PETROLOGY

Petrology
• Study of rocks.
• (Petro = Rock , Logos = Study)

• Lithology (Litho = Rock) was a synonymous term.

• Petrology comprises of origin, occurrence, mineral composition,

texture, structure, physical properties etc., of rocks.
Rock

• Massive natural aggregation of minerals, grains

which cannot be easily separated from each
other.
Rock forming process

• Crystallization of molten matter (Magma)

• Hot water precipitates (Sulphides)
• Solution precipitates (Some oxides, gypsum, calcite)
• Squeezing/baking of existing minerals (Granite)
• Weathering
• Diagenesis (Chemical alteration)
Crystallization of molten matter

• Large proportion of rock on the earth is formed in this process.

• Pre existing partially molten state which cools and crystallize
after coming in contact with cooler material.
• Partially molten states arise from non-homogeneity.
• Ex: Quartz, Feldspar, Olivine, Mica.
Factors affecting rock forming process

• Chemical composition of parent material.

• Pressure.
• Temperature.
• Water availability.
N.L. Bowen’s Reaction Series
Bowen’s Reaction Series

• Percentage of oxygen reduces.

• Percentage of heavier minerals reduces. (Fe, Mg)
• Mafic minerals are dark coloured and heavier.
• Felsic minerals are light coloured and lower specific gravity.
• Susceptibility of weathering decreases.
Rock forming minerals

• 9 Minerals make 95% of the crust.

• Four Felsic minerals
• Quartz, Muscovite, Orthoclase and Sodium Plagioclase.
• Five Mafic minerals
• Biotite, Amphibole/Hornblende, Pyroxene/Augite, Olivine, Calcium
Plagioclase.
Types of Rocks
• Based on Geological classification.

• Volcanic/Igneous Rocks
• Intrusive or Extrusive
• Sedimentary Rocks
• Weathering, Precipitation, Deposition, Diagenesis.
• Metamorphic Rocks
• High pressure and high temperature.
Rock Cycle
• Igneous rocks upon weathering forms sedimentary rocks.
Further, under the influence of metamorphism (high
temperature and high pressure) gives rise to metamorphic
rocks.

• Sedimentary rocks buries to great depths form magma on

melting and subsequently solidify to form igneous rocks and
under the influence of metamorphism forms metamorphic
rocks.

• Metamorphic rocks on weathering gives rise to sediments

which form sedimentary rocks. When buried under great
depths due to tectonic activity will melt and give rise to
magma and forms igneous rocks.
 Rocks of INDIA
Deccan Trap
essentially basalt that was found
when there was a lava flow
resulting from a divergent
activity in this part of the tectonic
plate.

Eastern Ghats
Most of it actually underlain by
granites, very old granites. Except
for the Godavari delta in this
part, you have got sandstone and
shale sedimentary rocks. Kadapa,
you have got sandstone, shale
and lime stone.
 Rocks of INDIA
Western Ghats
Granite, phyllite, schist, quartzite
which are metamorphic and
volcanic rocks were found.

Vindhya range
Sedimentary rocks were found,
like sand stone, lime stone, shale
and conglomerate.

Aravalli hills
Metamorphic rocks like phyllite,
schist, quartzite and granite was
also found.
 Rocks of INDIA

Himalayan range
Mix of all types of rocks. Granite,
Metamorphic, Sedimentary stones
like sand stone, shale, quartz,
conglomerates were found. In
eastern part of Himalayas lime
stone, dolomite were found.
Igneous rocks

• Crystallization of magma or lava.

• Welding of fragments of pre-existing rock and ash ejected
during volcanic eruptions.
Volcanic land forms
• Concordant
• Sill – Sheet like intrusive igneous rocks. Sills are formed due to the
penetration of magma into bedding planes of country rocks and their
spreading capacity depends on the viscosity of magma.
• Laccolith – is also a concordant igneous body. It has a nearly flat
bottom but it is convex upwards, i.e. like dome shaped. When viscous
magma is injected along a bedding plane, as it cannot spread easily, it
pushes up the overlying rocks, causes bulging of overlying rock.

• Discordant
• Dyke - Most common forms of igneous rocks. Sheet like, vertical or
steeply inclined, intrusive igneous bodies.
Sill
Dyke
Characteristics of magma
• Temperature
• 600 to 1500 degrees primarily depending on depth of occurrence and
composition.

