A Critical Review On Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 8 : 4 6 4 1 e4 6 6 1
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt
Review Article
A critical review on additive manufacturing of

Ti-6Al-4V alloy: microstructure and mechanical
properties
Hung Dang Nguyen a, A. Pramanik a, A.K. Basak b, Y. Dong a,

C. Prakash c,*, S. Debnath d, S. Shankar e, I.S. Jawahir f, Saurav Dixit g,
Dharam Buddhi h
a
School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
b
Adelaide Microscopy, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5000, South Australia, Australia
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, 144411, India
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Curtin University Malaysia, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia
e
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering College, Erode, India
f
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA
g
Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 195251, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
h
Division of Research & Innovation, Uttaranchal University, Uttarakhand, 248007, Dehradun, India
article info abstract
Article history: The most popular additive manufacturing (AM) technologies to produce titanium alloy parts
Received 8 March 2022 are electron beam melting (EBM), selective laser melting (SLM) and directed energy depo-
Accepted 11 April 2022 sition (DED). This investigation explores mainly these three techniques and compares these
Available online 20 April 2022 three methods comprehensively in terms of microstructure, tensile properties, porosity,
surface roughness and residual stress based on the information available in the literature. It
Keywords: was found that the microstructure is affected by the highest temperature generated and the
Additive manufacturing cooling rate which can be tailored by the input variables of the AM processes. The parts
Tie6Ale4V alloy produced from EBM have strength comparable to that of conventionally fabricated
Tensile properties counterparts. SLM and DED yield superior strength, which can be up to 25% higher than
Fatigue life traditionally manufactured products. Due to the presence of larger tensile residual stress,
Stress analysis surface roughness and porosity, AM fabricated parts have lower fatigue life compared to
those of from traditional methods. EBM parts have slightly lower fracture toughness (i.e.,
lower fatigue life) than conventionally produced parts while SLM and DED have significantly
lower fracture toughness. Annealing, hot isostatic pressing, stress relief and additional
machining processes improve the characteristics of parts produced from AM. Tie6Ale4V
alloy parts fabricated via AM may have limited applications despite the high demands in
aerospace or biomedical engineering. Since rapid product development using 3D printers
leads to significant cost reductions more recently, it is expected that more opportunities may
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chander.mechengg@gmail.com (C. Prakash).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.04.055
2238-7854/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
4642 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 8 : 4 6 4 1 e4 6 6 1
soon be available for the AM of titanium alloys with newer AM processes such as cold spray
additive manufacturing (CSAM) and additive friction stir deposition (AFSD).
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
more scientifically with the comprehensive overview of

1. Introduction material and product development efforts. This ensures that
the associated limitations and drawbacks, as well as pre-
Titanium (Ti) and its alloys, namely the most popular one cautions can be substantiated to benefit industrialists and
Tie6Ale4V alloy, have rapidly evolved to become one of the researchers in meeting the future challenges in the AM of
most important high-end materials in a variety of industrial Tie6Ale4V alloy.
applications such as aerospace, biomedical, and power/en-
ergy sectors [1,2]. This is associated with its excellent
corrosion resistance and specific strength, the highest of all 2. Categories of additive manufacturing of
metallic elements, as well as low density [3], along with good Ti-alloys
specific strength at a high-temperature level. Tie6Ale4V
alloy is extremely difficult-to-machine. Titanium and its al- American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has
loys offered complex and unusual deformation mechanism classified AM into seven process categories [1,6] including (i)
under extemre working conditions, including the thermal vat photopolymerization (VP), (ii) powder bed fusion (PBF), (iii)
softening property at high temperatures, compared to other directed energy deposition (DED), (iv) material extrusion (ME),
commonly available metals such as steel or aluminium [4]. (v) material jetting (MJ), (vi) binder jetting (BJ) and (vii) sheet
This drawback, coupled with the fact that Ti-alloys have low lamination (SL). Among these, only PBF, DED and SL have been
thermal conductivity and low volume specific heat, results in applied in additive manufacturing of Ti and its alloys [1].
high cutting temperature [5]. The high temperature causes Powder bed fusion is an AM technique that utilizes a heat
build-up edge which accelerate tool-wear [4]. Therefore, source (e.g. laser, plasma, electron beam, etc.) to melt and
various attempts have been made in recent decades to combine powder material in order to follow the tool path
develop advanced AM processes for Ti-alloys as alternative configuration specified in the CAD file in a layer-by-layer
manufacturing process. manner. Once each layer is produced, a new powder layer is
In traditionally known additive manufacturing (AM), a spread over and the process repeats until the end. The entire
product is designed, modelled and generated by computer- process is highly capable of producing near net-shape prod-
aided design (CAD) method, then is sliced into multiple ucts [27]. Directed energy deposition is an AM technology with
thin layers. and built layer by layer from bottom to top using the aid of a focused heat source (laser or electron beam) to melt
a heat source such as laser, electron beam or ultra- material (in the form of either powders or wires) when
sonication to melt and combine materials [6]. As such, from deposited through a nozzle. The main difference between DED
the economical point of view, AM consumes the minimum and PBF is that PBF melt the material before it is being depos-
quantity of materials in net-shape with the significant ited while the melting process in DED takes place while it is
conservation of resources and consumables. AM techniques being deposited [6,16]. The part fabricated rests on a baseplate
have significantly lower manufacturing time when by moving the head according to the CAD/CAM plans devel-
compared with conventional methods due to the fact that oped [28]. Sheet lamination is an AM process where material
many steps in the current conventional methods such as sheets are bonded together using adhesives, and a guided laser
melting, forming, shaping, moulding as well as machining, following the tool path data cuts the sheets into a desired
can be skipped with AM. As AM is capable of fabricating shape. A new material sheet is then added, and the process
near-net shapes [6], minimal machining is required to repeats until the product is finished. The two types of sheet
achieve good surface finish and shape. AM technologies lamination are categorized as “bond then form” (sheets are
enable producing a part composed of multi-material such as bonded first then cut to shape) and “form then bond” (sheets
the reinforcements of pure Ti with SiC [7], TiB2 [8], hy- are cut to shape first then bond). These two types have some
droxyapatite [9,10], Si3N4 [11], and Tie6Ale4V with Cu differences despite the same major process principles [6].
[12,13]. CoeCreMo coated on Tie6Ale4V [14] and TiO2 Commercially available AM technologies utilize either
coated on pure Ti [15] using AM technologies may feasibly electron beam, laser or ultrasonication as their heat sources to
improve wear resistance of metal on metal implants in melt and weld powder materials [17e26]. Electron beam-based
biomedical applications. technologies are operated in a vacuum environment as opposed
A significant amount research work in this field has been to laser-based counterparts in an inert atmosphere environ-
reported in the published literatures [6,16e26]. Nonetheless, ment. While inert atmosphere system is cheaper than vacuum
it is difficult to have a good understanding of this field due to system, they have the typical downside in relation to greater
somewhat disorganised or less linked scientific results. This residual stress with the requirement of a stress relieving oper-
current review investigates the latest developments in the ation [1]. A comparison of PBF, DED and SL technologies
AM of titanium alloys available in previous studies and involved in the AM of Ti-alloys with their respective work
investigations, and links the findings from the prior work principles are summarized in Table 1.
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 8 : 4 6 4 1 e4 6 6 1 4643
Table 1 e Commercially available AM technologies used for Tie6Ale4V alloy.

