Utilization of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) in Construction Technology - A State-Of-The-Art Review

Journal of Building Engineering 56 (2022) 104774
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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe
Utilization of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) in construction

technology: A state-of-the-art review
Yang Li *, Jiaqi Chai, Ruijun Wang, Xu Zhang, Zheng Si
State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Supplementary cementing materials are promoted to replace cement throughout the world to
Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) curb the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) is
Pozzolanic reactivity obtained through burning agricultural waste bagasse, which can be used as a cement replacement
Strength to produce structural concrete. A comprehensive and up-to-date overview on the properties of
Durability concrete containing SCBA as partial replacement of cement is presented in this paper. The
Gap analysis
physical and chemical properties of SCBA and the effect of SCBA on the fresh, mechanical,
durability and microstructural properties of concrete are described. Generally, the mechanical
properties of concrete containing SCBA increase with the increase in SCBA cement substitution,
and the optimal replacement ratio of SCBA is 10%–20%. The incorporation of SCBA into concrete
improves the resistance to chloride ions, acid and sulfate attacks and alkali silica reaction. In
addition, appropriate pretreatment methods (e.g. sieving, grinding, and burning) aid the
improvement of the macro and micro properties of concrete containing SCBA. Environmental and
cost analyses indicates that the use of SCBA as a partial substitute can reduce the carbon emissions
and costs and have high economic and environmental benefits. Gap analysis shows that the long-
term durability, abrasion resistance, shrinkage, freezing-thawing resistance and cost of SCBA
concrete require further evaluation.
1. Introduction
Cement in concrete is the most widely used building material in the world. World cement production was approximately 4.5 billion
tons in 2016; it is expected to reach approximately 6 billion tons by the end of 2050 [1,2]. During the production of cement, calcination
of raw materials, such as limestone for clinker production and fossil fuels used for heating, will emit a large amount of carbon dioxide
(CO2) into the atmosphere [3,4]. The production of 1 ton of cement releases 0.7–1 tons of CO2, so the cement manufacturing accounts
for almost 6%–8% of the anthropogenic CO2 emissions [4,5]. In addition, the cement industry releases a large number of harmful gases
(carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide) and heavy metals, resulting in air pollution and heavy metal contamination in
the environment [3,5]. Therefore, taking measures to reduce CO2 emissions and pollution in the cement manufacturing process is the
most important and urgent challenge of the cement industry at present [4]. A very attractive approach is to use supplementary
cementitious materials (SCM) as partial replacement for cement in concrete; it can reduce CO2 emissions by up to 30%–40% and
energy consumption by up to 80% [4–7]. Moreover, the use of SCM reduces costs and improves some concrete properties [8].
Traditionally, industrial wastes, such as fly ash from coal combustion and granulated blast furnace slags from steel production, have
* Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, 710048, China.
E-mail address: LY1990120311@163.com (Y. Li).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104774
Received 15 February 2022; Received in revised form 26 May 2022; Accepted 5 June 2022
Available online 13 June 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al. Journal of Building Engineering 56 (2022) 104774
been the most commonly used SCM [4]. However, the supply of fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag is under threat by the global
transitions away from coal combustion towards renewable energy and steel production towards secondary production from waste
metal [8]. Therefore, finding other sustainable SCM to replace cement is necessary.
Recently, a growing number of studies have focused on the increasing amount of agricultural waste sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA)
as an alternative to cement [9]. According to statistics of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, sugarcane is the
most productive crop worldwide, and the total production of sugarcane in the world in 2018 was 1.91 billion tons [10]. Fig. 1(a) shows
the production of 10 countries with the highest sugarcane production worldwide in 2018. The production of sugarcane from these
countries accounts for more than 80% of the global production [10–12]. Fig. 2 describes the process of obtaining SCBA from sugarcane
[13]. Firstly, fresh sugarcane is shredded, and then the juice is extracted by heavy rollers. The fibrous material left after the juice is
called bagasse (approximately 30%–34% by the mass of fresh sugarcane) [14,15]. Secondly, the bagasse is used as fuel in sugar mills
for cogeneration [14]. Finally, SCBA (approximately 2%–3% by the mass of bagasse) is produced from bagasse after combustion in a
cogeneration boiler [6,11,14,16].
However, the increasing amount of SCBA often disposed of locally (Fig. 1(b)) and has not been used effectively [11,12,14,17–19].
On the one hand, the valuable land is taken up by arbitrarily disposed SCBA [11,12,19,20]. On the other hand, leaks of SCBA are also
thought to contaminate groundwater [11,20]. Therefore, using SCBA as SCM instead of cement can not only reduce the emission of
CO2 and harmful gases, but also reduce the environmental pollution caused by the arbitrarily disposed SCBA [21].
Many researchers have evaluated the potential of SCBA as SCM due to its abundance and high pozzolanic properties. The properties
of fresh and hardened concrete incorporating SCBA were investigated in previous reviews [13,16,22–24]. However, none of these
review papers involved the relationship among compressive strength, tensile strength and flexural strength of SCBA concrete. Some
important properties of concrete, including carbonation resistance, acid and sulfate attack resistance, alkali silica reaction (ASR) and
electrical resistivity were not considered. In addition, previous reviews rarely summarised the microscopic analysis of the SCBA
concrete morphology, pore structure and interfacial transition zone (ITZ). In recent studies, great efforts have been made to explain the
performance of SCBA concrete containing SCBA by scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation and pore structure analysis [25,
26]. What’s more, none of the review did cover the environmental sustainability quantification in the use of SCBA in the production of
Portland cement, which is becoming more and more important in recent years worldwide. The existing review only covers studies prior
to 2018, but more than 50 reports on concrete incorporating SCBA were published between 2018 and 2021. Therefore, an up-to-date
and comprehensive review covering the detailed properties of concrete containing SCBA is necessary for a better understanding of the
behaviour of SCBA.
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the existing reports on the use of SCBA in concrete between 2000 and 2021.
Fig. 3 shows the flow chart of the comprehensive review. The present study reviews the physical and chemical properties of SCBA and
the effects of using SCBA instead of cement on the fresh, mechanical and durability properties of concrete. In addition, the micro
structure of concrete containing SCBA is reviewed to explain its effect on the properties of concrete. A review of the potential
(environmental and cost) sustainable gains in the use of SCBA in the production of Portland cement is carried out. Moreover, several
potential studies on the use of SCBA as SCM have been suggested according to the gap analysis.
Fig. 1. (a)Production record (million tons) of the 10 countries with the highest sugarcane production worldwide in 2018 [10]; (b)Disposal landfill of bagasse ash in
Thailand [11,12].
2
Fig. 2. The flow diagram of obtaining SCBA from sugarcane [13].
2. Material properties of SCBA

2.1. Physical properties
The physical properties of SCM have an important impact on the rheology and workability of the fresh properties of concrete. In
past studies, the physical properties, including specific gravity, particle size and shape, colour, stability, looseness and compacted bulk
density, of SCBA have been studied. The physical properties of SCBA and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) are compared in Table 1 [6,
9,27–33]. Generally, the raw SCBA obtained from sugar mills is black, reddish grey and white in colour due to the relatively high
amount of unburnt carbon [6,16,34,35]. The colour change is affected by the combustion process and the structure of silica in ash.
Most particles of raw SCBA are fine, but it also contains some coarse fibrous particles [30,36]. In accordance with Table 1, the specific
gravity of raw SCBA varies from 1.91 to 2.63, which is lower than that of cement (2.9–3.15). The low specific gravity of raw SCBA is
due to the large porous microstructure of carbon-rich particles [30]. Specific surface area determines the physical effects (filler and
additional nucleation points) that influence the performance of a cemented matrix. Raw SCBA samples have been reported to have a
lower specific surface area compared with processed SCBA, as shown in Table 1. The bulk density of raw SCBA is 1430–1530 kg/m3,
which increases to 1200–2500 kg/m3 with suitable processing. The particle size of raw SCBA is large, and the specific surface area is as
low as 27.4 m2/kg. These characteristics are attributed to the presence of tubular particles and fibrous carbon particles in raw SCBA
[13,28,36–38]. Most papers have reported four types of particles in raw SCBA, namely, prismatic, spherical, fibrous and irregular
particles [9,11,12,27,30]. The microscopic morphology of raw SCBA, which contains irregularly shaped particles and fibers, is
observed (Fig. 4). Chusip et al. [39] observed that the surface of raw SCBA particles was rough and sponge-like and had high porosity
and large surface area.
2.2. Chemical properties

