-
ofthisholisticapproach.In October2000the Case spondto theneeds oftheindividualschoolsand
presidentand provostcreatedthePresident'sCom- departments, thecoursestructure thatneedstobe
missionon UndergraduateEducationand Life.The putinplace,theteachingmethods thatlendthem-
Commission's report recommended that Case selvestomeeting thegoals,and assessmenttech-
adopt a philosophyof experientiallearning,en- niques.Inan effort tocoordinate and support such
capsulated in the mission/value statement that university-wide institutionaldevelopment initia-
"CWRUgraduates studentswho have discovered tives,the new presidentcreatedthe Centerfor
and are realizing theirown uncommonpotential InstitutionalResearch(CIR),a collaborative effort
through the University'suniquely transformative toexpand institutional research support forall sec-
environment and its philosophythateducation is torsoftheuniversity. Itsprimary roleis toprovide
best accomplished throughexperience" (Presi- information about the university's students, fac-
dent'sCommission,2001:2). Buildingon the Com- ulty,staff,programs and environment to support
missionreport, universityfacultydeveloped an ex- decisionmaking, policyanalysis,institutional as-
perimental undergraduate curriculum called sessment, and strategicplanning. The Case initia-
Seminar Approachto General Education Studies tivetoenhanceexperiential learningintheunder-
(SAGES).The SAGES 2-yearpilotprogramwas cre- graduate curriculumintegratinginstitutional
ated as part of curriculumrevisionof the under- development activitiesthrough a leadership vision
graduate General Education Requirements (GER) serves as an example forthe creation of educa-
of College of Artsand Sciences proposed by the tionallearningspaces thatpromotelearningin
commission.Followingtheproposednew GER rec- highereducation.
ommendations,SAGES was designed to fosterin
studentsbreadthas well as specialized knowledge
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Alice Y. Kolb received her PhD David A. Kolb is professorof or-

from Case Western Reserve ganizational behavior at Case
Universityin organizational be- Western Reserve University,
havior. She is the president of Weatherhead School of Man-
Experience-Based Learning agement. He received his PhD
Systems, Inc., a research and in social psychology fromHar-
development organization that vard University. Kolb is best
promotes experiential learning known forhis research on expe-
in organizations worldwide. riential learning and learning
Her currentfocus is on promot- styles described in Experiential
ing learning in higher educa- Learning: Experience as the
tion throughinstitutionaldevel- Source of Learning and Devel-
opment. opment. His current research
focuses on team learning and
experiential learning in con-
versation.


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Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education

Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

LearningStyles and Learning

Drawingon thefoundationaltheoriesofJohnDewey and KurtLewin,we examine recent

"(Thereis a) need offorminga theoryofex- tools and techniquesto providelearnerswithex-

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This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

^^^^^^^^ Reflective y^^^^

preferenceforemployingdifferent phases of the particularlearning style and life path- develop-

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

demicspecialties,it is notsurprising to see that again in 1999.Recentcritiquehas been morefo-

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

ally, people withthis stylefindit moreimportant tion."Thispersonhas difficulty in conceptualizing

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portedourhypotheses, showingthatpeople with Thisresearchthatincreasesthe"resolution" of

Accommodating Northerner Diverging

ACTIVE Zm Fefung RefiLg REFLECTIVE

Converging Southerner Assimilating

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

Is learningstylea fixedtraitor dynamicstate? thingelse thatmighthave directeffecton behav-

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

learningspace are notnecessarilyphysicalplaces learning regions and integrativeor balancing

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

Experientiallearningcan be viewed as a pro- dentdevelopmentworkshops,and facultydevelop-

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

ACTIVE AIg ^ J*^ REFLECTIVE

12.7% 17% 16%

is theoccasionthatinducesreflection. Desire tive remotenessof his end, the scientific

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

13.8% 17.2% 11.1%

ACTIVE Ac*g pJLg RefiLg REFLECTIVE

3.7% 8.8% 11.1%

critiquethatis used in mostartclasses (see Table spenton studentperformance, mostofwhichoc-

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regions,perhaps indicatingstudentgrowthand Skill Developmentand LearningRegions

Experiencing(CE) 77 26.31 6.07 26.87 6.64 -0.66

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3.5% 6.7% 6.6%

ACTIVE Alg FeJfag J*^ REFLECTIVE

12.2% 19.4% 17.4%

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This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

Hencethecentralproblemofan educationbased workswhichcannotbe erasedby a teacher'sco-

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spontaneousconversationamong students.Signif- sions maybe so relatedto factsthattheirvalue is

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focusingon one's experiencedknowledge,thatis, their own learning by understandinghow they

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM

Alice Y. Kolb received her PhD David A. Kolb is professorof or-

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Kolb & Kolb 2005 Learning Styles & Learning Spaces

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