T o my fri en d

A D OL P H E A P P IA

FO REWO RD
T WE NTY -
years ago I made my d ébut in pedagogy
F IV E ,

as P rofessor of H armony at the C onservatoire of G e

neva After the first few lessons I noticed that the ears
.
,

of my pupils were not able to appreciate t h e chords

which they had to write and I concluded t h at t h e flaw
,

in t h e conventional method of training is t h at pupils

are not given expe ience of ch ords at the beginning of
r

their studies wh en brain and body are developing

—

along parall el l ines the one constantly communicating i ts

,

—
impressions and sensations to t h e oth er but t hat this
experience is withheld until the time a ives to express rr

th e results in writing Accordingly I decided to pre

.

cede my l essons in written harmony by special exercises

of a p hysiological nature aimed at developing t h e hear
ing faculties and I was not l ong in discove ing that
, r ,

while with o l der students acoustic sensations were hin

dered by futile intellectual preconceptions chi l dren ap ,

pr c
e i a t ed them quite spontaneous ly proceeding in due
,

course quite naturally to t h eir analysis .

I t h erefore set about training t h e ears of my pupi l s

as early as possible and discovered thereby not only that
,

the hearing faculties develop with remark ab l e ease at a

stage when eve y new sensation delights the chi ld and
r ,

stimul ates in him a joyfu l cu iosity but in addition

r , , ,

that once the ear is trained to the natural sequences of

sounds and chords the mind no l onger experiences th e
,
vi Fore w ord

slightest difficul ty in accus tomin itself to th e various

processes of reading and writing .

Neve theless the musical progress of a ce tain num

r ,
r

ber of pupils whose ear developed at normal speed

, ,

appeared to me to be retarded by an incapacity to

estimate with any exactitude variations of time and
rhythmic grouping T h e mind perceived the va ia . r

tions but the vocal apparatus was unable to give effect

,

to them I came to the conclusion t hat the motive

.

and dynamic element in music depends not only on

the h earing but also on another sense This I took at
,
.

first to be the sense of touch seeing that met i cal , r

finger exercises conduce unmistakably to the pupil s ’

progress P resently however a study of the reactions

.
, ,

produced by piano playing in parts of the body other

-
,

than t h e hands movements with the feet oscillations ,

in the t unk and head a swaying of t h e whole body ;

r ,

—
etc l ed me to the discovery t hat musical sensations
.

of a rhythmic nature call for t h e muscular and ne vous r

response of the whole o gani s mW I seLmH u pi ls g e r x r

cises in stepping and halting and trained them to react ,

physically to the perception of m usical rhythms That .

was the origin of my E urhythm ics and I was “

,

sanguine enough to believe that therewith my e pe i x r

mental labours were at an end and that I might now ,

proceed to a rational and definite system of

musical education was speedily disillusioned ! I soon
.

discovered that 0 of ten children at most two e

, , r

acted in a normal manner ; that the motor tactile con -

s ci ou s n ess t h e combination of th e senses of space and

,

movement exists in a pur estate as rarely as the pe fect

, r

sense of h ea ing that musicians call absolute pitch

r
” “
.
 Foreword

I saw t h e l ack of musica l rhythm to be th e resul t of a

g enera l a r h yt
“
hm w h ose
-
cure appeared to depend
,
”
on
a special training designed to regu l ate nervous react
ions and effect a o ordination of muscl es and nerves ;
c -

in s hort to h armonise mind and body And so I came

,
Q .

to egard musical perception which is entirely auditive

r ,

as incomplete and to seek th e connection between i n

,

s ti n c ts for pitc h and movement h a monies of tone and , r

time pe iods time and energy dynamics and space

-
r , , ,

music and ch aracter music and temperament fi nally

W
, ,

th e art of music and the art of dancing S .

The story of my research es my gropings and failures , , ,

as of my definite achievements may be found in th e ,

various ch apters of t h e present volume In ch rono .

l ogical order these chapters record my ideas as devel

,

oped from 1 8 97 to t h e present day in l ectures and

articles Th e reader will fi nd in th e earlier parts of
'
I
.

th e book a certain number of cont adictions and in r , ,

t h e l atter some repetition of views expressed previously

,

in a different fo rm but it seems to me that th is se ies, r

of t an s mati on s and developments out of an o iginal

r r r

general principl e may b e of interest to pedagogues and

psychologists ; t hat is w hy I discarded my original
intention of recasting all t h e articl es according to
a definite plan and on a p inciple of unity I t may
, r .

perhaps b e of advantage to educationalists to h ave th e

Certain of th e last ch apters h av e not p revi ou sly app eared in print .

b
Th e remainder w ere p u li sh ed (some, i n p art only) i n th e Tri buu e
de Gen eve th e Semai ne Li ttérai re th e Mercure de France, th e
Monde Mu sical , th e Courri er Mu sic al th e Menes trel and th e Grande ,

Revi ew Finally certain of th em h av e appeared i n an a revi ated orm

. bb f .

gg
in reports of p eda o ic proceedin s , s uch as th at i s s ued b y th e g
A ssociation of Swi ss Mus icians on th e Reform of Teachi ng i n Schools .
v iii Foreword

O pportunity of following my progress through all its

stages of which the few secondary and higher schools
,

al eady launched on the voyage h ave as yet only tra

r

versed the first Th ey will bear in mind that th e idea

.

underlying the conception and construction of my whol e

—
system is that the education of to morrow must before ,

al l else teach chil dren to know themselves to measure

, ,

th eir intellectual and physical capacities by judicious

compa i son with the efforts of their predecessors and
r ,

to submit them to exercises enabling th em to utilise

their powers to attain due bal ance and th ereby to
, ,

adapt themselves to the necessities of th eir individual

and collective existence .

It is not enough to give chil dren and young people a

general tuition founded exclusively on the knowl edge
of our forbears activities { Teach ers shoul d aim at
’
.

furnishing th em with th e means both of living th ei own r

lives and of h armonising these with the l ives of oth ers

,
.

T h e education of to morrow must embrace econs tru c -

r

tion preparation and adaptation ; aiming on the one

, , ,

hand at the e education of th e nervous faculties and

, r -

the attainment of mental calm and concentration and ,

on the other at th e equipment fo whatever ente p ise

, r r r

practical necessity may dictate and at th e power to re ,

act without effo t ; in short at the provision of a maxi

r ,

mum force with a minimum of strain and resistance.)

More than eve in th ese times of social reconstru e
r

tion the human race demands the e education of the

, r -

indi vi dual T here has been endless discussion as to the

.

i nevitable effects on the socia l and artistic atmosphere

of the future of the present unsettled state in which it ,

is impossibl e to look ah ead and presc ibe the necessary r

 Forew ord

measures for t h e safeguarding of our civi lisation and

our cul ture In my judgment all our effo ts s houl d be
.
,
r

directed to training our children to become conscious

of th eir personalities to develop their temperaments , ,

and to liberate t h eir particular rhythms of individual

life from every trammelling influence More th an ever .

th ey s hould be enlightened as to th e relations existing

between soul and mind between th e conscious and th e ,

sub conscious between imagination and t h e processes

-
,

of action Th oug hts s hou l d be brough t into immediate

.

contact with beh aviour th e new education aiming at

—
regulating t h e interaction between our nervous and
our intellectua l forces Fresh from the trench es so l .
,

diers should be able to continue th e struggl e in a new

guise ; and in t h e schools our teach ers likewise s h ould , , ,

be on the alert to combat weakness of will and lack of

confidence and to train t h e fres h generations by every
,

possible means to fi gh t for self maste y and th e powe -

r r

to place t h emselves fully equipped at the service of

, ,

th e human race .

In matters of a t I fo resee t hat indivi dual efforts wi ll

r ,

continue to attract a certain public but I believe th at ,

a new demand for collective unity will drive numerous

persons fo rmerly estranged from art into association
, ,

for t h e expression of th eir common spirit And from .

that a new art will emerge compound of a mul titude ,

of aspirations of different degrees of strengt h b u t

, ,

unanimous in t h e quest of an ideal and comm on outlet

fo emotion
r This wi ll lead to t h e call for a p sycho
.

physical training b ased on th e cult of natural rhyt hms ,

and which guided by th e collective will working may

,
-
,

be sub consciously wil l fil l an increasingly important

,
- —
x Fo rew ord

part in civili sed life In t h e theatre we shall be s hown

.

dramas in w hich the P eople will play the principal

,

r ole emerging as an entity instead of a mere on g lom

, ,
c

era ti on of supers We shall then find that all our cur

.

rent ideas on play producing have been formed out of

-

regard for the individual instead of from a recognition

,

of the resources of a crowd in action We shall feel th e .

need for a new technique in the grouping of crowds

such as the brilliant efforts of Gémi and Granvi ll e er

Barker have not completely attained on the stage .

Only an intimate understanding of the synergies and

conflicting forces of our bodies can provide th e clue to
this future art of expressing emotion through a crowd ;
whil e music wil l achi eve th e miracle of guiding the
—
.

latters movements grouping separating rousing de

’

, , ,

pressing i n sho t orch estrating it according to the

, r ,
“
,

dictates of natural eurhythmics T h development of . e

the emotions will enable it to give collective expression

to them though at considerable sac ifice to the indi
, r

vidual New forms of music will come to birth having

.
,

the power of animating masses of people training th em ,

in the many processes of counterpointing phrasing and , ,

shading musical rhythms with a view to their p l astic

expression Al l attempts at reviving the dance have
.

hitherto proved inadequate A new art of dancing wi ll .

accompany the new music both alike inspired by an ,

understanding of the innumerable resources of th e h u

man body allied to the spiritual essence idealism and
, , ,

sense of form that alone can give solidity to any art in

Spired by t h e imperative dynamic and agogic demands

of the ever fluctuating h uman temperament .

I l eav e fo t rea tment i n some of th e fo l lowing ch ap

r
 Forew o rd xi

ters my observations on th e manifo l d ways of co poral r

inte pretation of the lines of musical sound My de

r
'

sire i n this foreword is to record my deep and fe vent

, , r

conviction that now t h e Wa is over th e coming gen

,
r ,

cration will experience this need of forming groups for

the expression of common emotion and that a new art ,

will be called into being created spontaneously by al l

,

th ose who regard music as a magnificent and potent

agent for t h e inspirati on and refinement of h uman
gesture and this l atter as a pre eminently musical
— -
“ ”

emanation of our desires and aspirations .

E .
J A Q UE S D A L CROZ E
-
.

G ENE VA .

N GTE — Th e auth o ri zed sch oo l of

th e meth od in Am er
ica is the N w York Sch oo l of D alcroze E urythmics
e ,

9 E ast soth Street N ew York

, C ity There are teachers .

in Boston C hicago Seattle and P hiladelphia Al l in

, , , .

q u i
r e i s about t h e work in Am e ica shou l d be addressed to r

the New York school Eurythmics is now taught in th e

.

N ew York Institute fo the E ducation of th e Blind and

r

is proving very successful It h as also been applied .

to th e teaching of music in the public sch ool s of New

York th ough in a modifi ed fo m and has been taugh t
, r ,

in many private sch ool s in th e E ast .

 P RE FA CE TO THE A MERI CAN ED I TI O N
TH E characteristic musical t endencies of a race come to
ligh t in rhythm The union of nations socially so im
.
,

portant s houl d be based on the interchange and balance

,

of temperaments peculiar to the various races Music .

,

in the Greek sense of the word is the art in which ,

temperament is most concretel y manifested It is thus .

important th at each race be given th e means by special ,

training of exte nalisin g th e rhyt h m peculiar to that race

,
r .

Th e reduction of racial temperaments to a common l evel

would be disastrous for th e intell ectual progress of h u
manity Unfortunately international musical education
.

attempts to measure t h e various sensibilities of races by

a common formula and for the l ast two centuries th e
, , ,

schools h ave been reducing th e rhyt hmic habits of th e

most diverse nations to a common type .

E ducation as I understand it should h ave as its ch ief

, ,
‘

a m the suppression of resistances of every nature whi ch

i

hamper the individual in the externalisation of h is ch ar

acter and shoul d further enable him in th e most natural
, , ,

manner to give expression to his sensibility and tempera

ment E ducation by means of and in rhythm has noth
.

ing to do with metrics a science of a purel y mechanical

,

nature Still rhyth mics requires the h elp of metricswh en

.
,

it is a question of creating a style To my mind h yth . r

mic training sh oul d vary in its methods according to the

special needs of th e country in which it is given wh ereas ,

training in metric s i s of universal application .

 Pre fac e t o th e A me ric a n E di tion
In the case of the American peopl e I believe Eu
rhythmics can have a beneficial influence I have .
,

indeed often been surprised at the lack of knowledge

,

show n by my American pupils of the qualities of

“
time more particularly of the value of effort sus
,

t i n d for the length of time required for the c on u mma

a e s

tion of that effort Intelligence is an important factor

.

of progress ; persistence in the utilisation of the intel

lectual powers is a still more important factor The .

first consequence of study in E urhythmics s continuity i

of effort for rhythm is a prime factor of continuity

,
.

Further it is a factor of discipline and I thin k that th e

American child wh o so easily takes possession of him
,

self needs an education calculated to give him th e

,

means of perpetuating this self and of bringing it “ ”

into harmony with the society of which he is called to

form a part It is not enough to be intelligent and an
.

artist ; still more needful is the desire to continue to be

both one and the other ; for the progress of a ace de r

pends on the persistence of each individual member in

asserting his self and in bringing this self into
“ ” ” “

harmony with that of his fellows I have had oppo . r

tu niti for noting how the American chi l d can vibrate

es

and enthuse when brought into contact with art and

life Perhaps my method of training by and in
.

rhythm will help him to advance with more confidence

on the path of spiritual and physical self conquest and -
,

to pursue his aesthetic and moral development with

more certain persistence and harmony of effort .

EMI LE J A QUE s - D AL CROZ E .

G ENEVA , Novem b er, 1 92 0.

 O T
C N EN S T
CH A P T RE E
PA G

I . LACE OF E R T RA NING IN MU CAL

-
TH E P A I SI

E DU CA T ON ( 8 98 ) I 1

—
II A N E SA Y N H R FO RM O MU C
. S I T E E F SI

T A CH N G I N S HOOL S ( 9 5 )
E I C 1 0

III TH YO U N G L A DY
. E H CO N RV A TO R OF T E SE I E

A ND H P ANO ( 9 5)
T E I 1 0

IV — TH. I N T AT ON I NTO RHYTHM ( 9 7 )

E I I I 1 0

V —MU S C A ND TH CH LD ( 9 )
. I E I 1 12

VI —RHY T HMIC MOV M N T SOLF EG

. A N D IM E E , E,

P RO V I SA T I ON ( 1 91 4 )
V II — EU RH Y THM1C S
. A ND MUSI CAL C OMPO SI TION
( 1 91 5 )
V III —MU SI C JOY A ND THE SCHOOL ( 1 91 5 )
.
, ,

IX — RH YT HM A ND C RE A T IV E IMA GI N AT I ON ( 1 9 1 6)
.

—RH YT HM G E ST U RE MU SI C A A
I

X . A ND IN DR M
A ND —
C RI T I CI SM ( 1 9 10 1 91 6 )

XI — How
. To RE V IV E D AN C N G I ( 191 2 )
XII —E U RHYT HMI C S
. A ND MOV I NG P LA T C
S I ( 1 9 19)
X III .
— MU SI C A N D THE D AN C ER ( 191 8 )
X IV —RH YTHM
.
, T I ME , A ND TE MPE R ME N T A ( 1 9 1 9)
MU SICAL S U P PLEME NT
 I LLU STRA TION S
PA G E
P O RT R AT
I OF E .
J A QU E s - D AL C RO Z E F ronti s pi ece

Tw o SCE N E S F R OM LE S SO U V E N I R S, GE N E V A , 1 91 8 I6

C RE SC E N DO OF MO V E ME N T
SC E N E F OM R LE S SO UV N I RS
E .
( )
I

SCE N E F ROM LE S SO U V N R S
E I .
(2)
SCE N E FR M O LE S SO U V E N R I S .
(3 )
A PLA ST C E X RCI
I ( ) E SE . I

A PLA T C EX RC S ( )
S I E I E . 2

ST UDY N L A P N G
I ( )E I . 1

ST UD Y N L A N G
I ( )E PI . 2

G RO U P E X RCI E SE S

SC N F RO M G N E V A F T V AL
E E E ES I , 1 91 4

XV II
 C HAP TE R I
T HE P LAC E OF E A R TRAINING IN MU SI CAL
E D U C ATION ( 1 8 98 )

The a bs u rdi ty o f s tudyi n g harmony wi th ou t th e previ ou s

a cqu i re men t a nd ra cti ce o —
i n n er h eari n g N eces si ty of cu l
p f
t i vati ng h ea ri n g fa cu lti es of ha rmony s tudents — Cha racter of
ex erci s es des i g n ed to edu cate th e ea r— Dang ers of s peci a li s ed
s tu di es ,p a rti cu la rly i n pi an oforte n ot acc ompan i ed by g eneral
,

s tu di es
— Th e place of motor ta cti le fa cu lti es i n mu s i ca l edu
-

— Su mma r o eci a l exerci s es ment and

ca ti on y f ps for th e ad u s t
j
development f temperament
o .
 C HA PTE R I
THE P LACE OF E A R T RAI N I N G IN MU SI CAL
E D U CATI ON ( 1 8 98 )

ONE of th e favou ite precepts of professors of h ar

r

mony is that you must never make use of th e piano to

work out or take note of successions of ch ords Faith .

ful to tradition I proceeded to enforce this maxim on

,

my Classes until confronted by a student wh o naively

,

protested : But please sir why may n t I use th e

“
, , ,
’

piano ? How am I to hear anything oth erwise ? In ”

that moment light descended on me I saw that any .

rule not forged by necessity and from direct obs e va r

tion of nature must be arbitrary and false and th at

, ,

the prohibition of the use of th e piano was meaningless

when addressed to young people lacki ng th e capacity
of i nner heari ng The sense of touch may to a certain
.
,

degree and in particular cases replace that of h earing

, , ,

and I have known composers with incomplete hea ing r

faculties who h ave yet con trived to produce interest

ing work composed as they say at th e piano
, ,
“
.

Obviously their studies of harmony have nvolved th e I

neglect of its supreme law i t being impossible to con

—
,

ceiv e a true se quence of chords wit h out an inne r ear

to realise the sound in anticipation One thing or the .

oth er : Those wh o have no ear must compose at the

piano th ose who h ave an c ar m us t com po se with out
,

3
4 Rh y th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc ati o n
the piano T h e teacher shoul d th erefore regard it as
.
, ,

his d uty in imposing on his pupils the learning of h ar

,

monies w ith out recourse to an instrument to create in ,

them a sense of musical pitch and to develop their ,

feeling for melody key and harmony by means of

, , ,

Special exercises D o such exercises exist ? And if

.
,

they do are they taught in our music schools ? T hese

,
-

were the questions I put to myself and sought to answ er ,

by researches in public libraries and a study of the ,

prospectuses and time tables of the colleges of music

-
.

—
The reply was forced from me N oj xe i s fo the “
e rc se r

development f
o the a u ral f acu lti es f
o mu s i ci an s d o n ot

f m
exi s t, a nd n o s i ngle colleg e o u s i c con cerns i ts elf w i th
”
the part played by thes e facu lti es i n mu si cal trai ni ng I
Let me make myself quite clear undoubtedly there :

exist numbers of books in which may be found ex er

cises in reading transposition notation and even v o

, , ,
=

cal improvisation But all these may be achieved

.

without the aid of the ear reading and improvisation :

through th e muscular transposition and notation ,

through the visual senses None of these exe cises aim . r

at training the ear and yet it is through the l atter

,

alone that tonal effects are registered in our minds Is .

it not folly to teach music without paying the slightest

attention to the diversification gradation and combi , ,

nation in all their Shades of the gamut of sensations

, ,

called into play by the consonance of musical feeling ?

How has it been possible to car y on a systema tic r

study of music while utterly igno ing the principal

, r

qualification of the musician ?

I therefore set about devising exercises to enable
my pupils to recognise the pitch of sounds estimate ,
 E ar T raining in Mu s ic a l E duc ation 5

interval s appreh end h armonies distinguish th e differ

, ,

ent notes in chords follow th e cont apuntal effects in

, r

polyphonic music distinguis h keys analyse the rel a

, ,

tions between h earing and vocal sensations sensitise ,

the ear and b y means of a new system of gymnastics

,
—
applied to the nervous system open up between brain
—
,

ear and l arynx the necessary ch annels to form of the

,

entire organism what one might cal l the i nner ea r .

And I assumed in my innocence that having invented

, , ,

these exercises nothing remained but to apply them

,

in special classes .

Alas ! th e difficulties I h ad met wit h in devising my

scheme for the development of th e ear were nothing to
those that now faced me in my endeavour to introduce
the system Let me recall the weighty objections
.

marshall ed against me The true musici an (it was said )

.

should possess as it were instinctively the necessa y

, , , r

qualifications for the practice of his art and no amount ,

of study could supply gifts that must come naturally

or not at all : the student s time being strictly limited ’

it was undesirable to embarrass him wit h additional

labours tending to distract his absorption in finger exe r

cises : his instrumental studies were al eady adequate r

to his musical needs etc Some of t h ese argu

, .

ments are sound enough in t hei place I t is evident r .

that a person shoul d not attempt the se ious study of r

music without particular gifts for t h e purpose includ ,

ing an aptitude for distinguishing sounds and need , ,

less to say a certain sensibility of nerves and elevation

, ,

of feeling without which no musician can pass muste

,
r .

Apart from th at however t h e fact t h at instrumental

, ,

classes are fi lled with individual s unable either to h ear

6 R h y t h m Mus ic , , a nd E duc atio n
or to listen to music justifi es us in asserting that even
,

the conservatoires admit that it is po s sible to l earn to

sing and to play th e piano without being a born musi
cian Why then confine ourselves to training th e fingers
.
, ,

of these pupils ? Why not try to cul tivate their aural

perception ?
As egards naturally good musicians who devote
r

themselves to the study of composition o orchestral r

conducting may one not claim t hat daily exercises in

,

distinguishing degrees of intensity and pitch of sounds ,

sense analyses of tones and t hei combinations poly

-
r ,

phonies and h armonies in every key migh t c on eiv

, , c

ably render their ear even more sensitive thei musical , r

susceptibilities even mor delicate Apart from that

e ?
,

I maintain that in the study of harmony prope (even r

in classes such as those of the P aris C onservatoire ,

where only students possessing absolute pitch are ad

mitt d) sufficient attention is not devoted to t h e deter
e

mination and analysis of the relations undoubtedly

existing between sound and dynamics between pitch ,

and accentuation between the varying tempi of musi

,

cal rhythms and the choice of harmonies The music

, .

courses ar too fragmentary and specialised : those e

e r

lating to the piano are not collated with those in har

mony nor harmony with t hose treating of t he history
,

of music nor is the history of music duly applied to a

,

study Of the general history of peoples and individuals .

Syllabuses are profuse in t h ei subject matter but r ,

there is no coherence in t h e tuition E ach professor is .

confined to his own narrow domain h aving practically ,

no contact with those of his colleagues who specialise

in other branches of musical science And yet as a ll .
,
 E ar T raining in Mu s ic al E duc at ion 7

music i s grounded in h uman emotion on the one hand ,

in th e msth eti c research after combinations of sound

on the other th e stu dy of sound and movement shoul d
,

be co ll ated and harmonised and no one branc h of ,

music shoul d be separab l e from t h e others .

Styl e in music varies according to climate and lati

tude and by corollary according as tempe aments are
, , , r

influenced and modified by social atmosphere and con

diti on s of l ife T h e divergencies of harmony and move
.

ment which characterise t h e music of different peopl es

spring th en from th e nervous and muscul ar state of
, ,

their organism s apart altogether from t h eir divers

,

hearing faculties Ought we not th erefore to devote .

more attention in teaching music to t h e motor facul

, ,

ties of th e pupils to t hat ensemble of reactions impul ses

, , ,

pauses recoil s and movements wh eth er

, , n eous ,

or delib erate th at constitute te , h ave

often been struc k at ob serving t h e diffi small
chil dren have in following wh ile marching a very sl ow , ,

movement in music in h alting or stepping out suddenl y ,

at command in rel axing t h eir limbs after an anxious

,

moment in taking th eir bearings and fo llowing each

,

oth er s movements on being taugh t th e gestures to

’

accompany a song What wonder considering th e .

,

time th at must b e lost b etween the volition and th e

real isation of t h eir movements that in practising a ,

song their litt l e l arynxes shoul d be unskilled t h eir ,

vocal chords inflexible and inexact t h eir breathing ill ,

regul ated to say not hing of th eir attempts to punctu

,

ate and measure th e time and to emit each note at ,

the righ t moment ! Not on l y th en shoul d th e ear and , ,

voice of the ch i l d rec eive ade quat e trainin g but in , ,

 Ear T raining in Mu s ic a l E duc at io n 9

Th at woul d constitute at nc e instruction in rhythm ,

and education by I
e enormous pains I am at to
persuade music teachers ofxth possibility of contriving e

exercises to enable children to li ten to sounds before exe s

cu ti n g or writing them to evoke the thought of a note

,

before its interpretation I ask myself whether this ,

training of nerve centres will ever enter the realm f

-
O

practical politics P eople wil l have nothing to do

.

with new ideas so long as the old contribute to their

,

self satisfaction and once they h ave acquired the habit

-
,

of accepting them at their face value E very step .

towards emancipation to which they have condescended

appears to them immutable and definitive and the ,

truth of to morrow is denounced as a lie to day And

- -
.

yet human thought develops little by little despite all ,

resistance ; our ideas clarify our powers of quick de is ,

c

ion strengthen u means of action increase Who

, O r .

knows but that a day wil l dawn when professo s th e r

wo ld over wil l recognise the possibility of adding to

r

the divers modes of stimulating sensibility by processes ,

of adaptation variation and substitution and music

, , ,

teach ers will depend l ess exclusivel y on analysis and ,

more on th e awakening of V ital emotions and the con

s iou s n ss of mental states ?
c e On th at day wil l emerge
on all sides new methods based on the cultivation of ,

combined h a ing an d tactile sensations and mine will

e r ,

be the ilent gratification accorded those who in mo

S ,

ments of oppression have yet been able to murmur th e

,

eternal : E pur si muove !

“
 CHAP TE R II
AN E SS AY IN TH E RE FO RM OF MU SI C
TEACHI N G I N SC H OOL S ( 1 905 )

Musi c regarded i n th e s ch ools o f to-

day as o f mi n or i mpor

tan ce — Cu lt of s i ng i ng i n th e colleg es of mu s i c of th e 1 6th and

1 7 th cen tu ri es — —
Obj ecti on s of reacti on a ri es Mu s i c s h ould
be ta u g ht on ly by mu s i ci an s — What mus t be exacted of s tu
—
dents Fu ti li ty of a mu s i ca l edu ca ti on th a t does n ot i n cu lcate
—
love of mu s i c i n chi ld ren N eces s i ty of g radually eli mi n ati ng
t
hos e w ho h ave n o mu s i ca l g ifts a n d formi n g s peci al clas s es
,
'

for chi ldren wi th i naccu rate ea rs and voi ces or lack i ng i n ade
'

t h hm i i — S ll b f d l ifi
q u a e r yt c ca p a c ty y a u s o c o u r s es a n c a s s ca

ti on of capaci ty i n chi ldren — H ow to develop

“
relati ve
”

p i tch — K ey s a n d s ca le s — E x e rci s es n ec es s a ry to d evel op s en se

of rhythm — —
Th e s tep an d th e beat Mu si cal s hadi n g an d i m
p rovi s ati on .
 CH PA TE R II
AN E SS AY IN TH E F
R E O RM OF MU S I C T E A CH I N G IN

SC H OO LS ( 1 905 )

IT is not enough for a select few of the artists and

amateurs of a ountry to be better instructed than their
c

predecessors for the musical standard of that country

,

to be raised and maintained I f the masses are not

‘

capable of following even at a distance in the steps

— —

of th at select few an impassable barrier will sooner or

,

l ater be e ected between the two elements of a people

r

that in these days must unite if th ey a e to co exist r -

.

