ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTIMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

AGRONOMY PROGRAM

Course Title: Advanced Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition

Term Paper title: Management of
Problematic Soils (Acidic Soils, Salt affected Soils and Eroded Soils)
By: Dawud Kuro
ID/№: WMO 141/14
Course Code: AGRN 561
Submitted to: Waktola Mosisa (Ph.D.)

June 17/2023
Ciro Ethiopia
 Table of Contents
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................II
List of figure.................................................................................................................................III
1 Introduction............................................................................................................................1

1.1 Objective of the assignment..............................................................................................2

2 Problematic soils....................................................................................................................2

2.1 Types of problematic soil..................................................................................................2

2.1.1 Acidic soils................................................................................................................2

2.2 Salt affected soils..............................................................................................................5

2.2.1 Classification of salt affected soils:...........................................................................5

2.2.2 Characteristics of saline soils.....................................................................................6
2.2.3 Major production constraints of saline soil...............................................................6
2.2.4 Reclamation of saline soils........................................................................................6

2.3 Alkali or Sodic soils..........................................................................................................8

2.3.1 Formation of sodic soil..............................................................................................8

2.3.2 Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils.............................................................................8

2.4 Saline-alkali/ sodic soils..................................................................................................10

2.4.1 Formation.................................................................................................................10
2.4.2 Management of saline alkali soils............................................................................10

2.5 Soil erosion, causes, effect and its preventive measures.................................................11

2.5.1 Soil erosion..............................................................................................................11

2.5.2 Effects of Soil erosion.............................................................................................12
2.5.3 Mechanics of Erosion Control.................................................................................12

3 Summary..............................................................................................................................13
4 Suggested Reference Books.................................................................................................14

II
 List of figure
Figure 1 Soil particles disperse when (Ca2+ + Mg2+) is decreased relative to Na+ (SAR is
increased).......................................................................................................................................13
Figure 2 Soil particles flocculate (top) when soluble salt in soil (EC) is increased, even when
sodium is present. Soil particles may disperse (bottom) when soluble salt in soil (EC) is
decreased, even when sodium is low.............................................................................................14

III
1 Introduction
Soil is a natural finite resource base which sustains life on earth. It is a three phase dynamic
system that performs many functions and ecosystem services and highly heterogeneous. Soil
biota is the biological universe which helps the soil in carrying out its functions. Often soil health
is considered independently without referring to interlinked soil functions and also based on soil
test for few parameters.
Soil heterogeneity is the reasons for the diverse nature of cropping and production pattern. Soil
heterogeneity is the case where soil in a relatively small area varies greatly in texture, fertility,
topography, moisture content, drainage etc. If it exists in large scale due to the parent material or
man-made activities, then the problem of soil suitability to agriculture arises.
Problematic Soils are the soils which are unfavorable for cultivation of field crops because of
one or more unfavorable soil properties/characteristics (viz. Soluble salts, soil reaction, ESP,
water logging, aeration etc.) are adversely affect the optimum soil productivity. It is the
phenomena of accumulation of excess salt or acid in the root zone results in partially or
completes loss of soil productivity. The problematic soils need to be classified in to various
groups for developing special systems of management for specific types of problems and
constraints in the production of crops. The major problematic soils are acidic soils, salt affected
soils and eroded soils. Resorting to chemical and natural means and integrated methods will
resolve the issue and prevent causing irreparable damage of affected soils. Soil erosion is also
one of problematic soil known in the world. It is a natural occurrence of wind and water moving
soil particles from one location and transporting and depositing them elsewhere. Humans,
however, have dramatically accelerated this process through agricultural practices, mining,
logging and clearing and grading for construction. These activities can cause detrimental effects
on the environment, degrading water quality, compacting the soil, limiting water infiltration,
removing vegetation, and exposing the soil surface, thereby increasing both runoff and erosion.
Sedimentation is the gravitational deposition of transported materials in flowing or standing
water. Sediment can carry polluting chemicals, destroy fish habitat, decrease the storage capacity
of water bodies, and increase the risk of flooding. Deposition of sediment on roads, and in stream
channels, reservoirs, lakes, estuaries, and harbors, reduces recreational and municipal usefulness
and may require expensive removal operations.so management of eroded soil by different soil
control method is useful to rehabilitating eroded soil.