• Composition
• Contains suspended crystals and dissolved gases.
• Mainly composed of different proportions of Si, O, Na, K, Ca, Al, Fe
and Mg.
Typical composition of magma
Chemical composition

Others
18%
Iron oxides
7% SiO2
SiO2
Al2O3 Al2O3
60%
15% Iron oxides
Others
Types of igneous rocks
• There were large variety of rocks based on the composition of
parent material and based on the formation environment.

• Mainly they were classified based on

• Genesis or Origin
• Texture
• Mineralogical composition
Based on their genesis/origin
The depth of formation.

• Volcanic rocks
• Hypabyssal rocks
• Plutonic rocks
Volcanic rocks

• Lava comes to the surface – Ejection of lava to the surface.

• Formed by cooling and crystallization of lava or by welding
pre-existing rocks.
• Fast cooling rate (cools in few days or months).
• Grains are fine (microscopic).
• Eg: Rhyolite, Dacite and Basalt.
Plutonic rocks

• Magma exists at great depths.

• Forms 7-10kms below the earth surface.
• Very slow rate of cooling (~hundreds to 1000 years).
• Macroscopic grain size.
• Eg: Granite, Syenite, Gabbro and Charnockite.
Hypabyssal rocks

• Forms at intermediate depths.

• Generally up to 2kms below the surface.
• Exhibit mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic rocks.
• Eg: Poryphyries.
Based on mineralogy

• Depends on proportion of dark coloured (Fe,Mg) minerals.

• Strongly affects susceptibility to weathering.
• Classes include
• Ultra Mafic (acidic) – Dark colour.
• Mafic
• Felsic (basic) – Light colour.
Texture of igneous rocks
• Overall appearance of a rock based on the size, shape and
arrangement of interlocking minerals is called texture.
• Depends on degree of crystallization and granularity.

• Porphyritic – Vary a very large range of crystals (small & large).

- Large portion of small crystals and few large crystals.
• Aphanitic
• Fine grained texture – microscopic crystals.
• Crystal size is less than <1mm.
• Rapid rate of cooling.

• Phaneritic
• Coarse grained texture – macroscopic
crystals.
• Crystal size is 1 to 10 mm.
• Slow rate of cooling.

• Glassy
• No crystalline form.
• Very rapid cooling.
• From Obsidian.
• Pegmatic
• Coarse grained.
• Crystal size is greater than >20mm.

• Vesicular or Fragmental
• Bubbly nature.
• Magma composed of gases and these
gases may come out of solution and
actually forms gas bubbles.
Structure
• Structures are formed at the time of formation of rock.
• Large scale feature.
• Due to magma mobility
• Flow – Presence of parallel layers due to flow.
• Pillow – Overlapping pillow like surface on rocks.
• Columnar – Due to shrinkage of polygonal.
• Ropy – Lava is more mobile (i.e. less viscous, smooth & shiny surface).
• Blocky – Less mobile (forms irregular surface).
Flow
Pillow
Columnar
Ropy and Blocky
• Due to miscellaneous process
• Xenolithic structure – Magma includes pre-existing rocks and that
rocks partially reacts with surrounding magma.
Uses

• Crystalline, compact and impervious which were safe for

foundation condition.
• Granite, syenite, dolerite have high crushing strength which
were used as building stones.
• Basalts were compact, impermeable which were used as road
metal and aggregates in construction.
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks

• Sedimentary rocks actually forms from disintegration,

accumulation, compaction, consolidation and cementation of
sediments which primarily form from physical and chemical
weathering of pre-existing rock mass and by the solid matter
would also be deposited because of organic activity or chemical
activity, chemical deposition process.
• They are also called stratified rocks as they form in layers.
• These rocks amount 5-8% of volume of the earth’s crust.
• They occupy 75% of continental area of the land.
• From engineering stand point, sedimentary rock is going to be
of great importance.
• Constructional works of civil engineering are more likely to rest
upon the sedimentary rocks.
Classification of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary
rock

Clastic/ Non-clastic/
Detrital Non-detrital
Clastic/ Detrital

• Mainly comprise of broken fragments of older rock.

