Types of Circuit Breakers 183 ‘umn is formed and the arc is what is called a diffuse mode, This mode is char- acterized by the existence of a number of fast moving cathode spots, where each spot shares an equal portion of the total current. The current that is car- ried by the cathode spot depends on the contact material and for copper elec- trodes a current of about 100 amperes per spot has been observed. The arc will remain in the diffuse column mode until the current exceeds approximately 15 KA. As the magnitude of the current increases a single anode spot appears thus ‘creating a new source of metal vapors which because of the thermal constant of the anode spot continues to produce vapors even after current zero. With the reversal of current, following the passage through zero and because of ion ‘bombardment and a high residual temperature it becomes quite easy to rees- tablish a cathode spot at the place of the former anode. M. B. Schulman et. al [25] have reported in the sequence of the arc evolution and have observed that the development is sensitive to the method of initiation During normal interruption of an ac current, near current zero the arc col- umn will be diffuse and will rapidly disappear in the absence of current. ‘Since, during interruption and depending in the current magnitude, the arc may ‘undergo the transition from the diffuse mode (o the constricted mode and back again to the diffuse mode just prior to current zero it becomes clear that the longer the arc isin the diffuse mode the easier it is to interrupt the current ‘What it ic important to realize from the above is the desirability of mini ‘izing the heating of the contacts and maximizing the time during which the are remains dittuse during the halt current cycle. This objective can be ac- complished by designing the contacts in such way that advantage can be taken of the interaction that exists between the current flowing through the arc and the magnetic field produced by the current flowing through the contacts or through a coil that may be assembled as an integral part of the interrupter [26] Depending in the method used, the magnetic field may act in a transverse for in the axial direction with respect to the arc. ‘Transverse Field. To create a transverse or perpendicular field different designs of spiral contacts, such as those illustrated in figure 5.44, have been used. In the dif- fase mods the cathode spots move freely over the suuface uf Uke value elowuode as if it was a solid disk. At higher currents and as the arc becomes coalescent the ‘magnetic field produced by the curent flowing through the contact spirals forces the arc to move along them [27] as result of the magnetic forces that are exerted ‘on the are column as shown in figure 5.45, As the arc rotates its roots also move along reducing the likelihood of forming stationary spots and reducing the localized heating of the electrodes and thus also reducing the emission of metallic vapors. ‘When the end of the contact spirals is reached, the arc roots, due to the magnetic force exerted on tho are column aro Forced to jump the gap and to continue the ro- tation along the spirals ofthe contacts.184 Chapter 5 Figure 5.44 Two types of spiral contacts used on vacuum interrupters, Figure 5.45 Magnetic force in transverse magnetic field,Types of Circuit Breakers 185 Figure $.46 Vacuum are under the influence of w tamsverse magnetic fel: (2) constricted column (18.8 ka peak), (b) arc showing two parallel diffuse columns. (Courtesy of DrM. B. Schulman, Cutler-Hammer, Horseheads, NY.)186 Chapter 5 Figure §.47 vacuum are under the influence of a transverse magnetic field (@) jet column with wedge instability (26.8 ka peak), (b) 7 KA diffuse arc following ‘current peak of 18.8 kA (Courtesy of DrM. B. Schulman, Cutler Hammer, Horocheads, NY.)Types of Circuit Breakers 187 The effects of the field on the arc are illustrated in figures 5.46 (a), (b) and 3.47 (a), and (b) where the photographs ot an arc mn the diffuse and constricted modes are shown. Axial Field. ‘The axial magnetic field decreases the arc voltage and the power input from the arc by applying a magnetic ficld that effectively confines the are column as it can be seen in the photograph of a 101 kA peak diffuse arc as shown in figure 5.48. In the absence of the magnetic fleld, diffusion causes the arc to expand outwards from the space between the electrodes. However, when the axial ‘magnetic field is present the ion trajectory becomes circumferential and a con~ fining effect is produced, For a reference on the effects of the axial magnetic fields upon the arc column and on the formation of the diffuse arc one can re~ fer to the work published by M. B. Schulman et. al. [28] ‘Axial magnetic fields can be prodnced by using either, a coil that is located concentrically outside the envelope of the interrupter and that is energized by the current flowing through the circuit breaker (29], or by using specially de~ signed contacts such as the one suggested by Yanabu et al (30] and which is shown in figure 5.49. Observing at this figure, it can be seen the action of magnetic force on the arc column as the result of the interaction of the mag- netic field set up by the current flowing through the arms of the coil electrode and the contact Figure S.48 High Curent (101 KA peak) diffuse are in an axial magnetic field (Courtesy of Dr. M. B. Schulman, Cutle-Hammer, Horseheads, NY.)188 Chapter 5 Figure 5.49 Direction ofthe force on the are produced by an axial magnetic field. 5.6.2 Vacuum Interrupter Construction ‘Vacuum interrupters are manutactured by either of two methods. ‘Ihe autter- ences between methods are mainly the procedures used to braze and to evacu- ate the interrupters. 1m one of dhe methods, which is die une eommunly known as the pineleott ‘method, the interrupters are evacuated individually in a pumping stand after ‘they are completely assembled. An evacuation pipe is located at one end of the interrupter, generally adjacent to the fixed contact and after the required ‘vacuum is obtained the tube is sealed by compression welding With the second method the interrupters are concurrently brazed and evacuated in specially designed ovens ‘The advantage of this method is that evacuation takes place at higher temperatures and therefore there is a greater degree of vacuum purity in the asseanbly. ‘The interrupter, as shown in figure 5.50 consists of a ceramic insulating en- ‘elope that is scaled at both ends by metallic (stainless steel) plates brazed to the ceramic body 50 that a thigh vacuum container is created, The operating ambient pressure inside of the evacuated chamber of a vacuum interrupter is generally between 10“ and 10° tor. ‘Attached to one of the end plates is the stationary contact, while at the other end the moving contact is attached by means of metallic bellows. The ‘bellows used may be either seamless or welded, however the seamless variety is usually the preferred type. ‘A metal vapor condensation shield is located surrounding the contacts ei- ther inside of the ceramic cylinder, or in series between two sections of the