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1.1 Objective of the assignment
 How to identify the problematic soil and what are the reclamation method requires
improving the soil health
2 Problematic soils
Problematic soil is imposes a severe limitation on successful crop production due to the
unfavorable effects of certain chemical or physical properties of soil. It is the phenomena of
accumulation of excess salt or acid in the root zone results in partially or completes loss of soil
productivity.
2.1 Types of problematic soil
2.1.1 Acidic soils
Soil acidity refers to presence of higher concentration of H+ in soil solution and at exchange
sites. The soil with pH less than 6.5 and with low base saturation which respond to limiting may
be considered as acidic soils. In acid soil regions (ASR) precipitation exceeds the
evapotranspiration and hence leaching is predominant causing loss of bases from the soil. When
the process of weathering is drastic, the subsoil and in many cases, the whole profile becomes
acidic.
2.1.1.1 Causes for acidity
i. Humus: humus decomposition results in release of large amounts of acids. Thereby
lowering the pH.
ii. Rainfall: in areas high intensity of rain fall Ca and Mg is dissolved in water and leached
out due to this base saturation of soil decreases.
iii. Application of elemental Sulphur: it under goes reactions resulting in formation of
sulphuric acid continuous application of acidic forming fertilizers: fertilizers like
ammonium sulphates or ammonium chlorides results in depletion of calcium by CEC
(cation exchange capacity) phenomena.
iv. Parent materials: generally rocks are considered as acidic which contain large amount
of silica (Sio2) when this combined with water acidity increases.
2.1.1.2 Characteristics of acidic soil
 open textured with high massive structure
 low in Ca and Mg with negligible amount of soluble salts
 Appear as brown or reddish brown sandy loams or sands.

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  Acid soils have low pH and high proportion of exchangeable H+ and Al3+.
 Kaolinite and illite types of clay minerals are dominant in these soils.
 These soils have low CEC and low base saturation.
 These soils have high toxic concentration of Al, Fe and Mn and deficiency of Ca and Mg.
 These soils have nutrients and microbial imbalances.
 These soils are generally low in available phosphorus and high P2O5 fixation capacity.
 Soil acidity inhibits biological N-fixation.
2.1.1.3 Constraints of Acidic Soils
1) Injury to crops
Direct affects: plant root system does not grow normally due to toxic hydrogen ion and
Permeability of plant membranes are adversely affected due to soil acidity. Enzyme actions are
altered since they are sensitive to pH changes.
Indirect affects: deficiency of Ca and Mg occur by leaching, AL Mn and Fe are available in
toxic amounts. All the micro nutrients except molybdenum (Mo) are available .So Mo deficiency
has been identified in leguminous crops. Phosphorous also gets immobilized and its availability
is reduced.
2) Effects on activity of microorganism
Most of the activity of beneficial organisms like Azotobacter and nodule forming bacteria of
legumes are adversely affected as acidity increases.
3) Production constraints
Increased solubility and toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe deficiency of Ca and Mg, reduced availability
of P and Mo and reduced microbial activity.
2.1.1.4 Management of acid soils
In general the fertility status of acid soils is very poor and under strongly to moderately acidic
soils the plant growth and development affect to a great extent. The crops grown on such
problematic soil do not give remunerative return rather it lowers down the yield to a great extent.
Because of the limited land resource it needs judicious management practices so that the yield of
different crops can be increased. So, one of the most important and practically feasible
management practices are the use of lime and liming materials to ameliorate the soil acidity. The
addition of lime raises the soil pH, thereby eliminating most major problems of acids soils which
has mentioned earlier. Lime requirement of an acid soil may be defined as the amount of liming