If th e intel lectual aristocracy al one is equipped for

progress th e ill trained masses wil l be unable to foll ow ;
,
-

—
th e l eaders of the movement finding themselves iso
l ated and needing the co operation of th e main body
,
-

will be obliged eith er to turn back and rejoin them or , ,

continuing their solitary course be l ost in obscurity ,

I sh all be told that it is the fate of reformers to pursue

the path of enligh tenment in sol itude and th at th e ,

masses always overtake them in t h e end ! Th e

masses wil l not overtake them unl ess given the neces
sary equipment and unl ess sufficiently keen and coura
g eo u s to traverse without relaxing
, eve ry Step of the ,

course The educational methods of th e last centuries

.

are certainly not calculated to enable our chil dren to

comp re h end and assimilate modern artistic develop

13
14 R hy t h m Mu s ic
, , and E duc at io n
ments Our artists h ave forged new impl ements of
.

creation ; these implements must be adjusted to the

hands of amateurs who must th en be trained to h andle
,

th em and finally entrusted with th em at an age when

,

th ey are most ripe for prentice work wh en th eir h ands

’
,

are flexible and easily adapted to new methods befo e , r

th e fire of ambition has been snuffed out by disappoint

ment and world weariness before th ey h ave acquired
-
,

the h abit of doing things in the o l d way and are thus

prevented from successfully coping with th e new
Obviously no evolution no progress can be accom
, ,

pli sh ed wit h out the c o operation of yout

-
h It is in .

virgin souls that new ideas take fi m s t root Bend r e .

th e green twig as you will runs an old P ersian pro

”
,

verb only fire can straighten it out again ; but you want
,
‘

a mallet to drive a pile The earlier we instil tastes

.

and convictions in a man the more sure we may be of ,

durability and solidity We should regard th e chil d as

.

th e man of to morrow -
.

Th e progress of a people depends on th e education

given to its children .

If it is desired th at musical taste sh all not remain th e

prerogative of th e cultured few but sh all penetrate the ,

real h eart of th e wh ol e people I repeat th at a genuine ,

—
musical education like th e teach ing of science and
—
moral s Sh ould be provided at sch ool
é
-
.

I t is evident that religion h as ceased to inspire our

teachers to preserve for musical studies th e place they
formerly occupied in the general educational scheme .

Many good people find themselves wondering why the

schools continue to teach inging at all since no oppo S ,
r

tunity i s g iven th e ch i l d ren of dis pl ayin g t h eir attai n

 Mu s ic Teac h ing in S c h oo s l 15

ments either in the church es on secular h ol idays in

:

, ,

th eir recreation or as a rhythmic assistant and com

,

plement to their courses of gymnastics .

Th ese good peop l e who point out that th e teaching ,

of music to day serves neith er a practical nor an ethical

-

—
aim but ministers merely to th e annual delectation of
s ch oo l inspectors
— h ave every excuse for l osing interest
in musical studies and regarding th em as of no mpor
, I

tance But if they woul d take the troubl e to reflect

.

upon the matter they woul d recognise th at th ese

,

studies coul d and sh ould b e given a very definite prao ,

tical and ethical aim and thenceforward they woul d

, ,

do th eir utmost to encourage and stimulate th eir

development .

P rivate music l essons are virtuall y confined to the

chil d en of well to do families whose parents are actu
r - -
,

ated general l y eith er by snobbishness or by respect for

tradition The music master for whom suc h lessons
.
,

provide a l ivelih ood can h ardly be expected to reject ,

a pupil wh o s h ows no aptitude for th e work For th e .

same reason none of our amateur conservatoires w ill

,

tu n a pupil away be h e deaf or idiot This h as the

r , .

deplorabl e resul t of investing a multitude of musical

dunces steeped in affectatio n with a reputation fo
, , r
—
tal ent most people being unfortunately under the im
pression t h at th ey h ave only to tak e lessons in order
,

to k now something and th at h aving gone in fo a ”

, ,
“
r

particul a sub ject th ey must necessarily understand it

r , .

And th ere is th e oth er side of th e picture While th e .

affluence of some parents enables th em to provide a

musical education fo c hildren utterly unfitted for i t r
—
to th e serious detriment of th e art poverty alone
T w o Sc en es fr om L es Sou ven i rs . v
G ene a, 1 91 8
 Mu s ic Te ac h ing in S c h oo l s I 7

established the former receiving due encouragement

—
,

the latter rendered comparatively innocuous the teach ,

ing of music co y be practised on a more

effectual basis u l ts would now depend on two
.

important facto which we shall deal presentl y

at greater method of teaching and the ,

choice of teachers our educational authorities

. ce

realise their pon re sities and set about providing a

sound primary mus grounding for every moderately
gifted child and a more thorough training for every
,

exceptionally talented one not only will they have i n

,

t od u d into school life a new element of vit a

r ce lity ,

recreation joy and health not only will they have

, , ,

recruited to the ranks of art a large number of adepts

whose later c o operation must prove invaluable (assur
-

ing and strengthening the existing choral societies and ,

encouraging the formation of orchestras composed

entirely of local talent ) but they will al so have assem
,

bled for future purposes a host of embryonic teachers ,

of proved l earning and appreciable talents and still—

,

more important an courant with the l atest methods

—
of instruction .

These advantages Sh ould satisfy the most sceptical

as to the desirability of reforming the system of musical
education in vogue to day even though our motives
-
,

have no l onger the religious and traditional character

that actuated our ancestors in the l 6 th and 1 7 th cen
tu ies in their zest for musical erudition
r , In those .

days music was studied with a view to adequate par

ti cipati on i n the musical side of religious ceremonies .

The acquirement of musical taste was accordingly a '

result of s tudies undertaken for this definite purpose .

18 R h yth m Mu s ic , , and E duc ati on
To day when religious ardour h as manifestly ceased to
-
,

Insp re all but the most primitive vocal efforts it b e

i ,

hoves us to enquire whether the retention of any form

of musical tuition in the cu rriculum of our schools is
not a mere survival of routine and if so wheth er it is , , ,

not time we replaced this tradition (now th at its ori gi

n al meaning has disappeared ) by a more vital incentive

to progres Whether this take the form of a desire to

s .

st engthen musical taste and to prepare for the study

r

of classical and modern masterpieces or fo hygienic , r

considerations is not (for the moment) material The

, .

essential thing is th at we should know exactly why we

are to retain music in our current curriculum We can .

—
later assuming we a e satisfied as to the public utility
r

of such retention proceed to enquire as to whether

—
this generation is in advance of th e preceding ones .

Should it appear that absolutely no progress h as been

made it is our business to ascertain the cause of this
,

s tatu qu o and
s thence set
,
about devising means for
securing a better record for th e coming generation .

The progress of th e man is one of th e results of his

preoccupations as a child Sound ideas instill ed in the
.

schoolroom are transformed later into deeds provided ,

that a cognisance of th eir means of accomplishment is

accompanied by an estimate of the effort necessa y for r

the purpose and by genuine love of the art in whose

, ,

cause the effo t is to be made By this means alone

r .

can we make sure of our country keeping pace with the

times of our choral societies facing the future instead
,

of burrowing in the traditions of the past and of virtu ,

os i ty becoming a mere m
 Mu s ic Teac h ing in S ch ools 19

can we tempt beauty to ou r fi sides an d fill th e void re ,

caused by the decl ine of religion Our professionals .

,

better supported and understood by amateurs will no ,

longer seek conquests in other lands preferring to re ,

main in the country which they best understand and ,

of which consequently th ey can best sing t h e beauties .

The time wil l return wh en the P eople express in

melody its simple joys and griefs Children having .
,

rel earnt to sing in unison the old songs that charmed

th eir forefathers will feel inspired to create new ones
, ,

and we shal l see th e end of that lamentable division of

singing at our music competitions into two parts fo lk -

songs and artistic songs .

I t goes without saying th at if after due reflection , , ,

the principle of teaching music in schools at all is con

d mn d a consideration of the suggestions that foll ow
e e ,

will be so much waste of time If on the other hand .

, ,

the necessity of mu i study is granted

‘

s c But
there ! At this very moment as I prepare to ,

marshal my facts and extract t h e l ogical conclusions a ,

sense of disquiet steals over me forcing me to ask ,

wh eth er it is afte all worth while to affi m and

,
r , r

reaffi m w hat i on ly to be faced with t h e imperative

r s,

and urgent task al ik e of musicians and pat iots of

, r ,

clamou ing in season and out of season fo what ought

r r

to be demanding as of i g h t a t h o oug h overh auling of

, r , r

ou educational system and eso lved in its cause to

r r , ,

devote wh ateve necessa y time r but at these r

words I seem to see emerging from their tombs the

g inning skulls of myriad reformers of the past
r .

“
Th e necessa y time repeat th ei mocking voices out
r ,
”
r
20 R h y th m M us ic
, , an d E duc ati o n
of graves where lie buried so many old bodies w ith
SO many young hopes H ave you any idea poor :
“
,

mortal of the incalculable h ours days years invo lved

, , ,

in you necessary time ? The time occupied by

‘
r
’

countless authorities n giving th e matter th eir atten

‘
I

tion by committees in discussing it by fools in failing

,
’
,

to understand it by fanatics in opposing it by a ri v

, , r

i te in making promises by the same worthi es after

s s , ,

arrival in forgetting them ! Your necessary time w ill

,
‘ ’

extend far beyond the remaining years of your life ,

and at your death be sure all your fine schemes for

, ,

reform will be buried wit h you as were ours with us ! ,

C u t your coat according to your cloth ; nobody will

ever obtain a really radical reform Limit your de .

mands to a minimum possibly this minimum will

‘
:
’

be accorded after a long and persistent campaign but

—
don t make the mistake of asking for too much or you
’

will get nothing at all Only discouragement .

and disappointment lie in wait for those wh o seek the

good of other people at the expense of the smug self
satisfaction of the P owers That B e Live happy .
,

thinking only of yourself and satisfied with things as ,

they are since the rest of the world accepts them !

,
”

But strange phenomenon th ese words instead of

— —
,

damping our ardour only reawaken and renew it ! Is

,

it so certain thet v y new idea is received with this

e er

universal indifference Is not such an idea well withi n

?

the realm of practical politics provided it arrives at ,

the right moment And is not this moment in our

?
,

case actually imminent now when so many artists

, , ,

hitherto isolated are coming together in response to a

,

yearning for mutual lov e and unders tanding for espri t ,

 M u s ic Te ac h ing in S c h oo s l 21

de in the common cause of progress and the pur

cor ps ,

suit of beauty Yes t h e hour has struck wh en by the

?
, ,

coalescence of individual efforts t h e ideals of our ,

re

formers the world over wil l be attained And as for .

the necessary time for t h ei attainment we will face

“ ”
r ,

it with unabated confidence marching ever forward ,

side by side our eyes fixed on one goal our hearts beat
, ,

ing with a Common fervou r .

I

The teaching of music in our schoo l s fail s to produce

anything like adequate results because our educational ,

autho i ties leave the whole control of the tuition in the

r

hands of stereotyped inspectors As th ese are nomi .

mated by pure routine and no attention or encourage ,

ment is given to the initiative of any o fficial who may

feel tempted to deviate from the beaten track the con ,

sequence is that no innovation of principle or practice

has found its way into the cu iculum from time imme rr

morial The theories of P estalozzi and Froebel on the

.

musical training of young children have been adopted

only by private schools Th e highly original educa .

ti on al experiments of K au b e t about the year 1 8 5 0 r , ,

received abso lutely no recognition in high quarters .

Th e value of Swedis h drill was only appreciated after

a campaign extending over 1 5 years The brilliant sys .

tem of analysing and exp l aining musical rhythm and

expression advocated by Mathis Lu s sy our compa ,

t iot and one of the greatest of modern theo ists has

r , r ,

not up to the present attracted the attention of our

, ,

Th B
1
d f Ed
e tioarf th C to fG
uca h j ti t d d
on o e an on o enev a as us n ro uce

eur hyth mi p im t i th
cs a s an ex l f p im y
er enh l d n ree c asses o r ar sc oo s , an , as

f th Gi l High S h l
’
an o pti l i tw
on a l c ours e, n o c as s es o e r s c oo .
 Mu ic T ea c h ing i n S c h ool s
s 23

One woul d have thought that this same negl ect and
di sdain was h ardly likel y to be met with in France ,

where at l east a smattering of music forms part of th e

indispensabl e equipment of the li tt rateur; but al as ’
e , ,

this smattering usually remains a smatte ing And if r .

,

to h er credit we can record with envy th e introduction

,

into French schools of the highly interesting collection

of han ons of Maurice B ou ch o we cannot lose sigh t
c s r,

of the fact th at the system of musical education gen

er al ly in vogue with our Gallic neighbours is even more

rudimentary than our own as witness among other

—
,

things — the l amentable decline of part singing in -

F ance the shameful dearth of musical societies the

r , ,

popularity of the gutter songs of the c fé chantant and a -

,

th e extinction of the oratorio In German schools th e

.

reign of pedantry is everywhere in ful l force and the ,

suggestive counsels of eminent specialists like Karl

Storck h ave not yet attracted the notice of scho l astic
authorities Wh at is worse th e Froebel schools h ave
.
,

fallen into a state of decay Only Belgium and Holl and

.

appear fully to appreciate the importance of a sound

and well organised pedagogic system
-
.

And yet our country is among those whose scho l as

tic institutions command almost universal admiration ,

thanks to their excellent organisation general l y and to ,

th e enterp ise and enl ightenment of most of our boards

r

of education H ow th en does it come about th at only

.
, ,

the teaching of music and of artistic matters in gen

—
oral — should be neglected and abandoned to routine ?
Th e answer is that our scholastic aut h orities have no
understanding of music and no ambition to acquire
,

one I sh al l be tol d th at it is manifestl y unnecessary

.
24 R hy t h m Mu s ic
, , and E duc at ion
for a geographical expert to be represented on a school
board to secure an adequate teaching of geography .

G ranted ; but only because no member of suc h a board

would be found incapable of realising the value of
geography and the importance of obtaining competent
instructors in the science For this p urpose he only
.

requires to have received himself a general all round -

education to have a sound judgment good hearing and

, , ,

to be able to read The same applies to other

.

subjects of special training such as gymnastics ,

There again it is not necessary to be an expert to e

, r

cognise its utility and advocate its extension Indeed .

,

the arguments in favour of the training and hygiene of

the body are furnished by the body itself And th e .

practical means of developing the flexibility and of ,

securing the balance of limbs are easy enough to

,

grasp ; for that again it is suffi cient to be able to read

, ,

intelligently But music is another matter altogethe

. r .

Those who have gone through l ife with an untrained

ear cannot be expected to appreciate the necessity of
furnishing others with an ear attuned to fine percep
tions by the diligent practice of special exercises Those .

w h o themselves cannot disting uish either melodies or

harmonies are hardly the best advocates Of a sy tem s

designed to secure these accomplishments for others .

And w hile they may accept it out Of respect for tra

,

dition they will be unable eith er to select the best

,

method for training the ear and rendering it capable of

,

analysing the relations and combinations of sounds or ,

to appreciate the merits of the experts to whom they

may delegate the responsibility of selecting such a
meth od Th e spirit of music expresses itself in a l an
.
 Mu s ic T eac h ing in S c h oo s l 25

guage of its ow n which our scholastic authorities are

,

unable to read And u nfortunately they will not allow

.
, ,

others to read for t hem And yet with them rests the .

exclusive right of nominating teachers and deciding on

methods . That is why music has no Share in
the general prosperity of our educational system That .

is why children learn neither to read phrase record , , ,

or emit sounds in our schools That is why our sons .

and daughters grow up dumb .

But loo k here protests M So and So (a familiar

,
”
r .
- -

and ubiquitous type) there is surely no need to have

,
“

a competent general direction to make the teachi n g

effective At that rate you would want inging lessons
.
,
S

given in our schools by specialists And yet as things .

,

are quite ordinary masters produce the happiest

,

results .
”

I am not denying M So and So t h at there a

“
,
, r .
- -
,
re

good masters in our schools ; but there are also bad ones ,

and t his would not be the cas o it would h ardly ever

— e r

be
— i f we had a competent and well informed direction -
,

and if the training of teachers were more complete

so far as music is concerned Bad teachers must pro .

duce bad pupils If you take the average of those who

.

are successfu l at examin ations you may be sure that ,

it is far smaller than it would h ave been if all th e

teachers had been well chosen And that b ai i n mind
f
.
, e ,

is the principal count in my indictment { I contend .

‘
that on leaving school t h e greatest po ib l n u mb of ss e er
\
, ,

pupils Should ha e received a musical education ade

v

quate for the artistic requirements of modern life and ,

for th e application of natural faculties normally and

logical ly devel oped Th ese capable masters you speak
.
26 R h y th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc ati on
of
— C an t you see what different resul ts th ey would
’

obtain if their own education had been properly con

ducted I am not h ere going to analyse their methods
?

—
in detail inde ed th ey va y according to th e country r

but I think I may asse t without fear of contradiction r

"
, ,

that one and all a e b as ed on th eory instead of on sen

r
‘

s o i al experimen t
r N 0 art is nearer life itself than
music NO a t h as developed and is still developing
.

. r

more rapidly no a t has inspired so m any in g eniou s theo

,
r

rists or so m any systems of teaching growing ever

—
,

more and more simple proof positive of th eir peda

—
,

o
g g i c value ! T o c h oose between t h ese systems is
‘
admitte dly difli cult and we are not reproving th e au ,

th o i ti es with h a ing chosen wrongly

r Our grievance
v .

is th at th y h ve n gl t d to hoose at all th at they

e a e ec e c ,

—
h ave preferred in every case with out a Singl e cep ex

tion to retain the m ethods of th e past What is the

— .

infallible criterion of th e wo t h of a system of instru o r

tion Surely th e practical results of th e system th e

?
,

technical accomplishments of the pupil s wh o h ave fo l

lowed i t Let us for a moment consider th ose accom
.

p li s h m en ts .

ter their fourth or fi ft h year of musical tuition in

Af
ou p imary schools are fi fty per cent of th e pupils
r r ,
.

capable :
I . Of beating time to a tune played rubato by th e
master ?
2 . Of reading at sigh t accurately and in time either th e
first or second part of a folk song wi th wo ds ?
,
-
r

3 . Of disce ning whether a melody sung to them is in

r

C F G or B flat ? Whether it is in 2 3 or 4 time ?

, , , , ,

Wh eth er it is in a majo r or mino r k ey ?

 Mu s ic Te ac h ing in S c h oo l 27

And th at I sub mit is not asking much One woul d

, , .

exact much more of students of a foreign language who ,

would be expected on examination to read and w ite

, ,
r

with tolerable accuracy A n d remember that I am .

referring to only 5 0 p er cent of th e pupi l s . .

After fi ve or six years of study in secondary and

high er g ade sch ool s are th e pupils capable :
r ,

I Of achieving what we have ask ed of th e pupils of

.

p i mary schools ?
r

Are fifty per cent of th em capab l e .

2 . writing a Simple melody h eard for th e fi rst time

Of ,

and a more diffi cult melody that th ey know by

heart but h ave never seen w itten ?
, r
)
0 Of r ecognising wheth er a piece played to them is a
gavotte a minuet a march or a mazurk a ?
, , ,

P- Of improvi sing four bars in any key ?

m Of appreciating a modulation ?
a Of appreciati n g at a first h earing a c h ange of time ?
N Of explaining clearly and illustrating a single rule , ,

of musical prosody and of setting two lines of ,

“ ”

verse ?
8 Of quoting an d il lustrating a single u l e of p h rasing
. r
or shading ?

9 Of quoting the names of thre e celeb rated composers

.

with their most impo tant works ? r

10 Of g iving a summary statement of the difference
.

between a ballad a sonata and a symphony ? , ,

Questions
I 2 and 3 correspond to th e sort of tests
, ,

one migh t apply to a sixth year student of English or -

German in writing an English or German phrase to

dictation or rep lying in E nglish or German to a ques
,

tion put in th e same l angu age .

28 R hy t h m M us ic , , an d E duc at i on

But w ait a minute will exclaim our M So and So ,

r .
- -
,

I don t follow you D o you really expect school hild

’
. C

ren to kno w all those things ? ”

“
Why not sir ? ,
”

Why not indeed ! Ask a child just leavi n g school

,

to beat a u bato in time to guess the key in which a

r ,

folk song is written

-
To expect the students .

in the higher schools to be able to improvise and

modulate and understand musical prosody and good
ness knows what not ! The mere ideaof bothering these
unfo tunate children who ve already more than enough
r ,
’

to do with th e names of the classical composers and

,

their works !
“
What are they to be taught then ! ,
”

The notes rests ,

R ests with a vengean ce !

The notes harps flats symbols all th at
, S , ,

sort of thing : in Short mu i c ! , s

”

Are not the questions I have suggested putting to

“

pupils related to music ? ”

Yes but ,

But what ?
But they are too diffi cult .

Not a bit my dear sir not in the l east They are

, ,
.

of a most elementary nature On and all relate to . e

solf ege not to harmony and the last two do not require
, ,

any theoretical training at all any more than a good

—
Swiss re quires to study history for six years to be ab l e
to speak of William T ell or Winkelried or G neral , e

D ufour !
”

Still our hildren are not taught that sort of thing

“
, C .

T hen their education is incomplete

”
.
 Mus ic T e ac h ing in S c hool s 29

you expect every child in a class to h ave a good

Do
voice and a good c a ? r
”

Th ose wh o have not Should be removed from th e

“

class as we would exclude a blind man from a musketry

,

course or a l egless man from gymnastics

,
”
.

That s not the Same thing

“ ’
.

It is precisely th e same thing I assure you , .

But h ow on earth can you expect children to assi mi

late that store of knowledge on a single h our s lesson a ’

week ? ”

If an hour is not enough they must be given two

“
, ,

or any number any number that is that may , ,

be required to make the lessons profitable But don t .

’

be al armed M So and S one hour will be quite

,
r .
- -
O,

suffi cient once children are brought up to s i ng ou t id s e

s chool hours ,
a nd mu s i c i s made to l
p y
a a p art i n th ei r
everyday One thing or t h e other either music
life . :

lessons should be organised in such a way as to make

children musical that is to say to bring out their tem
—
,

m n t and hearing faculties— o they s h ould be ex

pe r a e r

cluded altogether from the school curriculum and the ,

task of initiating our youth into the beauties of music

relegated to private institutions But what s .
’

the matter M So and S ? D i d I hear you mutter

,
r .
- -
O

that a good third of the certified students of our

conse vatoires are unable eithe to improvise or to
r r

modulate ? That they would be found incapable f O

satisfactorily answering any of the questions I h ave

enumerated ? That Si is a serious statement ,
r,

to make Would you be prepared to subscribe to it

.

in the col umns of th e J ournal de Geneve or the B a ler

'

Nachri chten
 Mu s ic Teac h ing in S c h oo l s 3 1

—
another th e desire to join choral o eties By so s cr .

doing they wil l establish a point of contact between th e

music l essons of th e schools and the conservatorial “ ”

studies w h ere at present these pul l in opposite di ec

, r

tions without the sligh test attempt at a app oche

, r r

ment thoug h indeed as things are t h is would be

— , , ,

somewh at in the nature of an alliance between the

bl ind and th e paralysed and in p ublic perform ‘

an oes they wil l have school choirs accompanied by o r

c h e t al societies drawn from the conservatoires wit h

s r , ,

a consequent valuable exchange of tastes for th ese

branches of musical activity .

The rub will come in t h e selection Of teach ers A .

wh olesale dismissal of t h e present staffs will h ave

to be made to considerable h eart b u m in g and a
,
— ,

clamour of protests But indeed the number of

.
, ,

music teachers in primary schools utterly u nfitt d for , e

th eir work is simply appalling All of th em h ave spent

, .

the requisite time at the correct institutions but how ,

many have profited by it ? In how many cases has

not the final satisfecit in the teaching ce tificate
“ ”
r

examinations been accorded a candidate wh o has estab

li sh ed his qualifications in every branch except music ,

out of reluctance to pluck him on the strength of

deficiency in a mere artistic subject of minor import
ance ! These persons will become proficient teachers
in every domain save that of music ; th ey will train
thei pupils admirably in geography arithmetic lit
r , ,

er atu e ; they will teach t h em to become good and rig h t

r

thinking citizens but being themselves defici ent in

,
-

—
insti nct and t aste for music t h ey wi ll fai l to awak en
3 2 R h y th m Mu s ic
, a nd E duc a ti o n
the musical instinct and taste of their pupils T h ey will .

thus be responsible for the suppression of these instincts

and tastes over three or four generations and for the ,

lowering of the musical level of an entire district for

an indefinite period th ereby restricting the general de
,

v lop m n t of the country as a w h ole

e e T h influence of
. e

these teachers is so pernici ous from our point of V iew

, ,

that we cannot allow sentimental considerations in

their favour to stand in the w y of the interests of
a

the musical culture of a w hole people T h danger of. e

retaining as musi c teachers pedants without either the

ear or the voice for their vocation is so patent that it
seems incredible that intelligent and enlightened in
.

d i vi du al as are the majority of administrators S

s, hould ,

not long ago have recognised the urgent necessity of

putting matters on an entirely new footing We hould . S

not omit to mention that those among the present

staffs w h o are really good musicians with a genuine
,

love of music and a keen interest in its pursuit (and we

know a number of them ) would have nothing to fear
from the revolution we are advocating ; it would be a
public loss to deprive th m of their posts Z ealous in
e .

their devotion to music they ask no better than to be

,

allowed to assimilate new methods and to be given

,

the pportunity of completing their training in peda

O

o
g gy . As regards masters whose musical incapacities
would bring t h em under the ban of the new order we ,

can hardly think that th ey would care to complain .

To give lessons in a subject in which one is neither

learned nor interested must be a severe trial for a man
of any sensitiveness ; nothing is more unpleasant than
to know oneself incapable of doing what it is one s ’
 Mu s ic Te ac h ing in S c h ools 33

b usiness to teach others to do Fo this among many . r

other reasons it is of th e first importance that th e

,

—
musical education in primary schools as well as in th e
—
high er sch ools s hould be in th e hands of musicians .

”
On the musical tal ents of th e master depend the whole
progress of th e pupil s and indeed any interest in their
, , ,

l essons can only be roused by a corresp nding keenness

displayed by the master giving t h em o .

Wit h al l due respect to certain th eorists to wh om t h e

vibrations produced by t h e scratching of a pen on
paper are as agreeable to the ear as th ose produced by
th e sweet sounds of music the hearing is an import
“
,
”

ant element in the pleasure to be de ived from music r ,

wh eth er exercised in th e analysis or creation of sounds ,

or in the appreciation of t h eir h armonic combinations

and melodic successions We woul d go so far as to

.

assert at the risk of incensing certain critics of ou

— r
—
acquaintance that it is h ardly possible to appreciate ,

to judge or even to h ear music with out a good ear

, .

Th e most desirable method of teaching music is th ere ,

fore in our judgment one which while enab ling th e

, , ,

pupi l as speedily as possible to appreciate melodies ,

rhythms and harmonies is most effi cacious in th e

, ,

devel opment of t h e auditive faculties on which musical

taste and judgment ultimately depend From t his .

point of view collective training in schools offers a

,

distinct advantage over the conservatoire system .

P ractical considerations ob li g in g pupils to dispense wit h

th e aid of inst uments they must fall back on them
r ,

selves emitting with their voices the sounds they are

,

required to distinguish ; and there is so intimate a con

necti on between t h e vocal and t h e aural processes ,
34 R h y t h m Mu s ic , , an d Educ a ti on
that t h e development of the one virtually involves th e
development of the other The mechanical production .

of sounds on an instrument does not cal l for any special

effort on the part of the ear : the l atter serves merely
as an agent of control and indeed failing it th e agency , , ,

of sight or of touch is sufficient for producing the con

v n ti on ally rough accuracy
e On the oth er hand the .
,

efforts necessary to assure the accuracy of vo al sounds c

conduce to the steady development of aural faculties .

In other words while training with the aid of an i n t u

,
s r

ment may tend to develop the hearing th at b a ed on ,

l
s

Singing is calculated to refine the li steni ng capacities .

T h e Cho ce of a teacher is then of the highest i m

i , ,

portance in the training of the ear H must n ec s . e e

s a ily possess norma l sense of hearing be a practical

r ,

musician and understand the laws of vocal emission

,
.

