MENDELLIAN GENETICS - Alleles for a trait are recombined at fertilization,

becoming genotype for the traits of the offspring.

Law of Independent Assortment

Terminologies:
- Alleles for different traits are distributed to sex
 Gnemoe? - Complete genetic makeup of an cells (& offspring) independently of one another.
organism.
 Chromosome - it is where cellular DNA is
organized.
 Genes - have specific places on chromosomes
 Genotype - the genetic makeup of an organism.
 Phenotype - observable traits of an organism
 Allele - variation of genes
 Homozygous - pair of identical alleles for a
character (PP, pp)
 Heterozygouse - two different alleles for a gene
(Pp)
 Character - heritable feature Character: Tongue Rolling
 Trait - variant for a character
 Hybridization - cross of 2 different true-breeds Recessive genotype: Both recessive alleles must be present
 Ture-Berd? - all off-spring of same variety (rr).

Dominant genotype: At least one dominant allele is present

(R-).
Once upon a time (1860's), in an Austrian monastery, there
Being able to roll your tongue is a dominant phenotype.
lived a monk named Gregor Mendel.

Mendel spent his spare time breeding pea plants.

He did this over & over & over again, and noticed patterns A Punnett square is a tool for diagramming the possible
to the inheritance of traits, from one set of pea plants to the genotypes of offspring.
next.

By carefully analyzing his pea plant numbers, he

discovered three laws of inheritance. Monohybrid cross:

Mendel’s Law:

1. LAW OF DOMINANCE
2. LAW OF SEGREGATION
3. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Law of Dominance
1. Legend:
- Every gene has two alleles that can code for a B – Purple Flower
trait. b – white Flower
- One allele is dominant, one allele is recessive. 2. Parental Genotype:
- Ex. PP= purple BbxBb
- pp= white 3. Genes/ Gates:
- Pp= purple B b B b
4. Genotypic ratio:
Law of Segregation 1:2:1 (BB, Bb, bb)
5. Phenotypic ratio:
- Alternative versions of genes (alleles) result in
1:1 (Purple and white )
variations in inherited characteristics.
- For each character, an organism inherits 2 alleles
(one from each parent). INTRODUCTION TO TAXONOMY
- The alleles for each character segregate
(separate) during gamete production (Meiosis)
Classification is the arrangement of organisms into orderly
groups based on their similarities
Classification is also known as taxonomy
Taxonomists are scientists that identify & name organisms
Benefits of Classifying:
• Accurately & uniformly names organisms
• Prevents misnomers such as starfish & jellyfish
that aren't really fish
• Uses same language (Latin or some Greek) for all
names
Early Taxonomists:
1. Aristotle
 2000 years ago, Aristotle was the first
taxonomist
 Aristotle divided organisms into plants
& animals
 He subdivided them by their habitat ---
land, sea, or air dwellers
2. John Ray
 John Ray, a botanist, was the first to
use Latin for naming
 His names were very long descriptions
telling everything about the plant
3. Carolus Linnaeus
 18th century taxonomist
 Classified organisms by their structure
 Developed naming system still used
today
 Called the “Father of Taxonomy”
 Developed the modern system of
naming known as binomial
nomenclature
 Two-word name (Genus & species)
Standardized Naming:
• Binomial nomenclature used
• Genus species
• Latin or Greek
• Italicized in print
• Capitalize genus, but NOT species (Mephitis
mephitis)
• Underline when writing
Rules for naming organisms:
 The International Code for Binomial
Nomenclature contains the rules for naming
organisms
 All names must be approved by International
Naming Congresses (International Zoological
Congress)
 This prevents duplicated names
Classification Groups:
• Taxon ( taxa-plural) is a category into which
related organisms are placed
• There is a hierarchy of groups (taxa) from
broadest to most specific
• Domain (broadest taxon), Kingdom, Phylum
(/division : for plants), Class, Order, Family,
Genus (most specific) , species
Species:
 Biological species concept
– A group of actually or potentially
breeding natural groups that are
reproductively isolated from other
groups.
» Ernst
Mayr,
1924
 BSC’s problems
– Hybrids
• Sterile offspring of two
different species
– Asexual organisms
DOmain
Keep
Plates  Multicellular
 Autotrophic
Clean
 Absorb sunlight to make glucose –
Or Photosynthesis
 Cell walls made of cellulose
Family 4) Animalia
Gets  Multicellular
 Ingestive heterotrophs (consume food
Sick. & digest it inside their bodies)
 Feed on plants or animals

