Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307

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Industrial Crops & Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Ramie, a multipurpose crop: potential applications, constraints and T

improvement strategies
Muzammal Rehmana, Deng Gangb, Qiqing Liua, Yinglong Chenc, Bo Wanga, Dingxiang Penga,
Lijun Liua,
⁎

a
MOA Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong
Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
b
School of Agriculture, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, PR China
c
The UWA Institute of Agriculture and School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6001, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: World population growth has increased the demand for food and shelter, thus threatening environmental sus-
Bast fiber tainability and expanding the gap between resource availability and the ability to meet human needs. Humans
Environmental conservation are fulfilling their needs by depleting natural resources. Currently, exploring plant species that can fulfill the life
Livestock feed requirements of both humans and animals without degrading natural resources has become a major challenge.
Medicinal value
Therefore, research on underutilized crops is of high interest among plant scientists. Ramie, an ancient plant
Nutritional quality
with a long history, is being researched because of its vigorous growth, high nutritional value and multipurpose
Ramie
applications in Textiles, livestock feed, environmental conservation and medicine. It can be cultivated in ver-
satile conditions including tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. The present review article provides a
detailed discussion on the multipurpose utilization and nutritional importance of ramie as well as potential
applications and constraints, and the outlook for the future.

1. Introduction potential forage for livestock, because it is an excellent source of crude

Globally, agriculture plays an important role in sustaining liveli-
hood and human well-being, especially in rural communities. The cul-
tivation of multipurpose crops such as ramie (Fig. 1) may be an optimal
option to meet the rising demands of human needs. Ramie is an old
Textile fiber crop that is harvested every 60 days by cutting the mature
shoots without destroying the roots; thus, the root system develops
continuously in the soil (Subandi, 2012). Ramie is cultivated as a major
economic crop in China: 500,000 tons of fiber is produced per year,
accounting for approximately 96% of global production (Kipriotis et al.,
2015). Ramie farming, industries and trade provide livelihood support
to approximately 5 million people (An et al., 2017). China exports a
large quantity of ramie yarn and fabrics every year (Fig. 2). The major
export markets for ramie products are Japan and Europe.
Besides being a source of bast fiber (Tewolde & Fernandez, 2003;
Sarkar, 2005), ramie is also used as source of feed for livestock
(Kipriotis et al., 2015; Rehman et al., 2019a,b) and poultry and fish
farming, owing to its vigorous growth, high biomass production and
high protein content. Machin (1977) has also reported ramie to be a
protein, lysine, methionine, carotenoids, riboflavin and calcium, and it
has a low level of crude fiber. The nutritional value of ramie has been
described as similar to that of alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Ramie can also
be utilized for environmental conservation because of its tolerance to
heavy metal stress: ramie can grow and colonize diverse heavy metal
contaminated lands (Yang et al. 2010; Zhou et al. 2010). In addition,
ramie has potential uses in tea, foods, medicine (Lee et al., 2015) and
the cosmetic industry. For example, its leaf extracts exhibit anti-HBV
activity (Wei et al., 2014).
Despite the multiple benefits of ramie and its products, its cultiva-
tion has received comparatively less attention than other annual or
perennial fiber crops. The reasons are manifold, but ramie based poorly
grown industries are a key hindrance to ramie cultivation. Growers face
large challenges to establish a crop, decorticate and degum its fiber and
finally find a potential market for their produce. A lack of planting
materials and cultivation of local landraces, poor crop management and
lack of awareness campaigns are some other limitations to ramie pro-
duction. However, if researchers and growers were to pay considerable
attention to this crop, a progressive change might occur in the