• Volcanic ash
• Biogenic clasts
Formation of clastic rocks
• Weathering:
• Breaking down into smaller fragments – Physical weathering
• Chemical weathering
• Transportation
• Accumulation
• Compaction:
• Driven by increase in pressure
• Leads to expulsion of pore fluids
• Cementing:
• Grains get cemented because of calcareous or silica cements
Types of clastic rocks
Grain size of the sediments

Grade Range of grain size of sediments

Boulders >200mm
Cobbles 50 to 200 mm
Pebbles 10 to 50 mm
Gravel 2 to 10 mm
Very coarse to fine sand 2 to 0.25 mm
Silt 0.01 to 0.1 mm
Clay <0.01 mm
• Rudaceous rocks:
• Made up of gravel and fragments coarser than gravel
• Eg: Conglomerate, Breccia

Breccia Conglomerate
• Arenaceous rocks:
• Made up of sand (fine to very coarse)
• Eg: Sand stone
• Argillaceous rocks:
• Made up of silt and clay
• Eg: Shale
Classification of clastic rocks
• Considering mineralogy

• Use of QFL (ternary) diagram

• Relative abundance of quartz,

feldspar (arkoses) and rock
fragments (lithic)
Non-clastic/ Non-detrital

• Sedimentary rocks which are formed by chemical precipitation

of minerals from water or by accumulation of remains of
animals and plants.
• Chemically or biologically formed
• Rock forming processes
• Chemical deposits
• Organic deposits
 Chemically formed rocks
• Silicious deposit
• Formed by the evaporation of saturated solution of silica
• Eg: Flint, Chert, Jasper

• Carbonate deposit
• Precipitate from carbonate rich water
• Eg: Limestone, Dolomite
• Ferruginous deposit
• Chemically precipitated iron deposits
• Eg: Bog iron ores

• Phosphate deposit
• Sea water rich in phosphoric acid forms these deposits
• Eg: Rock phosphate

• Evaporites
• Deposits formed by evaporation
• Eg: Gypsum, Rock salt
Biologically formed rocks
• Formed from direct contribution of the organisms.
• Can be subdivided into:
• Carbonate rocks: formed by gradual accumulation of shells and
skeletal bones of sea organisms.
• Eg: Limestone
• Carbonaceous rocks: formed by burial of plants of various types.
• Eg: Coal
Organic deposit
• Sedimentary rocks which are exclusively from remains of organism
like plants/animals deposited by thick layer.
Structure

• Bedding
• Thin
• Gradational
• Cyclic
• Dune
• Ripple marks
• Mud cracks
Gradational bedding
• Among the different groups of sedimentary rocks, nearly 80%
are argillaceous (shales).
• 15% are arenaceous (sand stones)
• 5% are calcareous (limestones)
• Other sedimentary rocks like conglomerates and laterites are
less common.
Uses

• Raw material in production of:

• Portland cement
• Paper
• Lime
• Glass
• Sandstone used as building material and aggregate resource
Classification of metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks form by ‘changing’ from igneous or
sedimentary parent rock.
• Under pressure, temperature and fluids
• Includes textural or mineralogical change.
• Granite – igneous rock changes into granite gneiss.
• Sand stone – sedimentary rock changes into quartzite.
• Limestone changes into marble.
Slate
GNEISS
Metamorphic agents
• Temperature
• Temperature gradient – 35 degree Celsius per kilometre depth.
• Magma intrusion – contact with magma.
• Pressure
• Overburden pressure
• Stress anisotropy
• Chemically active fluids
• Transportation of ions
Grades of metamorphism
foliated
• When pressure squeezes the flat or elongate minerals with in a rock so
they become aligned these rocks develop a platy or sheet- like structures
that reflects the direction that pressure was applied in slate, schist and
gneiss are all foliated metamorphic rocks

Slate

Schist
Non foliated
• Non foliated metamorphic rocks are formed around igneous
intrusions where the temperatures at high but the pressures are
relatively low and equal in all directions

White Marble

Marble
Physical classification rocks
Stratified rocks
• These rocks are having layered structures. They possess planes
of stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these
planes
• Sand stone, lime stones, slates.
Unstratified rocks
• These rocks are not stratified .they posses crystalline and
compact grains. they can not be split in thin slab.
• Granite, trap, marble are the example of this type of rocks.