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material that must be added to raise the pH to some prescribed value. This value is usually in the
range of pH 6.0 to 7.0. Since this is an easily attainable value within the optimum range of most
crop plants.
The reclamation of acidic soils is done by addition of liming material which may be calcites
limestone (CaCO3) or dolomitic limestone [CaMg(CO3)2]. The rate of lime requirement is
determined in the laboratory by method of Shoemaker (1961). The particle size of liming
material affects the rate of neutralization reaction. Both these limestones are sparingly soluble in
pure water but do become soluble in water containing CO2
The greater the partial pressure of CO2 in the system, the more soluble the limestone becomes.
Dolomite is somewhat less soluble than calcite.
The reaction of limestone (CaCO3) can be written as: CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 → Ca2+ ↓ + 2HCO3 - (Takes part in cation exchange reactions) H + + CO3 - →
H2CO3 ↔ H2O + CO2 (From soil (from lime) solution)
In this way hydrogen ions (H+) in the soil solution react to form weakly dissociated water, and
the calcium (Ca2+) ion from limestones is left to undergo cation exchange reactions. The acidity
of the soil is, therefore, neutralized and the per cent base saturation of the colloidal material is
increased.
Other factors of acidic soil control
1) Growing acid tolerant crops: In acid soils tolerant crops should be grown. Choice of
crops may be done according to soil pH.
 High acid tolerant crops: Rice, potato, sweet potato, oat, castor, etc.
 Moderate acid tolerant crops: Barley, wheat, maize, etc.
 Slightly acid tolerant crops: Tomato, carrot, red clover.
2) Use of basic fertilizers: NaNO3 and basic slag, etc.
3) Soil and water management: Proper soil and water management checks leaching of
bases and enhances decomposition of organic matter.
4) Crop choice: Selection of crops tolerant to acidity is an effective tool to counter this soil
problem and breeding of such varieties is of specific importance for attaining higher
productivity, particularly in areas where liming is not an economic proposition

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2.2 Salt affected soils
Soils, in which concentration of salts is so high as to adversely affect plant growth and crop
productivity, are called salt affected soils. Some amounts of salts are always present in the soil.
When the concentration of these salts is low, they are not harmful for the growth of plants. But
with the increase in salt content of the soil to high levels, the plant growth adversely affected
which, in turn, decreases the productivity of agricultural crops. The extent of reduction in growth
and decrement in productivity, however, depend upon many factors such as kind and content of
salt constituents, soil texture, distribution of salts in the soil profile, the species of plant grown,
level of soil - water - crop management and climatic condition.
2.2.1 Classification of salt affected soils:
The salt affected soils needs to classified in to various groups for developing special systems of
management for specific types of problems and constraints in the production of crops. Salt
affected soils are categorized in to three distinct classes based on the behavior of salts in the soils
viz. Saline soils, Alkali soils and Saline- alkali soils
2.2.1.1 Saline Soils
Saline soils contains sufficient concentration of soluble salts in the root zone soil which are
adversely affects the crop productivity or simply, the accumulation of water soluble salts in the
soil which restrict the crop production is called saline soil. The amount of soluble salts present in
the soil is determined by the electrical conductivity or individual analysis of salts present in the
soil.
2.2.1.1.1 Causes of Salinization
Salinization or the accumulation of the salts occurs in the following ways:
a) Primary minerals: It is the original and important direct source of all the salt
constituents. During the process of weathering, which involves hydrolysis, hydration,
solution, oxidation and carbonation various constituents like Ca, Mg and Na are gradually
released and made soluble. E.g. Halite (NaCl), Calcite (CaCO 3), Dolomite [Ca Mg
(CO3)2].
b) Arid and semi-arid climate: Salt affected soils are mostly formed in arid and semi-arid
climate where low rainfall and high evaporation prevails. The low rainfall in these
regions is not sufficient to leach out the soluble weathered products and hence the salt
accumulates in the soils.