H must be versed in singing and in the principles

e

that regulate breathing and articulation possessing a ,

special knowledge of the vocal registers of children .

At t h e present day no attempt is made to develop

children s voices at school They are given no training
’
.

in pulmonary gymnastics and are thereby deprived

“
,
”

of an invaluable hygienic expedient Th eir head notes .

-

go uncul tivated to the irreparable det iment f their

,
r O

vocal system A music teacher should know how to

.

develop eve y medium of physical expression in his

r

pupil s .

He should be in addition and no less indispensably

, , ,

an a tist of taste and talent and a man of tact and

r ,

autho ity fond of children and knowing how to handle

r ,

them N on t logu ndum s d gu be nandum! If as

.
“
es e ,
e r ,

will be admitted it is not enough for a teach er of p ac

,
r
 Mus ic T eac h ing In S c h ool s 35

tical subjects like geography and histo y to be well

,
r ,

versed in his facts in order to obtain satisfacto y and

,
r

lasting results ; if such results in th ese subjects depend

rathe on the material of general interest the master
r

can extract from th em (such as th e app lication of t h eir

moral and social inferences) by h ow much more shoul d ,

we insist on other than technical competence in th ose ,

wh o are to be entrusted with th e arti sti c education of

ou r c h ildren Th e music teach er Sh ould make it his
.

fi rs t business to create a feeling for beauty n th e souls I

of his pupils We are in th e h abit of discoursing to

.

chi l dren of beauty without explaining what it means .

It is h owever just as dangerous to err in teaching

, ,

b eauty as in teaching truth The master hould al so ”

. S

be careful to reveal to them t h e existence of a onv en c

ti on al and false conception of art in order t h at t h ey ,

may be on th eir guard against it He s h oul d be ab l e .

to i llustrate his precept s with examples from t h e great

masters and to demonstrate h ow and by wh om art h as
,

been developed down to t h e present day and in wh at ,

respects it is capab l e of furth er development He should .

arouse in t h em an ent husiasm for maste pieces and an r ,

ambition to interpret th em according to th e intentions

of th eir creators Th e greatest of his attributes s hould
.

be th e power of s ugges ti on and in th ewords of J F

, , . .

Amiel (extracted from a comparison very pertinent to

th e matte in h and) h e s houl d be able to read th e
r ,
“

child s soul like a musical sco e and merely by trans

’
r , ,

posin g t h e k ey, adapt th e song without sacrificing any

Of its charm
”
.

I t will be ob j ected that the h an dling of questions of

taste and of aesth etics generally s hould be l eft to the
, ,
 Mus ic T ea c h ing in S c h o ol s 37

If from the point of V iew of the artistic development

,

of the people the compulsory teaching of music in our

,

schools offers the immense advantage Of bringing latent

talent to light and of assuring to musical temperaments
t h e necessary training from childhood upwards it ,

woul d be highly dangerous that this tuition Should be

the same for highly gifted less gifted and ungifted , ,

chi l dren indisc iminately We must never forget that

r .

we are concerned wit h the teaching of not a science , ,

b u t an art A child may have a taste for science

“ ”
.
,

says La Rochefoucauld but not every science will ,

“

agree wit h h im Not every child is born an a tist

.
”
r

and while we may fi nd cases where musical instinct ,

do mant or oth erwise concealed is brought to light

r ,

by carefu l handling most often training will only avail ,

with c hildren more or less predestined to come under

its influence As Sancho P anza proclaimed H e who
. :
“

hasn t enoug h has nothing In proverbia l parlance

’
.
”
,

th e most beautiful girl in the world can only give what

sh e s got ; where there is nothing to give the D evil
’
,

l oses his righ ts ; you can t get leaves from a dead tree ’

or an omelette without eggs ; sauce doesn t make fish ;

’

not every one is fated to go to C orinth ; catch your hare

befo re you jug it ! All of which goes to prove
th at no manner of means will succeed in making a
child musical if he h asn t the germ of music in him from
,
’

th e fi rst The moral would seem to be th at only the

.

most gifted hild en should receive a musical training

C r

at al l But as our old friend Sancho P anza concludes :

.
,

“
A single rotten apple will contaminate the whole
basketful ! And this proverb based on the observation ,
3 8 R h yt h m Mu s ic , , and E duc ati on
of a natural ph enomenon of universal application puts ,

us on the road to an important reform The complete .

lack of aptitude of a few pupils in a class will prejudice

the progress of the class as a whole We must therefore .
, ,

after a certain period of bservation disqualify from O ,

further musical tuition every pupil who lacks a good

voice a good ear and a sense of time and rhythm
, , .

P eople wil l stand aghast at the complications this

system of elimination threatens to introduce into the
organisation of l essons but these are more apparent
,

than real T here are fortunatel y very few cases

.

at most five per cen t

— of comp l ete musical incapa

city both auditive and h yth mi and by reason of

,
r c,
I
,

their rarity they are as easy to recognise and cl assify

,

as cases of idiocy in general schoo l work or of c imi , r

n ali ty in everyday life After a year of musical train

.

ing (the results of an entrance examination wil l not be

conclusive since false voices are curable by practice
, ,

while careful exercises will often rectify inactivity of

th e ear and insensibility to time) after a year l et
—
,

us say of musical training the teacher will have been

, ,

able to pick ou t any members of his class totally incap

able of following the course and will transfer them to ,

special classes There will always emain the resource

. r ,

should they stil l desire to study music of following a ,

course at one or other of the conservatoires ! The first

classification by the elimination of incurables will
,
” “
,

enable the class to proceed to its second year s activity ’

under far more favourable conditions and will be fol ,

lowed by a series of successive classifications which we ,

wil l now proceed summarily to indicate By this means .

1“
See Ch apter X IV i nfra , pp 3 09, . cl s eq
.
 Mus ic Tea c h ing in S c h ool s 39

th e organisation of l essons will be establish ed on a cl ear

and practicab l e footing .

Let us assume th e w hole course to occupy six yea s r .

After the fi st year a few pupil s fi nd themsel ves on

r ,

examination with drawn from th e class Th e same ex

,
.

amination will establish that th e remaining pupils are

gifted in varying degrees in sense of rhythm vocal ,

accuracy and h earing capacity Some will possess all

,
.

three qualities oth ers the fi rst two others again th e

, ,

l atter two Those who h ave a good voice and ear but
.
,

are devoid of instinct for r h ythm will be set a double ,

course of a particular rhythmic training of which we ,

wil l treat l ater on and which is included in th e syllab us

,

of th e fi rst year While repeating this special cou se

. r ,

they wil l continue th e ordinary studies of th e second

yea At th e end of this year an examination will
r .

enabl e a fresh classification to be made which after , ,

definitely eliminating unt ainable voices will divide th e r ,

remaining pupils into th e fo ll owing categories .

P upils recognised from th e first as possessing all

three qualities together with th ose who at the
“

fi rst examination showed Signs only of two ,

“

qual ities but h ave acquired the third in the

,

course of their second year s training ’

.

P upils with bad voices but possessing the ot h e r ,

two qualities .

P upils with undeveloped hearing faculties but pos ,

sessing a sense of rhythm and a capacity ,

thanks to the flexibility of their vocal apparatus ,

of singing accurately in association with a choir

(a fairl y common phenomenon ) .

Pupils wit h good ears and voi ces b ut l ackin g i n ,

sense Of rhyth m ,
40 R h yth m Mus ic , , and E duc ation
This classification will enable the master to divide
the pupils of the third year into two parallel sections :

The first (Section I ) will comprise pupils from classes

.

( )
a and ( )
b
. T h latter ( those
e with untrainable voices ,

but with good ear and rhythmic sense inherent or

,

acquired) will take no part in the singing but will ,

confine themselves to listening to the singing and

beating time .

Section I I will consist of members of class ( ) wh o

. c ,

in the course of th third year will endeavour to perfect

e

their h earing faculties and members of class (d) who

, ,

will continue their training in rhythmic movement .

After the examination at the end of the third year ,

a penultimate classification will be made Those mem .

bers of class (b) who may have acquired du ing the year r

the qualities in which they were previously deficient

wil l be transferred to Section I All those who remain .

devoid of rhythmic sense will be definitely eliminated .

Section I wil l thus comprise al l those who possess t h e

.

three qualities necessary to make the complete musician ,

as well as those with an instinct for rhythm a good ear , ,

and a bad voice .

Section II will be composed of pupi l s with an instinct

.

for rhythm but whose ear while incapable of an alys

, ,

ing chords and appreciating musical nuances is yet ,

suffi ciently accurate to control the natural precision

of the voice .

T hese two sections will proceed to train concurrently ,

during the follo w ing two years f the course at the O ,

rate of an hour a week A final classification will take .

place at the end of the fifth year and will yield th e ,

followin g resul ts :
 Mus ic Te ac h ing in S c h ool s 4 1

ection I will be divided into two Section I (a) will

S . . .

consist of members of Section I wh o Sh ow particular .

musical promise Th ey wil l be accorded during th e

.

sixt h year a more complete training Section I (b) . .

( consisting of t h ose not t ransfe rr ed to Section I (a )) .

and Section I I will continue th eir previous course

. .

Finall y at the end Of the sixth year of study th e best

, ,

pupils in Section I (a) wil l be admitted after an exami

.
,

nation to a training college course designed for th e

,

training of music masters .

All th at is no doubt very ingenious

“

Hullo M So and So you re back again ?

,
r .
-
” -
,
’

All th at I say my dear si l ooks highly ingenious

, , r,

on paper but is in my opinion quite imp acticable

, , , r .

( I may tell you that your lassifications have made my C

h ead ache ) In the first place some of th e cl asses will

.
,

require to devote two hours a wee k to t h is wonderfu l

course Of E urhythmics of which you said you woul d

treat l ater on
E xcuse me but t h ere would be no question of a
“
,

supplementary course for the pupils in question They .

would simply be ask ed to attend for th e second time

th e course that fi s t year pupil s would be taking for
r -

th e fi rst time ”
.

V ery good then Al l the same once you ve split

“ ’
.
, ,

up th e class into two sections you ll require an hour s ,

’ ’

lesson for each section whic h makes two togeth er if , ,

I m not mistaken
’ ”
.

Y our calcul ation is correct M So and So I pro

“
,
r .
- -
.

pose to give th e class two h ours a week for th ee years r ,

and even three hours during the third year wh en Section ,

I will be divi de d into (a) and (b)

. B ut this will not .
4 2 R h y th m Mu s ic
, , an d E duc ati on
involve a reduction of hours in oth er branches the ,

l essons being shared by three sections of the same

cl ass ”
.

And the cost ?

“

The increased cost will not be ve y great and will r ,

be l argely compensated by the undeniable advantages

of the classification Incidentally several Swiss schools
.

already devote two hours a week to music l essons .

Th ese will benefit materially from my method which ,

during the first two years will require only one lesson a
week .

Granted ! I have a more se ious Objection to raise :

“
r

your classification will be very diffi cult to work in p a r c

tice How is your jury going to decide that certain

.

pupils are devoid of aural accuracy ? ”

By perceiving that they are unable to recognise and

“

r eproduce intervals that wil l be sung to them ”

.

And inaccuracy of voice

“
? ”

By th eir singing out Of tune .

And sense of rhythm ?

By their incapacity to divide time into equal beats

or to accentuate strong beats .
”

But you were speaking of relative aural accuracy .

That is possessed by those who can recognise the

notes of a tune only by comparison with a given note :
while those who can recognise th em without reference
to a standard possess absolute pitch and those who
‘
,
’

are able to analyse combinations of sound can claim to

have the completely musical ear You yourself shall .

furnish an example Wh at is this note ?

.

Th e las t few years experience h as convinced me th at two h ours a

’
i

wee a r k
a s olu t l bn e essa y —E D J
e e
y c r . . . .
 Mu s ic Teac h ing in S c h ool s 43

Yes yes anoth er time !

, , So you expect you r
examiners to understand these fine Shades ? ”

“
Th ey will be professional musicians ”
.

Who will never mak e a mistak e in t h eir diagnoses ?

E veryone is liable to make a mistak e But be .

sure of this : Such mistakes as th ey may make will not

have anything lik e such se ious consequences as ther

mistakes of the present system in all owing i n comp e ,

tents to cl og th e progress of classes Besides our .

,

examiners will commit errors only of detail and these ,

coul d easi ly be rectifi ed by the regular teach er ; and if

he should share in any serious blunder pupi l s could ,

always resort to private tuition .

“
Between ourselves ( I won t tell anyone) isn t this’

,
’

cl assifi cation of pupil s into sections of those possessing

th e t hree qualiti es those possessing only two and so
,

on
— isn t t h e who l e thing an a tistic chi noi s eri e ? D o
’
r

you seriously believe it to h ave any practical sensible , ,

useful object ?
“
Yes M So and So a highly practical sensible
,
r .
- -
, , ,

and useful Object The object of not exacting from

.

pupil s more t han th ey are capab l e of giving : of car ying r

each one as far as h e can go ; of not discouraging t h e

less gifted ones by making th em associate with those
to whom th eir labours are child s p l ay : of not exposing ’

born musicians to t h e temptation to Sl ack by permit ,

ting th em to compete with th eir Sl ower witted c ompan -

ions I Say again music is an art ath er than a science

.
, r .

To learn mu S c t is not enough to be cl ever ; it is

I I

necessa y in addition to be something of an artist

r .

To confi ne schoo l music teaching to elementa y facts

-
r

is to b ing it down to t h e l evel of th e mediocre and to

r ,
 Mus ic Te ac h ing in S c h o ol s 45

as he may be a pedant a hustler a fool or a pos eur , , , ,

the method will be artificial foolish hustling o pe , , , r

dan ti c What is more children exposed to t h is met h od

.
, ,

un l ess they possess highly individual temperaments wi ll ,

turn out pedants hustlers fools or pos eur As surely

, , , s .

as men are descended from apes so surely chil dren , ,

trained on obsol ete methods how a tendency to revert , S

to th at status Th e true educator s task s houl d be

.
’

while guiding the child s will to bring his individual ’

,

qualities to light It is better to provide him with t h e

.

means of choosing between good and evil beauty and ,

uglin ess than to show him eith er only t h e good and

,

beautiful or only the bad His spirit Should be kindl ed .

with a faint glow which increases wi th its own eflection r .

In Montaigne s words : Th e child s imagination s houl d

’ “ ’

be stimulated to a frank cu iosity as to th e things we r

wis h him to learn and guided by judiciously whetting

, ,

his appetite for knowledge Th e best method of .

teaching is th at which from t h e start offers th e pupi l

, ,

a prob l em which neither his memory nor his instinct

for imitation can help him to solve After a year of .

preli mina ies of rhythmic exercises which at once ap

r , ,

pease th e child s need for movement and recreation

’

and inaugurate his p hysical and mental development

after a course of training for th e lips and tongue pro
v i d ed by the study of vowels and consonants — singing
l essons proper may safely be embarked upon At this .

stage the commencement of th e technical side of th e

,

training th e music master s first care sh ould be to make

,
’

the child appreciate th e difference between tones and

semitones So l ong as he is unable to distinguish
.

these infallibly wh eth er in s in g ing or l istening any

, ,
46 R hy t hm Mu s ic , an d E duc atio n
attempt at approaching another stage of the course
woul d be an error analogous to teaching the words of
a language before the l etters are known I venture to .

assert that nine tenth s of inging and instrumental S

masters set their pupils to learn scales before they h ave

attained anything l ike proficiency in this elementary
c ourse Under these conditions h ow are children ever
.
,

to learn to recognise keys or acquire a sound compre

h n i on of music ?
e s

E very sound method of teaching music must be

based on the hearing as much as on the emission of , ,

sounds If the hearing faculties of a pupil are weak

.
,

they must be developed before h e undertak es th e stu dy

of theory The noise of a drum calls for neith er an aly
.

sis nor reflection (th at is why the drum is so essentially

a military instrument) To many children al l sound is .
,

merely a noise and it woul d be manifestly absurd to

,

commence their training with a comparative study of

noises Only by the appl ication of thought wil l they
.

come to recognise the point where sound supersedes

noise Th eir th ought shoul d th erefore be stimul ated
.

and given a direction : there wil l be time enough afte r

wards to start training their memories Memo y .

“
r ,
”

wrote D iderot on ly preserves traces of sensations and

,
“

consequent mental processes that h ave had th e deg ee r

of force to produce vital impressions ”

.

And here we app oach the vexed but import ant r

question of absolute pitch that is th e innate and natu , ,

ral perception of the place of each sound in the whole

gamut of sounds and of the correspondence between
,

th e sound and conventional word (or l etter) by which

it is known There are children wh o as soon as they
.
,
 M u s ic Teac h ing in Sc h ools 47

h ave learnt the names of the notes will announce on ,

hearing a sound That s an A an E an F sh arp

:
“ ’

, , ,
”

without requiring any further thought than if they

were to pronounce a tree in spring as being green .

Many pedagogues believe absolute pitch to be innate

and incapable of acquirement by practice Well and .

good ; but practice can certainly create relative pitch

” “
.

Once the hild is sufficiently advanced to appreciate

C ,

without ever making a mistake (specialists will under

stand the importance of this ever ) the difference ”

between th e tone and the semitone it is possible by ,

comparison and suggestion to establish in his mind an

immediate correspondence between a note and its name .

This training should set in motion a constant associa

t ion of sub conscious ideas
-
Th e means of awakening
.

and co ordinating these ideas forms the natural basis

-

of a sound method of music teachin g Our space here .

being l imited we must refe reade s to special wo ks

,
r r r

fo fu th e information on this subject

r r r We pause .

merely to record our firm conviction based on on id , c s

c rabl e experience that relative pitch is capable of being

,

devel oped by means of training in everyone possess

, ,

ing a good ear provided such training be commenced at

,

an early age and precede the study of an instrument .

Absol ute pitch incidentall y is only indispensable

, ,

to a musician who proposes to teach music and if I ,

have l aboured th e need for bringing it out in th e child ,

— —
it is onl y because b it remembered ou training is
e r

designed to prepare the most talented students for th e

profession of music teachers .

As soon as pupils can distinguish between tones and

semitones they can commence the comparative study
,
48 R hy th m Mu s ic , , and E duc ati on
of scales that is the successions of tones and semitones
, ,

which give the character of a k ey In this connection .

,

we venture to mention a little plan we ourselves have

adopted as a result of considerable professional ex
,

p eri en c eE ach
. scale being formed from the same suc
cession of tones and semitones in unvarying order , ,

th e pupil will only be able to distinguish one from an

other from the position of its tonic Th e inter relations .
-

of scales will escape him since to his ear the scal e of

, , ,

A flat for example would be merely the melody of th e

, ,

scale of C transposed to a mi nor sixth higher or a major ,

third l ower But if you mak e him trace th e succession

.

of notes of the scale of A flat commencing from C th e ,

tonic of the scale of C (namely : C D flat E flat F G , , , , ,

A flat B flat C ) the pupil will see at once that the mel
, , ,

O dy dif fers from that of t h e scale of C He will notice .

th at the tones and semitones are not in the same posi

tions and (being familiar with the order of tones and
,

semitones in a scale extending from tonic to tonic)

wil l be able by remarking the places they occupy in
,

th e scale in question to find the tonic for the scale and

, ,

so identify the key By this means a pupil may learn

.

in a year to distinguish any key The choice of C as .

th e initial note enables any voice to sing all th e scales ,

identifying them from the variations involved in th e

order of su ces 0n of tones and semitones In other
c s1 .

systems this woul d be impracticabl e with chil dren

whose voices h ave not a large compass or beginners ,

restricted to a small register Indeed apart from the .

,

compass of th e voice the old systems depend on tedious

,

effects of transposition and if they allow the singing

, ,

of certain scales at their true pitch they neglect to ,

 Mu s ic Teac h in g in S c h o ol s 49

incul cate the inter rel ations of the scal es which is -

practicable only by our method of varying th e succes

sion of notes between th ton of C e
'

rc s .

Anoth er advantage of our system is t h at before l ong , ,

it so impresses the C on the memory t h at a student ,

is enabled to sing to pitch without resorting to the ,

tuning fork It is invaluable from the point of iew of

-
. V

music hearing T h pupil trained by our method has

-
. e

no di ffi culty in discerning the key of any piece thanks ,

to t h e perception f t h e alterations effected in th e tonic

O

scal e of C and accustomed to Sing any interval in any

, ,

setting (t hat is in any key ) h e will be able to recognise ,

any note irrespective of the instrument that produces it .

It is therefore of the highest importance that t h e

, ,

teacher should engrave t h e fundamental C on the memo

ries in the very gullets we might say of his pupils
- —
, .
1

He s h oul d also in furtherance of his main bject i m

, O ,

,
a —
pos e as set off to exercises of intonation w hat one ,

might cal l exercises of recognition or appell ation just ,

as in t h e primary school reading and writing are taught

simultaneous ly On leaving the solf ege course the
.
,

student should be abl e to name the notes in an exercise

sung by anoth er as wel l as to sing them himself To, .

achieve th is resul t th e master should accustom him ,

from th e first to identify t h e key in whic h anoth er stu

dent is singing a stock exercise ; next to name or write ,

at dictation the notes of an exercise tak en at h aphazard ;

finally to distinguish any notes in any k ey I cannot
, .

over emph asise the importance of this training ; it pro

-

1
O th A
r y th et b
, C h
or anth d t g f b i g th
o er n o e ; ut as e a v an a e o e n e

toni c of th e typ es ca le . Th e s en s at i on of i ts s ou n d i s i mp res s ed b y t h e

cultivation of th e muscular s en s e .
 3
Mus ic T eac h ing in S c h ools
affair ; it is p hysical in essence D ide ot call s it th e . r

very image of the soul rep oduced in t h e infl exions of r

th e voice t h e successive variations of passages of a

,

speech accelerations deliberations sparkl es gulps

, , , , ,

punctuated in a hundred different ways For our .

part we regard it as the eflex of instinctive corporal

,
r

movements and as dependent on t h e gait balance and

, , ,

general h armony of those movements If a child in .

,

good h eal th and oth erwise without physical defect ,

s hows some irregul arity in his gait thi s irregul a ity , r

will correspond in music to an irregul ar manner of

measu ing time I f through l ack of balance in his
r .
,

movements h e finds diffi culty according as h e starts

, ,

wit h t h e l eft or righ t foot in accentuating by a stamp

, ,

eac h fi rst step of an alte rnating se ies in 2 3 or 4 r , ,

time h e wil l h ave t h e same diffi culty in accentuating

musical ly t h e first beats in bars Of 2 or I f in 2
, 75 ,

making four steps he has a tendency to make the

,

fourth Sh orter t h an the first or vi e v rsa just the same , c e ,

awkwardness wil l be reflected in his musical execution .

A regul a step is the natural apportioner of time

r

into equal fractions and is th e model of wh at we call

,

measure The emphasis of one step in two in three

.
, ,

or in four respective l y creates metrica l accentuation .

A n d w h ere in the course of a series of equal steps a

, ,

movement of t h e hand emp h asises now one step now ,

anoth er t h e gesture at once creates path etic rhythmic

,

accentuation Set a Child to sing while in motion ; if

.

his steps do not coincide with th e beat of the time he

is singing or which others may be singing he is lacking
, ,

in a natural sense of time measure If he is unable at-

.

will to accentuate one or anoth er of the steps h e is ,

5 2 R h y th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc a tion
l acking in a natural sense of rhythm And just as one .

—
may teach a deaf mute to speak by means of lip move -

ments w hich have no correspondence in his mind to

, , ,

the idea of hearing so by accustoming the body to

, ,

regular symmetrical movements under the control of

eye and muscular senses a feeling for musical rhythm
,

may be produced in an a rhythmic pupil For as La -

.
,

Rochefoucauld puts it We are more disposed to in

“
:

dolence in our minds than in our bodies and good ,

physical habits conduce to good mental ones .

”

R epeated squad drill produces regularity of step

“

in our soldiers If we could train them to ordinate

. CO -

this regularity with th at demanded by musical measu e r

they would soon learn to sing in time In respect of .

accentuation on the other hand military training has

, ,

a bad effect on the body as on the mind It vitiates , .

natural balance by concentrating on the left foot and

the right arm With its invariable l ft right it
. e , ,
”

tends to inhibit the sense of hythmic o ordination r c -

.

If only military instructors would train their men to

start off alternately with the left and right foot to ,

“
change arms more frequently to accentuate their
”
,

march to 3 4 5 and 6 time in various t mpi and

, , , , e ,

sometimes alternating th e time beat they wo uld see -

,

how far less mechanical and consequently less f tig u

, a

ing marching would become and what far more flexible

, ,

and quick witted men they would turn out T hey

-
.

would further demonstrate that rhythmic mu i l were -

s ca

developed along with rhythmic phy i l capacities and -

s ca ,

SO help to procure the introduction of these preliminary

exercises into our schools .

We sh ould lik ewise enlist th e su ppo t of mothers if r ,

 M us ic Teac h ing in Sc h ools 53

th ey could only realise h ow their daughters by means of ,

these exercises would lose their inveterate aw kw ard

,

ness and stiffness and acquire that unaffected grace

,

produced by harmony of movements which is no more ,

than complete self expression -

.

Once regularity of gait and correct accentuation are

developed it will remain only to enlighten pupils as to
,

the relations between them and the division of time in

music into equal parts accentuated according to cer
,
“

tain rules The analogy will quickly establish itself

. .

We emphatically recommend any method tending to ,

th e study of rhythm by means of exercises in cadenced

,

marching These could quite well be taught in kinder

.

gartens independently of music in the form of gym

, ,

n as ti cs
. The child could be trained in a wh ole series of
combinations of steps without being made aware that
,

they were based on combinations of musical time values -

.

When one came later to teac h him the value of notes ,

and to recognise their formations one would have ,

merely to remind him of his old marching exercises to

provide him with a metrical model as natural as it was
—
easy to follow just as there are dancers to whom the
musical phrases of a ballet are only recalled by think
ing of th e steps by which they h ave learnt to represent
them . Is it generally realised th at a child who
can dance the polka has plumbed the mysteries of a
3 measure consisting of two quavers followed by a
; ,

crochet and that an oarsman has similarly mastered

,

time composed of a minim and a crochet ? Let us

advance on empiric principles in the light of these ,

admittedly healthy activities T h child delights in . e

all manner of games in which his body may participate .

54 R hy th m Mu s ic , , an d Educ ati o n
Gratify this instinct and apply it to our scheme for ,

the education of the future There is nothing to be .

ashamed of in it Let us be children with child en ; i t

. r

will be time enough to replace our spectacles when we

come to discuss music with adul t amateurs .

Finally phrasing and shading must be learnt ; and

,

this part of the training will produce positive en th u i s

asm relieving the monotony of certain exercises with

,

a wealth of poesy and beauty Oh the old school .

,
-

nuances of musical interpretation ! T h crescendos the e ,

ff
’
s the
, pp executed to order’
s without a pupi l knowing ,

w h y or feeling the slightest need for them ; when the

,

whole art of phrasing and shading is so easy to explain ,

so natural so attractive so susceptible of immediate

, ,

response from the child the least versed in questions

of technique ! It should appeal especially to us Swiss ,

compatriots of that marvellous theorist Mathis Lu sy , , s

I

wh o h as codified the l aws of expression into a unique

book a monument of wisdom and artistic penetration !
,
2

I do not suggest that this book Should be placed in the

hands of the hildren themselves who could hardly be
C ,

expected to grasp its infinite subtleties but in H eaven s , ,

’

name let us introduce it into th e colleges and set

, ,

every music master to study it and assimilate its ,

smallest details ! They will there learn how every thing

in music can be elated to fundamental physiological r

laws ; how each nuance each accent has its rai on d et ; ,

s -
’
re

how finally a mel odic phrase with its expressive and

, , ,

I
W h d th mi f t
e a t l th i m
e f g i i
s or un e 9 9 T h o os e s an o en u s n 1 0 . e

A i i d
ss oc at on M i i S i es mmi i d M M
u s c ens d t w it u ss es co ss on e . on o o r e a

study f h i w k
o d p b li h d i t i
s or 9, an u s e n 1 12 .