The pozzolanic activity of SCBA, as a pozzolanic material, mainly depends on its chemical composition. The major compounds that
render pozzolanic and hydraulic binding properties to SCMs are SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. The chemical compositions of raw SCBA are
listed in Table 2. The table shows that the SCBA from various sources has different chemical compositions, which are mainly attributed
to the changes in the sugarcane types and growth, as well as calcination and grinding conditions [13]. The pozzolanic oxide (SiO2
+Al2O3+Fe2O3) content of SCBA is within the range of approximately 60.46%–76.52% of total composition. Several studies have
shown that SCBA has a chemical element suitable for use as a pozzolanic mineral, mainly because of its high levels of SiO2 (51.66%–
72.95%) [28,30,44–47].
The pozzolanic reaction mainly depends on pozzolanic substances in SCBA (e.g. silicon, aluminium and iron oxides) and is acti
vated by Portlandite formed during cement hydration to produce substantial hydrated gel [34,48,49]. The pozzolanic performance of
SCBA was assessed via strength activity index (SAI) test, modified Chapelle test and lime saturation test in early studies [11,30,50–54].
The active amorphous content has the greatest influence on the pozzolanic activity of SCBA, and the amorphous content of SCBA is
mainly amorphous silica [30,55]. Fig. 5 shows a certain positive correlation between SAI and the total amorphous content of SCBA.
Generally, the SAI value of untreated SCBA is approximately 72%, which is lower than the minimum requirement of 75% of ASTM
standard [30,31,40]. From the early studies on the Chapelle activity of SCBA, the Ca(OH)2 consumption was mostly above the
3

Fig. 3. Flow chart of comprehensive review.
4
Table 1
Physical properties of raw SCBA, treated SCBA and OPC [6,9,27–33].
Physical properties Raw SCBA Treated SCBA OPC
Colour Black, reddish grey Black, reddish grey, white Grey

Particle shape Prism, spherical, fibrous and irregular Spherical –
Specific gravity 1.91–2.63 1.36–2.88 2.9–3.15
Fineness passing 45 μm 32.6–67.4% 95–97% 93%
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1430–1530 1200–2500 1560
Blaine specific surface area (m2/kg) 27.4–300 514–1250 309–373
Median particle size (μm) 76.3–107.9 5.1–30 22.5–28
References [27–31] [6,9,32,33] [27,29,32,33]
Fig. 4. SEM image of raw SCBA [9].
Table 2
Oxide composition of raw SCBA [12,19,27,30,31,40–43].
Reference SCBA source Chemical composition (%)
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O SiO2+ Al2O3+ Fe2O3 LOI
[12] Thailand 55.00 5.10 4.10 11.00 0.90 2.20 0.20 1.20 64.20 19.60
[19] Thailand 55.04 5.14 4.06 11.03 0.91 2.16 0.24 1.22 64.24 19.60
[27] Thailand 54.1 5.69 3.54 15.37 1.41 0.03 – – 63.33 19.36
[30] India 72.95 1.68 1.89 7.77 1.98 4.45 – 9.28 76.52 21.00
[31] India 57.63 1.33 1.50 6.14 1.56 3.52 0.22 7.33 60.46 21.00
[40] Brazil 53.20 13.90 4.40 2.40 – 1.50 – 1.60 71.50 20.90
[41] Brazil 59.48 3.42 3.09 2.50 1.18 0.43 0.70 – 65.99 23.19
[42] Brazil 65.03 0.49 0.49 2.75 3.26 – 0.06 1.73 66.01 24.84
[43] Mexico 51.66 9.92 2.32 2.59 1.44 – 1.23 2.10 63.90 24.15
Fig. 5. Relationship between strength activity index and amorphous content of SCBA [57,58].
5
minimum threshold value of 330 mg/g. The Chapelle activity for unprocessed SCBA fell below the minimum required value [56]. The
pozzolanic activity of SCBA is affected by its various physical and chemical characteristics.
Loss on ignition (LOI) is another key parameter that affects the strength, durability and rheological properties of SCBA concrete
specimens. Some raw SCBA has been found to have low pozzolanic oxide content and high LOI (19.36%–24.84%) due to the insuf
ficient burning of sugarcane residue in the boilers of sugar mills [27,45], as shown in Table 2. High LOI levels lead to a low pozzolanic
activity of pozzolanic materials and low fluidity and compressive strength of the mixture [27,30,34,40]. In addition, the carbon
content of SCBA was investigated by LOI measurement in previous works, although LOI may overestimate the content of unburned
carbon [55,59]. The raw SCBA contains more than 25% unburned carbon because of insufficient combustion [18]. These carbons are
amorphous, their morphology retains the characteristics of bagasse fibre, and the surface has micropores and depressions; in addition,
the carbon surface is covered with silicon and oxygen, which may be the source of silica [18,60]. Fig. 6 shows the amorphous of carbon
and the presence of oxides in SCBA. The high carbon content of SCBA may have adverse effects on cement-based materials, such as
workability and mechanical properties. However, considering the existing form of carbon (e.g. light graphite particles or solid-solution
particles), the carbon content can be reduced in an economically feasible method [55].
3. Treatment of SCBA
Treatment measures become particularly important in transforming raw SCBA into pozzolanic materials that satisfy specifications
[13]. Common treatment measures include sieving, burning, grinding and chemical treatments. Table 3 summarises the common
treatment for SCBA in various studies. Among them, sieving can be separated to remove large particles and fibres, burning is performed
to improve pozzolanic oxide through high temperature, grinding is used for refining, and chemical treatment can remove impurities.
Some studiers combine diverse treatment measures to achieve better results because different treatment measures have various effects.
Compared with the raw SCBA in Table 1, the processed SCBA often have higher pozzolanic oxide content (total content of SiO2
+Al2O3+Fe2O3 is 70.7%–95.9%) and lower LOI (0.2%–12.1%) (Table 4). The following details will describe each treatment measures.
3.1. Sieving
The raw SCBA usually burns inadequately and is rich in fibre particles with high amorphous carbon content, which can reduce the
pozzolanic activity of SCBA. Sieving is performed to separate specific SCBA particles through sieves of different sizes, which can reduce
the carbon content. The commonly used sieve size is 75–355 μm [45,48,62,63], and some researchers also sieved SCBA with larger
sieves [64,68]. For example, Filho et al. [66] used a 2000 μm sieve to remove large impurities. Sieving can increase the content of
pozzolanic oxide (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3) (Table 4). In accordance with ASTM C618-19, the mass percent of pozzolanic oxides (SiO2
+Al2O3+Fe2O3) for class N pozzolans should be higher than 70%. In accordance with this standard, the SCBA samples in Table 4 are
classified as N pozzolana. Sales and Lima [64] studied the effect of different sieving sizes (e.g. 150, 300, 600, 1200 and 2400 μm) on
sieving results, and the SiO2 content of each sample exceeds 75%. The pozzolanic activity of SCBA is mainly affected by pozzolanic
oxide content, amorphous material, LOI and carbon content [69]. Fig. 7 shows the SAI value of SCBA after applying different treatment
measures. The research shows that sieving enhances the pozzolanic activity of SCBA, and SAI value can reach approximately 90% [45,
48,70].
3.2. Burning
Burning raw SCBA can reduce LOI and carbon content and increase pozzolanic oxide content [27,44,61]. Burning can reduce the
carbon content of SCBA (down to about 4.7%) significantly [6,44]. Chusilp et al. [27] burnt raw SCBA at 550 ◦ C for 45 min, and the LOI
was reduced from 20% to 5.08%. In addition, as the burning temperature rises, the LOI gradually decreases [13]. Burning can increase
the content of amorphous silica in SCBA, which plays an important role in improving pozzolanic activity [40,46]. As shown in Table 4,
Fig. 6. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of carbon [18].
6