Corresponding author.
⁎

E-mail addresses: muzammal@webmail.hzau.edu.cn (M. Rehman), denggang1986@ynu.edu.cn (D. Gang), 15074899645@163.com (Q. Liu),
yinglong.chen@uwa.edu.au (Y. Chen), wangbo@mail.hzau.edu.cn (B. Wang), pdxiang@mail.hzau.edu.cn (D. Peng), liulijun@mail.hzau.edu.cn (L. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.05.029
Received 8 October 2018; Received in revised form 2 May 2019; Accepted 10 May 2019
Available online 21 May 2019
0926-6690/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Rehman, et al.
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram for multipurpose utilization of ramie.
Fig. 2. Export of ramie yarn and fabrics from China during 2012 to 2017
(Statistical Center of China Textile Industry Federation).
agriculture industry. Therefore, in this article, an overview of ramie is
provided with special attention paid to highlighting its industrial im-
portance as a multipurpose crop and its potential applications, con-
straints and improvement strategies.
2. Origin and history of ramie
The word "ramie" is derived from the ancient word “malayan,”
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Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307
which is anglicized as "ramie". It is native to China, Japan and the
Malay Peninsula, where it has been used as a Textile fiber for centuries
because of its excellent fiber quality (Wood and Angus, 1974; Batra and
Bell, 1975; Liu et al., 2001). It is mainly grown in China, India and other
Southeast Asia and Pacific Rim countries (Hester and Yuen, 1989; Liu
et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2005). It has been cultivated in China for many
centuries, before even cotton, in 1300 AD (Robinson, 1940). Ramie
fiber was used to weave clothing in ancient China and for wrapping
mummies in Egypt during the period 5000–3000 BC (Ray et al. 2014).
The high resistance of ramie fiber to bacteria, mildew, mild acid, insects
and rotting made it appropriate for wrapping mummies. Japan has been
making fabrics made of ramie fiber—the famed 'Satsumjofu' and
‘Echigojfu’ fabrics—since ancient times. Brazil started ramie production
in the late 1930s, and production peaked in 1971. Since then, its pro-
duction has decreased, owing to competition with alternative crops,
such as soybeans and other synthetic fibers. The modern stage in the
history of ramie began in 1690, when George Eberhard Rumph found
ramie plants growing in the East Indies and named them Ramium majus.
In 1737, Linnaeus named them Urtica nivea (Sarma, 2008). Ramie was
then renamed Boehmeria nivea L. Gaudichud by Gaudichaud in 1826. By
the end of the 19th century, ramie plants and seeds were transported to
other parts of the world, where they continue to be grown
(Montgomery, 1954).
3. Botanical description of ramie
Ramie belongs to the natural vegetable fibers of the stinging nettle
family Urtica ceae, genus Boehmeria and species B. nivea. It can grow 1
to 2 ms in height (Singh, 1996). The leaves are alternate, heart-shaped
and long petioled, and they appear on the upper parts of the stalks.
They are 7 to 15 cm long and 6 to 12 cm wide. The leaves are hairy with
felty hairs and with white under face in case of B. nivea and with green
undersurface in case of B. utilis. The shoots consist of numerous long
and short serial sterns; each called a."cane." Several canes together form
a."clum." (Singh, 1996). Ramie is usually monoecious, with male and
female flowers produced on the same stalk. However, ramie plants
producing only male or female flowers can be obtained under specific
environmental conditions or through various hormonal treatments
M. Rehman, et al.
Table 1
Optimum conditions for the growth of ramie.
Indices Required conditions
Soil type Loamy or sandy loam
pH 5.5–6.5
Temperature 25 °C–31 °C
Rainfall (annual) 1000–2000 mm (evenly distributed)
Altitude 200–1500 m (above sea level)
Relative humidity 80%
(Mitra et al., 2014). Two panicles each arise from the axils of leaves,
and the greenish-white flowers are arranged in close clusters on the
branches of the panicles. The female flowers are present on the upper
parts of the stalks in axillary panicles. They are unisexual with five
sepals and no petals. They have one celled, one seeded ovaries and a
slender style, which is hairy on one side. The male flowers are found on
the lower part, with four sepals united at the base, stamens and a ru-
dimentary ovary. Seeds are smaller in size and produced in a very large
number. Ramie plant has rhizomatous roots including small fibrous
roots, storage roots and rhizomes.
4. Growth conditions for the cultivation of ramie
Ramie, commonly known as “China grass,” is a hardy perennial
herbaceous plant cultivated as an important natural Textile fiber crop
(Liu et al., 2012; Luan et al., 2015a; Luan et al., 2015b). It is cultivated
in China, Brazil, India, Lao PDR, South Korea, Thailand and the Phi-
lippines (Zhu et al., 2014). It can grow well with multiple harvests
under favorable environmental conditions (Table 1). There are ap-
proximately 100 species in the genus Boehmeria Jacq. which are mostly
tropical and subtropical; some are herbs, shrubs and trees (Singh,
1996). Approximately 40 species have been reported from Japan, 50
Fig. 3. A schematic diagram from ramie field to ramie clothing.