AM type Name Manufacturer Work principle
Electron beam-based Electron beam melting (EBM) Arcam AB [18] Electron beam melt and fuse
powder bed fusion metallic powders on a bed
of powders
Laser-based powder Selective laser melting (SLM) Selective Laser Laser melt and fuse metallic
bed fusion Melting Solution GmbH [17] powders on a bed of powders
Selective laser sintering (SLS) 3D Systems [20] Laser sinter and fuse metallic
powders on a bed of powders
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) EOS GmbH [21] Laser melt, sinter and fuse
metallic powders on a bed
of powders
Laser melting (LM) Renishaw plc [19] Laser melt and fuse metallic
Laser cusing (CU) Concept Laser GmbH [22] Laser melt and fuse metallic
Directed energy Laser engineered net Optomec Inc. [23]. Laser melt and deposit metallic
deposition shaping (LENS) powders into a molten pool
Direct metal deposition (DMD) DM3D Technology, LLC [24] Laser melt and deposit metallic
powders in a closed-loop process
Electron beam additive Sciaky Inc [25]. Electron beam melt and deposit
manufacturing (EBAM) metals using wire feedstock
in vacuum
Sheet lamination Ultrasonic consolidation (UC) Fabrisonic [26] Ultrasonic energy welds and
make the parts out of multiple
metal sheets.
PBF technologies are capable of building parts with com- powders are difficult to obtain and additives are required to
plex, unusual geometries and features with high accuracy ensure the fidelity of the powders in most cases. Chemical
coupled with good surface finish. However, when compared to properties of powders may also vary due to the repeated op-
DED technologies, PBF technologies are limited to build size, erations in AM or recycling as the prolonged exposure of
single material build, slow build rate, and therefore cannot thermal effects from multiple build layers can result in the
build additional features on existing parts. In contrast, DED losses of elements [29]. For example, electron beam melting of
technologies generally build less complicated parts in Tie6Ale4V powders in a vacuum environment can lead to the
possession of rougher surface finish as opposed to PBF. On the loss of Al elements. As such, the additional amount of Al is
other hand, DED technologies allow for large and flexible build often added to compensate the loss. The powder density
size. DMD technology is capable of building multi-materials directly affects the porosity where more denser powder is
parts in a medium or large size with the provision of consid- particularly preferred to reduce the porosity which influences
erable advantages over conventional PBF technologies [24]. In properties of the final product accordingly [1,31].
addition, DED technologies also yield a higher deposition rate
leading to an increase in the build rate.
4. Microstructures generated from AM
processes
3. Powder requirements and handling
Microstructures directly dictate mechanical properties of metal
The AM of Tie6Ale4V alloy uses pre-alloyed titanium powders products. Properties such as tensile strength, ductility and fa-
as feeding material. Layer thickness as well as minimum tigue life are all determined by microstructures which in turn
buildable size and surface quality of the products depend are determined by a thermal history of the alloys [32]. This
primarily on the size and shape of powder particles. Addi- study focuses on Tie6Ale4V alloy, which is the most commonly
tionally, powder size distribution also affects the packing used material in the AM process of Ti-alloys. Tie6Ale4V is a
density of PBF processes. The size of powders for PBF pro- moderate strength martensitic a þ b titanium alloy containing 6
cesses generally range from 20 to 40 mm in contrast with wt. % a stabilizing Al and 4 wt. % b stabilizing V [33]. In the cast
45e150 mm for DED processes [1]. Depending on the powder form, the microstructure contains both a and b phases. The
preparation process, the particles can vary, typically in irreg- shape and size of these phases are subjected to their heat
ular, needle-like, flake-like, granular, platelet-like shapes, etc., treatment and thermo-mechanical processing. However, the
[1,29]. However, powder morphology (shape and size) is less microstructure evolution of Tie6Ale4V alloy is very complex
important in DED techniques. A consistent flow of powder is and may be affected by corresponding parameters used in AM
essential to warrant successful operation and product quality. processes such as cooling and reheating rates, which, however,
Spherical shape powder without any unusual morphology and does not necessarily resemble that of cast alloys [34].
contamination is highly recommended to achieve a good and The AM processes have a complex thermal history that
consistent flow rate [1,30]. Generally, 100% pure metal depends primarily on many parameters such as energy source
when the temperature of the molten pool drops below transus

b temperature. As such, a sufficient cooling rate, along with
build temperature, lower than the martensite start tempera-
ture at 780 C would be required for the formation of a0
martensite [32]. Martensite start temperature varies from 575
to 800 C [45,46] which is due to the difference in initial mi-
crostructures and uniformity of composition and impurities.
It is impossible for these factors to be the same throughout
each specimen, thus it leads to different martensite start
temperatures as reported in various tests [47e49]. Any cooling
rate of 410 C/s or higher results in complete a0 martensite
formation. An incomplete a0 martensite formation is expected
in cooling rate range of 410 to 20 C/s. However, cooling rate
below 20 C/s does not produce any a0 martensite [45].
Though the core working principle is similar for all AM
processes such as EBM, SLM and DED, those have different
build temperatures and cooling rates. It is reported that the
Fig. 1 e Thermal history of different layers of AM- build temperature of EBM is roughly in the range of 600e760 C
fabricated Tie6Ale4V alloy sample [37]. [50,51], which is higher than those of SLM and DED. Signifi-
cantly high build temperature and fast cooling rate take place
in these processes as concentrated energy beam is used in
input power, scan speed, alloy purity, as well as part geometry these methods for a very short time. Cooling rate is expected
and size. This complexity in thermal history makes it difficult to to have a wide range even within the same AM process
characterize prior b grains [35]. Fig. 1 demonstrates the tem- because of many affecting process parameters. The molten
peratures of different layers for an AM-produced sample in pool temperature and corresponding cooling rate in EBM
terms of time or layer number. The temperature of the first layer process are around 2700 K [52] and 103e105 C/s [40], respec-
is above the melting point (i.e. liquidus temperature). It remains tively. The cooling rate of molten pool of SLM and DED pro-
above the melting point at the time when the second layer is cesses is somewhat similar [53]. It can be expected that the a0
added. The first layer's temperature drops but still remains martensite becomes dominant microstructures of as-built
above the transus b temperature up to the addition of the fourth parts produced by AM processes. However, EBM with the
layer. The size and thickness of prior b grains do not depend on higher build temperature and lower cooling rate may possess
cooling rate, as explained in the case of a laths, but rather the different microstructures from SLM and DED. Table 2 sum-
period between transus b temperature and melting point [36]. marizes the build temperatures and cooling rate of different
This results in the formation of characteristics columnar b AM processes.
grains in the microstructures of all AM-processed Tie6Ale4V Typical microstructures of Tie6Ale4V alloys produced by
alloy [32,36,38]. Formanoir et al. [39], Al-Bermani et al. [40] and different AM processes are shown in Fig. 2 and as mentioned
Liu and Shin [32] stated that b grains nucleate and grow earlier, martensitic a þ b type microstructures appear to be
epitaxially on the top surface of previous layers and perpen- prevalent. Initially, the molten pool cools down rapidly and
dicular to the molten pool. The size of b grains varies a lot the diffusion may occur for less transformation of b to
between each AM process. Wu et al. [41] reported a thickness martensite a0 . Then, the temperature remains somewhat
range of 0.2e4 mm for b grains. Sandgren et al. [42] found the constant at the build temperature range of approximately
prior b grain thickness up to 4 mm for the DED process. Both 600e760 C until the deposition process is completed. During
Lancaster et al. [43] and Simonelli et al. [44] reported the this stage, the high build temperature of EBM process acts as
thickness values of 246 and 103 mm for prior b grains in EBM an in-progress heat treatment resulting in the decomposition
and SLM processes, respectively. Generally, DED processes of martensite a0 to a þ b phase [54e57]. According to Al-
can spot larger prior b grain size than those of PBF (EBM, SLM). Bermani et al. [40], some martensite a0 can still be found
According to Liu et al. [40], Tie6Ale4V alloys undergo a com- within the larger parts produced by EBM. They exist in small
plete melting and solidification process during the AM pro- parts or very close to the top surfaces where the high cooling
cess, which are transformed from a þ b (i.e., initial phase of rate occurs. The typical microstructure found in a þ b dual
the alloys at ambient temperature) to b due to very high phase produced by EBM is the Widmansta € ttenn microstruc-
temperature to liquid then back to b and finally to a þ b/a0 ture. Due to the high cooling rate of both SLM and DED
Table 2 e Build temperatures and cooling rates of different AM processes [52e56].