Table 3
Common SCBA treatments [9,27,28,30,40,44–46,48,51,61–68].
Treatments Specific measures Improved performance References
Sieving Sieved SCBA with 75–2000 μm sieve Reducing fibrous particles known for their high [45,48,62–64,68]
carbon content and LOI
Burning SCBA is generally burnt in the cogeneration boiler Increasing the pozzolanic oxide; reducing carbon [27,40,44,46,51,61,
at 500–1100 ◦ C content and LOI 63,65,66]
Grinding The mechanical crushing of SCBA Reducing the particle sizing of SCBA, thereby [28,40,44–46,48,61,
increasing the fineness 62,64,66]
Chemical treatment Common chemicals used on SCBA include acids, Increasing the oxidation of carbon to release more [9,46,66,67]
alkalis, carbonates and sulfates biosilica and improve fineness
Combined of the above Sieved and grinding SCBA Enhancing the maximum pozzolanic activity of [30,40,44–46,48,
two treatments Burning and grinding SCBA SCBA 61–64,66]
Burning and sieving SCBA
Table 4
Oxide composition of SCBA with different treatment measures [6,9,25,27,32,33,39,40,45,48,55,63–65].
Reference SCBA Treatment measures Chemical composition (%)

source
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2 O SiO2+ Al2O3+ LOI
Fe2O3
[45] México Sieving 66.12 14.99 7.16 2.57 1.19 0.26 0.54 3.52 88.27 9.34
[48] Pakistan Sieving 85.17 1.69 2.73 2.59 0.69 0.17 0.29 0.36 89.59 3.55
[63] Brazil Sieving 61.60 5.90 7.40 5.00 1.20 0.40 – 6.20 74.90 9.80
[25] Thailand Grinding 65.10 8.20 3.20 6.50 2.10 2.10 0.60 2.40 76.50 12.10
[39] Thailand Grinding 64.88 6.40 2.63 10.69 1.55 1.56 – – 73.91 8.16
[27] Thailand Burning 77.37 3.59 4.66 7.81 1.32 0.15 – – 85.62 5.08
[55] USA Burning 76.16 8.38 2.71 2.32 1.47 0.24 0.19 3.97 87.25 2.46
[64] Brazil Burning 88.20 2.30 5.10 0.60 0.40 0.10 0.10 1.30 95.60 0.35
[65] Cuban Burning 61.46 14.70 8.48 3.02 3.02 – 2.41 1.40 84.64 3.85
[9] Malaysia Chemical treatment 80.40 0.90 0.50 1.80 0.50 0.80 0.30 1.10 81.80 0.20
[32] Thailand Sieving and grinding 65.00 4.80 0.90 3.90 – 0.90 – 2.00 70.70 10.5
[33] India Burning and grinding 64.15 9.50 5.52 8.14 2.85 – 0.92 1.35 79.17 4.90
[40] Brazil Burning and grinding 69.60 15.70 5.70 1.30 – 1.50 – 2.20 91.00 2.10
[9] Malaysia Chemical treatment and 84.30 1.10 1.70 1.90 1.40 0.50 0.30 2.90 87.10 0.10
burning
[6] Pakistan Sieving, burning and 87.40 3.60 4.90 2.56 0.69 0.11 0.15 0.47 95.90 8.25
grinding
Fig. 7. Strength activity index (SAI) of SCBA [12,30,31,40,45,48,70–72].
the pozzolanic oxide content of burning treated SCBA is 85.62%–95.6%, and the LOI can be reduced to less than 5.09%. However,
excessively high temperatures (>800 ◦ C) lead to the conversion of amorphous silica into crystalline silica [30,34,46,51]. Controlled
burning at 600 ◦ C-800 ◦ C is mainly considered to produce SCBA with considerable active silica [40]. Bahurudeen et al. [30] found that
the microstructure of SCBA burnt at different temperatures (600 ◦ C, 700 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C) changed significantly (Fig. 8). The photo
micrograph illustrates that as the temperature increases, increasing fibrous particles are burnt in the sample, and the burning degree
7
Fig. 8. Different level of burning of fibrous particles in SCBA samples [30].
rises. Samples burnt above 900 ◦ C have completely white particles because of the crystallisation and thermal decomposition of SCBA at
high temperatures.
3.3. Grinding
Grinding is an effective method to transform large tubular SCBA particles into dense and fine particles [27,28,46]. After grinding,
the particle size decreases, and the specific gravity and surface area increase [27,28,39,71]. Chusilp et al. [27] ground raw SCBA in a
ball mill until the particles retained on a 45 μm sieve were less than 5%. The mean particle size of the ground SCBA reduced from 23 μm
of the raw SCBA to 10 μm. Cordeiro et al. [28] investigated the influence of grinding time and mill type on the physical characteristics
of SCBA. They found that the particle size decreased and the specific surface area and pozzolanic activity increased with the increase in
grinding time. Grinding in a vibrating mill cannot only produce ultrafine SCBA particles but can also consume less power and time
compared with grinding in tumble mills. In addition, the grinding time can lead to significant differences in the SCBA microstructure
(Fig. 9), the microscopic image presents coarse particles and uneven mixture that remained even after short-term (8 min) grinding,
whereas the particle size distribution becomes uniform after long-term (240 min) grinding [28].
3.4. Chemical treatment

Chemical treatment can remove lignin, alkali metals and other impurities to improve the content of pozzolanic oxides. The SCBA
treatment with sodium hydroxide solution can remove most (around 90%) of lignin and hemicellulose [67]. Embong et al. [9] found
that acid treatment had an obvious effect on the removal of K, Mg, Ca and other elements; the removal effect of low concentration
hydrochloric acid was better; and the content of pozzolanic oxide in SCBA treated with hydrochloric acid increased by 35%. Chemical
treatment can promote the oxidation of carbon and increase the content of silica and other oxides in SCBA. However, the SCBA will not
necessarily improve the performance of mortar or concrete after chemical treatment [69].
3.5. Combined of the treatments

The aforementioned treatment measures have a certain effect on improving the pozzolanic activity of SCBA. Some researchers
combine different treatment measures to achieve better results, and the combination of different treatment methods can make the SAI
of SCBA higher than 90% [30,31,40,71] (Fig. 7). The comprehensive treatment reduced the LOI of SCBA significantly (less than 10.5%)
(Table 4), indicating that the unburned carbonaceous particles in the original material were removed effectively [6,33,40]. Table 4
also shows that the pozzolan oxide content of the treated SCBA is often higher than 80%. Bahurudeen et al. [30] increased the SAI of
raw SCBA from 72% to 86% by burning, and further grinding not only enabled the burnt SCBA to reach the fineness of cement (300
m2/kg) but also increased the SAI to 90%. Cordeiro et al. [40] found that grinding and then burning SCBA reduced the specific surface
Fig. 9. SEM images of SCBAs produced after (a) 8 min and (b) 240 min of vibratory grinding [28].
8
area, which is caused by carbon removal, therefore, to prevent the reduction of specific surface area, burning SCBA before grinding can
be considered. This section shows that the combination of multiple treatment methods is an effective and common method in pro
ducing SCBA with maximum pozzolanic activity.
4. Fresh properties of concrete with SCBA

4.1. Workability
The literature indicates that the use of SCBA can change the workability of concrete according to parameters, such as slump, water
demand and amount of superplasticiser. In general, adding SCBA to concrete as SCM instead of cement will reduce the slump of the
concrete and increase the demand for water and superplasticiser [17,47,73–76]. In addition, some researchers have studied the effect
of industrial and agricultural wastes (e.g. silica fume, basalt fibre, metakaolin, rice husk ash, coal bottom ash and fly ash) on the slump
of SCBA concrete. The results show that the combination of SCBA with other materials reduces the slump [75,77–80]. The slump of the
concrete increases linearly with the SCBA replacement ratio (Fig. 10). The researchers also tested the workability of SCBA concrete
through V-funnel test, J-ring test, flow table test and other tests. The V-funnel test reflects the fluidity and segregation resistance by
measuring the time of mixing flow that passes through the funnel. Studies show that the flow time increases with the SCBA content, and
fluidity decreases with the increase in content [17,73]. Moretti et al. [42] measured the passing capacity of concrete through J-ring
test. However, it could not meet the specified minimum requirements under different SCBA contents. Flow table test can also indicate
the fluidity of concrete, and the flow of SCBA concrete decreases with the increase in SCBA content [17].
The main reasons for the reduced workability of SCBA mixtures can be attributed to (i) the rough surfaces, highly irregular shapes
and porous nature of SCBA particles [47,76]; (ii) rough surfaces and irregular shapes increase friction between fine particles, causing
the fresh mixture to be harsh [11,73,87]; (iii) high porosity causes more water to be absorbed into the particles [11,27]. The SCBA
mixture requires more water and superplasticisers maintain appropriate flow due to these factors. Some researchers have studied using
superplasticisers and fly ash to improve the workability of SCBA concrete. Bathudeen et al. [31] reported that SCBA cement mixtures
are compatible with polycarboxylic ether based superplasticiser due to the combined action of electrostatic repulsion and steric
hindrance, thereby leading to the effective dispersion of cement particles. Jiménez-Quero et al. [87] reported that the addition of fly
ash can effectively improve the fluidity of SCBA mixtures when the content of SCBA is less than 20%. The spherical fly ash particles
produced a ball-bearing effect and reduced the friction at the aggregate-paste interface [75,87].
4.2. Setting time