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Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307
species have been reported from Eastern Asia, 45 species have been
reported from Ceylon, and 45 species have been reported from India
(Singh, 1996; Kirby, 1963; Hooker, 1885). Two species of the genus
Boehmeria are most important: one is B. nivea, also known as white
ramie, which is primarily cultivated for commercial purposes world-
wide and grows best in temperate and subtropical regions; the other is
B. nivea var tenacissima, which is known as green ramie and is more
adapted to temperate regions (Mitra et al., 2014). Ramie is sensitive to
soil moisture and can grow well in sandy loam soils. However, soils that
are deficient in calcium and poor in base exchange capacity are not
suitable for cultivation of ramie. Ramie is normally harvested two to
three times a year but under good growing conditions can be harvested
up to six times per year. Ramie grown in the Yangtze River Basin, China
can yield three cuttings per year (Peng, 2009). In the tropics, it can be
harvested three to four times per year under favorable conditions (Liu
et al., 2005). However, under favorable growing conditions, it can also
be harvested up to six times per year. In another report, ramie has
yielded up to 14 cuttings per year, providing as much as 300 tons of
fresh material (42 tons dry matter) per ha per year, when grown for
fodder purposes in tropical areas (Kipriotis et al., 2015). Thus, ramie
can be grown in large scales in versatile environments including tro-
pical, subtropical and temperate regions, except for waterlogged soil.
5. Ramie as a bast fiber crop
In ramie, in contrast to cotton or some other natural fiber plants, the
main Textile plant fiber can be extracted from stems. In China, ramie is
an important crop in terms of cultivation area and quantity of fiber
produced, and is second only to cotton (Huang et al., 2014). Bast fiber
once had key importance in clothing and other Textiles, mainly before
the supply of cotton from America. These fibers are multicellular, small
and short, but are found in bundles that provide support to the stem.
Natural cellulosic plant fibers became popular because of their high
M. Rehman, et al.
production, thermostability, biodegradability and low cost (Nam and
Netravali, 2006; Monteiro et al. 2009). However, their demand is now
limited because of the supply of manufactured fibers. Low-cost fibers
have low-grade quality, whereas the production of superior fibers is
expensive. Ramie fiber has high quality, good color and an attractive
appearance, and it performs well in fabrics, a very important quality in
the Textile industry. Ramie crop can persist up to 13 years, thus al-
lowing stable harvesting of stems and bast fiber (Angelini and Tavarini,
2013). Extraction of the fiber begins with manual or mechanical re-
moval of the cortex, in a process known as decortication. Then the
cortex is scraped to remove most of the outer bark, the parenchyma and
some of the pectins and gums. Finally, the residual cortex material is
washed, dried and degummed to extract spinnable fiber for further
Textile processing (Fig. 3). The fiber size depends on treatment severity.
The helix angle in bast and leaf fibers is lower than that in cotton, ty-
pically around 10°; consequently, in ramie, they are approximately pure
cellulose with higher strength and lower break extensions (Hearle,
2001). The lifespan of ramie ranges from 6 to 20 years (Sen and Reddy,
2011). Thus continuous harvesting is feasible for ramie; if harvesting is
delayed, the yield and quality of fiber are severely affected in the fol-
lowing season (Peng, 2009). Jarman et al. (1978) have also reported a
20 year production cycle for ramie, but no experimental evidence
supports that hypothesis.
Fiber obtained from ramie has remarkable physical and chemical
characteristics as compared with those of other plant fibers (Table 2).
Ramie fiber is one of the strongest and longest natural bast fibers
(Nishino et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2005; Lu et al., 2006); wetting increases
its strength, and it can withstand high temperatures during laundering.
Ramie fiber is white and lustrous with a silk-like appearance; it is
known for its ability to hold its shape. It is resistant to bacteria, mildew
and insects (Jarman et al., 1978). It can also be used in a blend with
cotton, wool and even silk to make different industrial products. Ramie
blends with cotton can enhance the strength, color and luster without
affecting the fabric flexibility. However, ramie fiber is two times
stronger than cotton and has a better length:breadth ratio than that of
cotton (Satya et al., 2011). It enhances the strength and luster of cotton
fabric and decreases shrinkage in wool blends. Ramie fabric is resistant
to mild acids, alkalis and light, as well as rotting and shrinkage. It has
higher stain resistance than cotton. Ramie clothing is appreciated in
summer clothing (Hwang, 2010) because it is highly absorbent and is
pleasant to wear during hot and humid weather (Cengiz and Babalik,
2009). It can be bleached easily as well. However, ramie fiber does have
certain disadvantages, namely a lack of resiliency, low abrasion re-
sistance, brittleness, stiffness and low elasticity (elongation at break of
3–7%) (Kadolph and Langford, 2001; Mather and Wardman, 2011).