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 c) Sea as a source of salts : The ocean may be the source of salts as in soils where the
parent materials consists of marine deposits that were laid down during earlier geological
periods and have since been uplifted.
d) Ground water: Ground water contains large amounts of water soluble salts which
depend upon the nature and properties of the geological material with which water
remains in contact where water table and evapotranspiration rate is high, salts along with
water move upward through capillary activity and salts accumulation on the soil surface.
e) Irrigation water: The application of irrigation water without proper management (i.e.
lack of drainage and leaching facilities) increases the water table and surface salt content
in the soils.
2.2.2 Characteristics of saline soils
 Saline soil has soil pH of more than 8.5
 Ec is more than 4.0 mmhos/cm
 ESP (exchangeable sodium per cent) is less than 15
 The sodium adsorption ratio is less than 13
2.2.3 Major production constraints of saline soil
Presence of salts leads to alteration of osmotic potential of the soil solution. Consequently water
intake by plants restricted and thereby nutrients uptake by plants are also reduced. In this soil due
to high salt levels microbial activity is reduced. Specific ion effects on plants are also seen due to
toxicity of ions like chloride, sulphate, etc
2.2.4 Reclamation of saline soils
Before reclamation of salt-affected soils, the following important points are to be considered
i. Quality of irrigation water: i.e. total soluble salt, SAR or sometimes boron
determination is essential.
ii. Quality of the soil: i.e. saline or alkaline and the degree of salinity or alkalinity.
Besides these the following technical requirements are necessary for the reclamation of saline
and alkali soil.
 Adequate drainage
 Availability of sufficient water to meet the demand of crop and also leach the salt
below1he root zone in the soil.
 Perfect land levelling, good bonding for irrigation and advanced agronomic practices.

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  Good quality of irrigation water.
2.2.4.1 Method of Reclamation
A. Hydrological method
1. Flushing: The salts can be removed by flushing which is the surface washing out of salts with
the runoff water, which is collected at the sloppy end of the field. The flushing method is
employed where moisture transmission characteristics into the profile are extremely poor.
2. Leaching: Leaching is the process of dissolving and transporting soluble salts by the
downward movement of water through the soil. The leaching may be done by two methods viz.,
flooding and sprinkler methods. The flooding method requires more amount of water and
removes the salt at a greater depth.
3. Drainage: Drainage in agriculture is the process of removal of excess water from soil. Excess
water discharged by flow over the soil surface is referred to as surface drainage, and flow
through the soil is termed internal or subsurface drainage. The types of relief drains are pumped
wells; tile or open drains may serve of these purposes.
2.2.4.2 Growing of the salt tolerance crops
 High salt tolerance crop: Barley, Sugar beet, Para grass etc.
 Moderately salt tolerant crops: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum etc.
 Low salt tolerance crops: Beans, radish, white clover etc.
2.2.4.3 Irrigation management
Proportional mixing of good quality (if available) water with saline water and then using for
irrigation reduces the effect of salinity. Alternate furrow irrigation favors growth of plant than
flooding. Drip, sprinkler and pitcher irrigation have been found to be more efficient than the
conventional flood irrigation method since relatively lesser amount of water is used under these
improved methods.
2.2.4.4 Fertilizer management
Addition of extra dose of nitrogen to the tune of 20-25% of recommended level will compensate
the low availability of N in these soils. Addition of organic manures like, FYM, compost, etc
helps in reducing the ill effect of salinity due to release of organic acids produced during
decomposition. Green manuring or green leaf manuring also counteracts the effects of salinity.