Fig. 11 shows that adding SCBA to concrete will increase the initial setting time and final setting time [31,34,44,48]. When the
cement is replaced by the SCBA, the tricalcium aluminate (C3A) component in the concrete mixture decreases, slowing down the
hydration rate of the cement [6,88]. In addition, unburned carbon and sulphur trioxides in SCBA increase the setting time [40].
Cordeiro et al. [40] reported that the setting time of concrete with 20% raw SCBA (LOI = 20.9%) instead of cement is increased by
approximately three times compared with the concrete without SCBA. When the recalcination procedures are used to process SCBA
(LOI = 2.1%), the setting time of concrete is slightly accelerated compared with the concrete without SCBA. The extension of setting
time provides the possibility for SCBA as a concrete retarder.
Fig. 10. Slump of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [11,31,75,81–86].
9
Fig. 11. Setting time of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [31,34,44,48].
4.3. Heat of hydration

Heat of hydration is an important parameter to determine the quality of concrete. Especially for the mass concrete, which cannot
easily dissipate heat, the excessive release of heat produced by cement hydration leads to cracks [16]. As shown in Fig. 12, reduction in
heat of hydration due to the use of SCBA instead of cement has been confirmed by many researchers [11,39,86]. Chusilp et al. [39]
reported that the peak temperature of SCBA mixed samples with 10%, 20% and 30% content decreased by 13.3%, 23.3% and 33.3%
compared with the control concrete. The researchers found that the total heat liberated from concrete and heat of hydration rates
decreases with the increase in SCBA replacing cement, and the concrete with 20% SCBA showed the largest reduction of approximately
23% in total heat [86]. In addition, Montakartiwong et al. [11] reported that the use of ground SCBA instead of 40% cement reduced
the peak temperature rise of concrete by 37% under semi adiabatic condition, and the temperature rise decreases with the level of
SCBA substitution. Generally, the observed reduction in heat of hydration of SCBA mixture is related to the decrease in C3A, tricalcium
silicate and gypsum in cement [86,89]. These components release substantial heat in the process of cement hydration. The decrease in
hydration heat provides the possibility for the application of SCBA in mass concrete [74].
5. Mechanical properties of concrete with SCBA

5.1. Compressive strength
The development of compressive strength SCBA concrete mainly depends on the replacement level, curing time and the properties
of SCBA (fineness, silicon and aluminium oxide content and LOI).
5.1.1. Influence of replacement

Most previous studies used SCBA to replace 5%–50% of cement by weight. The relationship between SCBA replacement ratios and
the compressive strength is shown in Fig. 13. It can be seen from the figure that the optimum content of SCBA to improve the
Fig. 12. Hydration heat of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [11,39,86,90–92].
10
Fig. 13. Compressive strength of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [6,19,44,73,81,100–105].
Fig. 14. The relative compressive strength of SCBA concrete with industrial wastes agricultural wastes and nano materials [77,78,80,97–99,106].
11
compressive strength is 10%–20%. When the replacement level was less than the optimum level, the compressive strength of SCBA
concrete increased because the SCBA mainly shows filling and pozzolanic effects [19,44,86,93]. However, when the substitution level
exceeds the optimum level, the SCBA concrete shows a relatively low compressive strength. The finding could be attributed to the filler
and pozzolanic effect of SCBA that cannot compensate for the dilution effect caused by the decrease in cement content [39,48,54,
94–96]. Amin [6] reported that when 5%–30% SCBA was incorporated into the concrete to replace cement, the compressive strength of
the concrete with 5%–20% SCBA increased, whereas the 25% and 30% replacement levels resulted in a 3% and 11% reduction in
strength, respectively. The decrease in strength was attributed to the lack of required amount of Ca(OH)2, thereby decreasing the
formation of hydrated calcium silicate (C–S–H) and directly affecting the strength. The compressive strength of SCBA concrete
combined with other industrial wastes, agricultural wastes and nano material have also been examined in several studies. Fig. 14 show
that compared with the control concrete, the combination of SCBA with other materials can improve the compressive strength of
concrete, mainly due to the filling effect and the pozzolanic activity of various materials, such as SCBA, nano silica, rice husk ash and
coal bottom ash [77,78,80,97–99].
5.1.2. Influence of curing duration

Some studies suggest that SCBA concrete has higher compressive strength than control concrete at later ages; however, the
compressive strength of SCBA concrete is reduced in the early ages (Fig. 15). The strength of the concrete containing SCBA developed
slowly in the early stages due to the dilution effect of SCBA instead of cement [6,53,88,94,107]. Arena-Piedrahita et al. [45] reported
that the use of 10% and 20% untreated SCBA (UtSCBA) resulted in an 8.1% and 9.8% reduction in compressive strength at seven days,
respectively. With the increase in age to 180 days, the compressive strength of SCBA concrete has exceeded that of control concrete. On
the other hand, few studies suggest that incorporation of SCBA in cementitious systems results in higher early age strength. Arif et al.
[34] reported an increase in strength of 9.6% and 4.6% at 7 and 28 days, respectively, for 5% cement replacement level and suggested
it to be the optimum limit. The gain in compressive strength at early ages is attributed to the very fine ground SCBA particles (mean
particle size 10 μm) that increased the pozzolanic reaction and packing effect due to fine particles [39,44].
5.1.3. Influence of SCBA treatment

Raw SCBA may have large particle size, high porosity and LOI and low amorphous SiO2, resulting in low compressive strength of
concrete [25,39,47]. Studies have shown that, the use of raw SCBA resulted in a remarkably decrease in compressive strength. The
recalcination and grinding treatments applied in SCBA preparation can influence the compressive strength of concrete containing
SCBA [11,19,25,28,30,39,73,86,108–110]. In addition, when the raw SCBA is ground into small particles and/or calcined at high
temperature, the compressive strength of concrete with processing SCBA is considerably improved [11,27,96]. Jagadesh et al. [96]
found that by grinding the SCBA in ball mill for 45 min and burning it at 400 ◦ C for 4 h, the compressive strength of concrete with
processed SCBA could be increased beyond 20%, compared with the concrete with raw SCBA. In addition, processed SCBA is used as a
pozzolanic material to produce high strength concrete (HSC) [19,32,61,94]. Rukzon and Chindaprasirt [32] reported that the
compressive strength of concrete containing 30% ultrafine SCBA reached 68.6 MPa at 28 days. This finding may be due to the specific
surface area of SCBA that was ground three times that of the cement, thereby providing relatively large area for pozzolanic reaction.
Rajasekar et al. [61] observed that SCBA showed high pozzolanic activity after burning at 550 ◦ C for 1 h and grinding in vibratory ball
mill for 1 h. At 28 days, the compressive strength of ultra-HSC containing 30% treatment SCBA reached 287 MPa for heat curing, an
increase of more than 50% compared with ultra-HSC without SCBA. In conclusion, appropriate treatment measures can enhance the
pozzolanic activity of SCBA, which increases the compressive strength of SCBA concrete.
5.2. Splitting tensile strength

In the assessment of splitting tensile strength, similar trends are present for the incorporation of SCBA for compressive strength [6,
44,93,102]. The relationship between SCBA replacement ratio and splitting tensile strength is depicted in Fig. 16. When the
replacement ratio of SCBA is 10%–20%, the splitting tensile strength is evidently improved. Amin [6] and Ganesan et al. [44] found
Fig. 15. The relationship between curing time and relative compressive strength of concrete with SCBA [19,27,45,75,93,94].
12
Fig. 16. Splitting tensile strength of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [6,44,81,93,100–103,111,113–116].
Fig. 17. The relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of concrete with SCBA [6,25,44,93,102,104,108,110,112].
13
that when the content of SCBA replacement cement is less than 20%, the splitting tensile strength increases, whereas the replacement
level decreases gradually at 25% and 30%. The use of grinded and burning SCBA can increase the splitting tensile strength of concrete
compared with the raw SCBA [44,111].
A certain relationship exists between the splitting tensile strength (ft) and compressive strength (fcu) of concrete, and the change
laws are the same as those for concrete with addition of SCBA. Chindaprasirt et al. [25] fitted experimental data and concluded that ft
= 0.5052f0.5
cu +0.6018, whereas other scholars have concluded that the splitting tensile strength of concrete can be approximately
0.0855fcu− 0.7482 [108]. Fig. 17 summarises the relationship between the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of SCBA
concrete from experimental research results, and the exponential relationship obtained through nonlinear fitting is ft = 0.3324f0.6474
cu .
When the compressive strength is greater than 25 MPa, the splitting tensile strength of SCBA concrete is higher than the recommended
strength of ordinary concrete in ACI 318-11 [112].
5.3. Flexural strength