1) Domains
 Broadest, most inclusive taxon
 Three domains
 Archaea and Bacteria are unicellular
prokaryotes (no nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles)
 Eukarya are more complex and have a
nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles
2) Archaea
 Kingdom - ARCHAEBACTERIA
 Probably the 1st cells to evolve
 Live in HARSH environments
 Found in:
- Sewage Treatment Plants (Methanogens)
- Thermal or Volcanic Vents (Thermophiles)
- Hot Springs or Geysers that are acid
- Very salty water (Dead Sea; Great Salt Lake)
- Halophiles
3) Bacteria
 Kingdom - EUBACTERIA
 Some may cause DISEASE
 Found in ALL HABITATS except
harsh ones
 Important decomposers for
environment
 Commercially important in making
cottage cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, etc.
 Live in intestines of animals
Domain Eukarya is Divided into Kingdoms
Taxons:
 Most genera contain a number of similar species
 The genus Homo is an exception (only contains
modern humans)
 Classification is based on evolutionary
relationships
Basis for Modern Taxonomy:
 Homologous structures (same structure, different
function)
 Similar embryo development
 Molecular Similarity in DNA, RNA, or amino
acid sequence of Proteins
Cladogram:
 Diagram showing how organisms are related
based on shared, derived characteristics such as
feathers, hair, or scales
Dichotomous Keying:
 Used to identify organisms
 Characteristics given in pairs
 Read both characteristics and either go to another
set of characteristics OR identify the organism

1) Protista
 Most are unicellular
 Some are multicellular
 Some are autotrophic, while others are
heterotrophic
 Aquatic
2) Fungi
 Multicellular, except yeast Dichotomous Key:
 Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food
outside their body & then absorb it)  1a Tentacles present – Go to 2
 Cell walls made of chitin  1b Tentacles absent – Go to 3
3) Plantae
  2a Eight Tentacles – Octopus  Don’t like oxygen, love acid and heat
 2b More than 8 tentacles – 3  Differ from Eubacteria
 3a Tentacles hang down – go to 4 - bases in ribosomal RNA different
 3b Tentacles upright–Sea Anemone - composition of plasma membranes and
 4a Balloon-shaped body–Jellyfish cell walls are different
 4b Body NOT balloon-shaped - 5  Three major known phyla (groups)
- Methanogens
- Halophiles
- Thermophiles

ARCHAEBACTERIA AND EUBACTERIA

A. Methanogens:
What are bacteria?
 Anaerobic (do not need oxygen to survive)
 Bacteria are prokaryotes  Produce methane gas
 (no membrane bound nucleus)  Marshes, sewage treatment plants, intestinal
 Smallest living known cells tracts of humans and some animals (cows).
B. Halophiles:
 Found Everywhere
• Aerobic

• High saline/salty environments

Characteristics of Bacteria:
• usually 10 times the saline/salt content
 Cell Wall of normal ocean
 Cell (plasma) Membrane
 Pili • Salt lakes (Great Salt Lake, Dead Sea),
 Flagella pools, sea water
 Cytoplasm C. Thermophiles:
 Ribosomes
 DNA • Love heat

• (can survive 230 degrees Fahrenheit)

• Use sulfur and iron for respiration

Bacteria exhibit various modes of locomotion,
• Extremely acidic conditions pH
-"squirming",
below 2
- gliding
• Hot Springs and Thermal Vents
- propulsion via flagella.