Electron beam Selective laser Direct energy
melting (EBM) melting (SLM) diposition (DED)
Build temperature ( C) 600e760 200 e
Molten temperature ( C) ~2700 e ~2973
Cooling rate (K/s) 103e105 104e106 104e106
Fig. 2 e As-built microstructures of a Tie6Ale4V parts produced by (a) SLM [60], (b) EBM [61] and (c) DED processes [62].
processes, the microstructures of parts produced by SLM and deposition temperature and lower cooling rate. This might
DED reveal a0 martensite with much finer a phase as opposed annihilate the stress to some extent. The lower cooling rate of
to the parts produced by EBM. The a lath thickness of both SLM EBM (compare to SLM and DED) and its high build temperature
and DED should also be smaller than that of EBM. In fact, facilitate in-progress heat treatment. Therfore, the average a
Wysocki et al. [58] reported that the a lath thickness of as-built lath thickness of EBM-produced parts is thicker than those of
Tie6Ale4V in a SLM ranges from 0.2 to 1 mm. Sandgren et al. SLM and DED. The thicker the a lath, the less strength the alloy
[42] found that the lath thickness is around 0.7 mm for a DED will sustain. As such, Laser PBF and DED parts are expected to
process. Additionally, Baufeld et al. [59] measured their a lath achieve higher strength with lower ductility than those of EBM
thickness to be 0.6 mm. As such, withstanding the similar parts [66]. Since a lath thickness in parts produced from SLM
microstructures, the thickness of a laths may vary. and DED is smaller than that of EBM, parts produced from SLM
In contrast to complex and different microstructures of and DED should have higher yield strength than EBM despite
produced samples in AM processes, the microstructures of more poor ductility.
conventional mill-annealed Tie6Ale4V consist of equiaxial a/ Since the a lath of conventionally produced Tie6Ale4V are
b phase, as shown in Fig. 3 in which both of them are subjected thicker than those produced by AM processes. It is expected
to heat treatment. More evidently, the microstructures of that they have less yield strength and better ductility than
these Tie6Ale4V possess equiaxial a and a0 phases. EBM while it possess much improved ductility than SLM and
Sometimes parts produced by AM processes are subjected DED. This is elaborated in the subsequent sections where
to heatetreatment processes. Such processes coarsen a lath tensile strengths and elongations of Ti-alloy produced by AM
thickness, as shown in Fig. 4 [64]. The average a lath thickness processed and conventional methods are compared.
of 1.1 mm to stress relief, 3.5 mm for hot isostatic pressing and
1.0 mm for annealed have been revealed elsewhere [65]. All of
these are thicker than as-built SLM and DED a lath thickness. 5. Tensile properties
Therefore, these heat-treated Tie6Ale4V alloys can lower
yield strength, despit the improvement of ductility over as- One of the key considerations for any AM-fabricated Ti-alloy
built Tie6Ale4V alloys via SLM and DED. However, it should products lies in whether they have the material properties to
be noted that additional heat treatment processes may incur compete with those based upon conventionally produced
extra production cost. The low scan speed increases the laser counterparts such as forged, cast or wrought titanium. To be
interaction time and high energy input which results in higher specific, tensile and fatigue properties are the two most used
Fig. 3 e Microstructure of conventional mill-annealed Tie6Ale4V: (a) solution treated and overaged alloys showing
equiaxial a′ and secondary a þ b lamellae [63] as well as (b) mill-annealed Tie6Ale4V in the presence of equiaxial a [56].
Fig. 4 e Microstructures of DED-processed Tie6Ale4V alloys after different heat treatments: (a) stress relief, (b) HIP and (c)
annealing [65].
material features to evaluate the performance of AM-produced ductility of wrought and forged Tie6Ale4V is superior to those
Ti products. Tensile properties for various AM-processed from AM-fabricated couterparts. As-built EBM-produced parts
Tie6Ale4V alloys samples are compared with conventionally with a þ b dual phase are slightly worse than wrought and
produced Ti-6AL-4V counterparts, as illustrated in Table 3. In forged equiaxed a þ b counterparts. Laser-based and DED pro-
contrast, Table 4 demonstrates tensile properties of forged, duced as-built parts possess the lowest ductility. A majority of
cast and wrought Tie6Ale4V alloys as well. specimens do not even reach the half ductility of convention-
According to Tables 3 and 4, in can be seen that generally ally produced specimens. However, the ductility of these parts
the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of AM- can be improved by additional hot isostatic press and/or heat
fabricated Ti samples are comparable or superior to conven- treatments. Hot isostatic press (HIP) can potentially minimize
tionally produced Ti alloy samples. Specifically, electron beam pores and assist in generating the denser microstructure of the
based PBF typically produce the parts with comparable or parts, which ultimately becomes favourable in improving the
slightly superior strengths to that of conventionally produced ductility of AM-built Ti parts. Carreon et al. [84] reported that
parts. Meanwhile, laser-based PBF and DED technologies over aging causes the formation of nano-scale a2-phases (Ti3Al)
appear to produce parts with the superior strength as opposed in the microstructure, which improved the mechanical prop-
to traditional methods, while laser-based PBF yields the erties (hardness and creep resistance) of Tie6Ale4V alloy.
highest strength. This can be expected based on the micro- Higher elongation at failure could be achieved for the heat
structural evolution of AM-made samples. The axis orienta- treatment at higher temperature with an additional strength
tion of the build does not appear to induce significant effect on decrease. This must be considered when deciding whether the
the part strength. This is because the strength discrepancies parts need extra ductility or strength, depending on its specific
between the two directions XY (horizontal) and Z (longitudi- applications. In light of these, Ti parts produced by AM tech-
nal) are not high enough to influence in most tests. niques have the strength required to perform in place of
The effect of cooling rate, thus the effect of microstructure traditionally produced Ti counterparts. Although the ductility
of AM-processed Ti samples affect the strength and ductility. is lower, it can be improved with additional heat treatment
The columnar a þ b yields better strength than equiaxed a þ b. processes while still maintaining the high strength.
EBM, while at its very high build temperature a0 martensite is
transformed into columnar a þ b, thus resulting in much
thicker a laths. SLM and DED give rise to either partial a0 or 6. Fatigue properties
complete a0 with even narrower a laths. Conventionally
produced Ti samples possess equiaxed a þ b microstructures Fatigue strength is the most considered material property
with the lowest resulting strength [55]. when evaluating the performance of a metallic product [85].
On the other hand, as-built Ti samples produced in AM The fatigue performance of any product is depend upon many
processes exhibit lower elongation when compared with con- factors such as microstructure, structural defects, surface
ventional Ti couterparts apparently due to the less ductile quality, porosity, residual stresses, and corrosion resistance.
characteristics for the former samples. The ductility of the The particular role of some of these factors on microstruc-
parts produced by electron beam based PBF technique with tures of AM-processed Ti samples and their role on fatigue
columnar a þ b are a few percentages lower than those based on behaviours are elaborated in the forthcoming sections.
wrought, forged, casted titanium, while the parts produced by
laser-based PBF and DED are substantially lower (usually less 6.1. Porosity
than half) accordingly. The formation of martensite a0 phase
results from faster cooling rate but lower build temperature of In theory, AM techniques can produce fully dense parts. How-
laser-based and DED processes leading to either partial a0 or ever, it is practically impossible as non-optimal deposition such
complete a0 transformation depending on different process as, irregular shape and size of the metal powders inevitiably
parameters [1,32,33]. As illustrated in Tables 3 and 4, the incorporate porosity. The porosity in a structure can be
Table 3 e Tensile properties of various AM-fabricated Tie6Ale4V alloy samples.