9
Mus i cal E xpres s i on : London , Nov ello C0 .
 Mu s ic Te ac h ing in S c h oo l s 55

r hyt hmic inte pretation fo ms an organic entity and

r , r ,

h ow intimately it is related to its h armonisation They .

wi l l be shown h ow melody is const ucted on the model r

of the spoken word and how l ike the l atter it can b

, , , e

punctuated by commas ful l stops and new paragrap hs , , .

And thus familiarised with th e laws of musical prosody

, ,

so wonde fully expounded by Mathis Lu y t h ey will

r ss ,

assist this refo merin purging ou collections of national

r r

songs of the nume ous faults that di fig u t h em andr s re

will lea n themselves to compose choral works and

r

b all ad s in which poesy and music go h and in h and ,

c omp l ementing and italising each oth er V .

Once they commence teaching th ei pupils the real r

elements of s hading and p hrasing they will be astounded ,

and delighted to obse ve t h e interest th ey evoke and r

th e joy with which th ey are applied We are too apt .

to appeal to the chil d s instinct for imitation to th e ’

detriment of his sense of analysis and his inventive

faculties I n P ascal s words It is dangerous to l et
.
’

,
“

th e chil d see h ow l ike an animal h e is without also ,

s howing him t h e grandeur and nobility that is in him .

”

Th e hild l oves nothin g so much as to con struct and

C

embellish according to his fancy things that appeal to

, ,

him Similarly h e wants l essons which give Scope for

.
,

individuality Once h e h as l earnt th e p imary rules of

. r

Sh ading h e will never want to sing a tune with out

,

being allowed to embell is h it with its natural compl e

—
ments rhythmic and emotional expression and a n cce

tu ati on R eading wil l be mere d udge y to him But

. r r .

you will h ave only to say : Now sing th at with

exp ession and his eyes wil l gleam h is face ligh t up
r ,
”
,

with joy Th e tu ne wi ll at o nce appeal to h im b ecause

.
,
5 6 R h y th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc atio n
he is to be allowed to give somethi ng of hi mself to it .

H will sing it with all his soul only concerned to add

e ,

to its charm and life And when he has come to an .

end and you ask him What mistakes have you made
,
? ”
,

how shrewdly he will know and tell you of the false

or omitted nuances ! w ith what conviction he will cry ,

“
My rhythm w as all wrong ; I sang too loud I forgot ,

to low down ! And h ow he w ill love to try again to

”
s
'
,

embellish it to communicate his vitality to it to per

, ,

meate it with his spirit ! All children feel a craving to

create and the teacher should lose no ppo tunity of
,
O r

turning this disposition to account He shoul d set .

them from their earliest lessons to improvise sho t

, , r

phrases of two bars then four then eight or to replace , , ,

a bar of a melody by one of their own composition H . e

will find them revelling in such exercises and making ,

rapid progress in improvising Let him further appoint .

different pupils to judge their comrades efforts and ’

he will note that their instinct for criticism and an

alysis is as strong as that for creation and that with , ,

practice children can speedily acquire a really subtle

,

and discriminating judgment assuming of course that

—
, ,

they are provided with sound models on which to

develop their taste and discernment .

Finally the choice of songs for purposes of school

,

study is a matter of no less importance Apart from .

folk songs the inte pretation of which should be con

-
, r

fined to Section II (vi de up a) the repertoire of S . s r , ec

tion I hould contai n more difli cult classical pieces but

. S ,

adapted to the cope of children We should like in

S .
,

conclusion to recommend to educational authorities a

,

liberal programme of pe formances in pub lic (which far r

 Mus ic Te ac h ing in S c h ool s 57

from disturbing regular studies provide a most whole

,

some diversion in school life) O pen air festivities and

, ,

—
walks to th e accompaniment of singing by this means
‘

turning the lessons to practical use and introducing

,

music into the real life of the school.

Music lessons will never be really satisfactory until

th ey result inevitably in giving the child a genuine
taste for singing both solo and choral and for listening
, ,

—
to good music the most stimulating and comforting of
th e arts t h e only one th at enables us to express the
,

heart of h earts in us and to sense th e emotions common

,

to all creation.
 C HAPTE R III
T HE YOU N G LA DY OF T HE C ON SERV A
TOI RE A N D T HE P IANO ”
( 1 905 )
- —
Colleg es of mu s i c formerly and to day Th e pi an o th e ear , ,

and mu s i c
— What does th e pi an o s tuden t learn ou tsi de of
—
techni qu e a nd th e i nterpretati on of th e s core2 Mu s i c at h ome
and i n th e con cert room
- — A dvan tag es to pi an o teach ers of
p revi ou s g en eral mu s i ca l edu cati on i n th e pupi l—A n appeal

to ro es s i on al
p f pi a ni s ts .
 C HAP TER I II
TH E YOUN G LADY O F TH E C ON SE RV ATO I RE A N D TH E

PI AN O ( 1 905 )

W AT a gl ow th ere is about you Mr So and So l

H , .
- -

You ve got some big business up your sleeve I l l be

’

,
’

bound !
“
Not a bit of it only my daughter Leonora has just
, ,

passed with honours her pianoforte exam at the C ollege .

of Music I won t deny that I m somewhat elated by

.
’ ’

the happy event It s gratifying to feel th at one s

.
’ ’

daughter is such a good musician .

“
You regard h er progress as a pianist then as proof , ,

of her musical development ? ”

“
Well naturally
,
”
.

You are mistaken M So and So A pianoforte

,
r .
- -
.

training has not always either the object or the result

of cultivating musical capacities On the contrary too .
,

Often it does not go beyond providing a useless musical

technique to persons who are not m u s al 1c .

“
Formerly all musicians without exception were , ,

versed in every ide f musical technique : to day this

S O -

all round education is only given to composers The

-
.

schools of music are filled with young men and women

possessing good fingers l ungs vocal Chords and wrists
, , ,

but lacking alike a good ear intelligence and oul ‘

, ,
S .

Th es e young peopl e imagine t h at th ey h ave only to l earn

61
62 R hy th m Mus ic , , and E duc ati on
to play an instrument to become master musicians ; -

and the public for th e most part is incapable of di stin

, ,

g u ish i n g between an artist and a irtuoso In the old V .

days the l atter had to be an artist ; to day h e is often no

,
-

thing more than an artisan Just as in former times a . c

binet makers and glass blowers were at once creators

- -

and workmen themselves devising the models they exe

,

cuted while nowadays they are content to imitate the

, , ,

Ol d model s or to execute the artistic conceptions of

,

paid designers There you h ave an example of artistic

.

—
decline to which too littl e attention is given but to
the matter in h and .

“
Three quarters of the students who enter school s of
-

music are not b orn musicians Before embarking on .

lessons suitable for students with good ear exceptional ,

sensibilities and fine taste less accomplished students

, ,

s h oul d r eceiv e a preparatory training in ear sensib il ity , ,

and taste Without that th ey can de ive no real benefit

. r
—
from music l essons th ey will become mere parrots or
apes instead of musicians and men ”
.

D o you really believe that training can mak e a bad

“

e ar good
”
?
“
The ear can most ce tainly be trained r .

O that it can give a person musical understanding ?

r

I t will develop su ch if it is susceptibl e of develop,

ment ”
.

“
Th at it can create musical taste ?
It will awaken and moul d it if the germ exists , .

Aha ! your reply satisfies me that your famous

special training will have no effect on persons devoid
of musical aptitude .

Th e conventional system can t mak e a musician of

“ ’
 Yo ung Lady of th e Con se rv atoi re 63

a deaf man Th e trouble is that it makes a pi ani t of

. s

him ! and th e n lies th e whole folly of the business

reI .

I n amateurs possessing the rudiments of taste and a ,

moderate ear neither is developed but only fingers

, , .

Those without any capacity whateve are taugh t th e r

use of the pedal ! and all th ese four handed creatures -

dare to criticise music and musicians on the strength

of knowing the A B C of pianoforte technique Ah .
,

M So and So the piano is th e modern Gol den C alf !

r .
- -
,
”

D on t excite yourself my good s ir You artists can

“ ’
.
,

never keep your tempers .

”

“
Nor you amateurs your tempi !
C ome come ! Let us discuss the matter cal ml y and
,

rationally You tell me th at chil dren shoul d not be

.

taught the piano ? ”

“
I didn t say th at I me el y contend th at an ama
’
. r

teu should l earn music befo re h e touches the piano

”
r .

“
But th e piano is music ! ”

Th e barrel organ is also music but people are not

-
,

taugh t it However we will discuss the matter calmly

.
, ,

and rationally as you propose Do you know what an

, .

amateur is ?
“ —
An amateur of music de ived from th e Latin r

amator from t h e verb amare

,
— is my dear friend a , ,

person wh o l oves music ”

.

V ery good And now tell me t h is my friend

“
. Do , .

you l ove your wife ? ”

“
DO I Wh at a question !
Of course you l ove h er I know ; s h e h as to l d me so ,

h erself . And do you know h er ? ”

“
DO I Wh at are you talking about ?
One moment ! You know the colour of h er eyes h er ,
64 R hy t h m Mu s ic, , and E duc at ion
hair her compl exion You know her preferences her
,
?
,

tastes her apti tudes You know so to speak your w ay

,
?
, ,

about both her mind and heart ? ”

Of course I do
”
.

I admit my question was absurd You love you . r

wife and you know her You love her becaus you know . e

her and if you didn t know her you wouldn t love her
,
’ ’
.

Well let me tell you there are amateur pianists who

, ,

l ove th e piano without knowin g anything of music but ,

simply out of a desire to imitate people who love the

piano because they know it Now I contend that one .

can really love and continue to love someone or some

thing music o woman (the two things are of the
,
r

same essence) only provided one k nows that someone or

something And that accordingly before eve ything
.
, , r

else our future amateur musicians should be brought

,

to k now this music that they love perhaps instinctively , ,

but which th ey can never truly l ove until th ey know

it properly .

Well and t h e piano ,

The piano represents music in t h e same way as the

photograph of Madame So and So represents you wife - -
r .

T h photograph recalls to you the features of a lady

e

with whose moral and intell ectual qualities you are

intimately acquainted The piano recalls to your ear .

thoughts whose depth charm and poet y you should , , r

likewise be in a position to appreciate The basis of .

the training to be given amateurs should be the study

not of the mechanical means of expression but of the ,

thoughts that are to be expressed Once a child can .

S ing correctly assimilate melodies analyse chords and

, ,

melodic successions distinguish rhythms phrase i nfal

, ,
 ”
Yo ung Lady of t h e Co n s erv at o re i 65

li b ly appreciate forms produce vocal shadings and

, ,

accentuations w ith taste well then you may justi -

, ,

fiab ly i t him do w n before a piano

S After four years .

of apprenticeship at the instrument he ll know more ,

’

than he d have learnt in six years w ithout having first

’

s t udied aural training and what s more important , ,

’

he ll know it better
’ ”
.

Well well well ! If you insist we ll grant you your

, , ,
’

solfege ; all the same fingers are an important element ,

in pianoforte playing and solfege alone won t make ,

’

them flexible .

“
Y our point is a sound one The fingers of the .

pianist of the future will necessarily be submitted to a

special gymn astic course conducive to flexibility But .

this course will be independent of th e study of the piano ,

and wil l not be of a specially musical ch racter a .

”

In that case the fingers will play incorrectly the mo

, ,

ment they re put to t h e piano despite all your solf ege

’

, .
”

P erhaps but the ear as a resu l t of the thorough

“
,

training accorded it wil l at once corr ct the mistakes ,

e

of the fingers an d control the latter T hus from the

,
.
,

first lesson the fingers will be subservient to musical

,

taste whereas under t h e present system finger e

, , , ex r v

cises fo m th e taste
r .
”

“
The cart before the horse ?

E xactly ! I take off my hat to you Not only have .

you come round to my way of thinking but you take ,

th e words out of my mouth .

”

“
You were speaking f piano lesson s to commence O

after four years of solf ege H ow are you g o n g to con . I

duct these lessons ? ”

“
With a view to t h e attainment of their aim .
 Y oung La dy of th e Co ns erv atoi re 67

And what about the pieces she hasn t played ? ’

If you imagine she has time to learn pieces Sh e can t ’

pl ay ! ”

Sh cou l d l earn t h e principal motifs of ot h er famous

“
e

sonatas of the quartets of the nine Symphonies

,
”
, .

“
Well I confess ,

And to come back to th e Concerto does sh e know ,

that it was written with orch estral accompaniment ? ”

‘
Of course ! It s written on the score
’ ”
.

Sh knows what an o ch estra is ?

”
e r

Wh o doesn t ? ’ ”

Sh e can distinguish a bassoon f om a c l arinet ?

”
r

I should h ope so .
”

An O boe from a flute ?

P oo h ! the O boes are held vertically t h e fl utes ,

horizontally .
’

“
But I was Speaking of th eir sounds .

Oh that !
,
“

D oes she know an E nglish horn ?

”

Who doesn t ken John eel O h th e sound of his

P
’
? ‘
,

horn brought me from my bed !

“
I see And so an E nglish horn is just a horn ?
.

(
Made in E ngland .

D elightful ! Now tel l me M So and So if , r .

- -
,

you l l forgive my indiscretion I take it your daugh ter

’
.
,

in the bosom of h er family of an evening will run , ,

through the most exquisite passages of th e classical and

modern composers ? ”

“
Not very often In th e fi rst pl ace to be quite
.
—
—
honest h er time s not all th at it shoul d be
’

Besides she has so little leisure for playing

, .

Sh e s al Vays w ork in g at h er l ate s t piec e

’
V .
68 R h y th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati on

Q uite And
. this latest piece what is her object in ,

l earning it ?
T o train her fingers
“
.

And her object in training her fingers ?

T o be able to play her piece
“ ”
.

H m ! and where will she play it ?

At her college exam .
”

Is that all
“
? ”

P ossibly at a students concert

’
.

What for ?
To how th e progress he s made and accustom
S S
’

herself to playing in public .

“
D oes she intend to become a virtuoso ?

Oh no but ,

Before whom will she play at this concert ?

Before a gathering of friends .

Will the press be represented ?

N atu lly ra .

And the papers will mention your daughter ?

I hould think so T hey ve already cracked her up
S .
’
.

T hey ve mentioned her name you name ?

’

, r

Th ey have indeed ! And I was really rather proud ,

I can tell you You hould have heard my f iends at

. S r

the café ! All except D Thingummybob whose

,
r .
,

daughter has never been chosen to play at a concert .

He looked rather glum .

Well I congratulate you But will you bea with

, . r

me a little further ? ”

G o ahead !
D oes Miss L eonora take part in ens mbl pl aying ?
”
e e

Once a w eek at the C ollege

”
.

Not in her home ? ”

 Yo ung Lady of th e Con s erv at oire 69

My dear s ir , unfortunatel y neith er h e mother nor ,

r

I play a note .
”

—
But at the Col lege she has her comrades h er pianist
and violinist friends P ossibly she has made the
?

acquaintance of a handsome young cellist ? ’ ”

“
What an idea !
I only thought A college congenial surround ,

ings a sincere desire to make music reading interesting

, ,

new works and duet playing is so delightful ! -

However ! And no doubt your daugh ter studies , ,

singing ? ”

“
Of course ! ”

How splendid for you ! How you must revel in the

exquisite ballads of Schubert Schumann Fau é Wolff , , r , ,

C ornelius Robert Franz M x R eger Grieg Sib elius

, ,
a , , ,

C h ausson Rop a t d In dy D ebussy de B evil l e !

’

,
r z, , , r

What a treat for you !

H m ! Leonora doesn t go in for ballads so muc h
’
.

The O pera s more her line

’
.

“
Oh ! D oes she intend to make it her career ? ”

Good Lord no ! Sh e sings excerpts from operas

, ,

because they give them to her to sing ! ”

“
All the same she must as a singer be well up in the
, , ,

cl assical and contemporary masters f song ? ”

O

Not particula ly Sh e knows a littl e Schubert and

“
r .

Sc h umann I believe the best known ”

, , .

But the others th e numerous others ? ”

,

Sh e hasn t time
’
.

Of cours e I was forgetting

. Another question . .

When your daugh ter calls on one of her friends and is ,

asked to try the piano is she able to improvise a few ,

chords ?”
7 0 Rh y th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc ati on
No ; but she always has a piece in reserv e for these
occasions .
”

“
But can she improvise It s so useful after fini h
? ’

, s

ing one piece to be able to lead up to the next by a

,

few modulations .

Sh doesn t require to ; she s never asked for more

“ ’ ’
e

than one piece .

”

“
But for her own purposes ?
Oh h doesn t bother about leading up to another
, S e
’

piece when he s by herself S

’
.

Sh can accompany songs I suppose

“
e ?
,

She s tried her hand at it but you know singe s

’ :

, , r

are so di fficult to fol l ow

C an h e transpose accompaniments high er or lower

“
S

at request ? ”

“
Not herself Sh gets them written out for her . e .

If you recall a tune of your youth can she play it ,

by ear ? ”

You re joking ! Sh e s only an amateur not a real

“ ’ ’

musician .
”

Still I suppose she can rattle Off for the benefit of

“
, ,

her young brothers and sisters folk tunes which she ,

-

doesn t happen to possess in print ?

’ ”

Oh we ve always the means of buying them

’
.
,

At your family parties she can oblige with a little ,

dance music I presume ? ,

”

Sometimes ; but you know we don t like her to

“ ’

, ,

play dance music It requires such a lot of .

practice to keep time properly .

”

I agree it requires practice And in twelve years

“
,
.

I beg your pardon eleven and a half i t is evident that

—
,

But tell me frankly do you not sometimes re ,

 ’
Y oung Lady of the Co n s e rv a to re i 7 I

gret th at your daughter isn t able to pl ay dance music ’

,

and with the right ve ve ? r

”

I won t conceal it from you I do regret it

’
, .

—
And th e rest do you regret th at too ? ”
,

“
Th e rest ? ”

Yes th e rest : those lost evenings at the fi reside with

,

your daughter reeling off beautiful melodies while h er

mother sews and you smoke your pipe ; those missing
accompaniments from a to the tunes of your youth ; e r

th at knack as h er hands wander over the keys of

, ,

refreshing heart and ear by some impromptu strains

to give form to h er th oughts her dreams h er l ittl e , ,

joys and sorrows ? The rest ? Al l th e other

things I enumerated and which l oo k so easy and which
, ,

your daugh ter can t do though she can execute so

’
,

admirabl y that diffi cul t Rhapsody of Liszt that you

are so fond of hearing and that I ll bet you ve heard
— ’ ’
, ,

often enough .

“
Well th e piano is in the drawing room next to
,
-
,

my study .

Th at s nice for you isn t it ?

’
,
’

No it isn t nice for me I can tel l you ! And if it

,
’
,

weren t for h r concerts and th e papers and D T hing

’
e r .

ummyb ob But you re leading me on to make ’

suc h confessions you mock er ! ,

”

Say rat h er comforter The story of Miss Leono ra

“
.
, ,

is the story of nearly every young gir l wh o spends

twelve years of her l ife
E leven and a h alf !
“ ”

Who spends eleven and a half years f h er l ife in O

practising scales to enabl e her to play Liszt s second ’

—
Rh apsody w hich a pianol a wi th ou t any practice , ,
7 2 R hy t h m Mu s ic , , and E duc at ion
can play far better and who a fortnight after th e —
,

exam or concert won t be able to play eight bars of it

.
,
’

without breaking dow n ! Sh devotes eleven and a half e

years of her life to studying the piano w ithout giving

a moment s thought to music without knowing any
’

thing of the great composers and their styles and ,

their works ; w ithout being able to express her own

thoughts by a f w simple chords ; without knowing how
e

to accompany or transpose or play chamber music ; ,

without even being able to provide dance music for

her friends ; without giving her father and mother a
little satisfaction which isn t just pride , for I ll ’

,
’

bet Miss Leonora declines to play h grand Rh apsody er

in h er own family ircle ? C

R esolutely !
“ ”

Sh declines because she s always between two d iffi

’
e

cult pieces ; one of which he is learning the other for S ,

getting ; the result being that she can play only one or
the other at a given hour a given minute Sh and h r ,
. e e

numerous comrades have neither understanding nor

l ove for music For proof you have only to wait till
.
,

th ey marry when they give it up without a pang

, .

Your regrets M So and So which are shared by all

,
r .
- -
,

fathers by all real musicians satisfy me that I am

, ,

right in advocating a reform of our system of teaching

music This reform is imple and practicable It ap
. S .

plies not only to the piano but to every instrument and , ,

to the voice It consists in including in the curriculum

.

practical exercises for the training f the ear and the O

taste and for the awakening of the individuality of the

,

pupil ; in familiarising amateurs with the beautiful ,

in ac quaintin g them with the styles of th classic al e

 Y oung La dy of th e Co n s erv atoi re 73

masters in enabling them to compare and analyse them ;

,

in furnishing them with a mechanism adequate for

reading fairly difficult pieces without mistakes and ,

with the technical and aesthetic equipment for interpret

ing works with feeling but without sentimentality with
, ,

passion but without hysteria with rhythm but with

, , ,

out show Always provided that pupils gifted with

.
,

powers of so high an order as to enable them to i n

te p t pieces of extreme virtuosity instinctively and
r re ,

without the slightest sacrifice of style be permitted to ,

pursue their technical bent ; but not in Heaven s ,

’

name before the moulding of their spirit and h eart to

,

the understanding and l ove of the art ! We as

pire by th ese means to produce a race of amateurs who
wil l attend concerts no longer out of snobbishness but ,

from a y earning for beauty who will appreciate the

“

works they h ear because they h ave taken the troubl e

,

to familiarise themsel ves with their structure and ana

lyse th eir content P upils destined for an artistic
.

career wil l no longer h ave their progress impeded

by the participation in their studies of budding ama
teu s r They will strive incessantly to overcome the
.

technical difficulties that are daily intensifying ; and

wil l take up th e study of philosophy ethics and ms , ,

th etics indispensable to the artist of to day A S to

,
-
.

those pianoforte teachers and they are many who

— —
,

victims of Circumstances are obliged to inculcate th e

,

technique of the piano into young people ignorant of

the fundamental laws of music they will heave a sigh ,

of relief at finding themselves discharged from their

thankless occupation as teach ers of scales and arpeggios
and wil l be only too ha ppy and proud to chan g e thei r
'

.
 Yo ung La dy of th e Co ns erv atoi re 75

received this reply in th e affi rmative how will you next

,

proceed ?
“
We will app oach th e adh erents of th e o l d system
r ,
‘
and we will say to them : Gentlemen you have devoted ,

time enough to th e musical devel opment of our people .

We recognise and th ank you for your perseverance ,

your eal your nobl e and artistic intentions but we

z , ,

are persuaded that you are working on wrong lines .

We want you to make our children musicians and not ,

mere virtuosos The new methods are quite practicable

. .

We wil l answer for them if you will come into l ine

, ,

thereby rendering th e highest service both to art and

to your country . And what do you think th e
’

really intell igent and musical spirits among th em will

reply to t h at ?
”

They will reply in th e affirmative .

And the others those th at don t

— ? ’

Oh they ll have to be eliminated

,
’
.

You are an extremist now Mr So and So ! , .

- -
 A
C H PTE R IV

T HE I N T I IAT I ON I NT O R HYT H M ( 1 907 )

voi ce, c on s ci ou s n ess — B od

E ar ,
a nd f
o s ou n d y a n d con

s ci ou s n es s of rhyth m
— A n a lys i s of relati on s betw een movemen ts
of voi ce a n d th os e of w h ole mu s cu la r s ys tem
— Movements i n
—
ti me an d s pa ce N eces s i ty for developi n g vi ta li ty of mu s cula r
—
movemen ts to mak e mu s i c ali ve Ges tu re an d rhythmi c reao
ti ons — B i rth of rhyth mi c th ou g h t (rhythmi c feeli n g ) P oly
'

rhythm and polydynami cs

— P hys i ca l capaci ty of difi erent
races
— N eces si ty for colla borati on of parents to es ta bli s h a

compos i te rhythmi c cu ltu re .

 To my dear fri end
a nd c ol l aborator,

C HAP TE R IV N I NA GO RTER .

THE I NITIATI ON I NTO RH YTHM ( 1907)

To be complet ely musical a chil d shoul d possess an
_ ,

—
_
_

w
of physmaLan d spiritual resour ces and capaci
f

tiesl cq npri si ng on the one hand ear voi ce and con

,
r , _ , ,
.

fi buf nes s of s ou nd and on the ot h er the who

‘

le body
, , ,

(bone muscle and nervous systems ) and th e consci ous

, , ,

ness o f bodi ly rhythm .

Th e ear enabl es us to perceive sound and rhythm and ,

to control this perception The voice p ovides th e . r

means of reproducing sound enabling us to realise th e ,

idea the ear h as formed of a sound .

C onsciousness of sound is the facul ty of t h e mind and

w h o l e being to pl ace without recourse either to the
”
,

voice or to an instrument any succession or combina ,

tion of sounds and to distinguish any melody o h ar

, r

mony by comparing the sounds of which it is composed .

This Consciousness is acquired after repeated experi

en ces of both ear and voice .

By means of movements of th e w hol e body we may ,

equip ourselves to realise and perceive rhythms .

C onsciousness of r h yt h m is t h e faculty of placing

“

every succession and combination of fractions Of time

in al l th eir gradations of rapidity and streng th Th i s .

79
80 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati o n
consciousness is acquired by means of muscular con
tractions an d relaxations in every degree of strength
s
.

and rapidity .

No schoolmaster w ould set a child to d aw some r

thing w ith which he was not familiar and before he ,

knew h ow to handle a pencil Nor would he begin to .

teach him geography before having learnt to walk and ,

gesticulate he had acquired an elementary sense of

,

space ; nor direct him to draw a map until he could

not only handle a pencil and trace lines but had also ,

acquired both a sense of space and an idea of the lie of

the count y N one can exercise several faculties at
r . 0

the same time before he has acquired however crudely , ,

at least one faculty

,
.

s of sound can only be acquired by

s e r

n of the ar and voice ; consciousness

e ces e

"
of rhythm by reiterated experiences of movements of
the whole body ; { Since the practice of music demands
.

the simultaneous o operation of ear voice and mu s cu

‘
c -
, ,

lar system and it is obviously impossible in the early

—
,

stages of music study to train all these musical media

,

—
at the same time the qu stiomarises as to which of e

them should be attended to

The movements that produce the voice in all its
shades of pitch and loudness are of a secondary order ,

depending on the elementary rhythm of breathing We .

are therefore left to choose between the mu ular ystem sc s

and the ea confining ourselves to the capacity of each

r,
—
of these not of forming sound since this depends on ,

the special muscul ar activity of breathing but of exe ,

euting and perceiving rhythms .

The mu cu lar y t m perceives rhythms

s s B y mean s
s e .
 The I ni tiat io n int o R hy th m 81

of r epeated daily exercises mu cular m mory may be ,

s e

acquired conducing to a clear and regular representa

,

tion of rhythm .

Th e ar perceives rhythms
e By means of repeated .

daily exercises ou nd memo y may be acquired sh arp

,
s r ,

en i n g and stimulating the critical faculties This will .

enable the student to compare th e p ception of sound s

er

rhythms with their p sen t a ti on f re re

If at this stage working on th p inciple that xecu

—
'

, e r e

tion should precede perception and criticism w e com —

pare th e functions of t h e ear with those of the muscular
system we ar ive at the conclusion that the first place
, r

in the order of elementary music training should be

accorded the mu cula sys tem s r .

It may be ob j ected th at the perception of rhythm by

a child does not necessitate its execution on the part
of the child himself the rhythmic and metrical move ,

ments effected by an O bject or by other individuals

being equall y capable of awakening in his body and
mind the perception of those movements ; and th at on ,

th e oth er hand only the memory of rhythms perceived

,

outs i de of hi ms elf wil l enable him to realise them in his

own person However logical this argu ment may

.

sound I adh ere to my opinion founded on the observa

, ,

tion that a child s body possesses instinctively the

’

es sential element of rhyth m which is s ens e of ti me .

Thus ( I ) the beats of the heart by their regularity

-
, ,

convey a clear idea of time but they are a matter O f ,

unconscious activity independent of the will and, ,

th erefore valuel ess for the purposes of execution and

perception of rhythm The action of breathing.

p rovides a regula r division of time and thus a model , 15

 Th e I ni ti ati on in to Rhy th m 83

I f we assign in advance the atio between th e mus on r

la energy to be deployed and the quantum of Space to

r

be traversed we determine thereby al so th e quantum

,

of time .