Eubacteria:
Asexual Reproduction in Prokaryotes:

- Prokaryotes have a single, circular chromosome

 “true bacteria”
- replicate via a process of binary fission.  Usually what we refer to as “bacteria”
 Usually Neutral conditions
 Ex: body, food, moist places

Bacterial conjugation is the ability for one bacteria to

transfer genetic material to another via a physical bridge
between the cells

Archaebacteria: Eubacteria- The Bad? :

 Emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago • Can cause problems for human health
 Live in environments that resemble conditions
• Streptococci bacteria cause strep throat
existing when the earth was young
 • E.coli and Salmonella are sometimes
found in undercooked meat and eggs
and can make people sick
Eubacteria- The Good? :
• Other bacteria are beneficial to human health:
• Fermentation:
Sarcodines
 Amoeba move by cytoplasmic streaming
(like the Blob !). The projections that are
formed are called pseudopodia.
Sporozoans
 Malaria is caused by a sporozoan that is
spread by mosquito bites.

• Yogurt, grapes, milk, cheese

• Breakdown waste (wastewater Plant-like Protists

treatment plants + septic systems) Algae are able to photosynthesize

 Classified by color and whether they are

single celled or multi-cellular.
 They are much simpler than true plants.
KINGDOM: PROTISTA

Protists are a diverse group: ALGAE:

 All are eukaryotes (have a nucleus) A. Characteristics of Algae
 Animal-like protists (Protozoans)  Autotrophic
 Plant-like protists (Algae)  Not plants – why?
 Fungus-like protists (slime molds, water molds)  Often contain pyrenoids
B. Structure of Algae
 Thallus or body
Animal-like Protists:  Unicellular or multicellular
 Colonial: Volvoz
 Filamentous: Spirogyra
• Eat other organisms  Multicellular: Ulva
• Classified by movement:  Asexual and sexual reproduction

– Ciliates move using small hairs called

cilia
PHYLUMS
– Flagellates move using 1 or 2 whip-like
 Phylum Chlorophyta
tails called flagella
 Phylum Phaeophyta
– Sarcodines move with pseudopodia  Phylum Rhodophyta
 Phylum Bacillariophyta
– Sporozoans do not move, they are
 Phylum Dinoflagellata
parasites
 Phylum Chrysophyta
 Phyla Euglenohyta
Ciliates

 Paramecia move using tiny waving hairs to glide A. Phylum Chlorophyta

through the water  Green algae
 Paramecia move using tiny waving hairs to glide  Many different forms
through the water  Gave rise to land plants – why?
 Choroplasts that contain a and b
Flagellates:
cholorphyll
 Some flagellates are animal-like because  Have carotenoids
they move and eat other things, but they can  Cell walls of cellulose
also photosynthesize like a plant!
  Later they stop moving, form a fruiting body
(similar to a mushroom), and make spores
B. Phylum Phaeophyta
 Brown algae
 Marine
 Seaweed and kelps Protists are important
 Cooler areas of ocean  Slime molds act as decomposers to recycle
 Fucoxanthin pigment nutrients from dead plants and animals or animal
 Store food as laminarin waste.
 ALL multicellular  Algae are the major photosynthesizers on our
 Stemlike stipe planet, producing more food and oxygen than the
 Leaflike region called blade true plants
 Protists form the beginning of most food chains
 Some are important disease pathogens of plants
C. Phylum Rhodophyta and animals.
 Red algae but colors vary
 Marine seaweeds
 Smaller than brown algae and live in KINGDOM FUNGI
deeper waters
 Phycobilins – pigment for absorbing
light Eukaryotic heterotrophs
 Agar – extracted from cell walls of red
algae (How does this make them different from plants???)