The development of flexural strength follows similar trend to compressive strength and is influenced by the same factors
(replacement level, curing time, fineness and silica-aluminium oxide content of SCBA) [70,96,102,117]. The relationship between
SCBA replacement ratios and the flexural strength is shown in Fig. 18, the optimum content is 5%–15%. Srinivasan and Sathiya [102]
reported that the flexural strength of SCBA concrete increases when SCBA replaces cement at a rate not exceeding 10%. In addition, at
seven days, the flexural strength of the SCBA concrete was lower than that of the control concrete. Jagadesh et al. [96] studied the
effect of processing conditions (burning and grinding) on the flexural strength of concrete. They observed that the addition of 10%
UtSCBA increased the flexural strength by 2%. However, the addition of the same amount of processed SCBA increased the flexural
strength of concrete by 14%.
Similar to the splitting tensile strength of SCBA concrete, flexural strength (fr) is related to compressive strength. Quedou et al.
[105] concluded that the linear relationship is fr = 0.0695fcu+2.115, whereas other scholars have deduced that fr = 0.6336f0.4988
cu [96].
Fig. 18. Flexural strength of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [81,102–105,108,113–115,118,119].
14
Fig. 19. The relationship between compressive strength and flexural strength of concrete with SCBA [96,102–105,120,121].
Fig. 19 summarises the relationship between the compressive strength and flexural strength of SCBA concrete. The fitted exponential
relationship is fr = 1.1422f0.3560
cu , which is higher than the recommended strength in ACI 318-14 [120]. This finding implies that the
flexural strength of SCBA concrete is higher than that of ordinary concrete.
5.4. Modulus of elasticity

The modulus of elasticity is an important mechanical parameter of concrete and is often used as one of the normative criteria for the
constructability of structures. The relationship between SCBA replacement ratio and the relative modulus of elasticity is shown in
Fig. 20. Generally, the addition of SCBA reduces the elastic modulus of concrete [12,28,75,102]. Srinivasan and Sathiya [102] found
through experiments that the elastic modulus of concrete decreased by 2.7%, 14%, 30%, 35% and 38.3% when the SCBA content was
5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25%, respectively. The reason might be the dilution effect caused by using SCBA instead of cement, or the
weak area formed in the process of SCBA dispersion as a result of defects [48]. However, Jagadesh et al. [96] found that the elastic
modulus of concrete containing processed SCBA was higher than that of concrete with raw SCBA, which might be due to the formation
of hydration products and the improvement in microstructure, such as pore reduction.
6. Durability properties of concrete with SCBA

6.1. Chloride resistance
Chloride resistance is one of the most significant criteria to determine the durability of concrete, given that chloride penetration can
cause corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete structures. Fig. 21(a) shows the results of rapid chloride penetration test that with the
increase in SCBA content, the total charge passed of concrete firstly decreases and then increases. The optimal SCBA content is 10%–
15%, and excessive content (higher than 20%) may have adverse effects. Chi [47] found that when the content of SCBA was 10% and
20%, the total charge passed of concrete decreased by 52.49% and 10.22%, respectively. Nevertheless, the total charge passed even
increased by 9.08% when the SCBA content was 30%. Some researchers have found a similar law; that is, the chloride penetration
resistance of concrete firstly increases and then decreases with the increase in SCBA content [6,122]. In addition, SCBA combined with
fly ash, rice husk ash and nano silicon can improve the chloride permeability of concrete, which is mainly due to the pozzolanic
Fig. 20. Relative modulus of elasticity of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [4,28,75,96,102].
15
Fig. 21. Chloride permeability and diffusion coefficient of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [6,22,32,44,47,86,122,131,132].
reaction and filling effect of each material [45,70,98,99,123,124]. Although the rapid chloride penetration test can evaluate the
chloride penetration resistance of SCBA concrete, it still has some limitations [99]: the measurement results reflect not only the
movement of chloride ions but also the sum of all ion movements in pore solution, and it is not suitable for concrete mixed with
conductive materials. In addition, the voltage increases the temperature of the specimen and solution, which affect the test results.
Rapid chloride migration test is often used to determine the chloride diffusion coefficient of concrete, which is improved from rapid
chloride penetration test. Fig. 21(b) shows the chloride diffusion test results, and the chloride diffusion coefficient can be reduced by
about 50% after adding SCBA to the concrete. Similar to the results in chloride penetration, the chloride diffusion coefficient decreases
with the increase in SCBA content, and the chloride resistance of concrete rises. However, some researchers found that the chloride
diffusion coefficient first decreases and then increases with the increase in SCBA content, but it was always lower than that of the
control concrete [6,44]. In addition, rapid diffusion testing has limitations. It needs to regularly measure the chloride ion concentration
in the anode, so collecting data and obtaining the unsteady diffusion coefficient through the time of chloride ion passing through the
specimen are difficult.
The immersion test is also used to evaluate the chloride ion resistance of SCBA concrete. Chindaprasirt et al. [25] immersed SCBA
concrete in NaCl solution. The results showed that the chloride immersion depth of SCBA concrete decreased by 16.67% and 41.18% in
28 and 90 days, respectively. Almeida et al. [125] reached the same conclusion through the drying-wetting cycle of NaCl solution.
Researchers think that the chloride resistance is related to the chloride binding capacity of concrete, including physical binding and
chemical binding [123]. Physical binding mainly refers to the adsorption of chloride ions on the C–S–H surface [125,126]. Moreover,
chemical binding refers to the reaction of Al2O3 with chloride ions to form Friedel salt fixed on the matrix [127,128]. In addition, Fe2O3
and Pb2+ can also react with chloride ions to form precipitation [62,123]. Therefore, SCBA reduces the chloride ion immersion of
concrete effectively by enhancing the chloride binding capacity.
Generally, the improvement of chloride penetration resistance can be attributed to the following: (i) pore refinement in the con
crete caused by filling effect and pozzolanic reaction of SCBA [6,12,29,44–46,70,86,129–131]. The fine particles of SCBA and the
C–S–H generated by the reaction of pozzolanic reaction fill the voids in the concrete matrix. The mobility of chloride ions in concrete
16
matrix is reduced due to the reduction of the quantity and connectivity of pores [6,28,44,45,86]; (ii) the Al2O3 of the SCBA and the
C–S–H generated by the pozzolanic reaction can be physically and chemically combined with chloride [129,130]; (iii) the unburned
and agglomerated particles of the SCBA act as a physical barrier and absorption medium, by which chloride ions may be physically
adsorbed on the surfaces of these particles [29,130,131].
6.2. Water absorption

Water absorption is the percentage of water in the pores of hardened concrete; it is intimately associated with the porosity of
concrete. The relationship between SCBA replacement ratios and the water absorption is shown in Fig. 22. Generally, due to the filler
effect and the additional C–S–H produced by the pozzolanic reaction of SCBA, the pores in the concrete matrix are filled and the water
absorption of the mixture containing SCBA is reduced [20,133,134]. Some studies have shown that the incorporation of rice husk ash,
nano silicon, silica fume and coal bottom ash into SCBA concrete can reduce the water absorption, and the water absorption can be
reduced by 4%–14% compared with the control concrete [77,98,99,124,135]. However, some authors found that the incorporation of
SCBA to concrete may increase the water absorption of concrete [16,44,47,108,131]. For instance, Ganesan et al. [44] found that the
water absorption of concrete containing SCBA increased slightly at 28 days compared with the concrete without SCBA. Le et al. [73]
and Zareei et al. [108] also observed the similar laws according the experimental studies. The SCBA particles are porous and hy
groscopic by nature; thus, the mixture absorbs more water [16,22,44,47]. However, the water absorption of the concrete with SCBA
systematically decreased as the curing ages are extended [32,44,73]. Ganesan et al. [44] reported that the water absorption of concrete
with 15% SCBA decreased by 41% compared with concrete without SCBA at 90 days. This finding is due to the pozzolanic reaction of
SCBA that gradually closes the pores in the concrete matrix with prolonged curing [16,22,44]. Moreover, the higher values of water
absorption may be related to the fineness and LOI of SCBA [16]. The concrete with large particles and high LOI SCBA usually has high
porosity, indicating that the concrete may have high water absorption. On the contrary, the reduced diameter of SCBA indicates better
pozzolanic reaction and filling effect; thus, the pores of the cement matrix are filled with the SCBA grains and C–S–H [134,136].
6.3. Acid and sulfate attack resistant