6. Ramie as animal feed
Rising costs of livestock feed and the desire to boost high protein
feed production have created a need for alternative crops, especially in
areas where conventional feed crops are not well adopted for the de-
velopment of livestock industry. Ramie is a fast growing perennial plant
that is used as a source of bast fiber as well as nutritious green feed
Table 2
Physical and chemical properties of ramie fiber in comparison with cotton and
hemp (Singh, 1996; Dittenber and Gangrao, 2012).
Properties Unit Ramie Cotton Hemp
Fiber length mm 20-250 30-60 15-25
Fiber Diameter um 40-60 14-16 15-30
Tensile Strength kg/mm2 95 45 83
Moisture regaining capacity % 12 8 12
Cellulose % 68.6-91 82.7-90 55-77
Hemicellulose % 5-16.7 5.7 14-22.4
Lignin % 0.6-0.7 <2 3.7-13
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Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307
(Table 3) in China and is palatable to all classes of farm animals. Pre-
vious research on cattle, sheep, pigs, horses and poultry has highlighted
the importance of ramie as a good nutritional resource in the form of
green forage (Pérez et al., 2013). Young shoots and leaves of ramie have
high nutritive value and are excellent feed for pigs, cattle and poultry.
The young shoots contain protein (16.4%), digestible fiber (25%), cal-
cium (31.8 g kg-1) and potassium (18.7 g kg-1) with high metabolic
energy (6.4 MJ kg-1) on a dry matter basis (INFIC, 1978). Ramie can
also be processed into powder, plugs and pellets for the convenience of
storage and transportation. Therefore, cultivation of ramie may be an
optimal solution to support the livestock industry, owing to ramie’s
high biomass production, high crude protein content and strong
adaptability to the environment. Ramie can be cultivated as a fodder
crop for raising livestock with higher economic benefits. In China,
utilization of ramie as fodder to raise cattle, pigs, sheep and other li-
vestock has gained importance because of its high economic benefits.
Ramie leaves are rich in nutrients, including protein (Pérez et al.,
2013), and contain amino acids necessary for animal health. Ramie can
be grazed ensiled along with molasses, used as green forage or artifi-
cially dried to form leaf meal (Fig. 4). Fresh leaves are used as feed for
cattle, chickens and pigs in the United States, Japan, Brazil, Spain and
Colombia (Machin, 1977). Dinh et al. (2007) have reported the high
nutritional value of ramie foliage for ruminants. The yield of ramie
foliage along the Red River Delta region can reach up to 126 tons of
fresh biomass ha -1 or 17.3 tons dry biomass ha -1 in 1 year. The yield
from leaves can reach up to 56 tons fresh biomass ha -1 or 9.6 tons dry
biomass ha -1 in 1 year. Ramie foliage from either whole plants or leaves
has 21% crude protein (CP) and 19–22% ash in dry matter; however,
drying can decrease the CP content in leaves.
Ramie meets the nutrient requirements of livestock feed and con-
tains 16.35% crude protein, 6.36% crude lipid, 13.61% crude fiber and
20.50% ash (Despal et al., 2011). The high protein content of ramie
leaves has attracted the attention of researchers from tropical and
subtropical areas, e.g., Brazil, Guatemala and the southern United
States, to study its production potential and forage quality. The nu-
tritive value of ramie has been described as similar to that of alfalfa
(Kipriotis et al., 2015). According to previous reports, ramie has similar
nutritional quality to that of alfalfa hay (Fig. 5); however, further in-
vestigation is required. Ramie foliage has nutritional value for cattle,
rabbits and pigs. However, ramie meal is valuable for poultry because it
contributes carotenoids and riboflavin (Pérez et al., 2013). Ramie has a
higher crude protein content (Cleasby and Sideek, 1958; Machin, 1977)
than other balanced feedstuffs on the market; therefore, it constitutes a
valuable source of animal feed.
Ramie included in the diet of Xiangcun black pigs (< 9%) is an
effective feed crop that partly improves the carcass traits and chemical
composition of muscles (Li et al., 2018). The addition of ramie tops and
leaves in chick rations might also be useful (Mehrhof, 1950). Leaves of
ramie in the form of hay can be utilized to substitute 20% of the con-
centrate in Jawaradu goat rations (Despal et al., 2017). Use of ramie as
a forage to supplement White Semi-Giant and Chinchilla rabbit rations
has been found to produce changes of 2.0 and 2.2 kg b.wt. within 91
days (Valdivie and de Leon, 2015). However, it is important to note that
its fiber content increases, with the age of the cuttings (Pérez et al.,
2013). Therefore, the best harvesting time for ramie as forage for op-
timal nutritional quality is at 30 days, thus yielding 29% crude protein,
29% crude fiber and 4% lignin content (Suryanah et al., 2017). Simi-
larly, the high content of protein and other nutrients is obtained from
ramie cut every 30 days, as compared to 45 and 60 days (Acosta et al.,
1997).
7. Importance of ramie in environmental conservation
Contamination of soil with heavy metals as a result of global in-
dustrialization has markedly increased within the past few years
(Manousaki et al., 2008), thus resulting in disorder, instability or harm
M. Rehman, et al. Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307