 Many are saprophytes

 Many are parasites
D. Phylum Dinoflagellata
 Many are symbionts
 Dinoflagellates
 Small, unicellular
 Most photosynthetic
 Some bioluminescent Characteristics of all Fungi:
 Causes Red tide  Eukaryotic
 Most are multicellular & filamentous
 A few are single celled (yeasts)
E. Phylum Chrysophyta  Heterotrophic – do not make their own food
 Golden algae  Absorb nutrients through the cell wall
 Most fresh water  Do not move
 2 flagella  Mushrooms help digest dead, decaying matter.
 Carotenoids give color
 Important for formation of petroleum Structure of Fungi:
deposits  Each cell has a cell wall made of chitin
 Hyphae are hair-like filamentous chains of cells.
 Structure consists of:
F. Phylum Euglenophyta  Mycelium (mass of hyphae)
 Euglenoids  Fruiting body (the reproductive structure)
 Plant-like and animal-like  Fungi come in many sizes, shapes, and colors
characteristics
 Many have cholorphyll and are
photosynthetic
 No cell wall, motile
 Most live in fresh water

Fungus-like Protists Reproduction:

Slime molds have dual lives!
• Fungi can reproduce asexually by budding and by
 Slime molds start their life cycle like animal-like asexual spore production.
protists
 – The hyphae and asexual spores are – Yeasts used in production of glycerol.
haploid (1N) like the gametes of higher
organisms (eggs and sperm). • Explosives

• Under certain conditions a fruiting body is

formed.
c) Zygomycota-Common Molds
– It is the product of two opposite mating  The zygospore is the fruiting body.
“types” combining to form a diploid  Human and Ecological Relevance
(2N) cell. i. A few species used as food
sources.
ii. Industrial Uses
Classification of Fungi: 1. Pharmaceuticals
2. Pigments
• Fungi are classified into 4 phyla (divisions)
d) Deuteromycota-Imperfect Fungi
depending on the type of fruiting body they
produce.  Fungi for which no sexual stage has
been observed
– Basidiomycota  Grouped together into an artificial
phylum
– Ascomycota
 May be reclassified if they ever
– Zygomycota produce a fruiting body

– Deuteromycota
Importance of Deuteromycota

a) Basidiomycota-Club Fungi • Penicillium Molds

 Importance:
a. A few are poisonous – Antibiotics
b. High in protein, calcium, – Gourmet Cheese
phosporous, & iron
c. Nutrient recycling • Aspergillus
d. Pharmaceuticals
b) Ascomycota • Citric Acid
 Also known as sac fungi • Soy Sauce
 Fruiting bodies form sacs of spores
where fertilization occurs. • Aspergilloses (Respiratory
a. Examples: truffles, morels, yeasts Disease)
b. Usually, yeast reproduce asexually
by budding
Symbiotic Relationships:

• Mutualism-two species living together, both

Importance of Ascomycota: benefit
• Ergot fungus may infect rye and other grains. – Example: Lichen

– Ergotism (poisoning) may occur in • The fungus hangs on to the

those who eat the contaminated bread. rock or log and catches water

– Ergot drugs are medicinally useful in • The algae has color and can
small amounts. collect sunlight to
photosynthesize
• Ergot in the grain head of rye

• Yeast is very important for humans in that

• Parasitism-one organism benefits, the other is
– Yeast enzymes aid in preparation of harmed or killed slowly
baked goods (fermentation)

– Some yeasts cause disease of plants and Fungal infections in humans:

animals (parasites)
 • Valley Fever is a fungal infection of the lungs + hornworts -
causing pneumonia and other effects.