Electron beam based powder bed fusion (PBF)
Ref Condition Machining Axis Yield strength (MPa) Ultimate tensile Elongation (%)
strength (MPa)
[67] As-built No Z 812±12 851±19 3:6±0:9
[67] As-built No XY 783±15 833±22 2:7±0:4
[68] As-built Interior Z 984:1±8:5 1032:9±12:9 9:0±2:9
[68] As-built Exterior Z 961±7:1 1008:6±15:2 7:1±3:4
[68] As-built Interior XY 982:9±5:7 1029:7±7 12:2±0:8
[68] As-built Exterior XY 966:5±5:3 1017:4±4:9 12:2±2:0
[69] As-built Yes Z 970 1045 10.9
[54] As-built No e 740±10 790±10 2:2±0:3
[56] As-built Yes XY 1006 1066 15
[56] As-built Yes Z 1001 1073 11
[56] As-built Yes XY 973 1032 12
[56] As-built Yes Z 1051 1116 15
[70] As-built Yes Z 869±7:2 928±9:8 9:9±1:7
[70] As-built Yes XY 899±4:7 978±3:2 9:5±1:2
[64] As-built Yes e830±5 915±10 13:1±0:4 795±10
[64] Hot isostatic press Yes e 870±10 13:7±1:0
[71] As-built Yes XY 905 979 10
[71] As-built Yes Z 910 971 10
[71] Hot isostatic press Yes e 843 932 13
Laser based powder bed fusion (PBF)
[70] As-built Yes Z 1143±30 1219±20 4:89±0:6
[70] As-built Yes XY 1195±19 1269±9 5±0:5
[58] As-built Yes Z 1150±67 1246±134 1:4±0:5
[58] As-built Yes XY 1273±53 1421±120 3:2±0:5
[69] Stress-relieved Yes XY 961 1032 2.7
[72] As-built No XY 910±9:9 1035±29 3:3±0:76
[73] As-built Yes e 1008 1080 1.6
[73] Annealed at 800 C Yes e 962 1040 5
[73] Annealed at 1050 C Yes e 798 945 11.6
[73] Hot isostatic press Yes e 912 1005 8.3
[74] As-built No Z 664e802 1040e1062 ~11.9
[74] As-built Yes Z 984e988 1151e1157 ~10.9
[74] Annealed at 700 C Yes Z 1045e1054 1115e1116 ~11.3
[74] Annealed at 900 C Yes Z 905e911 987e989 ~9.5
[74] Hot isostatic press Yes Z 883e888 973e974 ~19.0
[75] As-built Yes e 1234 1286 5.22
Directed energy deposition (DED)
[76] As-built Yes Z 976±24 1099±2 4:9±0:1
[77] Annealed Yes Z 950±2 1025±2 5±1
[77] Annealed Yes XY 950±2 1025±10 12±1
[77] Hot isostatic press Yes / 850±2 920±1 17±2
[78] As-built Yes XY 960±26 1063±20 10:9±1:4
[78] As-built Yes Z (top) 945±13 1041±12 14:5±1:2
[78] As-built Yes Z (bottom) 970±17 1087±8 13:6±0:5
[79] As-built, low power Yes XY 1005 1103 4
[79] As-built, high power Yes XY 990 1042 7
[79] Annealed Yes XY 1000 1073 9
[79] Annealed Yes XY 991 1044 10
[80] As-built Yes XY 961±40 1072±33 17±4
[80] As-built Yes Z 916±26 1032±31 19±4
[81] As-built Yes XY 908 1038 3.8
[81] Annealed Yes XY 959 1049 3.7
[81] Annealed Yes XY 957 1097 3.4
[65] Stress-relieved Yes / ~873 ~964 3e9
[65] Annealed Yes / ~788 ~879 3e9
[65] Hot isostatic press Yes / ~773 ~881 3e9
Table 4 e Tensile properties for conventionally produced Tie6Ale4V alloy sample.

Wrought
Ref Condition Machining Axis Yield strength (MPa) Ultimate tensile Elongation (%)
strength (MPa)
[64] Annealed Yes e 790±20 870±10 18:1±0:8
[58] e e XY 832±10 933±7 13:0±1:5
[58] e e Z 836±9 942±8 12:5±1:2
[82] e e e 930 995 14
[83] Annealed e e 900 970 17
Forged
[77] Heat treated Yes e 878±4 926±2 20±1
[56] Annealed e e 970 1030 16
e
[54] e e e 750±2 875±10 4:5±0:2
[82] e e e 865 980 13.5
controlled to alter the mechanical properties, and thus affecting higher laser power can reduce the formation of gas pores,
the fatigue properties. According to previous studies [2,62,86], which was further confirmed by Erinosho et al. [94] as shown
pores are used in biomedical field for the stress shielding effect in Fig. 6. An average pore size of 171.14 ± 90.75 mm for the
in load-bearing implants. However, not all pores can be material specimens at the laser power of 900 W as well as
manipulated and the uncontrolled pores may deteriorate the 125.44 ± 27.4 mm for specimen at 1500 W have been reported
properties of parts. Uncontrolled pores can ultimately act as accordingly [94].
crack initiators. Moreover, the presence of pores also results in Although higher laser power reduces the pore, it cannot
an uneven stress distribution across the cross-sectional area, completely eliminate them. Kasperovich and Hausmann [74]
and thus can significantly reduce the effective load bearing area found that even under optimized SLM settings, the porosity of
[87,88]. Vilaro et al. [82] show that the macroscopic ductility approximately 0.08% still remains and pores with small sizes
could be significantly affected by the shape and orientation of occupy a considerable volume percentage of the as-built parts.
pores. There are two types of pores that are commonly used in As for EBM produced parts, the pore size can be in a range of
most AM produced components, namely, (i) gas pores and (ii) 50e300 mm [95]. Galarrage et al. [71] found that the porosity was
lack of fusion pores, as illustrated in Fig. 5. much greater in the centre (0.25%) of the build platform
The gas pores are often in either spherical or elliptic and compared to those at the edge of the build platform (0.09%). As
randomly distributed shapes. Gas pores are generated due to uncontrolled pores cause undesirable effects, post heat treat-
trapped gas inside the molten pool during the build process ment is commonly undertaken to as-built AM-processed Ti
which could not escape in time and thus remain during the parts in order to reduce the porosity as well as pore size.
solidification process [90,91]. The formation of unwanted However, as aforementioned, heat treatment processes cannot
pores negatively influence the fatigue properties. Dense completely eliminate pores and not all heat treatments are
powder materials are typically recommended over sponge- effective for decreasing the porosity. More specifically, only HIP
based powders since the structures of dense powder mate- was found to induce an effect on reduced porosity and pore
rials are less likely to generate gas pores compared to the size [71,73]. Kasperovich and Hausmann [74] observed a
hollow structures of sponge-basedpowders [92]. The settings reduction in porosity from 0.08 to 0.01% after using HIP. Simi-
of AM processes such as laser power and scan speed can also larly, Leuder et al. [73] also report that the pore size was
affect the formation of gas pores. Zhong et al. [93] found that significantly diminished after the use of HIP.
Fig. 5 e Different types of pores in AM-processed samples: (a) Gas pore in a low power DED product and (b) lack of fusion
pore in a high power DED product [89].
Fig. 6 e Pores in AM-processed Tie6Ale4V alloys at laser powers (a) 900 W and (b) 1500 W [94].
The lack of fusion pores tend to be larger in size (500 mm or settings such as, scan speed, powder size and layer height
even more), possessing irregular shapes with sharp tips at the [70]. In general, DED processes produce the components with
ends (Fig. 7), which are generally located at the boundary of smoothest surface finish, which is followed by SLM and
two adjacent layers [96,97]. The formation of this type of pore subsequently EBM. Oxidation and adhesion of partially
is usually attributed to those metal powders that are not melted powders at the component surface are significantly
completely melted before being deposited as a new layer on influencing factors that dictate the surface roughness of an
the top of previous layer [98], as shown in Fig. 7, together with as-built component [104]. As electron beam-based PBF and
poor bonding defects. Such defects are caused by an insuffi- laser beam-based PBF keep the unused powders directly in
cient melting of metal, thus resulting in poor bonding between the powder bed while DED blows them away, the adhesion
layers during the solidification [99,100]. Unlike gas pores, the of partially melted powders in turn becomes less for DED
lack of fusion pores is generally considered to be more fatal to compared to EBM and SLM techniques. A visual comparison
the performance of AM-processed products [32,97,99,101,102]. in relation to surface roughness of fabricated samples via
Fortunately, the lack of fusion pore is also easier to avoid as EBM and SLM are shown in Fig. 8 [70]. Evidently, surface
the increased input energy density effectively minimizes the finish of SLM-fabricated samples in both build directions are
formation of these pores [83]. clearly much finer than those produced by EBM. This is due
to the fact that the higher thermal radiation associated with
6.2. Surface roughness high energy electron beam in EBM results in more adhesion
of partially melted powders. Toumi et al. [105] reported
Poor surface roughness of as-built parts has always been one surface roughness as indicated by Ra values of 7.867 and
of the main limitations in AM processes [103]. The surface 29.94 mm, respectively for as-built DMLS and EBM samples.
roughness of as-built parts greatly depend on specific The built direction in AM processes also induce a great
Fig. 7 e (a) Poor bonding defects and (b) unmelted metal powder defects in a SLM-produced part [99].
Fig. 8 e Surface finish of as-built (a) EBM and (b) DMLS samples [105].
impact on the surface roughness of the samples, as illus- The surface roughness of components produced by EBM is
trated in Fig. 9. Vertically built SLM samples seem to offer very similar to that of feedstock powders. Consequently, very
comparatively smoother surface finish than that of EBM- fine powders are highly preferred for EBM processes as they
processed samples. would improve their surface finish. The optimization of AM
Fig. 9 e Surface morphology of (a) vertically built SLM, (b) horizontally built SLM, (c) vertically built EBM and (d) horizontally
built EBM parts [70].
6.3. Residual stresses
AM processes, particularly laser-based AM processes, are