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2.3 Alkali or Sodic soils
Sodic soils are high in exchangeable sodium compared to calcium and magnesium. EC is less
than 4 dS/m and often less than 2 dS/m. Soil pH usually is greater than 8.5 and can be as high as
10 or even 11 in extreme cases. High exchangeable sodium, high pH, and low calcium and
magnesium combine to cause the soil to disperse, meaning that individual soil particles act
independently. The dispersion of soil particles destroys soil structure and prevents water
movement into and through the soil by clogging pore spaces. Sodic soils often have a black color
due to dispersion of organic matter and a greasy or oily-looking surface with little or no
vegetative growth. These soils have been called “black alkali” or “slick spots.”
2.3.1 Formation of sodic soil
Soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation adsorption occurs as a
consequence of the electrical charges at the surface of the soil colloids. While adsorbed cations
are combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be replaced by other cations that occur
in the soil. While adsorbed cations are combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be
replaced by other cations that occur in the soil solution. Calcium and magnesium are the
principal cations found in the soil solution and on the exchange complex of normal soils in arid
regions. When excess soluble salts accumulate in these soils, sodium frequently becomes the
dominant cation in the soil solution resulting alkali or sodic soils.
2.3.2 Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils
a) Physical Amelioration
This is not actually removes sodium from exchange complex but improve physical condition of
soil through improvement in infiltration and aeration. The commonly followed physical methods
include
 Deep ploughing is adopted to break the hard pan developed at subsurface due to sodium
and improving free-movement water. This also helps in improvement of aeration. 
Providing drainage is also practiced to improve aeration and to remove further
accumulation of salts at root zone.
 Sand filling which reduces heaviness of the soil and increases capillary movements of
water.
 Profile inversion – Inverting the soil benefits in improvement of physical condition of
soil as that of deep ploughing.

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 b) Chemical Amelioration
Reclamation of alkali / sodic soils requires neutralization of alkalinity and replacement of most
of the sodium ions from the soil exchange complex by the more favorable calcium ions. This can
be accomplished by the application of chemical amendments (the materials that directly or
indirectly furnish or mobilize divalent cations, usually Ca2+ for the replacement of sodium from
the exchange complex of the soil) followed by leaching to remove soluble salts and other
reaction products.
c) Drainage
Soils with a sodicity problem must have drainage to facilitate sodium removal from the root
zone. When a high water table is part of the problem, it must be lowered before reclamation can
proceed. Drainage can also be improved by altering the topography or by installing tile drains.
Drainage can be improved in some cases by planting deep-rooted perennials such as alfalfa, but
it is crucial to maintain permeability. When irrigation canal seepage is the cause of high water,
the canal water must be intercepted before it enters the field, or the canal must be sealed to
reduce seepage.
d) Supplying calcium to improve water infiltration
Improving water infiltration rates in sodic soils requires increasing soil electrical conductivity to
more than 4 dS/m (4 mmhos/cm) or reducing the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)..
Calcium is required for sodic soil reclamation, as it will displace sodium and reduce the ESP and
SAR If possible, use irrigation water that is high in calcium and salinity during the initial phase
of reclamation. Injecting gypsum into irrigation water increases salinity and calcium. As the
sodium is replaced, water lower in calcium and salinity can be used. Heavy applications of
manure or old alfalfa hay worked into the soil will dissolve existing lime and release calcium as
decomposition progresses. Gypsum (calcium sulfate) is the most common material used to
supply calcium for sodic soil reclamation. The “gypsum requirement “is the amount of gypsum
needed to reclaim the soil to a specified depth.

+++ Ca2+ and Mg2+

+

Na+
+
+ + +
+
+
+
E
Flocculated C
soil Dispersed
9
soil
Figure 1 Soil particles disperse when (Ca2+ + Mg2+) is decreased relative to Na+ (SAR is increased)