Table 3
Nutrient contents of ramie plant parts, given by different sources.
Plant Part Crude protein (%) Crude fiber (%) Ether extract (%) Ash Calcium References
DM DM DM (%) DM (%) DM

Whole plant 29.2 29.4 - – – Suryanah et al. (2017)

Whole plant (fresh) 11.79 28.15 1.93 – – Contò et al. (2011)
Leaves (fresh) 17 6.33 2.15 – –
Tops (fresh) 15.25 91.21 2.33 – –
Whole plant (fresh) 21.2 24.6 1.17 – – Dinh et al. (2007)
Leaves (fresh) 25.6 12.8 1.21 – –
Leaves (dry) 21.8 14.5 1.74 – –
Leaves and tender tops > 20 – – – – Jang and Yoon (2006)
Leaves (fresh) 19.59 12.98 5.23 19.10 6.24 Soave Spoladore et al. (1983)
Leaves 23.44 10.02 – 20.9 – Ramirez torres et al. (1981)
Stems 8.36 43.29 – 7.63 –
Aerial part (dry) 22.4 11.9 3.4 17.7 45 INFIC (1978)
Leaves and tops (dry) 21 16.6 4 14.8 49
Leaves (dry) 18.5 17.5 3.1 – – National Research Council (U.S.) (1973)
Leaves (dry) 22.7 11.3 8.6 18.8 49 Cleasby and Sideek (1958)
Stem and leaves > 20 – – – – Institute of Bast Fiber Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Stem and leaves 22 – – – 4.07 Sciences (IBFC, CAAS)
(variety: Zhongsizhu No.1)
Ramie hay 19 – – 16 – de Toledo et al. (2008)

Fig. 4. A diagram representing the processing methods for storage and optimization of ramie forage performance.

to the ecosystem, i.e., physical systems or living organisms. Excessive
use of agrochemicals, contaminated irrigation water or different in-
dustrial processes causes environmental pollution and is becoming a
major concern worldwide. Numerous food and fodder crops grown on
metal contaminated soil can accumulate high concentrations of heavy
metals, thus posing a severe threat to human and animal health (Rattan
et al., 2005; Kulhari et al., 2013).
According to Rajaganpathy et al. (2011), agricultural land con-
tamination with heavy metals is a major cause of concern in livestock
production systems. There is thus high interest in the utilization of
various plant species to remove hazardous elements or compounds from
the soil or water, usually heavy metals, thus mitigating environmental
problems without the need to excavate and dispose of contaminant
material.
Fiber plants, compared with other conventional plants, offer eco-
logical benefits because they can contribute to sequestration of carbon,
energy savings, greenhouse gas reduction and non-renewable resources
(Fernando et al., 2015). Ramie, a bast fiber plant, possesses a certain
degree of constitutional tolerance to heavy metals throughout this
species, irrespective of populations or germplasms (Yang et al., 2010).
Ramie is quite tolerant to heavy metal stress (e.g., from Cd, Zn or Pb)
(Zhou et al., 2010).