prone to a significant amount of induced residual stresses
because of their inherently large temperature gradients
[25,100,107,108], which is normally in the order of ~5 104 K/
cm [109]. The residual stresses in AM-processed components
will tend to increase with increasing layer numbers [110], and
the peak value always occurs at or near the free surface of the
final deposited layer [96,109,111]. The residual stress profile is
made up of a large amount of tensile stresses at the top region
of the parts, particularly relating to the yield strength of parts
[112]. With the addition of new layers on the previously built
layers, the tensile stresses can be converted into compressive
stresses due to subsequent thermal cycling [111].
Fig. 10 e Impact of surface roughness on fatigue life cycles The deposition strategy and track length also induce
[106]. prevalent impact on residual stress levels. It has been
detected that residual stresses are higher along the scan
direction than those in the perpendicular direction due to
settings can only improve surface finish of parts to a certain
the larger thermal gradient along the scan direction [25]. As
extent. Additional post processing such as machining or
such, an anisotropic stress distribution can be generated in
chemical etching is still required for nearly all AM parts. The
the final parts [25,111]. Moreover, residual stresses also in-
effect of surface roughness on the mean fatigue life of various
crease with the scan length [111,112]. It is well known that
AM -processed samples are shown in Fig. 10. As expected, the
residual stresses contribute to the crack formation and
fatigue life of the samples increases with decreasing surface
warping in the part, leading to the disconnection of builds
roughness. The surface roughness of rolled products are one
from the substrate and cracks in the finished parts [12,113].
order of magnitude lower than that of AM-processed samples,
These failures will always cause immediate and fatal con-
thus marginally reducing their fatigue life.
sequences of impairing the geometrical accuracy and
Table 5 e Fatigue properties of Tie6Ale4V parts produced different AM methods.

Electron beam powder bed fusion (PBF)
pffiffiffiffiffi
Ref Condition Machining Axis R Dsw (MPa) DKth (MPa m)
[114] As-built Yes Vertical 0.3 e 4.0e4.8
[114] As-built Yes Horizontal 0.3 e 3.4e5.0
[114] As-built Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 3.8
[114] Hot isostatic press Yes Vertical 0.3 e 4.7e5.1
[114] Hot isostatic press Yes Horizontal 0.3 e 4.8e5.0
[101] As-built Yes e 0.1 200e250 e
[101] Hot isostatic press Yes e 0.1 550e600 e
[101] Stress-relieved Yes e 0.1 200e250 e
[70] As- built Yes e 0.1 340 e
Laser beam powder bed fusion (PBF)
[70] As-built Yes e 0.1 550 e
[103] Stress-relieved Yes Vertical 0.1 500 3.48
[103] Stress-relieved No Vertical 0.1 210 e
[73] As-built Yes Vertical 0.1 e 1.7
[73] As-built Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 1.4
[73] Annealed at 800 C Yes Vertical 0.1 e 3.7
[73] Annealed at 1050 C Yes Vertical 0.1 e 6.1
[73] Annealed at 1050 C Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 3:9±0:4
[73] Hot isostatic press Yes Horizontal 0.1 620±5:4 4
Direct energy deposition (DED)
[115] As-built Yes Vertical 0.1 ~590 e
[56] As-built, high power Yes Vertical 0.1 e 3.5
[56] As-built, high power Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 3.4
[56] As-built, low power Yes Vertical 0.1 e 2.8
[56] As-built, low power Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 2.8
[56] Aged, high power Yes Vertical 0.1 e 3.8
[56] Aged, high power Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 3.2
[56] Aged, low power Yes Vertical 0.1 e 3.0
[56] Aged, low power Yes Horizontal 0.1 e 2.9
Table 6 e Fatigue properties Tie6Ale4V parts produced by conventional methods.

Wrought
pffiffiffiffiffi
Ref Condition Machining Axis R Dsw (MPa) DKth (MPa m)
[116] e e e 1 600e670 e
[117] e e e 1 630e680 e
[74] e e e 1 600 e
Forged
[56] Mill-annealed e e 0.1 e 4.4
[118] Mill-annealed e e 1 590e605 9
[118] Mill-annealed e e 0 e 4.4e4.7
[118] Mill-annealed e e 0.7 e 2.4
[118] Solution -treated e e 1 590 10
[118] Solution -treated e e 0 e 4.9e5.2
[118] Solution -treated e e 0.7 e 2.4
Cast
[70] Annealed e e 0.1 430 e
[119] As-built Yes e 0.1 230e380 e
[119] As-built No e 0.1 150e270
damaging the structures. Therefore, SLM and EBM built parts Honnige et al. [54] utilized neutron scattering to measure
may require supporting structures to restrict bending or residual stresses in EBM Ti6Al4V parts and did not find a
distortion during manufacturing processes. The residual significant level of residual stresses. Zhang et al. [80]
strees was removed or reduced by suitable heat treatment performed stress relief annealing at 640 C for 4 h for the
process [109]. Systematically calculated residual stresses SLM-built Tie6Ale4V specimens before a fatigue test.
formed in single-track EBM Tie6Ale4V by varying the pre- Based on the microstructures and tensile strength of AM
heating temperature of the fusion bed suggests that the made parts, as mentioned earlier, it can be expected that SLM
bed pre-heating temperature has the most significant impact and DED products would have higher threshold stress (Dsw )
on the residual stress. Quantitatively, each increment by 50 than EBM countparts. This mean that the fatigue strengths of