If we assign in advance the ratio between th e mus on

l ar force and the quantum of time we th e eby deter ,
r

mine the quantum i space In oth e words th e O . r ,

finished movement is the p oduct of th e combination r

Of mu s u la energy and the space and time invo l ved

"
’

c r

i n i ts formation .

I f we as g n n advance th e amounts of space and

sI I

time it is indispensabl e in o de to effect a movement , r r

in h armony th at we s hould h ave mastered ou bodily

, r

mechanism : a l ack of control would cause us eith er to

exceed th e space or cu tail th e time while on the oth er r , ,

hand a too long etention would resul t in eith er

,
r

l eaving a portion of th e space uncovered o in exceed r

ing th e time Neith e weakn ess stiffness no inat

. r , , r

tention s houl d be pe mitted to modify the formation r

of a movement and a p operly executed rhythm , r re

qui es as a p elimina y condition compl ete maste y of

r ,
r r , r

movements in rel ation to energy space and time , , .

T O summa ise t h e p eceding obse vation s we may

r r r ,

e stablis h t h e fo ll owing concl usions :

1 Rh ythm s movement
. I .

2 Rhyt h m is essential l y p h ysical

. .

3 .E very movement involves time and space .

4 .M usical consci ousness is t h e res ul t of p h ysica l

experI en c e .

5 . The perfecting of physical resources results in cla ity r

of perception .

6 . The perfecting of movements in time a ssures con

s ciou sness of mu sical rh yt hm .
84 R h y th m Mu s ic , , and E duc atio n

7 . The perfecting of movements in space assures con

iou s n s of plastic rh y thm
sc es .

8 . The perfecting of movements in time and space

can only b e a coomplish ed by exercises in rhythmic
movement .

As trainers of b ody and ear we are faced with two ,

important questions .

I Should w exercise t h e limbs of a child

. e ?

C ertainly we hould Music requires finger exercises

S .
,

and hygiene demands the training of the rest of the

body without musi c No harm is done in training the
,
.

fingers of a pianist without reference to sound Indeed .

,

we have found numerous people of good musical c a , r,

so captivated by sound that they lose all sense Of time ,

duration and accentuation and thus accustom them

, ,

selves to ignore it or treat it as of secondary importance .

( Vid thee o called d ls C hopin

-
school of pianoforte
a
”

playing ) If at the commencement of a lesson sound

.

is eliminated rhythm attracts the whole attention of

,

the pupil Rhythm is the basis of all art But in gym

. .

n as ti of the hygienic and athletic orders the body

cs , ,

is exercised without reference to rhythm ; and the

smattering of regul arity and symmetry with which the
bodily movements of the class are invested to facili ,

tate the supervision of the Simultaneous movements of

its members serves neither to awaken nor to produce
,

rhythmic consciousness To develop the sense of .

rhythm in a chil d it is not enough to set him to execute

regular and simultaneous movements ; h e must be ac
customed to movements of divers intensity producing ,

divisions of time whose different durations are in a

musical rhythmic rel ation .
 The I ni t i ati on into R h y t h m 85

2 . hould limbs other than the fingers b trained

S e

with a V iew to the appreciation of rhythm ? E very

conscientious observer w ill reply with an emphatic
affi rmative for he will h ave noticed that defects in
,

musical rhythmic express ion are n v a ably results of 1 r1 .

_

pyh s i al dcefects n the musician M oreover while

I the .
,

most difficult exercises in complex movement are

achieved with the greatest ease by pupils endowed With
a sense of musical rhythm however defective their ,

physique the simplest exercises present enormous diffi

,

c ul ti to those who lack that sense be they never so

es ,

well proportioned A person of rhythmic propensities .

always presents a certain harmony an effect of perfect ,

corporal balance ; and physical grace can only be a c

quired or developed in children in corresponding degree

to thei instinct for rhythm
r .

It may be noted that th ere is an intimate connection

between hythm in all its shades and gesture A com
r .

p l
e te musician to mark a sharp vigorous
, accentua ,

tion will shoot out h is clenched fist ; his thumb and

,

first fi nger will unite to describe a fine acute touch ; his ,

h ands will sway apart to indicate an effect of delicacy

and softness His body is an involuntary medi
.

um for the expression of thought But there are ln .

complete musicians in whom this capacity for corporal

expression requires developing with as much care as
would be devoted to th e exercising of weak fi ngers or
rigid joints in a piano student .

Wh en a pupil at the piano commits an error in

rh yt h m the limbs of his teacher involunta ily seek to
, r

rectify it not merely by beating the time (that is a con

,

scious gesture with a definite pedagogic aim) but by a

, ,
 Th e I niti at i on into R h y th m 87

ing to render the rhyth mic impression more intense ;

the aspect of his whole person becoming in short the , ,

reflected image of the movement of th e music and ani ,

mating the executants his own epresentation Of th e

— r

rhythm being transmuted to them .

Another example After my l ittle (or big) pupil s h ave

.

practised eurythmics for a certain time I give them ,

exercises in interrupted marching They will execute

”
.

a few bars of a rhythmic march then halt for a b a ,

r

(later , for several bars ) in the position of,

t h e l ast eXe

c u ted bar The duration of the interruption th pause

.
, e ,

must be estimated and accentuated only in though t ;

it being strictly forbidden to count out loud or under ,

the breath o to move any limb Yet wh at do I find ?

, r .

T hose who h ave not yet attained confidence in t h e

faculty th ey are on th e way to acquire (that of thi nki ng
in rhythm) seek to deceive me (and themselves too ,

perhaps) in employing muscles oth e than those of th e r

leg to execute the hyth m I catch movements of an

r .

eyelid a nostril a toe even an ear and I h ave h ad

, , , ,

expressly to prohibit the beating of time with th e

tongue (while scarcel y in a position to contro l it !)
And every musician by experimenting on himself wi ll
, ,

find that after counting one or two bars mental ly h e

, ,

will feel resonating in his wh ole organism so to speak , ,

th e cho of the time value and th at w hile he appears

e -
, ,

to be immobile h is muscles are invisib l y collabo ating

,
r

mental process .

feels rhythmic vibrations in all his

conscious muscles ; that is why it behoves a teacher Of
rhythm to train through and in rhyth m the w hole mus
cular system so t h at eve ry musc l e may cont ri b ute i ts
,
88 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ation
share in aw akening clarifying moulding and perfecting
, , ,

rhythmic consciousness .

The training of the physical will or the disciplining ,

of the nerve centres consists not only in developing

-
,

the necessary activity of the muscles but also in learn ,

ing to reduce these to inaction in cases where their

intervention is n ot required This training has no .

place in the regular courses either of music or of gym

nas ti cs ,yet it is of the highest importance Every .

piano teacher will have noticed that pupils on being

-
,

initiated into the use of the pedal find it much more ,

diffi cult to remove their foot than to place it there and ,

more difficult to place it on a weak than on a strong

beat Repeated practice will overcome this inability
.

Of the foot to isolate itself from the influence of t h e

hand ; indeed this special faculty comes naturally to

,

gifted pupils But is it wise to confide to Mother

.

Nature th e tuition f the less gifted ? And would not

O

even born eurhythmists arrive fa ; a lier t th ir goal r _e r _ a e

if they were subjected to muscul ar training b fo re e

attempting instrumental studies ? It S the same with I

students of the violin where bow hand is so difficult

,

to free from the influence of the left hand and it is ,

also much more diffi cult to withdraw the fingers from

the st ings than to place them there The explanation
r .

is that a decrescendo of muscular innervation is much

more difficult to accomplish than a crescendo just as ,

the gradual acceleration is easier than the abatement

o f a movement .

\ There is another important reason why for the ,

rhythmic training of man it is necessary to exercise ,

all h is l imbs and t h at is

,
— th at a Child is rarely born
 Th e I ni tiat io n into R h y th m 89

polyrhythmic To create in him th e sense of simultane

.

ous rhythms it is indispensable that he should be made to

,

execute by means of different limbs movements rep

, ,

resenting di fferent durations of time These exercises .

w ill enable him to su b divide bars into even shorter

intervals of time One limb for example may.
, ,

execute th quarter values of the time another the

e -
,

eighths a third the sixteenths o by way of variation

,
— r, ,

one the quarter values another the same in syncopa

-
,

—
tion and by this means he will attain the necessary
-J

facility in dissociating to enable him to

practise and observe poly
While precise relations Space and energy ,

determine the form of the movement rhythm demands ,

different forms of movement for different accentuations

(in other words di f
f eren t degrees of muscular energy)
, .

Accordingly the study of polyrhythm involves th at of

,

ol d
p y y n am i c s .

Let us return to th e conductor who wil l express vio ,

l ence with one hand and tenderness with the other ,

and at the same time signalises rhythms of different

durations and we have a perfect illustration of the com
,

bination of polyrhythm with polydyn ami It is es cs .

s en ti al that the h y th mi ci an should possess absolute

r

of limb .

music is composed of sound and move

is a form of movement of a secondary ,

rhythm of a primary order Musical studies should , .

therefore be preceded by exercises in movement E very .

limb fi t separately then simultaneously finally

— rs , ,

—
the whole body should be set in rhythmic motion ;
th e resulting formations i e the relations between t h e ,
. .
,
 Th e I nit i at i o n in to R hy th m 9 I

c ular system to d aw on may h encefo rth devote his

r ,

whole attention to his instrument practice at which ,

will have become no longer a torture but a delight , .

I have Often noticed in h ea ing my chil dren s songs

, r
’

executed in different countries that the hildren of , C

southern climes h ave a natural aptitude for th e a com c

p l i sh m net of supp l e and graceful movement but lac k ,

precision and force in executing energetic and emphatic

gestures ; while Children of northern countries possess
the facul ty of effectively punctuating rhythms by
means of gesture but not that of balancing and s hading
,

successions of rounded movements We may concl ude .

from this that th e rh ythmic character of th e music of a

count y will conform to the physical aptitudes of its
r

inhabitants for as is well known grace and flexibility

, , ,

(in conjunction with lack of co ntinuous accentuation )

are the distinctive features of the spirit of M di te a “
e rr

nean music whil e the Teutonic musical characteristics

,

are vigour and force of accentuation allied to a too ,

sudden and rapid opposition of forte and pi ano— that is ,

l ack of flexibility in shading I claim th at special .

courses of training will furnis h th e South e n chil d with r

the faculty of accentuation the Northern with th e ,

desired flexibility thus affecting positively deep lying

,
-

tendencies on the one h and and negatively on th e ,

other .

All these principles sound extremely simple and it ,

is probably owing to that simpl icity th at th ey are no

where practised It would seem (to adopt somebody s
.
’

analogy ) that music is regarded as a fortress that h as

to be assail ed on all sides at once Those in possession .

extol its magnificence splendour and immensity they

, , ,
92 R h y t h m M u s ic , , a nd E duc a tio n
insist on the number of wings and annexes that belong
to it and then are surprised to find people figh t h y of it
,
S ,

though they themselves have pronounced it accessible

only to a highly select few And yet it is open to .

every one provided the proper equipment is secured in

,

advance .

Undoubtedly there are impediments to the ali a re s

tion of our ideals On of them is the prejudice of. e

parents on the subject of the corporal education of

their children T hey manifest an extraordi nary jealousy
.

on the subject as though they regarded physical culture

,

as their exclusive province T hey raise no bjection to . O

other people filling their children s h eads with ideas ’

quite foreign to their ow n but they will not have their ,

bodies tampered with they will not allow you to give ,

them balance to render them vigorous and supple and

, ,

to bring out their natural grace Grace they .

“
,
”

tell you develops coquetry but without adding

,
“
,

that intellectual grace necessarily involves coquet y

“ ”

—
r

of the mind ! Render the mind fl ib l by

“
ex e

all means But hands off the body !

. Th e
”

amazing inconsistency of it ! Once this prejudice

has been obliterated from the mentalities of parents and
headmasters of schools musical progress will begi n to ,

be realised T h first task of educational reformers

. e

should be the education of parents And yet there .

must be many among them who share the ideals and

aspirations of these reformers and would willingly col ,

l ab o ate with them and dream the same dream of the

r

future .

But alas so many men do not dream and are con

, , ,

tent to sleep !
 A T
CH P ER V

MU SI C A N D T HE C HIL D ( 1 9 12 )

Th e u ndamen ta l i th e born —
mu s i ci an Di vers
f qu a li t es o f
fun cti on s of th e ea r
-
Mu si cal ed u ca ti on f m
roa n ea rly a g e

I n flu en ce of en vi ron men t N uan ces -

of rhythm— A -
rhyth m an d
i ts cu re— E du cati on an d —
Sen s i bi li ty Wh en
i n s tru s h ou ld

men tal l es s on s be commenced? Study of compos i ti on E mo

- —
—
ti on an d Th ou g ht P i an oforte an d Si n gi n g a s ch ool— Chi ld
ren s h ou ld be tau g ht n ot on ly to i n terpret mu s i c bu t before
, ,

everythi n g , to h ear a nd a bs orb i t— Ch i ld ren

’
s con certs

I nflu en ce of s ch ool mu s i c les s ons on mu s i cal prog ress of

soci ety
—N ew edu cati on al i deas .
 C HAP TER V

U SI C A ND THE CHI LD
M ( 1 91 2 )

THE RE are many more musical chil dren in th e worl d

than parents believe A smal l chil d may take no in
.

te es t in music not care for singing marc h out of time

r , ,

in foll owing a military band and absol utely refuse to ,

take piano l essons and yet be not wholly l acking in

,

musical feel ing Musical aptitudes are Often deepl y

.

latent in the individual and from one cause or anoth er

, , ,

may fail to fi nd the means of manifesting themselves

'

just as ce tain springs flow underground and are only

r ,

brought to the surface after a stubborn pickaxe h as

opened up the way On e of the functions of education
.

should D ew e y l op th e musica l
e instin ct of c h i l dr en .

But h ow is this to be aw akened at an early age ? and

what are its external Signs ?
T o be a complete musician one requires a good ear
-
, ,

Imag nation intelligence and temperament th at is

i ,
— , ,

the faculty of experiencing and communicating artistic

emotion A S regards the h earing we cannot do better
.
,

than adopt Lionel D au i ac s definition in his E ssai r

’

s u r l s pri t musi cal where h e describes a musical ear

’
e ,

as a facul ty of the soul C ertainly th e mere ecog ni

“
.
”
r

tion and apprehension of sounds does not entitl e a

person to claim the possession of a good musical ear .

External aural sensations shoul d in addition create an , ,

95
96 R h y th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc at ion
internal consciousness and state of emotion There are .

musicians of n a llou ly trained ear w h o do not love

r rv e s ,

and respond emotionally to music ; others imperfectly ,

developed aurally who are yet real artists capable

, ,

b oth of interpreting and creating .

i
Many parents imagine that the m of a
’

n
p o s i on ere s es s

clear and accurate voice implies music al talent This .

is far from being the case As everyone knows it is .

,

rh yth meaning and form to juxtapositions

I who can improvise in a charming
( ,

of notes without order or measure , ,

may be a r musician to one who has no voice

but can improvise satisfactory march rhythms on a -

drum .

It is generally supposed that the mere distinguishing

of the names and relations of notes heard constitutes a
good ear N W this is a mistake for the varying pitch
. O ,

of notes is only one of the qualities of sound T h e ear .

should be able to distinguish the different degrees of

tonal intensity of dynamics of the rapidity or the
, ,

slowness of successions of sound of ti mbr of all that , e,

expressive quality of sound we designate as musical

colour It is the possession of this quality in my
.
,

opinion that augurs best for the musical future of a

,

child There is no need to despair of a chi ld of Six

.

who may find a diffi culty in reproducing melodies

vocally or on the piano so long as he is capable of dis,

ti n g u i h i n g melodies and of responding to gradations

s ,

of sound contrasts of forte and pi no variations of

,
a ,

speed in other words to musical nuances

— , .

P arents often say : It s no good giving our child

“ ’

music lessons ; he s got no voice Yet on examina

’
.
”
,
 Mu s ic a nd th e Ch il d 97

tion an expert might find that the child in question

,

was very far from having no voice but that he was ,

merely incapable of o ordinating h i vocal system with

c -
s

the sounds he was asked to imitate The fault may .

lie with his ear which may be quite sound but is

,

sed.

is involved in making a mistake at the piano ?

the playing of notes not indicated in the score .

Y et musicians with a fine ear may like R ubenstein

—
constantly pl ay w rong notes ; and they remain far better
musicians than the numerous pianists in whom ear and
temperament conflict although their fingers never fail
,

them If a child has no intuition of the conventional

.

accuracy of harmony he will usually be incapable of

,

judging whether his mother is playing right or wrong

Chords on the piano But he should be taught to app e
. r

ciate the nuances of music and to judge w hether she is

,

playing softly loudly in treble or bass quickly or slowly

, , , ,

near or far from him l g to or ta to; and h e can Show

, e a s cca S

him the difference between a r ndo and a di mi nu ‘

c es ce

endo by placing him behind a door to be gently opened

,

or losed while th e music is in progress And when h e

C .

listens to a mi l ita y band she can point out to him that

r ,

each instrument has a different voice that the big ,

trombone h as a deep intonation like papa and that the ,

cl arinet e mama while the flute squeaks like

,

is miss d by parents
pp or tu n i ty e

w lIO must kno whow children love stories in not at

,
‘

tempting to rouse their interest in music by playing

little pieces of a realistic order illustrative of a story ,

w h Os characters consist of personages l ending them

e
 98 R h y th m Mus ic , , a nd E duc a ti on
sel ves to musical treatment such as galloping horses , ,

littl e mice with their short quick movements chiming , , ,

bells etc I have found children follow with intense

, .

interest the little descriptive pieces of Schumann Rei ,

necke B u g m in Ing elb h t D éodat de Severac

, r e , rec , ,

Fib i ch and the like

, Long before he knows how to .

produce the sounds himself the child may thus be ,

taught to li sten to
And this is perhaps the best way in which a mother ,

so long as she is careful not to overdo things to stop

—
—
at the first yawn may arouse in her child not only an
interest in but the indispensable love for music The
, .

important thing as one cannot repeat too often is , ,

that the child should learn to feel mu i c to absorb i t _ _ s ,

’

to give his body and Oul t

’
I
“

_
s O
P
it h his ear but with h is whole bei
wons requ re to b e om l ted by mus ,
”

t i p i tions ’

c e

phenomena of a physiological order produced by the

permeating influence of sound vibrations ) There are .

persons deaf from birth who can yet appreciate and

, ,

distinguish pieces of music of different styles by means ,

of sensations of a tactile nature by the kinds of in ,

te nal resonance which according to the

r ,
of ,

the music vary in intensity and form

,
is .

closely related to the larynx and there is ou b t dly ,

e

a reciprocal influence between th e hearing and the

vocal system
I h ave k novfn many young people who on hearing a
s ,

Sound have experienced a sensation at the back of the

,

throat cultivation of the voice will help to de

.

volop th e ear provided of course the pupil is made

, , ,

aware o f the connection between the sounds he hears

 Mus ic a nd th e C h il d 99

and th e resul ting pressure in the l arynx Th e mere .

thi nki ng of a tune arouses in t h e t h roat t h e muscular

movements necessary fo its vocal emission It is th ere
r .

fore desirable in o de to devel op th e c hil d s ea to

,
r r
b
s
’
r,

cultivate also his

E nvironment is conside abl e influence We r .

know how quickly chil dren can pick up accents I .

knew an E nglish child in London w h o spok e both ,

French and E nglish with a V audois accent his nurse ,

having come from V audois A gove ness with a h arsh . r

voice may have a very bad influence on th e chil d s ear ’

.

One cannot be too careful in seeing th at from th e ,

tenderest age the child hears only good music A

, .
“

man s education commences at his birth as Rousseau

’

Observed E arliest habits are the strongest wrote

“ ”
.
,

Fenelon Rollin relates th at Roman c hildren from

.
,

their birth were disciplined in th e purity of their

,

mother tongue As Montaigne expressed it Our

.
,

worst vices date from our i nfancy and our strongest ,

influence throughout l ife is our nurse ”

.

In interesting book entitled L Educati on ma ,

’

Lavignac asserts his conviction t h at

fail to become musical th ough th eir r

parents all owing th eir musical instincts to die of neg

l ect A father wh o desired his daugh ter to become a
.

dancer would carefull y watch from h er first steps to

see th at h er l egs were straigh t Simil arly we shoul d be
.

on th e 10 u t for defo rmities or de fi ciencies in t h e

aural syst
easy to devote a few minutes a day to
setting th e child to imitate a note pl ayed on th e piano ,

1
P bli h d by D l g
u s e 5 R S ffl t P i
e a rave, 1 ue ou o , ar s .
 Mu s ic a nd th e C hil d 10 1

like a battle hip but w e cannot progress without a

-
S ,

boiler .

What makes music expressive ? What gives life to

successions of musical sounds Movement rh ythm
?
,
.

.
T h nuances of rhythm are perceptible imultaneously
e S

by the aural and muscular senses I n the conventional .

'

music lesson an attempt is made, vi a the memory to ,

give the child a feeling for movement ; never an under

standing of movement This latter should be inculcated.

by obs ervation and exercise of the instinct for compari

son ( A feeling for movement can only be acquired (if
.

it is not possessed instinctively ) by means of physical ,

e x e ci
r s f H ow many people notice the ungainly move
se .

ments of their friends while they themselves are unable

,

—
to move gracefully though they are quite unaware of
the fact ! It is not that their muscles are n a ecess

ril y intractable ; frequently their nervous system is dis

ordered lTh e nervous system is an accumulator of
.

energy that can be trained to expend and r cuperate e

its potentialities on normal lines and thereby assure

, ,

the flexibility and force necessary for musical purposes .

A rhythm is a malady usually caused by the inability

-

of a man to control himself from a predominance of ,

intellect over nervous functioning Will not foll owed .

“

by execution is useless Will is not enough ; pow is the

. er

essential In Ribot s phrase Th aim of education

.
” ’

,
“
e

is to transmute the conscious into the unconscious and ,

to establish harmony between these two states The

senses are not adequately provided for in our schools ;
that is why so few of our people are artistic Art is .

not a domain accessible only to an li t It is w ithin ’

e e .
“

reach of all those who are capable of co ordinating -

1 02 R h y th m M u s ic , , a nd E duc at ion
their senses by reference to an ideal of beauty and
,

harmony .
”l

Georges D elbruck most rightly insists on the vital

ising effect of training the senses and on its influence ,

on the development of artistic feeling temperament , ,

and individuality Were this training provided by our.

schools our musical standard would in a very few

, ,

years be considerably elevated Under present con

, .

di ti on children can learn to love and understand music

s,

only outside of school hours The method of teachi ng .

it leaves in my opinion much to be desired

, , .

P arents are apt to confuse music with the piano .

One is only a real musician if one plays the piano ! Ask

a person if he is musical and he will often reply in ,

embarrassment : I wish I were If only my parents “

.

had made me learn the piano ! But I love music and ,

never miss a concert ! And yet these persons may be ”

far better musicians than many reputed pianists ; for 2

,

while some of these may be consummate artists there ,

are others who do not really care for or who care for ,

only their own music who at a concert can appreciate : , ,

only stunts have no discrimination for style or con

“
,
”

stru ction and are n , nor interested by the

most moving works of their sensibili
ties had been undertaken before they commenced thei r

pianoforte studies their appreciation taste and tem , , ,

p eram en t would probably have been far more deve 1

1
Geor g es Del b uk r c :
“
L é ducation d e la démocratie
'
(L a Renai s sance
Contemporai ne, I O Rue Ou din ot , Pari s ) .

3
Vi de Ch apter II I ,
"p
“
Th e youn lady g of th e Conservatoire and th e
Piano, su r a, pp 6 1, . et s eq .
 Mu s ic an d th e C h i ld 1 03

ope imila ly fif young men or women after study

r
‘
x
,

ing ano without appreciable result were to leave ,

it alone for a time and cultivate general musical ,

capacities th ey would probably acquire the incentive

,

to continue their pianoforte studies with advantage .

But the dear mammas with their nai ve candour are , ,

convinced that musical development depend

s iv ly on learning the piano
e What a mistake ! .

forte lessons unless preceded by t aining of th e ar

, r e

and by rhythmic age the

aural and de
v elop s to t h e detr Th e foll owing
'

experiment was made by a friend of m ne D irector of 1 ,

a conservatoire in a highly musical city Twelve child .

ren of the same age never h aving studied music and , ,

selected from a large number as presenting equal and ,

average musical qualifications and similar hearing

faculties were divided into two groups of six One of
,
.
.

these groups confined itself to studying so lf ege th e ,

other commenced pianoforte lessons After a year an .

examination was h eld which establish ed th e fact th at ,

th e faculty of distinguishing sounds h ad sensibly de

t io at d in t h e second group
er r e The solfege students .

were then i nitiated into the study of the piano After .

a single year s work they had overtaken th eir comrades

’

, ,

who had by th en devoted two years to it This e pe i . x r

ment proves th at the study of solfege prior to com ,

men cin g pianoforte lessons is not a waste of time for ,

the pupil Quite th e contrary

. .

t is nothing less th an lunacy to set a chil d to study

an instrument b efo re h e h as bee n t raine d to a pprecia te
‘
 Mu s ic a nd th e Ch il d 1 05

excesses and vagaries of temperament rousing it when ,

inactive submitting it to analysis when it tends to

/
,

immoderation detaching it therefrom as a curb to

,

introspection P atient and persistent practice in coun

. .

te poin t is indi spensable to a composer forming the

r ,

basis of his musical education ; but it should not be

undertaken before he is capable of assimilating its
—
substance that is before his spirit has been saturated
,

in melody his natural rhythm h as found a medium of

,

expression and music has become a part of him his

,
—
whole organism responding in unison with the impres
sions and emotions that assail
W
"
It is o nly by experience be i t re ed t h at the , n ,

inner ear can be formed and trained training can . 0

be under tak en before some sort of control has been

.

established In studying drawing whether landscape

.
,

or portrait the student must be brought into immediate

,

contact with the object he is to reproduce The same .

applies to music T h aural sensations conveyed by

. e

the instrument serve both to indicate mistakes and to

suggest th e means of rectifying them P rofessors of .

ha mony who oblige their pupils of inferior h ea mg

r , r

capacity to dispense with the piano thereby destroy ,

their instinct fo comparison and make of them mere

r ,

mathematicians intellectuals who become slaves of

, ,

automatic though t and construction and whose i n ,

spiration dependent on the nervous influx produced

,

by sound sensations gradually dies out T h e fact of

-
,
.

the matter as we see it is this { Musical thought is

, ,

the result of a state of emotion and a musical score ,

“ ”

may record this emotion But its expression requires .

from ti me to time to b co ntroll ed by sen satio ns And e .

1 06 R h yth m Mu s ic , , an d E ducat ion
it is impossible in an art so sensuous as music that th e
, ,

memory of harmonies can as effectively recall the

original otions as the actual experience of th e aural
sensations In the same way a painter imagining a
.
, ,

l andscape o portrait and proceeding to depict it with

r ,

out a model is far more liable to lose touch with Nature

,

than he who pictorially expresses his emotion whil e

in immediate contact with Nature or a human physio
g n om y. D i d not C ourbet declare that before painting , ,

it was necessary to teach the eye to observe Nature ?

Wh at a pity that tuition in the colleges of music the
world over tends always to produce virtuosos instead
of good amateurs ! And what a happy idea it was of
M Fernand B a th olini founder of the C onse vatoire
. r , r

of Geneva to devote that establishment exclusively to

,

th e education of amateurs in order to raise the standard

,

of the public and spread the l ove and appreciation of

music in home and concert h all ! If the child s musical
-
’

education followed the dictates of common sense it ,

would no longer be necessary for composers to record

on paper all the nuances to be followed in execution .

The pianist would shade and phrase the music without

the need for indications P oets do not denote the man
.

ner in which their verses should be shaded and music ,

is only a language Th e laws of musical expression

.

o iginate in the human organism born of the observa

r ,

tion of the natural course of our physiological life .