When exposed to sulfate-rich environments, concrete deterioration can take place. The chemical reaction of sulfate with C3A and Ca
(OH)2 results in the formation of gypsum and ettringite, which causes spalling, cracking, expansion and strength loss of concrete [27,
29,34,73]. Studies have shown that the SCBA mixture exhibited a large reduction in the expansion, mass and strength loss caused by
sulfate attack [19,27,29,73]. From Fig. 23, SCBA can reduce the expansion of concrete during sulfate attack. Rerkpiboon et al. [19]
suggested that the higher the replacement ratio of SCBA is, the lower the expansion caused by Na2SO4 attack will be. Somna et al. [28]
reported that the ground SCBA at 20%–50% of cement replacement, could improve the sulfate attack resistance of recycled concrete
when exposed to 5% MgSO4 and 5% Na2SO4 solution. Shafiq and Elhameed [138] found that concrete with 15% SCBA showed
excellent resistance to sulfate attack. Compared with the control concrete, the mass and strength loss were reduced by 82% and 73%,
respectively, after 180 days of exposure to 5% Na2SO4 solution. The improvement in sulfate resistance can be attributed to the
reduction of C3A and Ca(OH)2 contents in the mixture due to the replacement of cement by SCBA, which reduces the formation of
gypsum and travertine [29,123].
The acid attack resistance of concrete added with SCBA is also improved compared with ordinary concrete, which has less strength
reduction and mass loss [35,51,70]. Fig. 24 shows that with the increase in SCBA content, the residual strength of concrete increases,
and the acid resistance (sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid) is improved; however, a large content will have a negative impact. Arif
et al. [34] found that the mortar mass loss of 28 and 90 days exposed to 1% H2SO4solution decreased with the increase in SCBA
content. And the mortar with 20% SCBA had minimal surface degradation at 90 days of acid exposure, whereas the mortar without
SCBA degraded remarkably. The enhancement of the SCBA mixture resistance to acid attack is considered pozzolanic reaction of Ca
Fig. 22. Water absorption of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [20,44,133,134,137].
17
Fig. 23. Effect of SCBA replacement levels on concrete expansion under sulfate attack [19,29,139].
Fig. 24. Effect of SCBA replacement levels on concrete residual compressive strength under acid attack [35,140–142].
(OH)2 and the improvement of impermeability [34,51,70]. The acid attack resistance of SCBA concrete combined with other
pozzolanic materials has also been studied. Rice husk ash has high pozzolanic activity, and the combined improvement effect of SCBA
and rice husk ash is significantly higher than that of single material [70]. In addition, SCBA combined with micro silicon or nano silicon
can also enhance the acid attack resistance of concrete [97,98].
6.4. Electrical resistivity

Electrical resistivity is closely related to the corrosion rate of reinforcement in concrete [73]. Generally, higher electrical resistivity
values indicate lower pore connectivity of concrete and stronger permeability to resist harmful substances [46,86]. Fig. 25 summarises
the effect of using SCBA instead of cement on the electrical resistivity of concrete, which shows that SCBA can considerably increase
the resistivity of concrete [45,46,73]. The electrical resistivity of concrete with 15% and 25% SCBA reached 26 kΩ-cm and 34 kΩ-cm,
respectively, after curing for 28 days [86]. According to the limits suggested by the ACI 222, the possibility of corrosion is low when the
resistivity is above 20 kΩ-cm. The compactness of the concrete matrix increased and the pore connectivity and porosity decreased due
to the pozzolanic reaction, where the SCBA reacted with Ca(OH)2 to form additional C–S–H, resulting in a decrease in the conductivity
of the mixture [45,46,86]. In addition, Ca+ and OH− are consumed in the pozzolanic reaction, thereby decreasing the conductivity of
the pore solution [45,46]. Further, the electrical resistivity of SCBA concrete was reported to increase with the increase curing time
according to Fig. 25. Joshaghani and Moeini [46] observed that the resistivity of mortar containing SCBA decreased slightly at the age
of seven days. As the curing time increased to 90 days, the resistivity of mortar with 30% SCBA increased up to 173% compared with
18
Fig. 25. Electrical resistivity of concrete with various SCBA replacement ratios [45,46,73,86].
Fig. 26. Effect of SCBA replacement levels on concrete carbonation depth [62,105,142,144].
the mortar without SCBA. This result is attributed to the slower SCBA pozzolanic activity in the early stage.
6.5. Other durability properties

Carbonation refers to the process in which CO2 in the atmosphere interacts with calcium-containing hydrate products in hardened
concrete (Ca(OH)2) and is converted into CaCO3. The relationship between SCBA replacement ratio and carbonation depth is shown in
Fig. 26. In most cases, carbonation resistance can be decreased with the addition of SCBA. Neto et al. [143] found that the carbonation
depth of concrete increased when the content of SCBA increased from 5% to 15%. Moretti et al. [144] found that after 56 days of
Fig. 27. Effect of SCBA replacement levels on concrete ASR expansion [48,109,149].
19
carbonation, the carbonation depth of 30% SCBA concrete was higher than that of the reference concrete, and the average carbonation
depths were 4.8 and 5.1 mm. In principle, SCBA can consume Ca(OH)2 because of pozzolanic reaction, and the addition of SCBA in
concrete can reduce carbonation. However, the carbonation might be seriously determined affected by porosity, permeability, strength
and other factors [62,105,145]. For example, the researchers found that with the addition of SCBA, the porosity and permeability of
concrete, which is believed to be conducive to the entry of CO2 and water into the concrete, increased, resulting in the increase in
carbonation depth [62,105,144]. This behaviour is common in concretes that incorporate SCMs (e.g. fly ash, silica fume, calcined clays
and blast furnace slag) [143,146–148].
ASR is a chemical reaction between silica in aggregate and alkaline substances in concrete raw materials (e.g. cement, water,
alkaline superplasticizer and alkaline air entraining admixture), which causes the concrete to expand and crack, thereby leading to
serious structural defects [48,109]. The resistance towards ASR in the concrete increases through the replacement of cement with
SCBA (Fig. 27). Kazmi et al. [48] found that SCBA could reduce expansion by 23%, 36% and 46% when the content was 10%, 20% and
40%, respectively. Ramjan et al. [109] investigated the effect of the fineness of SCBA on the ASR expansion of mortar. The results
showed that the incorporation of 33% fineness SCBA could suppress ASR expansion, but 5% fineness might be unsuitable for con
trolling ASR. In general, the improvement of ASR can be attributed to the alkali-binding capacity of SCBA, which reduces the effec
tiveness of alkali aggregate reaction. SCBA can also refine the pore structure and reduce the sorptivity of concrete, which helps reduce
the diffusion of alkali in concrete, thereby reducing the harm caused by ASR [143,149].
7. Microstructural properties
7.1. SEM analysis
Many researchers have used SEM to observe the microstructure of SCBA concrete, it can demonstrate the morphological changes
from raw materials to hydrated forms (C–S–H gel). SEM micrographs (Fig. 28) showed portlandite (CH) and C–S–H in concrete
containing SCBA on the 7 and 28 days, and highly dense C–S–H network and slight pores can be observed in SCBA concrete in 28 days
[72]. The SEM test results of concrete containing UtSCBA are shown in Fig. 29 [75]. Unhydrated particles of blended Portland cement
(CPC) on the seventh day can be observed from the picture (Fig. 29(a)), and SCBA particles can be identified on the basis of their
characteristics. SCBA particles may react with the CH of the hydration products, thereby promoting the onset of the pozzolanic re
action after 7 days. Some unhydrated CPC particles and SCBA particles can be observed after 28 days, as depicted in Fig. 29(b), which
shows that the possibility of pozzolanic reaction increases at this age. In Fig. 29(c), SCBA concrete forms a relatively uniform and dense
microstructure after 90 days. Maldonado-García et al. [52] concluded that concrete with 20% SCBA formed C–S–H and hydrated
calcium aluminium silicate (C-A-S-H) on the 600 days, which improved the microstructure of the mortar, as shown in Fig. 30. In
addition, the microstructure of SCBA concrete combined with other industrial and agricultural wastes (e.g. silica fume and fly ash) was
studied. The hydration degree of cemented matrix continues to increase, and the hydration products are gradually dense (forming the
densest hexagonal accumulation) with the increase in age due to the synergistic effect of SCBA, silica fume and fly ash [75,135].
7.2. Pore structure