C in pre-heating temperature shows a stress reduction by the parts produced by SLM and DED are better than those by
20% approximately. The EBM process maintains a build EBM owing to their higher yield strength. On the other hand,
temperature of 600e750 C throughout the deposition the crack propagation threshold DKth for EBM is expected to be
[79e81]. Generally, it takes about 5 h to achieve a complete higher than those of SLM and DED. This should be the case as
stress relief at this temperature while EBM deposition cycles the parts produced by EBM appear to be more ductile and thus
mostly run longer than 5 h. Therefore, contrary to the DED increased the fatigue toughness. Post heat treatment pro-
and SLM processes, it is widely accepted that residual cesses such as, stress relief and hot isostatic press are also
stresses can be negligible in the EBM process. For example, expected to further improve the fatigue properties of as-built
AM-processed Tie6Ale4V as they can effectively reduce
defects, pores and other fatigue factors. Tables 5 and 6 show
the fatigue properties of various as-built AM-processed
Tie6Ale4V samples as well as Tie6Ale4V parts manufactured
by conventional methods. All samples are machined as sur-
face defects have an impact on the fatigue properties of parts.
Based on the data shown in Table 5, the components
fabricated using SLM and DED exhibit higher fatigue strength
(Dsw ) but lower fatigue toughness (DKth ) as opposed to those
fabricated by EBM. The superior fatigue strength of SLM and
DED components are ascribed to the presence of fine a0
martensite. The fatigue toughness of as-built EBM parts ranges
from 3.4 to 5.0 while the fatigue toughness of as-built SLM parts
only between 1.4 and 1.7. The fatigue toughness of as-built
DED-fabricated parts vary from 2.8 to 3.5 depending on
different power settings. SLM parts also display the highest
fatigue strength, which is followed by DED at slightly lower
values. EBM parts display the lowest fatigue strength, which is
much lower than those of SLM and DED. This finding is in line
with what have been discussed in tensile properties of SLM
parts in possession of highest yield strength, which is followed
Fig. 11 e Effect of post-processing stress relief on the by DED. EBM parts have the lowest tensile strength, and
fatigue behaviour of EBM made specimens. Arrows further the lowest fatigue strength. When compared to
indicate the specimen that did not fail [101]. conventionally produced Tie6Ale4V parts, SLM produced
Fig. 12 e Fatigue properties of different build orientations (a) non-machined/non-HIP and (b) machined/non-HIP [120].
components have somewhat similar fatigue strength to achieve high fatigue toughness similar to those conventionally
wrought and forged Ti with DED parts, which is followed by produced. This is due to the fact that the surface roughness of
slightly lower strength of EBM parts comparable to that of cast as-built AM-processed parts is generally worse compared to
Tie6Ale4V. However, despite the comparable fatigue strength, those produced traditionally. As the components produced by
AM produced Tie6Ale4V parts do not seem to be able to AM are plagued with pores in the as-built condition, heat
Table 7 e Characteristics, capabilities and limitations of AM technologies [36e44,121].