e) Crop choice
Rice is preferred crop in alkali / sodic soil as it can grow under submergence, can tolerate fair
extent of ESP and can influence several microbial processes in the soil. Agroforestry systems
like silviculture, silvipasture etc. can improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil
along with additional return on long-term basis. Some grasses like Brachariamutica (Para grass)
and Cynodondactylon (Bermuda grass) etc. has been reported to produce 50% yield at ESP level
above 30. The sodicity tolerance ratings of different crops are given in table.
2.4 Saline-alkali/ sodic soils
Saline-alkali / sodic soil is soils contain large amounts of soluble salts and greater than 15
percent exchangeable sodium. The pH is generally less than 8.5.
2.4.1 Formation
These soils form as a result of the combined processes of salinisation and alkalization. If the
excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils may change
markedly and become similar to those of sodic soil.
2.4.2 Management of saline alkali soils
Saline-sodic soils must be treated as sodic soils first. These soils require calcium to correct a
sodium problem, followed by leaching to remove salts. Sodium must be made soluble in a saline-
sodic soil before the soil is leached with clean (low-salt) irrigation water. If salts are leached with
clean water while sodium is insoluble, the result may be a sodic soil. The resulting destruction of
soil structure will prevents water infiltration. Once destroyed, soil structure is not easily
corrected. Therefore, it is extremely important to know how much of a sodium problem exists
before applying clean irrigation water to leach salts. High EC irrigation water and soil helps
maintain soil structure, increase water infiltration, and prevent sodium from dominating soil
characteristics. However, except for its positive effect on soil structure, high EC (salt) irrigation
water is not beneficial for crop production. Saline-sodic soils often are caused by factors beyond
the landowner’s control. Many of these soils are the result of natural events, and no amount of
reclamation will return them to a satisfactory level of productivity. Under these conditions, use
tolerant vegetation to maintain soil cover.

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 Na+ + Ca2+and Mg2+
+ +
Ca2+and Mg2+ + +++
+ + ++
+

++++ Na+
+
++
+++++ +
+
++++ EC
+++ Lower Higher EC E + +
C Lower EC Higher
EC C
Flocculat Flocculated EC
Dispersed Dispersed
ed soil soil soil soil

Figure 2 Soil particles flocculate (top) when soluble salt in soil (EC) is increased, even when sodium is
present. Soil particles may disperse (bottom) when soluble salt in soil (EC) is decreased, even when
sodium is low.

2.5 Soil erosion, causes, effect and its preventive measures

2.5.1 Soil erosion
Soil erosion is a process in which the top fertile layer of soil is lost. This is natural process
caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents that is water ice or glaciers snow air or wind.
2.5.1.1 Causes of soil erosion
1. Rainfall
As the volume and intensity of rainfall increases, the ability of water to detach and transport soil
particle increases. When storms are frequent, intense, and of long duration, the potential for
erosion of bare soils is high. This is appropriate altogether to disintegration by overland stream
and rills, that power is commonly viewed as the most significant precipitation trademark
2. Temperature
While frosted soil is incredibly impervious to erosion, quick defrosting of the soil surface
brought about by heat rain can prompt genuine disintegration. Temperature has a major influence
on soil erosion. Frozen soils are relatively erosion resistant. However, soils with high moisture
content are subject to “spew,” or uplift by freezing action, and are usually very easily eroded
upon thawing
3. Topographical factors
Among the geographical components, the size, slope characteristics of watershed influences the
amount of runoff. For the most part, longer incline will build the potential for disintegration.
4. Characteristics of soil

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Physical attributes of soil affect erodibility. Soil properties affecting erodibility included with
surface, structure and union. Surface alludes to the scale or mix of sizes of the individual soil
particles.
2.5.2 Effects of Soil erosion
Soil erosion is a serious menace. It has direct adverse effect on primary sector and indirectly
affects the whole economy. The consequences of soil erosion are Severe on the site as well as off
the site. The loss of top layer is not only quantitative loss but also qualitative loss of productivity,
depletion and degradation of soil resource and results into loss of nutrients or organic matter loss
of soil quality and fertility which results into fall in agricultural production and productivity.
2.5.3 Mechanics of Erosion Control
1) Soil cover methods
These ways all protect the soil from the harmful effects of raindrop impact and improve soil
fertility and its physical properties.
i. Mulching on soil: Exposed soil between developing plants is secured with a layer of
natural issue like straw, grasses, leaves and husks are something promptly accessible.
Mulching also improve the soil moisture, lessens weeding, keeps the soil cool and
includes natural issue. In the event that termites are an issue, keep the mulch standoffish
from the stems of yields.
ii. Cover crops in soil surface: Spread harvests are a sort of living mulch. They are plants -
ordinarily vegetables -, which are developed to cover the soil, furthermore diminishing
weeds.
iii. Green manures application: additionally vegetables are planted uncommonly to support
soil richness by returning late removing verdant material to the dirt.
iv. Mixed cropping and inter-cropping system: By growing a variety of crops - maybe
combined, in interchange pushes, or planted at very surprising occasions- the soil is better
protected from rain splash.
v. Early planting method: the period toward the beginning of the rainy season when the
soil is prepared for planting, is once the harm from rain splash is usually worst. Sowing
early can build the amount once the soil is barren, as short as possible.
vi. Application of crop residues: After collect, except if the following yield is to be
legitimately replanted, it is a smart thought to leave the stalks, stems and leaves of the