SCBA with a particle size smaller than that of cement has the “small size effect” and the “filler effect”, which can refine the pore size
and reduce the porosity of cementitious composites, thereby improving the compactness of the cement matrix. Figs. 31 and 32
summarise the effect of SCBA on the porosity and pore size distribution of concrete. In accordance with Fig. 31, some researchers found
that the addition of SCBA to concrete can reduce porosity, especially in high content [46,134,143,150], but others found that the
porosity of concrete increased after adding SCBA [25,32,151], which may be related to the material properties and treatment methods.
For example, Sampaio et al. [134] obtained uniform SCBA through sieving, which can increase the compactness of concrete due to
filler effect. The results show that the total porosity of concrete that contain 20% SCBA is about 23% lower than that of control
concrete. However, Tantawy et al. [151] obtained treated SCBA by burning and grinding and found that the total porosity of cement
paste increased with the addition of SCBA. In addition, the high content of SCBA can lead to higher porosity [25]. However, other
researchers have found that the incorporation of SCBA changes the pore size distribution without reducing the porosity of the concrete
Fig. 28. SEM micrographs of SCBA concrete at 7 days and 28 days [72].
20
Fig. 29. A hydrated particle of CPC and UtSCBA at 7, 28, 90 days [75].
Fig. 30. SEM observations of 20% SCBA mortar at 1 and 600 days of age [52].
(Figs. 31 and 32) [25,32,53,136]. Chindaprasirt et al. [25] observed that the total porosity of concrete with a high content of SCBA
(50%–70%) increased with the increase in SCBA. Nonetheless, the critical pore size and large capillary pore of the concrete with 70%
SCBA were reduced by 29% and 43%, respectively, and the medium capillary pore was increased by 37% compared with those of the
control concrete. Cordeiro et al. [53] reduced the LOI and particle size of SCBA through burning and grinding, although the total pore
volume of concrete is higher than that of control concrete, the critical pore entry radius decreases with the use of SCBA. In summary,
although differences exist in the impact of SCBA on the porosity of concrete due to different material properties and treatment
measures, SCBA can change macropores into fine pores and improve the pore distribution of concrete.
21
Fig. 31. Effect of SCBA replacement levels and treatment measures on concrete porosity [25,32,52,133,134,143,150,151].
Fig. 32. Effect of SCBA replacement levels and treatment measures on concrete pore size distribution [25,46,53,133].
7.3. Interfacial transition zone (ITZ)

Most structural discontinuities occur at the ITZ between coarse-grained aggregate and cement slurry, which is considered the
weakest position in the concrete structure [152]. Hussein et al. [83] studied the ITZ thickness (gap length between cement paste and
aggregate) of concrete containing 5%–30% SCBA by SEM. The results showed that the ITZ thickness decreased greatly with the in
crease in SCBA content. When the content exceeded 15%, the ITZ thickness increased, but the thickness remained narrower than that of
ordinary concrete, as shown in Fig. 33. Rossignolo et al. [107] reported that the addition of SCBA can reduce the ITZ thickness of
matrix aggregate by approximately 70%, which increases the indentation modulus and hardness value relative to the reference
concrete aggregate matrix interface (Fig. 34). The main reasons for the decrease in ITZ thickness of the concrete with SCBA are as
follows: (i) pore refinement reduces the “wall” effect and improves the microstructure of ITZ; (ii) the hydration products are made
uniform and dense through the pozzolanic reaction [153,154]. In conclusion, SCBA affects the ITZ between aggregate and cement base
by reducing the “wall” effect (particle size distribution) and increasing the amount of C–S–H (pozzolanic reaction).
8. Environmental and cost analysis