Electron PBF Laser PBF DED
Beam size Thin Thin Thick
Layer thickness Thin Thin Thick
Build size Small to medium Small to medium Large
Geometry Complex geometry, Complex geometry, very Simpler geometry, lower
good resolution, hollow good resolution, hollow resolution, limited
structures supported structures supported support for hollow
structures
Output rate Slow Slow Fast (up to 10 times
faster than PBF)
Surface quality Good Good Vary (mostly coarse)
Residual stress Low to none High High
Additional treatment HIP may be applied Requires additional stress Requires additional stress
relief. HIP may be applied relief. HIP may be applied
Machining May be required for May be required for high Required
high precision applications. precision applications.
Reparation No Limited, only for Yes
horizontal builds
Reconfiguration No No Yes
Multi-material Yes Yes Yes
System price (Euro) 450000e600000 450000e600000 500000e800000
Powder price ($/Kg) 600 600 160
treatment processes such as hot isostatic press can help zone. This minimal heat-affected zone is beneficial in repair-
improve the fatigue properties of AM-processed parts. Addi- ing parts as this assists in retaining the properties of the parts.
tionally, annealing can also be used to increase the fatigue Repairing a part is not possible with PBF or via conventional
toughness to achieve the high strength, low toughness in AM methods such as wrought, cast or forge, and thus eliminate for
processes such as, SLM and DMLS. This is attributed to the the cost associated with remanufacturing. Moreover, DED
decomposition of a0 martensite to increasing ductility [56]. As technologies such as LENS, DMD or EBAM have the ability to
can be seen in Fig. 11, in the case of EBM-processed specimens, add metals on to the surfaces of existing parts [128]. There is a
hot isostatic press significantly improved the fatigue proper- considerable advantage of DED as such this capability is not
ties of specimens, namely fatigue strength and to some extent, available with PBF or conventional manufacturing methods
fatigue toughness. The effectiveness of hot isostatic press which provides great flexibility in the operation of DED. Adding
process is also confirmed by Seifi et al. [114]. As hot isostatic extra features on existing parts can offer the most cost-
press process is known to induce positive effect on reducing effective option while remanufacturing parts with new builds
the porosity as well as pore size, it is as expected that the fa- using PBF or conventional methods would be required to start
tigue properties of the specimen would be improved after the again from the beginning. Such a case would be a huge waste
HIP process. On the other hand, Hrabe et al. [101] did not notice because the cost for recalibrating, redesign and/or moulding is
any difference between the as-built and stress-relieved significant as well as time-consuming. It is also applicable in
specimens. situations where the main large parts can be mass produced by
According to Chern et al. [120], as shown in Fig. 12, the traditional methods while the additional features can be
horizontal builds appear to always yield better fatigue prop- customized and added using DED per requirement.
erties as opposed to vertical builds without any post pro- With small beam size and layer thickness, PBF technolo-
cessing. However, for machined samples, the fatigue gies such as SLM and EBM are capable of producing complex
strengths based on vertical builds are slightly higher than parts with high accuracy, as well as good as-built surface
those from horizontal builds. quality. PBF can also produce a complete part within a single
build operation. This eliminates the necessity for multiple
part building operations, as well as the cost for part assembly,
7. Advantages and challenges of AM thus resulting in significant cost reduction [2]. High accuracy
processes of Ti-alloys means the parts are produced with good as-built geometry
and surface quality, eliminating the need for additional
PBF technologies are better for complex geometries with sup- machining as opposed to DED or conventional methods such
port for hollow, void structures owing to the smaller beam/ as casting or forging. However, the production time of PBF is
layer size. On the other hand, DED with large beam size and much slower while also having higher manufacturing cost.
thicker layer has lower accuracy, but much higher deposition Additionally, for very high-precision applications such as
and production rate relative to PBF. DED is also cheaper to threads, screws or seals, additional surface machining pro-
produce per part according to a study conducted by Optomec cess is still required.
[26]. Another advantage of DED over PBF and conventional Additionally, 3D printers usually have the capability to
methods is that reparation and reconfiguraration is possible perform specific tasks autonomously with little human su-
for DED processes [128]. This may be one of the most unique pervision. For example, Attaran et al. [26] stated that many
advantages for DED technique. According to DM3D Technology consumer-level 3D printers have an inbuilt feature called auto
[43], their closed-loop technology offers low heat-affected levelling. As the printer is able to calibrate itself with this
ability, the process of levelling the printing platform requires applications. AM has the ability to quickly fabricate a part
no human supervision. Currently, industrial sized 3D printers without the stringent requirement for moulding, tooling while
only have partial autonomous capability. Having a fully also producing less wastes and with less time. Tie6Ale4V
autonomous printer would significantly cut down cost and parts can be produced with the superior strength, but lower
manpower. In conclusion, PBF is better for smaller parts with ductility and fatigue life compared to conventional methods.
complex geometries that require high precision and that pro- Fortunately, the ductility and fatigue life of AM-produced
duction time is less of a concern. DED is more suitable for parts can be improved via additional heat treatment and
larger parts with simpler geometries with the specific machining such as polishing or turning to be comparable to
requirement of high manufacturing rate. Table 7 below sum- those conventionally manufactured products. On the other
marizes the characteristics, capabilities and limitations of the hand, with the current technologies, AM-fabricated Ti is still
three main titanium AM techniques. only viable for a small quantity or very high demanding ap-
Despite some favorable advantages, AM processes are still plications such as aerospace, biomedical and some other
at the infancy, and not without some major disadvantages. advanced industries due to high mass production cost, high
The three main disadvantages of AM techniques are built size, system cost as well as low production rate. As AM processes of
production rate and economics. Even though DED allows for Ti alloys are being made available with cost reduction, more
greater build size, it is still very limited compared with con- opportunities for a wider range of applications are expected in
ventional methods that usually have almost unlimited build the near future though admittedly some manufacturing
size. EBM and SLM are restricted to even smaller build sizes, as challenges may be encountered as well.
shown in Table 7. Due to size restriction, larger parts are
required to be fabricated in smaller components, and then
joined together, which defeats the single piece build advan- Declaration of Competing Interest
tage in AM processes. In addition, the slow production rate of
AM processes is also a major demerit when compared with The authors declare that they have no known competing
traditional methods where at the industrial level, large financial interests or personal relationships that could have
quantities are usually demanded in short time. It is indeed appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
true that conventional methods also require sufficient time
for preparation, moulding and tooling. However, once they
start, traditional methods are capable of achieving mass pro-
Acknowledgment
duction more easily with much higher output rate than the
currently available AM processes.
The research is partially funded by the Ministry of Science and
Another major disadvantage of AM processes lies in
Higher Education of the Russian Federation under the stra-
manufacturing cost, as shown in Table 7. The cost for one
tegic academic leadership program ‘Priority 2030’ (Agreement
machine is quite high while it is also similar to the cost of
075-15-2021-1333 dated 30.09.2021).
material powders. The savings from lead time reduction,
moulding and machining can only reduce the production cost
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with novel reinforcement architecture and elevated Hung Dang Nguyen:- Mr. Nguyen is graduate
performance. Surf Coating Technol 2011;205(10):3285e92. student at School of Civil and Mechanical
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.11.051. Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, West-
[108] Cai C, et al. In-situ preparation and formation of TiB/Ti-6Al- ern Australia, Australia. He is working on
4V nanocomposite via laser additive manufacturing: additive manufacturing area.
microstructure evolution and tribological behavior. Powder
Technol 2019;342:73e84. https://doi.org/10.1016/
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2018;141:256e66. https://doi.org/10.1016/
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[110] Han C, et al. Microstructure and property evolutions of A. Pramanik:- Dr Alokesh Pramanik is
titanium/nano-hydroxyapatite composites in-situ prepared currently a Senior lecturer in Mechanical
by selective laser melting. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater Engineering, School of Civil and Mechanical
2017;71:85e94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2017.02.021. Engineering at Curtin University. He
[111] Gu D, Hong C, Meng G. Densification, microstructure, and completed Masters and PhD degrees in Me-
wear property of in situ titanium nitride-reinforced titanium chanical Engineering from National Univer-
silicide matrix composites prepared by a novel selective laser sity of Singapore and University of Sydney
melting process. Metall Mater Trans 2012;43(2):697e708. respectively. Dr Pramanik has more than 15
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-011-0876-8. year of research experience in the fields of
[112] Guo S, et al. Preliminary study on the corrosion resistance, manufacturing as well as composite mate-
antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity of selective-laser- rials at different universities. He has pub-
melted Ti6Al4V-xCu alloys. Mater Sci Eng C 2017;72:631e40. lished more than 110 research articles which include several
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2016.11.126. books, many book chapters and many reputed journal articles. His
[113] Tan JH, Wong WL, Dalgarno KW. An overview of powder area of research is synthesis/development, surface modification,
granulometry on feedstock and part performance in the and advanced/precision machining of metallic and non-metallic
selective laser melting process. Addit Manuf biomaterials. Synthesis and development of magnesium-based
2017;118:228e55. https://doi.org/10.1016/ biodegradable and titanium-based alloys and composites,
j.addma.2017.10.011. respectively, using innovative manufacturing techniques such as
[114] Seifi M, Salem A, Satko D, Shaffer J, Lewandowski JJ. Defect spark plasma sintering, electrospinning and 3D printing. Surface
distribution and microstructure heterogeneity effects on modification of polymer, biodegradable-magnesium, and
fracture resistance and fatigue behavior of EBM Tie6Ale4V. titanium-based biomaterials by electro-deposition, plasma spray
Int J Fatig 2017;94:263e87. https://doi.org/10.1016/ deposition, and friction stir processing etc. Precise and advanced
j.ijfatigue.2016.06.001. machining of biomaterials using electric discharge machining,
[115] LENS process white paper: fatigue testing of LENS Ti-6-4. magnetic abrasive finishing, and diamond turning processes. He
OPTOMEC; 2005. has published over 150 research articles in the peer-reviewed in-
[116] Zhu M, Radefeld R, Vasquez R. Effect of the step-test method ternational journals, conference proceedings, and book chapters.
upon the fatigue strength of Ti-6Al-4V. In: Medical device His h-index of 26, i-10 index of 66, total citations 2297) strongly
materials - proceedings of the materials and processes for endorses his high research productivity. He has published 10
medical devices conference 2003; 2003. p. 215e9. books with Springer and CRC Press - Taylor & Francis Group and 10
[117] Mower TM, Long MJ. Mechanical behavior of additive edited books are under progress. He is authored one book. He is