12
 yield basically gathered, lying on the soil. They will give some cover security till
succeeding harvest creates.
vii. Agroforestry practice: Planting trees among rural yields assists with shielding the dirt
from disintegration, especially after harvests are collected. The trees can give some
security from downpour sprinkle. Organic product, trees, vegetable trees for grub or fuel
and back street editing all assistance lessen soil disintegration.
viii. Vegetation
Vegetation is the first essential physical factor affecting erosion. A decent front of vegetation
shields the soil from the effect of raindrops. It also ties the soil together, making it a great deal of
verification against runoff. A thick, hearty front of vegetation is one in all the most straight
forward insurances against disintegration
2) Barrier methods
i. Man-made terraces: All around constructed porches are one among successful
techniques of controlling soil erosion, particularly on steep slants. Each porch is leveled -
first by leveling the under layer soil, at that point the upper layer soil - and firm side
backings are manufactured, regularly of rock.
ii. Contour ploughing: Whenever potential all land should be ploughed along the contour
line - never up and down, since this empowers disintegration.
iii. Contour barriers: Almost any available material may be gone to build Barriers along
the contours. Here are a few models: old yield stalks and leaves, stones, grass strips,
edges and dump solid by planting with grass or trees.

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3 Summary
Acid soil is soil having pH less than 7 is called Acidic Soil and extremely acidic soil has pH
between 4- 4.75.These are formed due to leaching of bases in high rainfall zones and also due to
development of soils from acidic parent materials like granite and sandstone and application of
acid forming fertilizers. It is adversely effect on plant growth and high solubility of elements like
Al, Mn and Fe in toxic amounts due to due to this, nutrients such as Ca and K may be deficient
For reclamation of acidic soil Lime has been recognized as an effective soil ameliorant as it
reduces Al, Fe and Mn toxicity and increases base saturation.
Salt - affected soils are soils occur in the arid and semiarid regions where evapo-transpiration
greatly exceeds precipitation. The accumulated ions causing salinity or alkalinity include
sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates. The
saltaffected soils can be primarily classified as saline soil and sodic soil.
Saline soils are characterised by higher amount of water soluble salt, due to which the crop
growth is affected.The basic principle of reclamation is the removal of excess salt to a desired
level in root zone. Providing proper drainage, use of salt free irrigation water, acidic fertilizers,
organic manures etc. are some of the mechanisms adopted. The process of salinization is
accelerated by rapid evaporation from the surface. Leaching with water of good quality and
adequate drainage of excess water from the soil is carried out.
Soil erosion is a gradual process that occurs when the impact of water or wind detaches and
remove soil particles causing soil deteriorate so the management of soils to support soil against
erosion by applying of different preventive management like Securing the soil surface with a
vegetative cover man-made terraces, contour ploughing, agroforestry practice, application of
crop residues, mixed cropping, inter-cropping system and cover crops in soil surface.

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4 Suggested Reference Books
Problematic soils and their management (2019), D.K. Das, Kalyani Publishers, Delhi

Fundamentals of Soil (2000) by V.N. Sahai, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi

Alkali Soils their Reclamation and management (1990) by L.L. Somani, Divyajoyti

Prakashan, Jodhpur

The Nature and Properties of Soil (1990) by N.C. Brady, Macmillan Publishing

Company, New York (USA)

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