Owing to the high energy consumption and CO2 emission related to cement, the production of cement-based composites increases
22
Fig. 33. Effect of SCBA on ITZ thickness [83].
Fig. 34. Contour map of indentation modulus in concrete with different SCBA [107].
Table 5
CO2 emission and cost of concrete materials [25,155,156].
Constituent material CO2 emission (kg CO2/t) Unit price USD/t
SCBA 110 15
Portland cement 820 64.7
Fly ash 11 17.6
Silica fume 14 210
Rice hush ash 27 185
Superplasticizer 772 1000
Coarse aggregate 39 16.2
Fine aggregate 28 13.2
carbon emission and environmental impact. Therefore, the environmental and cost analysis of SCBA is crucial. Table 5 shows the CO2
emission and cost of some materials used for concrete. Although the CO2 emission of SCBA is higher than those of fly ash, silica fume
and rice husk ash, it is still about 7.5 times lower than that of cement. SCBA is a by-product of sugar mills, and its cost mainly lies in
various treatment measures. The cost of cement, silica fume and rice husk ash are 4.3, 14 and 12.3 times those of SCBA respectively,
and the cost of fly ash is similar to that of SCBA. Thus, the lower price of SCBA has advantages in terms of cost. Therefore, the use of
SCBA to replace some cement in concrete is an economic and environmental protection potential method [16].
A large number of studies have shown that SCBA as SCM in concrete not only reduces the treatment waste of landfill but also
reduces the use of cement, which can reduce costs and environmental impact. Chindaprasirt et al. [25] found that the carbon dioxide
emission of concrete containing 50% SCBA and 10% fly ash is 40.41% lower, and the cost is 8.12% lower than that of control concrete.
When the content of SCBA is increased to 60%, and the carbon emission and cost are further reduced (42.8% and 11.16% respectively).
23
According to a case study, when SCBA is used to replace 15% cement in south-eastern Brazil, and the carbon dioxide emission
reduction is approximately 519.3 kilotons per year [21]. Debbarma et al. [157] considered material, processing and transportation
costs, and 15% SCBA plus 15% fly ash has good economic and environmental benefits, wherein its cost and carbon dioxide emission are
reduced by 18.2% and 28.4% respectively. Akram et al. [17] conducted cost analysis and found that the cost of self-compacting
concrete that contained 15% SCBA was 35.63% lower than that of control concrete when the compressive strength was equivalent
to that of control concrete.
The energy consumption of SCBA concrete has also been analysed. The research shows that the production of cement mortar
containing SCBA requires lower energy consumption than the control group, and it can reduce energy consumption by about 12% per
ton [89]. Noor-Ui-Amin et al. [158] found that the calcination heat of cement production is 437.7 kcal/kg, whereas the calcination
heat of cement production with 7% SCBA is 361.1 kcal/kg, which can save 17.5% energy. In addition, the transportation distance
affects the energy consumption and cost of SCBA, and the research shows a high probability of owning a sugar mill near the Indian
cement plants, which is conducive to the application of SCBA [159]. A case study shows that considering transportation issues, such as
using SCBA as SCM instead of fly ash or slag, can reduce 300 L of fuel and 850 kg CO2 emissions [160]. In conclusion, SCBA has good
economic and environmental benefits and accords with the concept of sustainable development by replacing cement.
9. Gap analysis
The gap analysis method is used to evaluate the research direction and degree of existing SCBA concrete and mortar, and the
analysis results can provide the key research direction for the next stage. Gap is measured using frequency and quality, which represent
the number and importance of research, respectively. The research on SCBA concrete is relatively limited, which is different from the
extensive and in-depth research on ordinary concrete. Some studies only discuss experimental test data, and the discussion of the
results is not deep enough. The purpose of gap analysis is to determine the direction of further research. Gap analysis also has certain
subjectivity; hence, it may not be able to compare all aspects and factors of relevant research comprehensively, but it should be
indicative.
Table 6 lists some information on SCBA as an alternative building material from 145 studies. The availability and importance of
these studies are scored using a five-point Likert scale [161]. The availability of data (R1) is given in accordance with the number of
studies: 1 point (91–145 studies) indicates wide availability; 2 points (60–90 studies) indicate availability; 3 points (37–59 studies) and
4 points (16–36 studies) indicate less research; 5 points (0–15 studies) indicate lack of research or unavailability. The importance of
data (R2) is in the opposite order: 1 point means an aspect nearly has no impact on SCBA concrete construction; 2 and 3 points mean the
aspects have important impacts; 4 and 5 points mean the aspects have critical impacts. The availability and importance are multiplied
to obtain the total score (R1 × R2), and all aspects of research are ranked through the total score. In this way, the high-ranking aspects
Table 6
Gap analysis and ranking of the reviewed studies based on the research aspects of SCBAa.
Aspect NO. Studies Availability (R1) Importance (R2) Total
Long-term behavior 4 5 5 25
Abrasion resistance 5 5 5 25
Shrinkage 7 5 4 20
Freezing-thawing resistance 3 5 4 20
Cost analysis 9 5 4 20
Environment impact 14 5 4 20
Chemical attack resistance 25 4 5 20
Alkali silica reaction 7 5 4 20
Combined with industrial and agricultural waste 20 4 5 20
Chemical treatment only 10 5 4 20
Physical treatment only 31 4 4 16
Flexural strength 25 4 4 16
Heat of hydration 18 4 4 16
Carbonization 7 5 3 15
Splitting tensile strength 39 3 4 12
Chloride penetration resistance 49 3 4 12
Workability 51 3 4 12
Modulus of elasticity 16 4 3 12
Setting time 22 4 3 12
Electrical resistivity 11 5 2 10
Water absorption 43 3 3 9
Microstructure 62 2 3 6
Compressive strength 121 1 5 5
As a cement replacement 89 2 2 4
Physical characteristics of raw material 81 2 1 2
Chemical characteristics of raw material 79 2 1 2
Note.
R1: 1 (91–145 studies): widely availability; 2 (60–90 studies): availability; 3 (37–59 studies) and 4 (16–36 studies): less research; 5 (0–15 studies): lack of research or
unavailability.
R2: 1: relevant but not essential; 2 and 3: important; 4 and 5: critical.
a
Sorted by total score (R1 × R2).
24
are considered important and limited research, which can be used as priority research areas.
In accordance with the ranking in Table 6, the long-term behaviour of SCBA concrete is considered to require further attention,
which will be helpful to use SCBA concrete in practical buildings. However, the relevant research on long-term behaviour in gap
analysis is limited. Maldonado-García et al. [52] studied the microstructure and compressive strength of concrete with raw SCBA at the
age of 600 days, but limited research exists on the long-term durability of SCBA concrete. A certain number of studies tackle the
short-term durability of SCBA concrete, such as on chloride penetration resistance, water absorption and chemical attack resistance.
Nevertheless, the durability of SCBA concrete needs further understanding and research due to the few numbers of short-term
durability studies, including abrasion resistance, freezing-thawing resistance, shrinkage and so on. For example, some SCMs (e.g.
fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, rice husk ash, blast furnace slag) are used in concrete to enhance the freezing-thawing resistance [162,
163], but studies on the freezing-thawing resistance of SCBA concrete are lacking.
In consideration of resource conservation and sustainable development, SCBA has great potential as an environmental protection
material. In gap analysis, 89 studies used SCBA to replace part of cement in concrete, and only a few studies utilised SCBA as admixture
or substituted aggregate in concrete. At present, limited research exists on the environmental impact of using SCBA to replace part of
cement as cementitious material. Some researchers have evaluated the emission reduction effect of SCBA for replacing part of cement
through cases [21,164]. Only nine cases of cost analysis of SCBA concrete are available, thereby requiring further in-depth research.
Many studies have been conducted on the microstructure, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength,
modulus of elasticity, workability and heat of hydration of SCBA concrete, which are different in availability and importance. The
physical and chemical properties of SCBA materials have also been widely studied. The research on the properties of SCBA concrete can
comprehensively describe its advantages and disadvantages and is also conducive to its practical application. For this purpose,
treatment methods for raw SCBA also deserve attention. The gap analysis shows that only physical treatment (31 cases) is more than
chemical treatment (10 cases), and some researchers combined the two treatments to obtain enhanced results. The optimisation of
SCBA treatment still needs to be studied. The research on the combination of SCBA with industrial and agricultural wastes for concrete,
including slump, compressive strength, chloride ion resistance, acid corrosion resistance, water absorption and microstructure, has
also been carried out.
Through the gap analysis, some future research directions can be summarised. As a potential environmental protection material,
SCBA is still in the research and development stage as a building material. Compared with the properties of ordinary concrete, some
properties of SCBA concrete should be further studied, especially the long-term performance, abrasion resistance, freezing-thawing
resistance and shrinkage. To improve the material properties of SCBA, the combination of physical and chemical treatments of raw
SCBA is also worthy of in-depth study. The comprehensive economic and environmental benefits of SCBA should be analysed, which
will provide a basis for practical application. Considering sustainable development, the combined application of SCBA with industrial
and agricultural wastes needs further research. Furthermore, the characteristics of SCBA produced in different countries should be
considered in future research.
10. Conclusions
This review is based on a summary of previous studies that focused on the effect of SCBA as cement replacement on some properties
of concrete. The material properties of SCBA and the fresh, mechanical, and durability properties and environmental benefits of
concrete containing SCBA are outlined. The following conclusions are drawn:
1. SCBA has pozzolanic activity and can be added into concrete as SCM. The raw SCBA often has rough surface, large particle size and
high LOI, thereby making it unsuitable for direct use in concrete and needs to be treated properly. Common treatment methods
include sieving, burning, grinding and chemical treatment, which can improve the pozzolanic activity of SCBA. In addition, the
combination of various treatment methods can improve the effect better.
2. The incorporation of SCBA as SCM instead of cement in concrete decreases the slump and heat of hydration but increases the setting
time and the demand for water and superplasticiser. The workability of concrete with SCBA is improved by the addition of
superplasticisers and fly ash and the use of pretreatment methods.
3. The compressive, tensile and flexural strengths of concrete containing SCBA increase with the increase in SCBA cement substi
tution, up to 20%. At the early curing age, a decrease in strength occurs due to the dilution effect and the delayed effect of high LOI
on the hydration process. However, an increase in strength occurs at later curing ages due to increased pozzolanic reactions. Fine
particles, high silicon aluminium oxide content and low LOI of SCBA are obtained through pretreatment methods, which enhance
the mechanical properties of concrete containing SCBA. The results show that the splitting tensile strength and flexural strength of
SCBA concrete are 0.3324f0.6474
cu and 1.1422f0.3560
cu , respectively. The high carbon content of SCBA and the dilution effect caused by
replacing cement usually led to the reduction of elastic modulus of concrete.
4. After SCBA is added to concrete, the chloride ion permeability and water absorption are reduced, and the electrical resistivity and
carbonation depth are increased. The incorporation of SCBA into concrete can enhance the ability of the concrete to resist acid and
sulfate attacks. Owing to the absorption of alkali ions, the addition of SCBA suppresses the swelling caused by ASR.
5. SEM indicates that the microstructure of processed SCBA particles and concrete containing SCBA is uniform and compact.
Generally, SCBA can reduce the porosity of concrete, but the porosity of concrete will be increased because of the differences in
material properties and treatment methods. However, the incorporation of SCBA into concrete changes the larger pore to fine pores
and improves the pore distribution. The dense hydration products and the reduction of “wall” effect of SCBA concrete cause
thickness reduction in the ITZ.
25
6. As a potential environment-friendly composite material, SCBA can significantly reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions
and protect the environment. Moreover, as an agricultural waste, SCBA has low production cost. Adding SCBA into concrete can
reduce environmental pollution and the total economic cost.
7. Gap analysis shows that the future research on SCBA concrete can focus on the long-term performance, abrasion resistance,
shrinkage and freezing-thawing resistance. The effect of treatment measures on SCBA, including the properties and quantification
of the amorphous properties of various substances in SCBA, especially carbon and silica, needs to be further studied. The economic
benefits and environmental impact of SCBA are also worth studying. Extensive and in-depth research on SCBA can provide a
comprehensive and reliable basis for its practical application.
Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Program No. 52009110; 51879217);
Project funded by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Program No. 2020M683687XB); Natural Science Basic Research Program of
Shaanxi (Program No. 2021JM-331); Scientific Research Program Funded by Shaanxi Provincial Education Department (Program No.
19JS048), and Young Talent fund of Association for Science and Technology in Xi’an City (Program No. 095920211332).
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30

Utilization of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) in Construction Technology - A State-Of-The-Art Review

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Journal of Building Engineering 56 (2022) 104774

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

Utilization of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) in construction

Fig. 2. The flow diagram of obtaining SCBA from sugarcane [13].

2. Material properties of SCBA

2.2. Chemical properties

Fig. 3. Flow chart of comprehensive review.

Physical properties Raw SCBA Treated SCBA OPC

Colour Black, reddish grey Black, reddish grey, white Grey

Fig. 4. SEM image of raw SCBA [9].

Reference SCBA source Chemical composition (%)

Fig. 6. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of carbon [18].

Treatments Specific measures Improved performance References

Reference SCBA Treatment measures Chemical composition (%)

Fig. 7. Strength activity index (SAI) of SCBA [12,30,31,40,45,48,70–72].

Fig. 8. Different level of burning of fibrous particles in SCBA samples [30].

3.4. Chemical treatment

3.5. Combined of the treatments

4. Fresh properties of concrete with SCBA

4.2. Setting time

4.3. Heat of hydration

5. Mechanical properties of concrete with SCBA

5.1.1. Influence of replacement

5.1.2. Influence of curing duration

5.1.3. Influence of SCBA treatment

5.2. Splitting tensile strength

5.3. Flexural strength

5.4. Modulus of elasticity

6. Durability properties of concrete with SCBA

6.2. Water absorption

6.3. Acid and sulfate attack resistant

6.4. Electrical resistivity

6.5. Other durability properties

7.2. Pore structure

7.3. Interfacial transition zone (ITZ)

8. Environmental and cost analysis

Fig. 33. Effect of SCBA on ITZ thickness [83].

Constituent material CO2 emission (kg CO2/t) Unit price USD/t

Aspect NO. Studies Availability (R1) Importance (R2) Total

Declaration of competing interest

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