Granite

Marble
Foliated frocks
• These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction
only. The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case
of stratified rocks. This type of structure is very common in
metamorphic rocks.
Chemical classification of rocks
• Siliceous rocks
• These rocks which have silica
as the main content.
• The silica in the free state is
called sand and combined
state is silicate.
• Granite, quartzite, sandstone
Sand stone
• Argillaceous rocks
• These rocks which have clay or alumina as the main constituent
• Kaolin, laterite, slate.
• Calcareous rocks
• These rocks which have calcium carbonate or lime as their
leading constituent.
• These rocks are readily acted upon by even dilute hcl.
• Limestone, marble
Lime
stone

Marble
Textures
• Foliated (Latin meaning sheet or layered)
• Slaty – parallel orientation of microscopic grains
• Phyllitic
• Schistose
• Gneissic – coarsely foliated texture
• Eg: Schist, Slate
• Non-foliated
• Forms by recrystallization
• Composed of equidimensional grains
• Eg: Marble, Quartzite
Structures

• Schistose – Foliated
• Gneissose – Foliated
• Granulose – Non-foliated
Uses
• Source of metal ores (tungsten, gold) precious and semi-
precious stones
• Schist is used to make blackboard and roofing tiles
• Marble is used as building and decorating material
• Gneiss is used as building material
 Granite
• Origin : Plutonic (Igneous rock)
• Colour : Felsic (Light colour)
• Structure : Compact, Dense, Massive &
hard rock.
• Texture : Phaneric, Porphyritic
• Essential minerals : Quartz and Feldspar
• Occurrence : Commonly occur as major
intrusive bodies
 Dolerite
• Origin : Hypabyssal (Igneous rock)
• Colour : Mafic (Dark colour)
• Structure : Very dense, Massive and
Compact rock
• Texture : Equigranular, Phaneric fine grained, Porphyritic
• Essential minerals : plagioclase feldspar
and augite type of pyroxene
• Occurrence : Commonly occurs in sills and dykes
• Uses : Railway ballast, Crushed stone and ornamental stone
 Basalt
• Origin : Volcanic (Igneous rock)
• Colour : Mafic (Dark colour)
• Structure : Vesicular and Amygdaloidal,
Columnar and flow structure (Sometimes)
• Texture : Aphanitic (Too fine grained minerals)
• Essential minerals : Labradorite, Augite and Iron oxides
• Occurrence : Commonly occurs at oceanic divergent boundaries and
most abundanr among volcanic rocks
• Uses : Aggregate in construction, Road metal
 Pegmatite
• Origin : Holocrystalline,
Phaneric – coarse grained(Igneous rock)
• Colour : Colourless, Red, White, Green
• Texture : Minerals are very large in size and interlocked
• Essential minerals : Alkali Feldspars and Quartz
• Occurrence : Uncommon minerals and do not possess any
specific structure, Rich in volatile constituents
• Uses : Not useful as a building stone and undesirable for
foundation works
 Conglomerate

• Origin : Rounded or subrounded pebbles and gravel

(Sedimentary rock)
• Colour : Red and Light coloured rock
• Texture : Clastic (Coarse grained)
• Essential minerals : Jasper, Flint, Quartz
• Occurrence : Uncommon in their occurrence and unimportant
• Uses : Useful as a building stone if the rocks are not too porous
Sand stone
• Origin : Mechanically formed
(Sedimentary rock)
• Texture : Clastic (fine to medium grained)
• Essential minerals : Quartz, Feldspar,
Mica
• Uses : Masonry, Pavement material
Lime stone
• Origin : Bio-chemically and mechanically
(Sedimentary rock)
• Texture : Non-clastic
• Essential minerals : Quartz, Feldspar,
Calcite
Shale
• Origin : Compaction & consolidation of silt
and clay (Sedimentary rock)
• Texture : Fine grained
• Essential minerals : Quartz and Clay
minerals
• Uses : Manufacture of bricks
Gneiss
• Origin : Metamorphic rock
• Texture : Coarse crystalline texture
• Structure : Gneissose
• Essential minerals : Quartz, Feldspar, Mica,
Pyroxene
• Uses : Roofing and flooring material
Quartzite
• Origin : Recrystallization of sand stone
(Metamorphic rock)
• Texture : Granular
• Structure : Granulose
• Essential minerals : Quartz, Feldspar, Mica
• Uses : Decorative stones and crushed
quartzite is used in railway ballast
Marble
• Origin : Recrystallization of lime stone
(Metamorphic rock)
• Texture : Fine to coarse grain
• Structure : Granulose
• Essential minerals : Calcite, Olivine
• Uses : Used for making sculptures and
building stone
Slate

• Origin : Fine grained foliated

(Metamorphic rock)
• Texture : Slaty
• Essential minerals : Mica, Chloride,
Oxide of iron
• Uses : Roofing slabs
Schist
• Origin : Foliated (Metamorphic rock)
• Texture : Schist
• Structure : Schistose
• Essential minerals : Mica, Chlorite,
Hornblende
• Uses : Rarely used as building material