D oes this not point to the necessity for musicalising

” “

the student generally before confining him to i n t u s r

mental studies ? 8 0 musicalised the student will make ,

far more rapid progress at his i n s t um n t fil an we not r e

wait til l a chi l is

d s even or ei ght b efo re attem p tin g to
 Mus ic an d th e C h il d I O7

teach him the piano or violin ? In that case we migh t

commence his musical t aining oo n simple and natural r

lines from the age of five or x )

, si .

Far be it fro m me to set myself against th e piano

and its tuition ! I hold that the piano is the most com
p l et e of all instruments as wel l as the most usefu l , ,

since it gives an idea of harmony of polyphony and , ,

‘
even of orchestral tone But pianoforte teachers will .

themselves agree with me that it is too much to expect

them to teach simultaneously the technique of the i n
strument and the first elements of music P arents 1

should therefore refuse to entrust their c hild en to r

them until they have first taken a course in elementary

music And this course tending by human means to
.
,

instil a love for music and at the same time to bring ,

its pursuit within reach should be provided by our ,

schools .

H ow are we to convince th ose w h o administer our

national schools and when wil l parents demand of
—
them that music should form an organic part of
—
school life Singing at school sh ould be a form of ex
?

ul tati on as well as a means of collective discipl ine

, ,

for as Guizot affirmed musi c cultivates the soul

, ,
“
_
_

and thus forms part of the educ ation of a people ”

.

A nd Luther wrote One c annot doubt but that “

.

music 665 mm the germ of all th e vi tues and I can

“

r ,

only compare with sti ck s or stones th ose whom it

leaves cold Ou youth shoul d be reared n th e con
. r 1

1
Thi s point of V i ew h as already b een express ed ; b ut one must not be
afrai d of repetition s w h ere i t i s a ca s e of expoundi n g an i d ea th at i s
s el do m practi sed an d on th e practic e
, of which , n ev erth eless , d ep en ds
any f
real re orm i n mu si cal edu cation .
 Mu s ic a nd th e Ch i l d I 09

means h armqnyan d joy. Eac h of them provides a refuge _ M

and a reaction from overwork To make students sing .

daily if only for a quarter of an hour would be analo

, ,

gous to setting them every day between each l esson ,

even a few physical exercises The singing of ballads

, .

and songs would thus become a natural practice with

schoolchildren while singing and music lessons formed
,

part of the school curriculum These should be devoted .

to the study of musical science and should be in pro ,

portion to the other branches of learning They sh oul d .

inculcate a knowl edge not of singing but of music ,

and how to listen to i t .

There is something profoundly ludicrous in th e fact

that while musical instinct is based on the experience
,

of the ear a child is taught exclusively to play and

,

sing never to h ear and listen How strange that a

, .

maste should never think of saying Now keep quiet

r ,
“

and listen for a minute ; I am going to play you a min

uet of Haydn s or a rondo by C lementi and you sh all
’

tell me what you think of it To my mi n¢ m m ical .

“
.
_ -

education should be entir l y based o n h ing or at e

~
ea r , ,

any rate on th e perception of musical phenomen a : th e

,

ear gradual lyaccustoming itself to g rasp th e relations _

between notes keys and chords and the whole bo dy

, , , ,

by means of speci al exercises initiating itself into , ,

the appreciation of rhyth mic dynamic an d agogic , _

, .

nuances of music Think of the poor mites driven

. .

on to the platfo m the moment they can play a l ittl e

r

b rceuse to show ofl their finger training before an

e ,

audience of parents and even if you please musical , , ,

critic s ! It doe s not occur to anybody t h at it i s t h ese

n o R hy th m M u s ic
, , and E duc at ion
ve y children who ou g ht to be li t ni ng to music ! C on
r s e

certs for child en such as are held in Germany and

r ,

E ngland are unkno w n in Switzerland ; but at least our

,

teachers might make use of the lessons themselves for

providing their pupil s with the pleasure of hearing
good music combined with the opportunity of forming
,

tastes and devel oping critical faculties One of the .

advantages of singing is that it enables the child to

sh are with his parents the benefits of school training .

E very song a chil d brings with him from school en

riches rejuvenates ennob l es elevates brightens unites
, , , , , ,

and vitalises the family l ife Just as th e circle formed

.

by a pebble dropped into water widens and spreads by

th e elas tic action of rhyth m ; so the folk song introduced -

by the child into his family circle extends its influence , ,

breaking through the portals of the home and poten ,

ti ally refi ning a whole district with the joy of its r h yt hm

and th elesson of its poesy .

will it al l his life Ou malechoirs fo th e m o st

retai n . w r r

part confine themselves to an inartistic repertoire : too

many of our soldiers are content with comic songs : the
men in our mixed choral societies have great difli culty
in reading music : the singing in certain churches is de
p lo a
rb ly bad : the cantor is out of touch wit h the organ
the femal e voices with the cantor th e male voices ,

—
with the femal e and the organ obliged to wait at the ,

end of a verse fo th e men to catch it up in spite of all

r ,

its anxiety to lead the singing begins th e new verse itself,

behind the rest Our musicians are reduced to lament

.

ing that our people have not th e instinct for music ;

th ey wil l go to a concert only to h ear a popular singer s
’
 Mu s ic a nd th e Ch i l d 111

top notes never to an organ recital or to hear

, ,

chamber music And yet H erbert Spencer the

.
,

pioneer psychologist in education w h o in 1 8 49 com , , ,

plained that E nglish girls received no corporal training

in their schools achieved such wonders by his influence
,

that those same girls twenty years later had become , ,

the premier sportswomen of the worl d ! And he could

write in 1 8 60 that a scientific education might train
children not only to appreciate art but to feel the need ,

for it and that it was capable in fifty years of ev olu

,
r

tioni i n g the mentality of a whole people !

s

Undoubtedly a time will come when the teaching of

music wil l form an organic part of the life of the school .

Once th e idea is comprehended its application will ,

remain only a matter of days And will not the day .

when all countries lay down th eir arms provide an

occasion for establishing in Geneva at the Rousseau
—

,
—
I nstitute for example a centre of educational expe i r

ments from which every count y may derive benefi t ? r

Progress is in the air new ideas fly from country to ,

count y M E d Clapa ed is inaugurating an ingen

r . . . r e

ious system at once natural and scientific ; school s on

new lines are being founded and developed in all parts
of Switzerland D Rollier D C ramer and many
. r .
, r .
,

others are making a success of the sun cure The

,
“
.

day is approaching I am convinced wh en the music

, ,

cure will attain recognition On that day our children .

will have acquired a new vital impulse If our grand .

parents had received th e musical education I am adv o

cating we ourselves would better love and appreciate
,

music Let us not deny our descendants these added

.

musical faculties this more complete artistic joy !

,
 CH PA TE R VI

RH Y T H MI C MO V E ME NT , S OLFEGE , A ND
I MP R O V I SATION ( 1 91 4 )

, ,
—
Sound rhyth m an d dyn ami cs H a rmony of i magi n ati ve
and pra cti cal fa cu lti es — A bs olu te mu s i c an d corporal experi
en ce
— —
Th e ps ychi c force of rhyth m Th e s tu dy of movemen t
aw a k en s th e w h ole bei n g — Th e s tu dy of s ole
f ge a wa k ens the
s en s e o f hea ri ng (pi tch reali s ati on of k eys
, , a nd ton e qu ali ty)
-

The s tu dy of i mprovi s ati on a t th e pi a n o ex tern ali s es con ce p

ti ons fo rhyth m and s olfeg e
, a n d s tren g th en s th e s en s e of touch
—
Table of exerci s es i n rhyth mi c movemen t Ta ble of ex erci ses
w - —
i n s olfeg e Ta ble of exerci s es i n i mprovi s ati on I n ti mate
c onn ecti on betw een thes e tables .
 CH A P TE R VI

RH YTHMI C MOV E ME N T , SO LFEGE , A ND I MPROV I SAT I ON

( 1 91 4 )

EA R training al one will not make a c hil d l ove and ap

pr ec i a te music ; the most potent element in music and ,

th e nearest related to life is rhythmic movement ,

Rh yth m lik e dyn ami d epe ds entirely on move

fl

, _ cs , p

ment and finds its nearest pgot9 typ in our muscular e

system All the nuances of time allegro andant

,

—
_

I
.
i e,
,

a cceleran doo ri tenuto all the nuances Of energ y forte

— '

, , ,

pi an o r,e s cen d c
o d i mi n u n do — can
, be realised by e

our bodies and th e acuteness of our musical feeling

,

will depend on th e acuteness of our bodily s nsat on s e 1 .

A special gymnastic system h abituating muscles to ,

contract and rel ax and corporal lines to widen and ,

shrink in time and space shoul d supplement metrical ,

feeling and instinct for rhythm This system of gym .

nas ti s must be adaptable to the most divergent tem

c

p e arm n t s e
; for no two individuals however wel l ,

endowed intellectually and physically wil l react in ,

quite the same way one following th e instructions more

—
slowly another more quickly Some succeed in execu t
, .

ing a particul ar exercise in a given time but fail on a , ,

sudden command to commence a new exercise and , ,

continue th e first in spite of their anxiety to interrupt

1
See Ch ap IV , pp 7 9, 8 0 . . .
 Rh y th m Sol fege Improv is at io n
, ,
1 17

with our bodies deprives us of a l arge measure of free

dom of spirit Are not most men slaves of their corpo
.

ral functions prisoners of matter And contrary to

,
?
,

the popular idea the premature development of in

,

t ll t and overspecialised studies far from cla ifying

e ec , , r

the mind are apt to disturb and unbalance it What

, .

is know n as absolute music is music completely

“ ”

—
dematerialised not directly addressed to our sensorial
faculties but which seeks to awaken emotion by means
,

of developments and combinations of a metaphysical

order This transcendent form of art can only be
.

appreciated by those who have triumphed over their

bodily resistances and yet this attainment may i n
,

volve primary physical means So long as the body has .

not been perfectly devel oped there must be constant ,

f iction between sensations and feelings and th is in

r ,

cessant conflict between body and spirit will prohibit

th e necessary spiritualisation of matter Music can .

never be rendered entirely pure until the body has been

purified and this can only be accomplished by seeing
,

oneself clearly and discerning one s impurities ’

.

One of th e first results of exercises designed on th e ,

one hand to create automatisms and to assure the ef

,

fe ti v working of the muscular system and on the

c e , ,

other to establish cl ear and rapid communication b

, e

tween the two poles of our being and encourage the

—l
expansion of our natural rhythms one of th e firs t
re u lts of th se ex rci s es is to teac h the child to know
s e e

and control himself and as it were take possession of, , ,

his personality Initiated into th e marvellous mech an

.

ism of this body of ours provided for consecr ti on a ,

a as
—
worthy dwelling place for the soul c onfid n t of a h i v
-
e c e
1 18 R hy t h m Mus ic , , and E duc at ion
ing without effort or preoccupation any movement
—
suggested by others or by himself the child will feel ,

rising and grow ing in him the will to make full use of
the abundant forces in his potential control H i im . s

ag i n ati on will likewise develop inasmuch as his spirit , ,

freed from all constraint and physical disquietude can ,

give free rein to his fantasy .

Functioning develops the organ and the conscious ,

ness of organic functioning develops thought And as .

the child feels himself delivered of all physical embar

ra ssmen t and mental obsession of an inferior order joy
, ,

will come to birth in him T his joy is a new factor in.

ethical progress a new stimulus to will power

,
-
.

T h e aim of all exercises in eurhythmics to strength 15

en the pow er of o c n tration to accustom the body

c p e ,

to hold itself as it were at high pressure in readiness

, ,

to execute orders from the brain to connect the con

.

scious with the sub conscious and to augment th e ub

-
, s

conscious faculties with the fruits of a special culture

designed for that purpose In addition these exercises .
,

tend to create more numerous habitual motions and

new reflexes to obtain the maximum effect by a mini
,

mum of effort and so to purify the spirit strengthen

, ,

the will power and install order and clarity in the

-
,

or ganism .

The whole method is based on the principle that

theory should follow practice that children should not ,

be taught r ule s i ntil they have had experience of the

' '

facts which have given rise to them and that the first ,

thing to be taught a child s the use of al l his fac ulties

i .

Only subsequently should he be made acquainted with

the opinions and deductions of others Before sowing .
 R hy th m S o l fege I m p rov i s ati on
, ,
1 19

the seed you must prepare your soil In respect of

,
.

music especially the present practice is to put an im

, ,

plement in the hands of children who have no idea ,

what to do with it We have frequently deplored the

.

fact that they are taught the piano before they have
shown any musical propensities before they can hear ,
1

sounds or appreciate rhythms before their feeling for ,

sounds and rhythmic movement is developed before —

their whole being vibrates in response to artistic

emotions .

The aim of eurhythmics is to en able pupils at the

end of their course to say not I know but I h ave
, ,
“
,
” “

exp er1 en ed
c and so create in th em th desire to ex
, e

th e deep mpress on of an emo ”

i i

to communicate it to the extent ,

of t
w rs The m ore we have
e of life -
,

the more we are able to diffuse life about it R eceive

“
.

and give ! is the golden rule of humanity ; and if th e

”

whol e system of rhythmic training is based on music ,

it is because music is a tremendous psychic force a :

product of our creative and expressive functions that ,

by its power of stimulating and disciplining is able to ,

regulate all our vital functions .

The actual practice of individual rhythms (as also .

Th é fi eth6 d adopted for the p u rpose ) is m ore than a pe

"
-

dag og i c system Rh yt h m is a for analogous to elec

“
"
. ce

t i ci ty and the great h m i al an d ph y si c al elemen ts

r c e c _ . -

— an energy an agent— radio active

,
-
,

conducing to s elf knowl ed ge and a consciousness

not only of our powers but of those of others of h u
, ,

manity itself I t directs us to th e unpl umbed depths

.

See Ch apt er III , p . 1 3 , and Ch apter V , p 95 . .

 R hy th m S ol fege I m p rov i s a tion
, ,
12 1

in tim e an d sp ac e— lik e n eou s an d li r t pp de b e a e a re

w i se c on c e n tr ti
a on i n th e i ti
c a f ou d
on o — lik w i
s n s e se

an a ly i t ity
s s, an d s p on an e c on c en tr ti ad p t on an s on a

i th
n uti of rhyth m
e ex ec on , ne i ty i th ir a l y i
n e d na s s an

ic m ov m t bli ge en s , en a n voca l prex i e bli g

es s on , na n

u
p p il t r d m s rk do ea , a , an u
p p il s t r do m rk ea , a ,

fi ll y r t rh yt h m (b th
na c ea e o an d fi ll y nar te u d c ea so n

ment ll y d ph y i ll y)
a an s ca . rh ythm (b oth m tall y
s en

a n d p hy i ll y) s ca .

The study of SO LF EGE awakens :

the s ense o fpi tch and ton e- relati ons and th e fa culty of di s
ti ng ui s h i n g ton e qu ali ti es -
.

It teaches the pupil to hear and to reproduce men ,

tally melodies in all keys (single and simultaneous ) and

, ,

every kind and combination of harmony ; to read and

improvise vocally ; to write down and use th e material
for constructing music himself .

study of pianoforte IMPR OV ISA TI ON

Th e

combines the principles of rhythm and solfege with a ,

view to their musical externalisation by means of touch ; ,

awakens the motor tactile consciousness and teaches -

,

pupils to interpret on the piano musical thoughts of

a melodic harmonic and rhythmic nature
, , .

The following exercises are designed to train on these ,

principles body ear and mind , , ,

.

RH YTHMI C MOV EME N T

I . E xerci s es i n Mu s cular Relaxati on a nd B reathi ng .

—Th e pupil is trained to reduce to a minimum th e

 R hy t h m S ol fege I mprov is ati on
, ,
1 23

recal l these movements and in the order in which they ,

were executed These exercises thus constitute a form

.

of analysis and conscious and deliberate application

, ,

of sub conscious movements The pupil must have exe

-
.

cu t d each movement before h e explains and notes it

e .

4 . Rapi d Concepti on o f B ar-

ti me by the Eye and Ear .

— Once the pupil can execute movements in a certain

order and substitute at the word hopp one move ,
“
,
”

ment for another he becomes capable of dispensing

,

with definite commands These are repl aced by aural .

and visual symbols representing their sensations ,

.

Series of bars are played to the pupil whose ar dic ,

e

tates appropriate movements ; or again the sight Of , ,

the movements executed by others or noted on the ,

blackboard calls for their spontaneous expression by

,

direct imitation .

C i Rh hm M l — T h e
5 o
.n cept on of yt s by u s cu ar S ense

body possesses a certain number of natural r hythms ,

which manifest themselves in a definite time and

with a certain degree of energy according to tem ,

p a m
er en t The perception
. of the degrees of muscular
tension is accompanied by that of the variations of
time duration and strengthened by the sensation Of
-

greater or smaller amplitude of th e movements in space .

This amplitude depends on the greater or lesser degree

of resistance of the conflicting muscles By means .

of a whole series Of graduated exercises the pupil is ,

trained to adapt different muscular processes for s h ort

and long durations respectively to estimate durations ,

according to the sensations of tension and extension of

muscles of opening and closing of limbs in space to co
, ,
124 R h y th m M u s ic
, , an d E duc at io n

ordinate the different dynamic forces of the body and ,

to apply the measure of space to the control of the

duration and intensity of muscular contractions T h . e

master should be careful to see that the o ordination c -

of movements does not rob them of their spontaneity .

6 .Development of Spon tan eou s Wi ll pow er and Facut

-

ti es ofI nhi bi ti on —
usical rhythm consistsofmovements
.M
and repressions of movements Musicians with i eg u . rr

lar rhythms are those w hose muscles are too slow or too
quick in pon din g to mental o de w h o lose timein sub
res r rs ,

sti tu tin g one movement for anot h er or who cannot check ,

themselves in time or else check themselves too hastily

, ,

ignoring the art of pr pa i ng repressions of movement

e r .

Special exercises will enable the pupil to check move

ments suddenly or by degrees to change a forward for ,

a backward or sideward step and vi v a; or to .

,
ce ers

effect a jump at command without breaking the time

, , ,

and righ t himself with a minimum of effort again ,

without breaking the time .

7 . E xerci ses i n Con centrati on . Creati on f

o Mental
H eari ng of Rhythms .
—
T h e practice of bodily movements
awakens images in the mind T h stronger the muscular . e

sensations the clearer and more precise the images and

, ,

thereby the more metrical and rhythmic feeling is de

v elop ed for feeling is born f sensation T h pupil who is
O . e

able to march in time and according to certain rhythms

, ,

h a only to close his eyes to imagine himself continuing

s

to march metrically and rhythmically H continues . e

the movement in thought If his movements are slack

.
,

his imaginative representations of them will likewise

 R hy th m S ol feg e I mp ro v is a ti on
, ,
125

be slack T h precision and regulated dynamic force

. e

of muscular automatisms are a guarantee of the pre

c i si on of thought automatisms and the regul ar deve1
-
,

Opm n t of imaginative faculties

e .

The study of repressions of steps prepares us fo rest r s

i n mu s i c The se if devoid of movement are by no means

.
, ,

devoid f life The study of periods intercepted by

O .

r ests teaches the pupil the laws of musi cal ph a i ng r s .

8 E xerci s es i n Corporal B alance

.
, a nd to P roduce Con
ti nu i ty of Movement ase of movement depends on
— E
balance The conception of movements extending over
.

long beats is fortified by stability of attitude and the ,

assurance of continuity in the movements This continu .

ity should be capable of operating in all degrees of mus

cu l a energy and of being interrupted at will
r , The clear .

perception of continuity and interruption assures that

of the b alan of rhythmic bars and the conception of
.
ce
'

their divers processes of construction al l of which relate ,

to the science of opposition and contrast .

9 E xerc
.i s es for th e A c qu i s i ti on of N u merous A u toma
ti sms and thei r Combi na ti on a nd A lternati on w i th A cti ons
,

f p
o S ontaneou s Voli ti on uscu
— Ml ar actions after con ,

stant repetition pass outside the contro l of th e brain

, .

New reflexes can be c eated and th e time lost between r ,

the conception and real isation of th e movement reduced

to a strict minimum The cultivation of automatisms .

should be effected in all nuances of t mpo C onformity e .

with these nuances depends on the perception of the

degrees of muscular energy necessary for effecting the
movements Automatisms should be capable of repl ace
.
 R hy thm S ol fege I mprov i s at i on
, ,
127

rel ations between space and time For th e execution .

of syn opati on by anti i pati on the step that has to be

c c ,

made at a particular moment and in a certain time is

repl aced by a shorte step effected in h alf the time
r ,

the second h alf of the time being occupied by a

knee bend For the execution Of retarded syncopati on
-
.

the step is prolonged h alf the time and th e movement ,

forward replaced by a bending This is the most .

difficult exercise of th e course The most musically .

gifted people can execute it with ease only after some

months of practice Once the student can perform it
.

without troubl e h e is recognised as h aving attained

,

an elementa y flexibility sufficient for the acquisition

r

of a feeling for expressive accent (acc nt pathéti qu e) e .

Children usually have less trouble in acquiring this

flexibil ity than adults .

12 . I mmedi ate Reali s ati on by the B ody f

o Mu s i cal
Rhythm — This is a question of th e spontaneous p re re

scu tation of musical time values and degrees of force by

-

muscul a and respiratory actions transposing sound

r ,

rhythms into plastic rhythms The exactitude and .

promptitude of the execution depend on th e utilisation of

acquired bodily automatisms and on the development of ,

the facul ties of psychic concentration The mind has no .

time to record al l th e elements of the musical rhythms :

the b ody exp esses th em before th e brain has even a

r

cl ear idea Of th em This is a ph enomenon identical

.

with t h at of verbal expression A word once h eard is .

repeated without analysing its formation . It is only

after h earing it in thought t h at all t h e letter s fo rming

it can be transc ibed r .

12 8 R h y th m Mus ic , , and E duc atio n
Once the corporal expression of musical rhythms has
become comparatively easy one may develop the stu ,

dent s powers of concentration by setting him while

’

executing a rhythm already heard to listen to a second , :

one automatism being in operation while another is

preparing ; the body in the past the mind intent on ,

the future .

13 . E xerci s es i n the Di ss oci ati on of Movements .

These are exercises preparatory to the execution of dy

n ami nuances Just as at the piano one hand may
c .
, ,

play fo t to the other s pi ano so the plastic expression

r e
’

of vitalised musical rhythms demands conflicting nu

an c of muscular innervation in different limbs Special
es .

exercises enable the student to contract a certain muscle

in one arm while the s ame muscle in the other arm
,

remains d on t a ted Other exercises show him how

ec r c .

time may be subdivided in one Way by one limb in ,

another by a different one by the execution in a

given time of three equal movements with the feet and
two four or five with the arms E ven more than the
, ,
.

others these exercises contribute to the devel opment

,

of concentration .

I4 . I nterrupti ons a nd Repressi ons o f Movemen ts .

Balan ce and punctuation of bars and phrases of cor

poral speech according to the laws of musical phrasing
,

—Antitheses and contrasts— Study of anacrusis— Th e

—
different ways of breathing T h different ways of e

checking and interrupting steps and gestures .

15 D ou ble and Tri ple Speed

. a nd Slow nes s o f Move

—
ments T . hese exercises constitute a bodily preparation
 R hy t h m Solfeg e Im p rov is ation
, ,
1 29

for th e musical processes of developing a theme known as

“
augmentation and diminution It may be noticed
” “
.
”

that in their fugues composers usual ly confine them

, ,

selves to doubling or quadrupling the speed or slowness

of their theme A new element in rhythmic develop
.
-

ment is constituted by trebly augmenting or diminish

ing the spee d of a binary rhythm .

16 and 1 7 P las ti c Count poi nt and P oly hythm

. er r .

These exercises are simple transpositions in the cor

poral sphere of current exercises of musical technique .

The advantage of these transpositions is that they

accustom the organism to experien c e simultan eously im
pressions of various kinds One can imagine counter .

points of all kinds The interesting and useful thing

.

e
—
is to experi nce li v them organically P olyrhythm is
— e .

faci litated by the cultivation of autom atisms An arm .

will execute a rhythm automatically while the mind ,

regulates the execution of a second rhythm by anothe r

limb .

18 . P ath eti c A ccen tu ati on Dyn ami c -u

and A g ogi c
Nu ances (Mu s i cal E xpress All the preceding ex
i on ) —
c r oises aim at developing feeling for ti me and rhythm .

The foll owing exercises tend to awaken the student s ’

temperament and to cause his body to vibrate in unison

,

with music They place the di fferent degrees of am

.
”

p li tu de of movements th e c n di and d cr c ndi of

, e cr s e e es e

innervation te aching the body to pass rapidly from one

,

expressive nuance to another seeking to arouse the per ,

sonal music of different individualities and to establish ,

lines of rapid communication between the aural and

 R hy th m S ol fege I m p rov is at ion
, ,
13 1

I t must be understood that th ese exercises do not

profess to constitute the whole artistic training of the
stu dent but they must in due course inevitably de
, , ,

v elop h is sel f knowledge ; revealing to him his numer

— -

ous motor faculties and augmenting th e sum of his ,

vital sensations Art cannot dispense with knowledge

.

of life Only by familiarising the student with life

.

can we develop in him a l ove fo a t and th e desire to r r

pu sue it
r .

AURA L T RAI N I N G (SO LFEGE)

After a year s rhythmic training th e student passes
’

into the solf ege class He will continue th e above series

.

of exercises the master adapting them to the needs of

,

a musical voice and ear After developing the student s .

’

mental hea ing and physical expression of rhythms h e

r ,

will proceed to train his power of h earing realising , ,

and creating musical s ounds i n rhythm .

APP L I CATI ON OF E XE R C I SE S IN RHYTHMI C MOV EMENT

T o TH E ST UDY OF SO LF EGE

1 . Contracti on and Decontracti on of the Mu scles o f the

Neck , a nd the B reathi ng Mu scles . Rhythmi cal Gymnas
ti cs —Th e
study of different methods of
the Lungs
for .

vocal attack and the enunciation of consonants Con

, .

fli tin g movements of arms shoulders and di ap h agm

c , ,
r .

C ombination of vocal attack with the corresponding

attack in beginning to march Distinguishing divers .

nuances of intensity of sounds C onnection between .

breathin g and vocal emission Study Of vocal egisters . r .

132 R hy t h m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc at i on
2 . Metri cal Di vi si on i ferentiaa nd A ccen tuati on .
—D f
tion of bars by means of vocal and labial accentuation .

Attacking sound at a definite moment at or without the

command Rapid substitution of a corporal movement
.

—
for an attack of sound of an attack on a consonant for
one on a vowel .

3 .
—
Metri cal Memori s ati on Th e
master signifi es by .

hopps a series of attacks of sound regularly measured

”

and accentuated T h student memorises their number

. e

and accentuation and repeats them , .

4 . Rapid Concepti on of Ti me by the E ye a nd E ar .

Study of musical symbols stave and clefs Metrical , , .

expression by breathing movements or vocal sounds , ,

Of series of measured notes written on the blackboard

or sung by the master .

5 . P ercepti on of the P i tch (of Sou nds Sung) by Means

D mi Mu s cular student learns toSens e — Th e
f y
o na c

dif erentiate vocal sounds from the sensation produced

f ,

by the varying degrees of tension of the vocal chords ,

and according to the localisation of sound vibrations .

H is hand laid on his chest neck jaw nose or brow

, , , , , ,

enables him by means of the different forms of reso

,

nance of vibrations to realise the pitch of the notes

,

emitted Study f the relations between the intensity

. O

and pitch of sound Study of major and minor keys

. .

Recognition and imitation of selected notes in the scale .

D ivers modes of setting a series of note s to rhythm .

Reading melodies .
 R h y t h m, S ol fege , I m prov is at io n 1 33

6 . A ppli cati on to the Voi ce of E xerci s es i n Spontane

ou s Wi ll and I nhi bi ti on S
ubstitution to order in a
— , ,

melo dic rhythm of the voice for bodily movements , ,

and vi e ver a Spontaneous accentuation and punctu

c s .

ation at signs from the master Sudden ch ecks and .

resumption of th e song at other signs .

7 E
. xerci ses i n Con cen trati on . Creati on o f Men tal
H eari n o Sou nds g The student sings a melody or a
—
f .

scale At the word hopp he ceases Singing and con

.
,

ti n u es the melody or scale in thou ght Aural perception .

of the harmonics of a sound D istinguishing the tone .

of a particular voice !from a medley of others singing

or talking etc , .