304
M. Rehman, et al.
Fig. 5. Chemical composition of ramie and alfalfa hay (Modified from: de
Toledo et al., 2008).
Ramie can grow and colonize diverse heavy metal mine sites (Yang
et al., 2010). It can exhibit high potential for Cd phytoextraction, owing
to its high biomass (about 2 m height), fast growth (50–90 days per
complete growth cycle) and ability to yield three cuttings per year (Liu
et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2013; Gong et al., 2016). Yang et al. (2010)
reported that the mean annual metal accumulation in aboveground parts
of ramie could reach 3852 g Zn, 1024 g Cu, 712 g As, 560 g Pb, 34 g Cd
per ha. In a previous study ramie accumulated 4029 mg kg-1 Sb grown in
sulfide mining areas of China (Okkenhaug et al., 2011). Cultivated ramie
(Xiangzhu No. 7) can also be used as a promising plant species for ur-
anium pollution phytoremediation (W. Wang et al. 2018). Furthermore,
ramie derived biochar modified with β-cyclodextrin/poly (L-glutamic
acid) can enhance the adsorption of Cr (VI) (Jiang et al. 2017). According
to Gong et al. (2018), pyrolyzed products produced from ramie residues
obtained after phytoremediation can be used for dye adsorption.
Another environmentally friendly aspect of ramie is its progressive
influence on the soil organic matter pool. Di Bene et al. (2011) have
found that stocks of soil organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorous
significantly increase after 13 years of ramie cultivation. Half of the
recommended nitrogen fertilizer can be supplemented by the addition
of ramie compost in the fertilizer schedule of ramie crops; this treat-
ment efficiently sustains the growth and yield of fiber (Mitra et al.,
2014). Ramie also has the potential to grow in hilly or mountainous
areas, thus suggesting the possibility of applications in the reduction of
soil erosion and water runoff. Cultivation of ramie on slopes of hilly
areas might reduce soil erosion (Rong and XiaoNing, 2010).
8. Medicinal value of ramie
Ramie is an important cash crop in China. For a long time, only 5%
of the total ramie produce was utilized, and more than 90% was dis-
carded as waste or mixed in soil as organic fertilizer. However, over
time, ramie gained importance in the field of medicine, especially in
traditional Chinese medicine. Previous studies have revealed that the
roots and leaves of ramie have high healthcare and medicinal devel-
opment value. The prime importance of ramie is based on its usefulness
to prevent miscarriage (Tian et al., 2011), and promote the drainage of
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Industrial Crops & Products 137 (2019) 300–307
pus. It is also used for anti-inflammation, anti-bacteria, antioxidation,
diuresis, hemostasis and liver protection (Lin et al., 1997; Lin et al.,
1998; Huang et al., 2006). Ramie leaves have been used in herbal
medicines (Lee et al., 2015) and are a potentially new source of anti-
oxidants and antidiabetic agents (Wang et al., 2018). The leaves are
resolvent and astringent, and can also be used in the treatment of fluxes
and wounds (Duke and Ayensu, 1985; Chopra et al., 1986). Some other
studies also reported that the ramie leaves are rich in bioactive com-
pounds with antibacterial (Lee et al., 2014), antiviral (Wei et al., 2014),
antitumor, antioxidant (Chen et al., 2014), anti-obesity (Lee et al.,
2016) and anti-inflammatory effects (Sung et al., 2013). In addition, the
leaf extract has been found to improve blood glucose and lipid meta-
bolism in mice with type-2 diabetes (H. Lee et al., 2014).
9. Ramie product diversification and potential constraints
Multipurpose utilization of ramie in a number of products, owing to
its high productivity for fiber, biomass and high nutritional quality, has
increased ramie’s importance as an industrial crop. Example applica-
tions include the following. (1) The unique features of ramie fiber, such
as its resistance to microbial attack, high strength, durability, absor-
bency and excellent luster, make it suitable for use in manufacturing a
wide variety of value added products, e.g., clothing fabrics, bed sheets,
tablecloths, curtains, towel materials, twine, cordage, canvas, industrial
packing, car outfits, pulley belts, ropes, fishing nets, fiber hoses, water
carrying bags, upholstery fabrics, furnishing materials, shoe sewing
thread, paper pulp, hammocks and ship sails, as well as special papers
for bank notes and cigarettes (Mauersberger, 1954; Hester and Yuen,
1989; Sen and Reddy, 2011). (2) Ramie fiber can also be utilized in
manufacturing various defense articles such as bulletproof panels
(Marsyahyo et al., 2009) as well as ammunition belts, cartridge cloth,
camouflage nets and parachute chords. Great Britain has found ramie to
be a useful fiber in wartime. In fighting fires that broke out in the wake