manufactured, powder-bed laser-fused materials. Mater Sci also acting Guest Editor of 5 international peer reviewed Journals.
Eng, A 2016;651:198e213. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.msea.2015.10.068.
[118] Oberwinkler B, Riedler M, Eichlseder W. Importance of local A. K. Basak:- Dr. Basak graduated in 2002
microstructure for damage tolerant light weight design of with a BSc in Metallurgical Engineering de-
Tie6Ale4V forgings. Int J Fatig 2010;32(5):808e14. https:// gree from Bangladesh University of Engi-
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2009.06.021. neering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka,
[119] Leopold G, Nadot Y, Billaudeau T, Mendez J. Influence of Bangladesh with honours. Upon the
artificial and casting defects on fatigue strength of completion of Masters and PhD degree in
moulded components in Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Fatig Fract Eng Materials Science and Engineering from
Mater Struct 2015;38(9):1026e41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ Katholieke Universeteit Leuven (KULeuven),
ffe.12326. Belgium, he started working in different
[120] Chern AH, Nandwana P, Yuan T, Kirka MM, Dehoff RR, Australian universities. His research in-
Liaw PK, et al. A review on the fatigue behavior of Ti-6Al-4V terests include nanostructured materials,
fabricated by electron beam melting additive high resolution electron microscopy and probe analysis, nano-
manufacturing. Int J Fatig 2019;119:173e84. https://doi.org/ scale fabrication of materials, deformation mechanisms of novel
10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2018.09.022. materials, nanomechanics, tribology and tribocorrosion, electro-
[121] Singh Sunpreet, Prakash Chander, Ramakrishna Seeram, chemistry and electrochemical measurement techniques. He has
Chander Prakash, Seeram Ramakrishna. Introduction to published more than 50 research articles which are well cited in
additive manufacturing. In: Singh S, et al., editors. Additive this area. His CV is attached for further details. His experience and
Manufacturing: Foundation Knowledge for the Beginners. expertise match very well with the content of the proposed book.
World Scientific; 2020. Therefore, he is the right person as the coeditor of the book.
Y. Dong:- Dr. Yu Dong is a senior lecturer in S. Shankar:- Dr. Shankar working as pro-
Mechanical Engineering, School of Civil and fessor at Kongu Engineering college, Erode,
Mechanical Engineering at Curtin University, india. He completed PhD from IIT Madras,
Australia. He has extensive research exper- working in biomechanics, tribology, ergo-
tise in polymer nanocomposites, electrospun nomics and biomaterials. He focuses on ad-
nanofibres, green composites, micro- ditive manufacturing process also.
mechanical modelling, nanomanufacturing
and design of experiments. He is a lead editor
for “Manufacturing, Characterisation and
Properties of Advanced Nanocomposites”,
MDPI, Switzerland, and “Fillers and Re-
inforcements for Advanced Nanocomposites”, Elsevier, UK, and a
sole editor for “Nanostructures: Properties, Production Methods and
Applications”, NOVA Science Publishers, USA. Dr. Dong is an I. S. Jawahir:- Professor Jawahir has been a
associate editor for Journals of Frontiers in Materials (Polymeric and researcher and educator since early 1980s.
Composite Materials section) and Applied Nanoscience. He joined the University of Kentucky (Lex-
ington, KY, USA) in July 1990 where he is
currently a Professor of Mechanical Engi-
Chander Prakash:- Dr. Prakash working as a neering, James F. Hardymon Endowed
Professor in the School of Mechanical Engi- Chair in Manufacturing Systems, and the
neering, Lovely Professional University, Pun- Founding Director of the Institute for Sus-
jab, India. His area of research is synthesis/ tainable Manufacturing (ISM). His early
development, surface modification, and work on modeling and optimization of
advanced/precision machining of metallic machining processes involved studies on
and non-metallic biomaterials. Synthesis and machining performance (also known as machinability) and
development of magnesium-based biode- covered topics such as tool-wear/tool-life, chip-form.chip
gradable and titanium-based alloys and breakability, surface integrity, etc. Still continuing research on
composites, respectively, using innovative these topics aimed at developing an integrated machining per-
manufacturing techniques such as spark formance method for the assessment of overall machinability
plasma sintering, electrospinning and 3D printing. Surface modifi- of a machining system (machine tool, cutting tool and work
cation of polymer, biodegradable-magnesium, and titanium-based material). In February 2021, CIRP (The International Academy
biomaterials by electro-deposition, plasma spray deposition, and for Production Engineering) sponsored a major international
friction stir processing etc. Precise and advanced machining of cooperative research project on this topic involving more than
biomaterials using electric discharge machining, magnetic abrasive 50 active research leaders from 13 countries. Professor Jawahir
finishing, and diamond turning processes. Dr. PRAKASH has leads this project. Professor Jawahir's pioneering work two de-
authored more than 180 research articles (among them >95 SCI cades ago significantly contributed to the emerging new disci-
indexed research article) in the journals, conference proceedings, pline of sustainable manufacturing. His major work on dry,
and books (H-index 31, i10-index 84, Google Scholars citation 3185). near-dry (also known as MQL), and cryogenic machining/pro-
In 2018 and 2019 he received the Research Excellence Award for cessing of materials, is well-recognized world-wide. His current
publishing the highest number of publications at the University. He research activities include sustainable product design and
has edited 23 books and 3 authored books for various reputed modeling and optimization of sustainable manufacturing pro-
publisher like Springer, Elsevier, CRC Press, and World Scientific. He cesses. Professor Jawahir has produced over 440 technical
is series editor of book “Sustainable Manufacturing Technologies: research papers, including more than 150 refereed journal pa-
Additive, Subtractive, and Hybrid’, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, pers, and has been awarded with 4 U.S. patents. He has also
where more than 25 edited books were published by national and delivered 68 keynote papers at plenary sessions in major in-
international researchers. He is serving editorial board member of ternational conferences and over 150 invited presentations in 37
peer reviewer international journal “Cogent Engineering” and countries. Professor Jawahir is a Fellow of three major profes-
“Frontiers in Manufacturing Technology”. He is serving Guest Editor sional societies: CIRP (International Academy for Production
of peer reviewed SCI-indexed Journals. Engineering); ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers); and SME (Society of Manufacturing Engineers). He is the
Founding Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Sus-
S. Debnath:- Dr. Debnath is Associate Pro- tainable Manufacturing, and the Technical Editor of the Journal
fessor, Department of Mechanical Engineer- of Machining Science and Technology. Professor Jawahir
ing, Faculty of Engineering and Science, received numerous awards and honors over the years. These
Curtin University, Malaysia. His area of awards include the 2013 ASME Milton C. Shaw Manufacturing
research is Green Composite Materials using Research Medal for his outstanding research contributions to
Bio-Waste, Nano Polymer Composite, and fundamental understanding of sustainable manufacturing pro-
Advanced/Sustainable/Nano-enhanced cesses, and the 2015 William Johnson International Gold Medal
Machining for his lifelong achievements and contributions to materials
processing research and education.
Prof. Saurav Dixit is working as a Postdoc Energy, Energy Conservation, Energy Storage and Green Buildings.
fellow at “Peter the Great St. Petersburg Recently, Dr Buddhi has been listed in 2% globally top researches
Polytechnic University”, St Petersburg, by Elsevier and Stanford University USA. He has been Interna-
Russia. His area of research is synthesis/ tional consultant to Asian Development Bank during 2016e2018
development, construction productivity, for Green Power project in Sri Lanka. Dr Buddhi is Ex-Vice Chan-
self-healing concrete, chemical and physical cellor, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur. Presently, Dr Buddhi
properties of fly-ash, advance concrete pro- is Indian Coordinator of Indo-Australia collaboration Project on
duction, additive manufacturing, and sur- “Thermal Energy Storage for Food/Grain Drying with CST/RE to
face modification. He won the award for Lower Pollution”. He was member of ‘Program Advisory Com-
“Best Leadership Qualities” (2015) at Amity mittee’, on Technology System Development, Department of
University Uttar Pradesh, India. Dr. Saurav Science and Technology, GOI. Professor Buddhi had been Visiting
has authored more than 57 research articles (among them >15 SCI Professor at UPC Barcelona Spain, Mie University Japan, Kun Shan
indexed research article) in the journals, conference proceedings, University Tainan, Taiwan and Auckland University New Zealand.
and books (H-index 14, i10-index 19, Google Scholars citation 533). Dr Buddhi was on the Editorial Board of “Energy Conversion and
He has 3 authored books for various reputed publisher like Management”, an Elsevier International Journal and is Reviewer
Springer, Elsevier, CRC Press, and World Scientific. He is serving as of severally globally renowned Research Journal and a member of
an active reviewer and editorial board member for several scien- numerous professional bodies. He has guided more than 90 M.
tific international journals that include. Tech students theses. He guided 16 research scholars leading to
Ph.D. degree in the field of Heat Transfer, Solar Energy, Green
Buildings, Thermal Load Management, Fuel Cell, Cold Chain So-
Professor Dharam Buddhi, Vice chancellor, lutions & RAC and has published/presented more than 126
Uttaranchal University Dehradun India, an research papers and reviews and 93 patents to his credit out of
alumnus of IIT Delhi (Ph D; Energy Systems) which a few are granted. He has the credit of first patent granted at
and Ex-Professor, School of Energy and Devi Ahilya University, Indore. Dr Buddhi has international aca-
Environmental Studies, Devi Ahilya Univer- demic and industrial exposure of U.K, Portugal, Germany, Italy,
sity, Indore and became University full Pro- Spain, France, Switzerland, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Taiwan,
fessor in the year 2000. Dr Buddhi has also Sri Lanka, Australia and US. Dr Buddhi has very high citations of
worked in industry as Director (Technical), the order of 11000þ of his publications. As per the report of
Chief Technical Advisor & Head R & D and Government of India, International Comparative Research Base
also transferred the technology. His areas of (2009e14) by Department of Science & Technology, Top 10 publi-
Research are materials science, Renewable cations in Energy, Dr Buddhi's paper was ranked number one.

A Critical Review On Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

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A Critical Review On Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

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j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 8 : 4 6 4 1 e4 6 6 1

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

A critical review on additive manufacturing of

Hung Dang Nguyen a, A. Pramanik a, A.K. Basak b, Y. Dong a,

article info abstract

more scientifically with the comprehensive overview of

Table 1 e Commercially available AM technologies used for Tie6Ale4V alloy.

when the temperature of the molten pool drops below transus

Table 2 e Build temperatures and cooling rates of different AM processes [52e56].

Table 3 e Tensile properties of various AM-fabricated Tie6Ale4V alloy samples.

Table 4 e Tensile properties for conventionally produced Tie6Ale4V alloy sample.

6.3. Residual stresses

AM processes, particularly laser-based AM processes, are

Table 5 e Fatigue properties of Tie6Ale4V parts produced different AM methods.

Table 6 e Fatigue properties Tie6Ale4V parts produced by conventional methods.

Table 7 e Characteristics, capabilities and limitations of AM technologies [36e44,121].

2014;45(6):2863e72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-014- mechanical properties of Tie6Ale4V components

laser melting. J Mater Process Technol 2015;220:202e14. 2017;2017:1752e5. https://doi.org/10.17973/

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