8 . A s s oci ati on o
f Con ti n u ou s B odi ly Movements wi th
Sus tai ned Vocal Sou nds . Thei r Combi n ati on wi th I n
terrupted Movements .

9 . E xerci s es i n th e A cqu i si ti on o f Vocal A u tomati sms ,

and thei r Combi nati on s a nd A lternati on s w i th Vocal

E xpress i on s The student sings a
o f Spontan eou s Wi ll —
scale according to a certain rhythm At the word .

“
hopp he continues the scale on another rhyth m
,
”
.

Or he may after singing a s eries of thirds or ,

fourths etc sing another interval at command

,
.
, .

Or again while singing the scale he may have to jump

, ,

to one or oth er of the notes at a sign from the master ,

etc .

10, I I and , 12 . A ppli cati on f Rhythmi c

o E xerci ses to
Vocal Reali s ati on .
— C hains of rhythms , i . e .
,
imita
 R hyt h m S ol feg e I mp rov i s at i on
, ,
135

sing first the higher then the lower part H will , . e

listen to a succession Of chords and reproduce each ,

vocal line one after the other etc

, , .

18 .
—
E moti onal A ccentu ati on Dynami c a nd A gogi c
N u ances (The student is trained
Mus i ca l E xpress i on) -

to accentuate the important notes of a rhythm to ac ,

celerat or retard e f
efect r scendi or de s ndi fi t , c e cre ce ,
-
rs

by instinct then by analysis Study of the relations

, .

between the pitch and accentuation of s ou n d s .

I

19 . E xerci ses i n N otati on o f Melodi es , P olyphoni es ,

and H armoni c Successi ons .

20 . student
E xerci s es i n Vocal I mprovi s ati on .
—The
sings a melody upon a given rhythm or improvises “

rh yth in s upon successions f notes of equal duration O .

21and 2 2 Condu cti ng of Rhythms student

. .
—
The
l earns a melody by heart then conducts it before a ,

g oup of students who interpret it according to his i n

r ,

dicati on s The same for melodies in several parts

. .

As wil l be seen al l these exercises in solf ege corre ,

s pond number for number with those in rhythmic

, ,

movement The student will also learn to distinguish

.

keys according to the method described in my E ay

,
ss

i n th R fo m of Mu i cal E du ati on (pp 8 t

e e r q) s c . e se ,

and applied in the three volumes on Solf ege already

refe red to H may then commence the study of
r . e

I
S th
ee l f ph i g d
e ru es o t ti i th 3 l itl d
ras n an accen ua on n e vo s . en t e

L G mm s t l T li té (J bi
es a e Ci Publi h
e esL )
ona s o n e
,
s ers , ausanne .
1 36 R hy t h m Mu s ic , , an d E duc at i on
harmony C ontrol of the progressions is assured by
.

his feeling for movement faculties of concentration , ,

hearing and listening (cultivated by his rhythmic train

,

ing) and sense of muscular force regul ating the ac

,

curacy f the voice Before transcribing successions of

O .

chords he w ill feel them resonate w ithin him A pp

, . re

ci ati n g the connection between melody and movement ,

there will remain the o ordination of movement melo c -

,

dy and harmony
, H will then be in a position to un . e

de t k e the study of
r a

PI AN OFORTE I MP ROV I SA T ION ,

i . rapid and spontaneous instrumental composition

e .
, .

For this section of musical education which is the ,

synthesis of all the others the student will require a ,

special technique for fingers hand and arm etc , , , .

,

facilitated like that in solfege by his training in rhythm

, ,

i cmovement The above exercises w ill therefore .

have to be adapted to new requirements created by

instrumental technique These will naturally embrace .

the special and universally know n exercises without ,

which it would be impossible to acquire perfect virtu

o i ty
s But we must point out that what pianists call
.

“
technique is too ften confused w ith simple rapidity
”
O .

D ancers of the old school though possessing t ao ,

ex r r

di n a y velocity are devoid alike of bala nce in

r ec u t ,
ex

ing continuous movements and of feeling for correct

nuances phrasing and successions of harmonised ges
, ,

tures and yet they pass with spectators and critics

—
, ,

for past masters in virtuosity the word vi tuosity ,

r

bein g to them synon ymou s with velocity ! Th e same

, ,
 R hy t h m S ol fege I m , , p r o v s a t i
o i n 137

is apt to happen with regard to instrumental virtuosity ,

whi ch becomes a mere exercise in rapid movements ,

failing to produce that unity of perceptive and reflective

sensorial and analytical activities which alone can con ,

duce to perfection of style E very musical m an ifesta .

tion should rest on a joint physical and intellectual

basis demonstrating the inseparability of body from
,

soul If instrumental technique is to produce a mere

.

mechanical flexibility of fi ngers why not replace these ,

by even more effi ciently flexible machines ? For our

purposes the ideal technique can only be attained by
a constant collaboration of fingers and brain allying ,

muscular sensations with emotional feeling A musical .

vi rtuos o requires more t h an mere agility and physical

power vitality and instinct for decorative effects he

, ,
:

requires in addition diversity of touch in slow as in

, , ,

quick movements in runs as well as in mel odic phrases ; ,

balance of dynamic effects ; the art of musical breath “

ing that is of establishing regulated contrasts ; and

, ,

the art of adapting to his particular temperament the

individualistic e ffects of the great om pos I k now c ers .
I

few pianists capable of treating a run as a simple “ ”

acceleration of speed in the musical realm of ideas and

feelings and who refrain from isolating the particular
,

lin e of the run from the n mbl of divers opposing or e se e

converging lines constituting the architecture of the

piece .

W h ld m ti th
I
e s ou m k bl w k b y Mll B l
en on h S l
e re ar a e or e . an c e e va ,

on Pi f T h iq
an o orte i wh i h m y b f
ec d h igh ly i
n ue i g b
n c a e ou n n teres t n o

s ervati th p h y i l g y f m
on s on m t
e h pi s o oTh i o ov e en s a t t e an o . e exerc ses

of th S l m th d lik
e e va mb f h L
e h i ky Ph ilipp
o ,
d
e a nu er O t e esc et z , , an

M t h y m th d
a t a b d di t b ti n f th tu l
e o s, are as e on rec o s erv a o o e na ra

rh yth ms of th e hand and arm

 R hyt h m S ol fege I mprov i s at i on
, ,
1 39

measures (du ol t triol ets qu ad iol ts qu in tol t etc )

e s, , r e ,
e s, .

in every tone and tempo The same with arpeggios .

and successions of chords Regular accentuations in .

unequal beats (alternations of du ol ts and triolets e ,

q u ad i ol trs andesextolets Irregular and pathetic

,

accentuations at the word hopp Application of all “

.
”

these exercises to different rhythmic formul a e .

3 . Metri cal Memori s ati on .

—The student plays scales
and successions of chords not specially accentuated By .

means of the command hopp the master calls for a

” “
,

series of notes regularly or irregularly barred and a

,
c

cen tu at d The student memorises their number and

e .

accentuation and repeats them (without

,

4 . Rapi d Concepti on o f Ti me by the E ye and E ar .

The master plays softly at a second piano scales in

'

, ,

various times of rhythms The student at once imi .

tates (i n syncopation) the rhythms and ac centuations ,

noticing the repetition of accents which he afterwards ,

reproduces from memory The same with successions .

of chords The student plays chords or mel odies upon

.

rh yth ms indicated on the blackboard .

5 . Study of Rhythms i n Space by Means f

o th e Muscu
lar —
Sense Thestudent with his eyes closed directs
, ,

his arms to different points of the keyboard and meas ,

ures the distance between these points according to the ,

greater or lesser amplitude of the movements and the ,

difference of the muscular sensations they call forth .

While playing a scale the master s hopp instructs,

’ “

him to skip an octave two octaves or a third fifth etc

, , , , .
1 40 R hy t h m Mu s ic , , and E duc ation
6 . A ppli cati on of E xerci ses i n Spontaneou s Will and
The master s hopp
I nhi bi ti on to P i ano playi ng -
.
— ’ “ ”

calls pauses and resumptions of playing changes of

for ,

rhythm and tone chords transpositions va iations of

, , , r

pace altern ations of nuances etc

, , .

7 . Exerci ses i n Concentrati on . Mental H eari ng .

While executing a succession of chords the student ,

pauses to hear mentally the chord he ought to play .

P laying only three parts in a chorale for four voices ,

and following the fourth part in his mind etc , .

A ss oci ati ons A m d l Movements — The

8 . o f r a n Voca .

student sings a continuous melody which he aecom ,

pani s by chords or scales and vi e v r a

c , c e s .

9 . E xerci ses f or the A cqui s i ti on of N u merou s A uto

mati s ms , and thei r Combi nati on and A ltern ati on wi th
A cti on s o S
f pontan eou s student executes
Voli ti on .
-
Th e
a fixed rhythm concentrating on its m lodi ation and
, e s

harmonisation At the word hopp he must invent a

.
,
”

rhythm f a different order Or vi v a the hopp

O .
,
ce ers ,
“

evokes a modulation simultaneously with a change of

rhythm or a change of rhythm in only one of the h ands
, ,

etc Th voice follows the melody played on the piano ;

. e

at hopp it suddenly opposes a different melody or

”

—
another rhythm the hopp elicits changes of time ”
,

suppressions or additions of beats or fragments of ,

rhythms etc ,
.

10 , 1 1 , and 12 . A ppli cati on o f Rhythmi c E xerci s es to

P i an oforte E xecu ti on — P ractice of agogic nuances , c al
 R hyt h m S ol fege I m , , p ro v s a t o i i n 14 1

and ri tardandi ; of syncopations by

c ulated accelera ndi ,

anticipation and retardation ; of subdivisions of time

durations etc , .

E xerci s es i n Di s s oci ati ons M m — The

13 . o f ove en ts .

two hands playing with contrast of rhythm time nu , ,

anoes phrasing tone quantity o tone quality

, ,
-
, r -
.

14 . Study f
o Rests and P hras i ng .
—Sentences and

phrases ; different kinds of rests and anac uses Laws r .

of contrasts .

15 . Dou ble and Tri ple Speed and Slow nes s o f Move

ment — The student plays scales o successions Of cho ds

. r r

and at hopp augments o diminish es the pace doubly

,
“
, r

or trebly Agogic augmentation and diminution of

.

given rhythms C ombinations of double and half t ipl e .

, r

and double speeds etc , .

and 1 7 P lasti c Counterpoi nt and P olyrhythm

16 . .

The student s l eft h and pl ays a note or a ch ord on th e

’

second h al f of th e beat executed by th e right h and .

And vi ce versa Coun terpoint in duol ts triolets quad

. e , ,

riolets etc Di fferent rhyth ms and beats in either

,
.
,

hand and exercises in canon Study of va ious kinds

,
. r
—
of counterpoint pianoforte counterpoint to vocal
themes and vi ce vers a Polydynamics . .

18 . P atheti c accen tu ati on— —

N uances Laws of Ex
p res s i on
— S tudy of relations between h a mony and r

rh yth m ,
I
ch ords and accentuations agogics and dyna ,

See fifth p art of th e D alc roz e meth od : L I mprovi s ati on

’
et l
’
ac co m
po ne
g ment on pi ano (J o in b Ci e, Lausanne) .
( In preparation .
)
 A T
CH P E R V II

E U RHYTHMI C S A N D MU SI C AL C O MP O SITION
( 1 91 5 )

Rhythm i n n atu re— Th eor y f

o th e born —
mu s i ci an E xperi
—
men ts i n mu si cal rhythm Contra s ts betw een movement and
, ,
—
i ts a rres ts s oun ds a nd s i lences N ew meth od of n oti n g ti me
valu es —
Un equal beats A n alys i s of th e elemen ts of a rhythm
— Rhythmi c acti vi ty i n di ss oci ati on a n d oppos i ti on — Mu si cal
i i — h m i l
p er ods a n d th e a rt of ph ra s ng T e e ot on a efi ec ts of
res ts — A g ogi c n u an ces — Twi ce a n d three ti mes a s fa s t a nd as
s low — —
Ru bato Obs erva nce of the s ens e of ti me du rati on N ew
- —
educati on a nd methods .
 C HAP TE R V II

E URHYTHMI CS A N D MU SI CAL COMPO SI T I ON ( 191 5 )

H A V E you ever found yourself on some fine summer s ’

day lying on a grassy slope watching the trees quiver

,

ing with life and above them the clouds ploughing a

,

blue sky whilst a soft breeze stirs t h e leaves and

,

branches and causes the co nfi lds to undulate r e .

At first you wil l be conscious only of a vast collective

movement a colossal harmony of sounds and rhythms
,

then little by little your eye and ear may dis

, ,

tin g ui h details of the symphony and discern in this

s ,

harmonious conglomeration a whole polyrhythm of in

comparable richness E ac h larger r hythm wil l split
.

into numerous distinct groups of smaller rhythms and ,

bl end or conflict with other movements of a different

order the aspect varying infinitely according to th e
,

deg ee of force of th e wind which brings it to birth

r .

Nature in her eternal movement vibrates both in

, ,

time and out of time The mighty rhyth m of th e uni

.

verse is a compound of myriads of synchronising

rhythms of infinite diversity eac h possessing individual
,

life One cannot witness this polyrhyth m without won

.

dering th at such rhythmic profusion as nature pours

forth whilst providing virtually the painter s whole
,
’

inspiration so seldom appears to move or inspire the

,

musician Music is a combination of rhythm and

.

10 1 45
 E u rh y th m ic s
have any influence on temperament On this is based .

the verdict of ce tain seers th at rhythmic movement

r

can be of no direct serv ice to the art of music ; for (they

tell you) on the one h and it has nothing to teach th e born
, ,

musician and on the oth er a person not born a musician

, , ,

can never be made one ! This theory w hich is h eld by ,

many musicians will not hold water Eurh yt hmi cs

, .
”

re v als o i h
e bo n m usician a host f sub conscious
e " r - .
O -

resources which h e coul d otherw ise acquire onl y by

,
.

dint of long years f l abo io/ "

us and repeated person al
O r

resea ch es and expe iments ( On th e other hand alone

r r .
,

among all systems f mu i c k edu tion eurhythmics O s a ca ,

is capable of awakening dormant or mor

ment of provoking in the organism th e
,

sary for establishing the control and b

resistances and of b inging to consciousness
,
r ,

of the h armonisation of cerebral and moto

and the canalisation of ne vous forces r ,

among all systems of musical education ,

is capab l e of awakening dormant or mo

p a
er m nt ef p ovoking,
inO t h e rorganism the conflicts
necessary fo establis hing the contro l and balance of
r

resistances and of b inging to consciousness by means

,
r ,

of the h armonisation of cerebra l and motor centres and ,

th e canalisation of nervous force undreamt of sou ces

of creative and artistic vital ty s
, r
) i .

I t is impossibl e fo those specialising in music to r

judge eurhythmics from a public demonstration The .

minute work of analysing and constructing rhythms

can only be appreciated in the lessons and then only ,

by persons who are themselves actually taking part

with thei whol e body and mind i personall y xp ri
r , . e
.
, e e
1 48 R hy t h m Mus ic , , and E duc a t i on
them A public demonstration can exhibit only
en ci n g .

th e results conveying no idea of the enormous diffi ul

, c

ties body and mind encounter in combating nervous

resistances and in performing their rhythmic functions
,

in calm and concentration .

But apart from its general bearing on the human

,

organism eurhythmics exercises a further influence on

,

—
the art of music itself an influence that will assume a
definite s h ape only when creative artists of all kinds
have thoroughly assimilated its principles put them ,

into practice and extended their scope

, At the .

same time fifteen years of assiduous research have

,

accumulated a ufli i n t amount of evidence of the

s c e

potential creative powers (from the strictly musical

point of view) of the method to justify the publication
of its principles It would require a whole volume to
.

expound the detailed processes of our experiments and ,

the concatenation and association of ideas which they

have brought to light and it is to be feared that a sum
,

mary exposition of certain of ou r claims will appeal to

some minds as mere amiable paradoxes We are con .

fid n t however that others better trained wil l i m

e , , , ,

mediately grasp the essentials of our system and it is ,

to them that we dedicate th ese suggestions which only

time can fully justify .

In no other system is rhythm treated with the peda

o
g g i care
c accorded to other branches of musical science .

Berlioz in a too little read chapter deplores the omis

,
- -
,

sion from conservatoire programmes of special classes ,

in rhythm and indicates the numerous researches that

,

migh t b e unde t aken and th e profound studies to

r ,
 E urh y th m ic s 1 49

which a musician should devote himself in this totally ,

unexplored region of musical movement and dynamics .

H however neglected to place musical rhythm and

e, , ,

to give a clear idea of the part it plays in musical

composition We can judge a work of architecture only
.

in relation to the space in which it is constructed ; and ,

similarly musical rhythms can be appreciated only in e

,
r

lation to t h atmosphere and space in which they move

e .

T np er th words mu i cal rhythm an b app

,
i at d on ly
s c e rec e

l t on to s i lenc and i mmobi li ty Stu dy the condi

”

in re a i e

tions of silence and you at once create the necessity

from the human as from the a sthetic point of view e

of furnishing it with its natural counterpoise — sound

— which in breaking it sets in relief its enormous recu
, ,

p er a ti v and
e, consequently emotional
,
capacities M u , .

s i c al rhythmics is the art of establishing due proportion

between sound movement and static silence of oppos ,

ing them and of preparing for the one by means of the

,

other according to the laws of contrast and balan ce on

,

which all style depends ; according to the nuances of

time and dynamics that constitute the individuality ,

and the nuances of tone pitch and intensity of sound , ,

which create in music that higher element of a my ti s

cal and impersonal nature th at connects the individual ,

with the universe A rest in music is simply an inter .

ruption of the sound or a transference into the region ,

of internal h earing of phenomena of external h earing ‘

.

Unfortunately the ambition of most of ou present day

, r -

musicians would seem to be to annihilate silence in

sound ; and a regeneration of the art of music will
i
Th t wh il d
e res id f m
, m t i by
e m d
ev o i d f lif
o ov e en , s no ean s ev o o e .

(S C h p
ee a VI p g
t er , a e
 E urh yth mic s 15 1

to recording no matter wh at gradations of time by

, ,

reference to a single fixed symbol Th e foll owing is .

suggested : as a dot after a note (a prolongs the latter

by half its value two dots one on top of the other (a
, ,

shall be taken to prolong it by a quarter of its value and ,

three (6 5) by an eigh th of its value (See Appendix .

,

Ex .

Ti me Si g natures — We
propose a new method of indi
cating the time of a piece at th e beginning or ch anges ,

in the course of its devel opment In many cases the .

present signatures are neither clear nor consistent I n .

indicating a 3 b ar th e fi gure 3 denotes th e number of

;
beats and the 4 the durati on of each beat ; but in writ
,

ing g th e fi gure 6 instead of denoting t h e numbe of

, r

beats denotes th eir sub divisions etc I t would be pre

,
-
, .

fe ab le to utilise t h e fi rst number to indicate consistentl y

r

the number of beats and to denote the duration of each

,

beat by the symbol corresponding to th at duration .

( See Appen di x E x , .

A lternati ng B ars — There

is no reason to insist upon
.

regu l ar bar lengths t h roug h out an entire piece

-
In most .

folk songs th e mel ody is subject to i egu l arities of meas

-
rr

ure . It is onl y in the conventional and cl assical works of

th e l ast two or three centuries that we fi nd a systematic
division into regul ar bars Far be it from us to object to
.

this classical regularity of bar time but seeing that eve y -

, , r

irregularity in a work of art must be th e product of an

emotion we suggest th at the question of the employ
,

ment Of irregular b ars should be the subject of special

anal ysis on t h e par t of every mu sici an We h ave set .
1 52 R h y th m Mus ic , , a nd E duc a tion
out briefly the divers causes of an emotional nature
that may justify the exceptional use of irregul ar b ars
in the most scientifically constructed music (See A p .

p en di x , Ex .

Th e Coi ncidence f
o Metre a nd —
H armony E very
change of time or rhythm calls for modifications in the
harmony Metre and harmony h ave a reciprocal influ
.

ence on each other and a succession of notes scanned ,

in threes requires a different harmonisation from one

scanned in fours The same sounds may be treated
.

either as integral parts of the harmony or as unessential

notes according to the metre And the res ul ting vari
,
.

ations of harmonisation apart from their metrical sig ,

n ifi an c e constitute an excellent exercise for the student

c ,

of h armony (S Appendix Ex . ee , .

A nacrus i s unity of a musical

a nd P hras i ng .
— T he
p hrase depends not only on the sh ape of its melody ,

but also on the logical use of its rhythmic elements .

If we closely analyse any classical work we shall find ,

that the impression of order which it conveys is due to

the fact that no element of form alien to the main idea ,

which is the product of a general emotion is allowed to ,

enter other than as a contrast to the elementary rhythm ,

on which the initial theme is based Mathis Lu s y one . s ,

of the pioneers in the study of the physiology of rhythm ,

has w itten a book wholly devoted to anacrusis which

r ,

every musician has read or should read ‘ T

his is not .

the place to insist on the importance of the anacrusis

L A
t
’
by M th i L y (
n acrous e, H g l é di t b i R
a V
si i u ss eu e ,
eur , 2 s, ue v

enne , Pari s) .
 E urh y th mic s 153

in musical phrasing An analysis of the el ements con .

s ti tu ti n g a very simple rhythm (see Appendix E 5) ,

x .

will however indicate the profound modifications

, ,

in the plastic aspect of a rhythm and in its i nfl u ,

ence on the sound of that rhythm introduced by an ,

anacrusis .

Contras ts of A cti vi ty a nd Repos e — H aving

established
the relations and manner of combination of the divers
elements of a rhythm we must next show how by the — ,

repetition of rhythms alternating either with rests (con ,

t as ts of activity and repose ) o with the opposition of

r r
—
different rhythms one achieves the logical construction
Of musical phrases .

Al l a t is based o n contrasts on antith eses Pi to

r _ - -
, . c

ial aft d p n d on contrasts of light and shade on

m n
m
'
‘

r e e s ,

contrasts and shades of colour The art of architecture .

consists of contrasts of lines and plastic material In .

music the simpl e development of primordial rhythmic

,

el ements produces an effect of monotony After every .

form of activity our h uman nature requires to re cuper

,

ate by resting or changing the nature of its movement .

—
To s tudy t h e nature of contrasts the nuances of o a

tiv ity an d of its antith eses and of t h eir carefully bal ,

an c ed manifestations and the h armony of opposing ‘

movements in th e individual under the influence of

feelings and sensations is to surprise the secrets of
—

sentient and sensitive life itself (S Appendix E . ee , x .

We h ave now shown the fundamental laws according

to which balance may be established between the dif
 E urhyt h mic s 15 5

of regu lari ty,in the same way th at the twelve foot -

rhythm of an al exan d ine since V ictor H ugo is

, r , ,
re

tained intact t h oug h those twelve feet previously sev

, ,

e ab l only into 6 and 8 may now be split into sections

r e ,

of three fou s four threes six twos and even into varia
r , , ,

tions of fou and eight three five and four etc Far
r , , , , .

from abruptness the style has thereby acquired a n ew

,

flexibility Exactly th e same is happening in music

. .

It is necessaril y difficult to describe in words the broad

value of this new means of musical expression and
shading already used by a few musicians l ike Ravel ,

Cyril Scot t St av ms k y etc T h ose who are impervious

,
r ,
.

to the psycho physiological appeal of these emotional

-

irregularities could never be moved to employ them ,

or — i f they were wou l d not be able to employ them

,

naturally E ducation may however if undertaken in

.
, ,

time repair all such deficiencies (See Appendix E

,
.
, x .

—
subdivision into three shorte
Changes f o P ace Th e r

notes of an isolated beat in a bar whose regul ar beats ,

— —
are twofol d or vi v r a may be adopted in the suc
ce e s

c eeding bars as a regular subdivision and t h us initiate a ,

quicker or slower pace as th e case may be That is the

, .

real meaning and purpose of the agogic nuances d sig e

nated under th e approximate indications of u n poco pi n

lento or u n poco pi u a ni mato; it may also help us to ap

p rec i ate t h e s o called ru ba t
-
o in Hungarian music whic h ,

is not a real rubato but whose effects of contrasted move

,

ments are produced by the establishment as time unit ,

-
,

O f neit h er the crotchet nor the quaver but t h e s emi ,

quaver (See Appendix E x

.
, .
15 6 R h y th m Mu s ic , , and E duc atio n
Res ts The rest in music is the negative equival ent of
—
the sound duration that it replaces ; and in
-
ly ou n d ,
v erse ,
s

is the positive equivalent of the rest for which it is sub

stituted The art of music might derive enormous
.

benefit from a new conception f musical sound as con O

t apu n tal to silence (rests ) instead of as obliterating the

r

latter as is the present practice Actually the maxi

, .
,

mum time occupied by rests in the course of a sym

phony lasting three quarters of an hour is not more
-

than two or three minutes We smile at the ineptness .

of a painter who overloads his canvas with colour but ,

it never occurs to us to question the taste of the com

poser i n according an infinitesimal place to the sol e
element of contrast that can throw sound movement -

—
into adequate relief the rest A rest serves to conceal .

preparation for succeeding activities T h length of . e

this preparation for future action depends on the cause

of the preceding arrest of activity .

Movement may be suspended

(a) by sudden exhaustion ;
(b) by progressive exhaustion .

Th e interruption that is the t may be followed

, , res ,

( )
a by an immediate resumption of energy and
activity ;
(b) by a slow recuperation of energy .

In each of these cases the preparation for the rest , ,

and the resumption f movement are of different na O ,

ture and speed .

T hrough rests music may acquire a third dimension

,

length breadth and d pth (the rest like a note value

, ,
e ,
-
,

penetrates so to peak the volume of the rhythm)

,
S , .

P rovision is made for rests in every art save music , ,

 E urh y th mic s 15 7

which alone pours itself out in a constant flow of nerv

Ou s energy in incessant volubility insu fficiently pun o
, ,

tu at d for breathing purposes

e Imagine four persons .

all talking vigo ously at once r According to th e .

cl assic symphonic procedure there may be an occa ,

s ion al lull w h ile one or ot h er O f them is silent

, But there .

will aways be at l east one to continue the discussion .

And with what prolixity and self assurance ! This shows -

a fundamentally fal se conception the compl ete rest ,

forming one of the most natural elements of contrast .

A rest while deprived of movement is by no means

, ,

deprived of vibration While the sound is ar

.

rested th e external rhythm becomes internal and con

, ,

tinu s to vibrate in the hearer s organism Silence may

’
e .

be more eloqu nt th an speech Succeeding sound it

e .
,

perpetuates the l atter in the soul of the auditor

Wheth er in music or in conversation We recal l
, .

Moliere s couplet :
’

A sigh , or a blu h a l ok of d
s , or o ir
es p a ,

O even r a s il n the he rt m y l
e ce, a a ay b re a .

(See Appendix ,
Ex .

Twi ce and Three Ti mes as Qui ck ly a nd Slow ly—Un

der the impul se of particular emotions rhythms may

quicken or sl acken Musical form establish ed on.
,

sound traditions admits the possibility of a double or

,

quadruple half or quarter speed of binary rhythms ;

, ,

of triple or sextupl e third or sixth speed of ternary

, ,

rhythms Why not double the speed of terna y or

. r ,

tripl e t h at of binary rh ythms an entirely new deve l

—
 E u h y th mic s
r 159

until h e has assimilated the media of expression pro

d u d by the practice f one O other system of educa
ce O r

tion by and in rhythm E xercise develops our organs

. .

Musical educationalists h ave only to meet in sympathy ,

and coll aborate for th e cause of eurhythmics to be won

, .