of the London bombings, all ramie fire hoses were found to be useful.
Untreated with rubber, these hoses were capable of carrying water
under normal pressure without leakage (Monthly Review of the Federal
Reserve Bank of Atlanta, 1945). (3) The woody parts of ramie can be
used for making several other bio-degradable products such as ply-
wood, fiber board and particle board. (4) Fiber crops are potential
energy crops that can be used whole or as residues from industry (El
Bassam, 2010). The high biomass production of ramie makes it a po-
tential candidate for the production of renewable bio-energy (Fig. 6).
(5) The high nutritional quality of ramie has increased its importance as
an excellent livestock feed. Broom (2016) has reported that ramie
leaves can be eaten by goats, sheep and cattle. (6) Ramie has been
widely used as a folk remedy or an emergency food (Institute of Drug
and Plant, 1998). (7) Owing to the high percentage of crude protein and
crude fiber, ramie residues can be used to develop a substrate for edible
mushroom cultivation, thus providing a new insight in the mushroom
industry. Ramie stalks can provide an effective supplement for in-
creasing mushroom yield (Xie et al., 2017). (8) Organic mulching is an
environmentally friendly approach for sustainable agriculture. Ramie
fibers mixed with other natural fibers can be used to produce organic
mulch with non-woven technology. (9) Ramie can be used to make
ramie blended car seat covers that provide thermal comfort to drivers
during real traffic conditions (Cengiz and Babalik, 2009).
Fig. 6. A schematic flow chart diagram for
production of bio-ethanol from ramie residue.
M. Rehman, et al.
In spite of several potential benefits, ramie fiber is of secondary
importance as compared with other plant fibers traded globally. The
major constraints limiting ramie production and utilization include the
lack of suitable large scale fiber extraction equipment as well as the
expensive methods of degumming, spinning and weaving the fiber (Roy
and Lutfar, 2012), and the high price of ramie based products such as
ramie fabrics. However these issues can be solved by paying consider-
able attention to the development of required machinery from planting
of ramie to final product development.
10. Conclusions and future prospects
This review highlights that ramie is a good alternative plant species
that can potentially be utilized for fiber production in the Textile sector,
for substituting commercial rations for livestock, for environmental con-
servation of species and for medicines. The sexual and asexual propagation
of ramie and its high productivity over many years after planting make it
an important plant species for scientists and growers. Ramie’s high bio-
mass production and nutritional quality support its utility as an animal
feed. Moreover, ramie feed, if fully exploited, could assist in increasing the
production and improving the health of livestock. One of its main assets is
its excellent versatility, because it can be grown in tropical, subtropical
and temperate regions, and even on metal-contaminated and hilly sites,
where cultivation of other field crops would be difficult.
The utilization and importance of ramie as a bast fiber and animal feed
have been widely documented, but several other aspects related to the
novel uses of this plant still require further research to decrease the high
costs. For example, the production of bio-energy must be further studied,
because the conversion rate is low and uneconomical. The utilization of
ramie parts in medicines is still being researched. Ramie mulch was de-
veloped to avoid the environmental issues of plastic mulch, but it is now
being utilized as a seedling substrate, which has shown high potential for
larger markets and has been found to be more economical than mulch. The
high nutritional quality of ramie has changed opinions regarding its use-
fulness as only a fiber crop. Use of ramie as a fodder crop can support the
ramie industry, because there is a large market for vegetable protein feed.
The extension of ramie cultivation would also decrease dependence on
imported fibers, and ramie may be a favorable substitute for other natural
fibers that are currently imported. At present, there is a large scope for
research and development of this valuable crop. Every effort should be
made to augment research strategies and policy decisions to promote
ramie cultivation with high productivity.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities (2662015PY059), China Agriculture Research
System project (CARS-16-E12) and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (31571717).
We gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Dr. Saddam
Hussain.
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