• Ringworm is actually a fungal infection of the

skin. VASCULAR PLANTS

Plant vascular tissue:

• xylem: transports water and nutrients from the

soil to the rest of the plant

• phloem: carries organic materials (such as

KINGDOM PLANTAE: glucose) to the rest of the plant

CHARACTERISTICS: SEEDLESS PLANTS

 Autotrophic, Division Psilophyta – Whiskferns – 10 – 13 species

 eukaryotic,
 multicellular, Division Lycophyta – Club Moss – 1,000 species
 primarily diploid Division Sphenophyta – Horsetails – 15 species

Division Pterophyta – Ferns – 12,000 species

STRUCTURE OF A PLANT:

Roots: Whisk Ferns:

• anchor plant - small with “fork–like” branches that look like a
broom considered the simplest of all living
• absorb water and nutrients from soil
vascular land plants.
• storage in some
Horsetails:
• Root cap to protect root during growth
- 15 species of horsetail plants but now there is
Leaves: only one existing genus – Equisetum

• capturing sunlight for photosynthesis
• gas exchange: CO2 in and O2 out through stomata
- It resembles a horsetail. Its stems are rough with
silica crystals
- in the past, people used this in scrubbing pots
and dirty kettles.

Stems: Club Mosses:

transport of water and nutrients between leaves and root - around 1,000 species

- their tips are club-shaped

FERNS:

NON VASCULAR: - the first group of land plants with conducting tubes
through which water and food substances pass.
BRYOPHYTES
- they do not produce seeds, but instead, produce
- no vascular tissues for water and food transport spores for reproduction
- small, found in shaded and ,moist habitat - Ferns have true
- no true roots, stems and leaves vascular tissues
three groups of bryophytes : and strong roots.
+ mosses - - Ferns have true vascular tissues and strong roots.
+ liverworts - - They may be creeping or underground called
rhizomes.
 - The large leaves are called fronds. When fronds - they are usually smaller compared to Ginkgos
mature, sori are formed on its underside. Inside that form large trees.
these are sporangia where spores are formed.
- Their leaves are with parallel venation similar to
- The leafy fern is the sporophyte. the compound leaves of cycad or "pitogo" plant.

- When leaf ferns are young, they are coiled and - Examples of these are Gnetum, Ephedra and
are called “fiddleheads” or croziers.   Welwitschia (found only in the deserts of South
Africa)..

CYCADS
NON FLOWERING PLANTS
- These are cone-bearing palm-like trees with thick
Gymnosperms (naked seed plants) : stems.
Division Coniferophyta – Conifers – 550 species - The leaves are large and “compound” or
composed of several small leaf–like parts.
Division Cycadophyta – Cycads – 100 species
- Female plants are distinct from the male plants.
Division Ginkgophyta – Ginkgo – 1 species
- Male and female cones look different and may
Division Gnetophyta – Gnetae – 70 species
be found in two separate plants.

- Examples of these are pitogo and oliva or peace

GYMNOSPERM plant.

- needle–shaped leaves

- came from the Greek word "gymnos" meaning

naked and "sperma” seed.

- Cone-bearing plants have well-developed stems,

PINE GROUP
leaves, and roots as well as vascular tissues.
 This represents the biggest group of gymnosperms found
- consist of only around 550 different species
in many parts of the world.
- divided into 4 groups: the cycadophyta,
- There are only two species of pine trees in our
ginkgophyta, gnetophyta and coniferophyta
country, namely:

Pinus insularis and Pinus merkusii.

GINKGOS
- The conifers are large, tall trees with highly
Originally Ginkgos have 16 species, but now there is only branched stems.
one surviving, species, Gingkgo biloba or maiden hair
- The leaves are usually scaly and needle-like.
- This is a large tree with numerous spreading
branches.

- Leaves are fan-shaped with parallel type of leaf

venation.

- The female plant forms seeds that give off a Angiosperms

pungent odor, similar to rancid butter.
 - Angiosperms or flowering plants are vascular plants with
seeds usually found inside a fruit.
GNETUMS - There are around 250,000 different species of
flowering plants.
- believed to be the ancestors of the flowering
plants. - There are two kinds of flowering plants based on
the number of seed leaves or cotyledons: the
- they have cones that resemble flowers.
monocotyledon and dicotyledon.
- A cotyledon is a seed leaf inside a seed. It is
called the baby food for the baby plant.

- Monocots have one seed leaf inside a seed while

dicots have two.