In twenty years time the new methods we are advo

’
,

cating will h ave become classic For th e time being .

we are up against not only th e indifference but even ,

the resistance of certain musicians These negative .

spi its who disparage or denounce original works

r
—
without attempting to understand th em are often
—
mere grousers disillusioned alike as to themselves
“
,
” ‘

and their calling Others scorn the new out of venera

.

tion for the old They at least may be respected

.
, , ,

and even have their uses acting as signposts on the ,

road to progress reminding pioneers that their work

,

can live so long only as it constitutes a logical evolution

out of past endeavour E urhythmics requires for its
.

ideal manifestation the intimate wh ole hearted col ,

-

lab o ati on of a great pianist a great singer a g eat

r , , r

master of harmony a great conductor and several a

, , c

complished instrumentalists one and all devoting heart

—
and soul to their work D urable artistic works are
.

not created out of mere intuition : th ey demand a com

p l ete mastery of t h eir art by t h e accumulation ,of
experience on expe ience Artists of th e present day
r .

are manifestly deficient in feeling for simple time dura -

tions and their potential nuances They are careful to .

avoid wrong notes and w ong h armonies but remain r ,

blissfully unconscious of correct time val ues Has one -

.

ever known a critic protest against mistakes of this

sort ? And yet for musicians who have studied eu
,
1 60 R h y th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati o n
rhythmics and possess the time sense the degrees of -
,

time duration constitute a scale of shades to be as

-

carefully follow ed as variations f pitch I nt r ali a O . e a,

whole new literature for the organ will be produced once

—
organists have acquired this sense of time that in t u s r

ment being deprived of all nuances of a tactile nature .

Obviously a revolution in style cannot be a om

, cc

p l
s i hed in a day E very
. style is the product of the
ideas and practices of the period But how are modern .

ideas ever to take definite shape so long as our musicians

refuse to discard the methods Of the past to adopt ,

even the means of attaining progress ; while th ey refuse

even to investigate the claims of those whose instinct
informs them of possibilities of expression hitherto u n
though t of ? E ducation by and in rhythm is in e ffect
no more th an a collation and development of th e ideas
that are everywhere in the air Thus unequal beats .
,

unconsciously employed by a few of our musicians are ,

in constant use in the E ast The whole art of musical .

expression may be enrich ed by the new sensibility

resulting from the acquisition of a sense of time dura -

tion and all its nuances I n seeking to initiate compos

.

ers of to morrow into the l ogic of unequal bars unequal

-
,

beats three times as fast and other rhythmical devices ,

our intention is by no means to influence them to com

pose in a new style but merely to assure a greater
,

scope for the expression of their genuine emotional

impul ses Admittedly our illustrations are for the most
.
,

part examples of irregular form ; but on the one hand , ,

irregularity as an exceptional device w ill serve to throw

, ,

regularity into relief and on the other a succession of

, , ,

i rregul arities constitutes in effect a new form of regu

, ,
 Eu rh y th mic s 16 1

lari ty The alternation of styles is a powerful means of

.

musical expression since in music more than in any

, ,

other art contrast plays an active part in th e structu e

,
r .

It goes without saying lay stress on th e repeti

— we
—
tion that the utilisation of these divers new rhythmic
processes for purposes Of musical composition will be
possible only after a careful process of assimilation .

Th e initiation of musicians susceptible only to external

,

phenomena into th e harmonic devices of men like

,

Debussy Sc h onberg or Stravinsky can inspire only

, , ,

artificial insincere and consequently inexpressive pro

, ,

du c tions Similarly the application of t h e many means

.
,

of modifying rhythms by doubling and tripling t h e

speed or slowness of isolated beats by dissociations or ,

irregular groupings of sounds etc will produce only ,

il lusory effects of virtuosity so l ong as this new tech ,

nique is not suffi ciently engrained in the composer as

to be directl y and unconsciously subservient to his men
tal processes It is to be feared that much water will
.

flow under the bridge before our rhythmic education

will h ave s uffi ciently penetrated and modified mental i
ties and organisms for its potential e ffects to be em
ployed with ease and grace Our primary concern as —
.

—
we h ave Said before is that musicians trained in the
meth ods of yesterday should devote themselves to the
study Of those of to morrow Not until then wil l piano
-
.

forte masters realise the beneficial influence of educa

tion by and in rhythm on the study of instrumental
technique and teachers of composition appreciate the
,

necessity of ever more closely o ordinating sound and c -

—
movement ear feeling and temperament
, , .
 C HAP TER V III
MU SI C J OY , , A N D T HE SC HOOL (n 5)

—
The school i n relati on to s oci ety and thefami ly The n ervou s
s ys tem a nd s ens i bi li ty i n g en era l— What i s musi c Vari ous
musi cal pedagog u es reali s e thei r defici enci es and the n eed for
reform — — —
Th e pres en t cu rri cu lum E s s ence of musi c Rhythm
an d — P ers onal
ton ali ty rhyth mi c eri en ces a nd mental
p
ex

development Wha t s hou ld be taug ht i n mus i c les s ons at pri

—
mary s ch ools — —
Th e ear and temperament The j oy
— —
k n owledg e J oy and wi ll power J oy and the s oci al s ense
-

Good — ‘
habi ts A rt and s chool fétes .
 C HAP TE R V I I I To A E LB RT MA LC H E
M U SI C , J OY , A N D T H E SCH O O L ( 1 91 5 )

SCHOO L is a preparation fo life : in other words the r ,

chil d on leaving school should be in a position not

, ,

only to ful fil the dive s obligations of social life but r ,

al so to exe cise his wil l in his practical affairs according

r ,

to his pa ticula temperament and without impinging

r r

on th e ights of oth ers And the training at school of

r .
, ,

his brain body wil l and sensibility should be under

, , , , ,

taken simultaneously ; no one of these four indispensable

factors being n eglected in favour of another Imagine .

th e horrible possible consequences for exampl e of

, , ,

developing body at th e expense of brain ! And of wh at

use is brain without will ? And again must not brain ,

and will combined remain ine ffectual so long as th ey ,

are not regulated controlled and harmonised by mo al

, ,
r

sensibility
I contend that schools ignore the training of sensi
bili ty with deplorable results on the development of
,

cha acter It is to say th e least of i t strange that

r — .
—
with the existing prevalence of neurasth nia no attempt e ,

is made to direct the boundless desires arising from ill

controll ed feelings ; that in newly developed countries , ,

wh e e for the most part will power is concentrated

r , ,
-
,

with a marked absence of scruple on the attainment ,

of commercial success educationalists sh ow no anxiety ,

165
1 66 R hy th m Mu s ic , , and E duc ati on
to awak en the moral sense of the coming generation ,

while in countries whe e too l ong established tradi tions

r

h ave a cramping influence on th e development of indi

v i du ali ty no resort is made to expedients for a rousing
,

temperament And yet the means are at hand whereby

.

the coming generation might be trained to a greate r

flexibility of spirit a firmer will power an intellect

,
-
,

less dry and exclusive more refined instincts a rich er

, ,

life and a more complete and profound compreh ension

,

of the beautiful .

A mere professional musician shoul d perhaps h esitate

to approach a problem of such enormous Scope So .

many pedagogues regard music as a mere seconda y r

branch of knowledge entitled only to th e l ast and least

,

pl ace in the school curricul um a poor beggarly subject : , ,

scarcely worthy of notice And yet th e g eatest minds . r

of ancient and mode n times have assigned to it an edu

r

c ati on al Ole of t h e hig h est significance

r To th e ch arge .

of trespassing on the domain of education proper the ,

musician has only to invoke the autho ity of P lato and r

most of the Greek philosoph ers He migh t likewise e . r

fer to Montaigne Helvetius Locke Leibnit Rousseau

, , , z, ,

Goethe and Schiller for evidence th at eve y heal thy

, ,
r
—
educational system that is every system based on the ,

intimately eciprocal reaction of body and mind feeling

r ,

—
and thought assigns a pre eminent pl ace to music and -

the arts subservient to it .

Th e fact th at in ou schools not more th an one or

,
r

two h ours a week are devoted to music goes far to ,

Show that the word music has acquired an enti ely

“ ”
r

new si gnificance in our own educational system it has :

come to stand for th e mech anical production or rather , , ,

 Mus ic Joy , , a nd the S c h oo l 1 67

rep oduction of
r
—
sounds a
practice th at depends ex
c lu s i v ely on imitation and t h e end and aim of wh ic h is
,

to cram th e chil d s mind with a certain number of sen

’

timen tal tunes of the st o ck pattern This certainly is .

a conception of music very different from th at associ

ated with th e great names mentioned above Fo these . r

masters music represented a sort Of compromise b e

tween i nspi aton and form th e art of self expression

r ,
-

by personal r hythm .

Far be it from us to bring charges against any one .

We h ave no desire in freely expressing our profound

,

convictions to o ffend a h ost of educationalists many

, ,

of whom incidentally are entirely at one with us in

, ,

the matter Th ese we bel ieve h ol d as we do th at in

.
, , , ,

many cases th e relegation O f music to th e background

of th e school curriculum is due to l ack of musical
knowledge on th e part of th e teaching staff I t is grati .

fying to us to k now that a considerable number O f

members of th e teaching profession recognise the inade
q u a c y of t h eir educa tion in music and dec l are that , ,

themsel ves never having received a good musical edu

cation they are unable to bestow such on oth ers It
, .

is beyond dispute th at at th e present time there is , , ,

almost from all sides an urgent cal l for the reform of

,

ou r musical education Yet th e greatest confusion p e

. r

vail s as to th e means of effecting this reform ; othe r

wise i t woul d be simply unaccountable th at despite ,

th e protests of al l musicians not music but a mere , ,

imitation of music continues to be taught in most

,

schools NO heed is paid to the appeals of competent

.

authorities ; and whenever this important question is

,

raise d , th e dul lest dilettantism appears to preside

 Mu s ic Joy , , and t he S c h oo l 169

probl em b e solved We h ave a long way to travel

.

before th at point is reach ed Yet may we not leg iti

.
,

mately ask of th ose upon whom the whole music al

training of our youth depends that they sh all at least ,

regard music not as a pastime but as an art

—
,th at th ey
sh al l treat it and teach oth ers to treat it with respect
, ,

if not with love as becoming to an art that in a wel l

, ,

o rganised social scheme shoul d impress every manifes

,

tation of beauty wit h the cachet we call styl e .

So long as society is badly organised so l ong wil l man ,

be unabl e to give thought to beauty Once given the .

opportunity he wil l become a devotee of art so far as

, ,

his innate capacities wil l al low him .

I t is not th e function of education to deve l op isolated

individuals I ts mm is far removed and higher : nothing
.

Sh o t of t h e progressive deve l opment of t h e race t h e

r ,

perfecting of its though t and taste One cannot cure .

~

th e disease of ignorance by increasing one s own know ’

l edge I t is a question of taking p ecautionary meas

. r

ures for future guidance of i nflfi fi bing the outlook

,

and disposition of th e coming generation and so mould ,

ing it as to ensure the transmission to future generations

of a strongly social instinct and more intense l ove of
truth .

To confi ne musical education to th e teaching of a few

patriotic songs is to give th e child an idea of th e ocean “

by showing him a drop of water in a glass A tune is .

”

nothing oth e than a feeling expressed in a particul ar

r
e —
language music What is the use of giving children
.

sentences to learn by h eart in a language of which they

are igno rant ? This absurdity is enacted daily in our
sch ool s in the name Of mus ic l essons ! We s h al l b e tol d .
1 70 R hy th m Mus ic, , and E duc ati on
th at this is an exaggeration that the lessons are not
,

confined to the teaching of patriotic airs that children ,

are also taught to read music at sight Admitted th at .

in some schools children actually a e taught to read r

music But how are th ey taught ? It is not so much

.

th e result as the method that matters (for our present

purposes) It is possible by means of certain mathe
.
,

matised and muscular processes to contrive to read ,

music without possessing the slightest feeling fo to r

n ali ty
. But it is p ecisely feeling for tonality that
r

should be created before everything forming as it

—
,

— —
does apart from rhythm the whole essence of music .

Tonality is the vertebral column of harmony A .

mel ody deprived of al l time and rhythm may yet

, ,

express feeling by means of gradations and contrasts of

tone and of modulations A method that professes to
.

teach children to read music and is not based on the

,

—
study of tonality or scales the relations between tones
and semitones must be dismissed as inadequate It
— .

may produce certain ephemeral results but it can ,

never contribute to the musical progress and general

development of the race And yet as educationalists
.
, ,

our aim must be ever in that direction This alone .

justifies in the first instance our forcing children to

, ,

attend school In their homes they are surrounded

.
,

by the influence of tradition ; school widens their h ori

zon teaching them that man s duty does not consist
,
’

in working for the passing moment but involves pre ,

paring for the future .

The most important element in music lessons should

be their general e ffect of awakening in the pupil a love
—
for the art ; for that purpose it i s necessary passin g
 Mu s ic Joy , , a nd the S c h ool I 7 I

from th e general to the —

particul ar to
initiate him into
the two primo rdial el ements of music rhyth m and tone : .

Rhyth m is t h e basis of al l vital scientifi c and artistic , ,

phenomena It produces al ike th e element of order

.

and measure in movement and th e idiosync acies of r

execution The study of rhyth m conduces to the for

—
.

mation of an individuality for all purposes of life that

is a manner of expressing onese lf according to th e
,

rhythm most natural and native to one s being which ’

again is largely dependent on one s constitution blood ’

circul ation and nervous system

Rh yth m
.
,

is ignored in our present educational system .

A vague attempt is made to inculcate some idea of

time but chil dren leave schoo l without knowing the
,

meaning of rhythm N 0 one surely now doubts that

.
, ,

rhythm originates in the body itself ! And it is worth

noting that the most gifted of all artistic peoples from ,

—
the rhythmic point of view the Greeks in marking —
the r hyth m of th eir verses designated the rhythmic
,

unit by the term foot which usage has passed into

“
,
”

most modern l anguages And yet we have long ceased

.

to scan verses by means of bodily movement and ,

rhythm has become a purely intellectual conception .

That is why children find it so di ffi cul t to acquire a

feeling for music rhyth m in reading at sight And we
, .

are reduced to th e necessity of deliberately seve ing for r ,

purposes of sch ool training th e two fundamental and

equally important ele ments of music movement and
,

—
tone To teach them simultaneously would confuse
.

the child and compromise th whole effect of the train e

ing T h child must therefore forego the study and

. e

analysis of keys u ntil he is wel l practised in rhythmic

,
 Mus ic Joy , , and th e Sc h ool 1 73

6 . Are you of opinion that by t aining even medi ,

r ,

oc e faculties may be deve l oped ?

r

A nsw er: Yes .

Th e unanimity Of the replies all intell igent folk will

return to t h ese questions justifi es us in declaring t h at

th e present system of musical education should be com

p l e tely reformed We must.begin by setting children
exercises in hearing music ; for strange though it may ,

seem in very few countries is this the present procedure !

,

We must again apologise to those of our colleagues

wh o h av e improv i ed hearing exercises in their pa ticu
s -
r

lar classes We realise th at many of them sh are our

.

views and we are extreme ly gratified But we are now

,
.

spe aking O f our sch ool syllabus according to which ,

music lessons comprise making chil dren h ear what they

do not understand read wh at they cannot understand
, ,

and write down wh at they h ave never l earnt or felt .

I may be tol d th at in every class th ere will be found

some pupil s wh o h ear and understand perfectly .

G anted ; but they do so not as a result but i n pi te of

r , , s

th e training It does not follow in our Opinion th at

.
, ,

any one who can read music competently must meces

s arily be musical A person without any feeling for
.

music may read with great facility while another may ,

read extremely badly and yet possess exceptiona l mu

si c al gifts .

T h e essential is th at one should h ave a good ear and ,

so be able to appreciate th e infinite nuances of pitch

and of dynamism of sounds devel opments and oppo , ,

si tion s of rhythm and contrasts of ton ali ty ; and th at I

,

—
musical training should develop inner hea ing th at is r ,

See Ch apter V , p 95 . .
1 74 R hy th m Mus ic , , and E duc ati o n
th e capacity for h ea mg music as distinctly mentally
r

as physically E very method of teaching should aim

.
,

before everything else at awakening this capacity

, .

We hold also th at it should conduce to the development

of the individuality and the perfecting of the whole
,

mechanism of thought and feeling ; achieving in short , ,

th e co ordination of experience and memo y xp i

-
r , e er

ence and imagination the automatic and the conscious

, ,

the conscious and the requisites of temperament and

fantasy .

The training of sensibility and temperament should

precede that of the ear for rhythm (a product of the
,

bal ance Of active nervous forces ) is a fundamental ele

ment of music as of every oth er art and indeed of
, , , ,

every vital manifestation And even if his h ea ing . r

faculties should l ater prove insuffi cient to qualify th e

child to pass for a musician in the ordina y sense of , r

th e word the training we advocate will have served to

,

enable him so to speak to enter into his individuality

, , .

I nitiated into the marvellous mech anism of his body

”

given to him for consecration as a worthy dwel ling

—
place for th e soul confident of achieving without effort
or preoccupation any and eve y movement suggested r
—
by others or of his own volition th e child will expe i r

ence a growing yearning to mak e full use of th e abun

dant forces in his control His imagination will likew ise
.

develop as his mind released from al l constraint and

,

nervous disquietude gives full rein to his fantasy

,
.

Functioning develops the organ and the conscious ,

ness of organic functioning develops thought And as .

the child feels himself delivered from al l physical em

b a ass m nt and mental Obses sion of a l owe r o rder
rr e ,
 Mu s ic Joy , , and th e S c h o ol 17 5

added to the sense acquired by the practice of com —

bining his individual e fforts with those of th e rest of
the class of participation in a collective movement
—
,

he will conceive a profound joy of an e l evated charac ,

ter a new factor in ethical prog ess a new stimulus to

,
r ,

will power -
.

I call this joy elevated because it wil l not be based ,

on external ci cumstances It wil l be distinct from

r .

pl easu e in that it becomes a permanent condition of

r ,

the being independent alike of time and Of the events

,

that have given rise to it ; an integral element of our

organism It will not necessaril y be accompanied by
.

l augh ter as is gaiety ; it may quite well make no ex

,

ternal display ; it will flowe in th e h idden recesses of r

th e ego in the mysterious garden of th e soul where

, ,

the sap of our individuality is secreted a sap that can ,

—
not be squandered which may be applied in eve y r

direction and never exh austed Joy arises in the ch il d

, .

th e moment his facul ties are liberated from any e r

straint and he becomes conscious of his contro l over

,

them and decides on the direction in w hich th at con

,

t ol shall be exercised This joy is the product of a

r .

joint sense of emancipation and responsibility com ,

prising a vision of our creative potentialities a balance ,

of natural forces and a rhythmic h armony of desires ,

and powers Germinating in th e creative faculties

‘ .
,

innate or acquired th is joy increases in proportion as ,

our powers develop and ou r will frees us from th e

sh a k les th at have burdened us from birt h The gift of
‘
c .

self knowledge conferred on the chil d by an education

-
,

J yi l f
o J y i ll mi t th gh t
s a s ou - orc e . o u n a es ou .

i B i S i été d di ti
”
t A ti by H
’
d T l
’

e c on , enr o s, 9 oc e on e ou ou se, 1 10 .
 Mus ic Joy , , a nd th e S c h o ol 1 77

tanei ty f om
r t h e springs of his being ? The mo re joy
we inherit the more we are tempted to impart it
,

among those to whom it has been denied And so .

,

like the sol dier of Marathon who bounded away his , ,

heart l eaping with ecstasy to spread th e glad tidings , ,

till disregarding and gradual l y exh austing his powers

, ,

he col lapsed at the moment of announcing th e victory ,

but w ho expired in the joy of having accompl ished his

,
—
mission so we too must expend our forces not only
, , ,

in exulting over our h ardly regained faculties and the

j oy that h as come to bir t h in us but also in freely
‘
,

disseminating this joy among our comrades .

And h ow is this joy created and nurtured and made

durabl e ? Simply by the realisation of our ambition to
utilise to t h e full all that is capabl e of utilisation in us ,

and to maste by unceasing endeavour new proclivi

r, ,

ties producing in their turn subconscious impressions

, ,

of such force as to burst forth from us pervading our

, ,

whol e environment Our Whole lives depend on habits . .

Ou misfortunes arise from bad as ou r joys from

r ,

good ones The mere rectifi cation by an effort of will

.

of some h abitual tendency however insignificant will , ,

serve to give us the self confidence necessary for under -

takings of far greater Scope Wh o can achieve the little .

,

can achieve the g eat Once the chil d h as planted his

r .

foot firml y on th e path of progress h e wil l find it com ,

parativel y easy to keep a straigh t course Without wast ,

ing his energies The diffi culty is not so much to

.

exercise powers as to wi ll such exercise Once a ived at . rr

our destination wh at matters th e time we h ave taken !

,

The essenti al is that we should have been able to make

th e journey and have known where we were going
, .
17 8 R h y th m Mus ic , , a nd E duc ati on
Only good habits have maintained us whi l e on the
march Th e more we cultivate these the more our
.
,

power increases Joy is attained with the first step

.

towards progress T henceforward it will intensify u n

.
,

ceas ing ly ; rendering us capable of the highest and most

unexpected achievements Finally combining with .

,

our subconscious forces it will take firm root and fol , , ,

lowing the inevitable law of life bring forth buds and ,

fruits and flowers .

It stands to reason that the attainment of this per

manent state of joy at once sensorial emotional and
, , ,

intellectual must intensify the child s imaginative and

,
’

artistic faculties E sthetic emotion is a product of the

.

refinement of the senses susceptibility of the ne vous , r

system and mental flexibility Wh ateve r th e child s

, .
’

natural artistic procl ivities a conscientious study of ,

th e phenomena of movement both in him self and in ,

nature cannot fail to produce a more vivid compre

,

h n ion of art as a whole A t is compound at once of

e s . r

imagination reflection and emotion Reflection tem

, , .

pers and refines the imagination ; imagination gives life

to style and emotion ennobles and sensitises the pro
,

ducts of sensation reflection and imagination

, , .

T h question may be asked whether it is really worth

e

while to train hund eds of young people in artisticr

pursuits for the purpose of public performances Ce . r

t ai nly in these troubled times little t h ough t is given

, ,

either to art or to the stage But this has been a cha ac . r

te is ti c of all periods of abnormal stress

r Besides .
,

artistic studies are not designed solely for the training

of professional artists they aim also at forming a :

public capable of appreciating artistic representations ,

 Mus ic Joy , , a nd th e S c h ool 1 79

of entering into th e spirit of them and of fee ling th e ,

emotion th ey may have served to express Schol astic .

instruction is not enough T aining of the senses and . r

mind alone can raise the public taste to such a pitch

that in the ideal of Adolphe Appia (one of the purest
,

artists of our time) th e public shall actively collaborate

,

in symbolic and poetic spectacles presented by men of

genius For my part I am convinced that education
.
,

by and in rhythm is capable of awakening a feeling for

art in al l those who undertake it That is why I will .

continue my agitation for its introduction in our schools ,

and for th e enlightenment of our educationalists as to

the important and decisive r ole art should pl ay in
popular education .

So far as pictorial arch itectural and sculptura l art

, ,

is concerned it is not enough th at t h ere be sch ool s

,

in which the rep esentation of lines colour ligh t and

r , ,

shade relief and grouping is taught the students of

, , :

these schools must be trained to respond with their

whol e being to the rhythmic movement that raises ,

sets balances h a monises and animates works of

, ,
r ,

statuary architecture and pictorial art Nor is it

, , .

enough to teach students of our conservatoires to inter

pret maste pieces of music with their finge s Before
r r .

everything they must be initiated into the sensations

,

th at have inspired th e composition of these works th e ,

movement that gave life to their emotions and th e ,

rhythm which has regulated and refined them A .

Bach fugue is a dead letter to th ose who are unable to

feel in themselves the conflicts produced by th e counter
point and the sense of peace and h a mony evoked by
,
r

th e synergies .
 C HAP TER IX
RH YTH M A N D C RE ATI V E I MAG I NATIO N
( 1 91 6 )

The man of g eni u s a n d th e crowd— Futi li ty of teachi ng ru les

f
o cons tru cti on and clas s i fi ca ti on before a w a k eni n g a rti s ti c
—
i magi nati on Techni qu e a n d i nventi on — Temperamen t a nd
s t le
y
— Order and balan ce M e
-
th ods a n d life
— Th e i n di vi du al
ethi c
— —
The i ntegral mu s cu la r s en se I rreg ula ri ty of
values —0rgani sa ti on of w ork .
 C HAP TE R IX
RH YTHM A N D CRE AT I V E IMA GI N AT I ON ( 1 91 6 )

M
I NDI V I DUAL ITY of style originali ty of technique and
W ” 70 m
, M m ,

maginative power do not of the const tute t e

“

i i h
q ualit y Of gen us m a work of 1 he distinction
between a man of gen us and a talent is that
1

th e l atter remains isol ated from artists sp ecialising in

branches of art other than h is own isol ated moreover
—
, ,

from the common thought of the peopl e to wh om h e

belongs even though he be associatedm wi th a school or
, , ,

for that matter the founder of one l A genius is th e

,
.

direct product of a general spiritual and social develop

— —
ment th e representative of mi li eu and his work “ ”

constitutes th e spontaneous expression of the sOul of a

race His power consists in uniting in one compre
.

h n iv e movement the individual movements of iso

e s

lated minds ; n grouping in a single mighty rhythm

1

th e particula r hythms of his contemporaries Often

r .

enough the aesth etic e ffects of the man of talent present

a more vivid appearance than those of the creative
genius : the latter being less ostentatious because more
serene less picturesque because more composite Too
, .

many artists in expressing complex emotions will be

, ,

found to sacrifice their innate sense of form Too many .

,

again , possess a sense of form from lack of im ag ik

nation as oni n g is so much simpl e r t h an imag inin g .

183
 R h y th m a nd C re ati v e I magin at i o n 185

comparison of characteristic passages any general rules,

of interpretation there should yet be no question of

,

attributing to th ese rules th e character of definite laws ,

or of imposing them on students as such In a great .

number of cases the strict application of general

,

principles of style will produce an interpretation of

the particular passage to be p hrased accurate in its ,

expression But where art and feeling are concerned

.
, ,

accuracy is not enough ; the artist must interpret music

in h is own way guided by natural instinct to which
, ,

he should subordinate his whole individuality The .

only law of Sh ading beyond dispute is that of contrast .

is the foundation of all rules of musical expression .

But no rules can compensate for lack of temperament ,

and th e master s first care should be to awak en the

’

temperament of his pupils to cultivate their a sthetic

, e

sense and to develop

, iv idu al characteristics
by every means n 1 He should therefore
be careful in ex, rule to point out that
,

this rule may b b j t to innumerable

ec

exceptions and tha tian adequate musical interpreta

,

tion is not so much an i ntellectual as a spiritual matter ;

he should invite his pupils to suggest other interpreta
tions to each of which h e will accord a fair hearing
,

even if it appears to him wrong so as not to discourage

—
them and to preserve their predil ection for individual
,

e p
x n Undoubtedly aest h etic feeling develops some
res s 10 ,

I
what late n c hild en and it is th erefore indispensable
i r ,

to formulate certain general rules for guidance ; but the

master should point out that t h ese rules may be re

placed by others and that the interpretation of any

,

p articul ar mel odic passa g e m a

y v ary a cco rdin g to th e
18 6 R h yt h m Mus ic , , a nd E duc ati on
character of its predecessor and successor in the same ,

way as in instrumental exercises the finge ing of a , r

scale W 11 vary with the notes on which it commences

1

and finishes In short th e master should teach his

.
,

pupils the art of shading and phrasing in the same way

as a professor of counterpoint a real artist and not a
— ,

—
pedant would initiate his pupils into the composition
Of fugues while indicating that the classic rul es and
,

formulas are nothing until they are vitalised by artistic

feeling love and pursuit of beauty
, , .

Far from me be the desire to limit the time given to

studies in technique analysis of styles and processes
, ,

of notation in the time tables of schools of music -

.

E very musician must be acquainted with the trade

secrets of his calling and before inventing for himself
, , ,

must h ave learnt to imitate and re odu c But not r e .

“

all invention is of a creative nature A sound education .

should furnish the student with the m eans of extracting

only such parts of his reading and analysis as will be
useful to him enabling him to strike out his own path
,

instead of following the beaten t a k il Undoubtedly r c

classical musical studies are indispensable; but too often

the method of conducting them in conservatoires is
suitable only for those already acquainted with them ,

and in whom the master h as already awakened the

instinct for individual development and the distin
g usi h i n g of processes congenial to their particular tem
p e
r am
e n t s T.oo many imaginative faculties ar aroused e

quite late in life ow ing to masters h aving demanded

,

only the execution f formulas and encouraged a mere

O ,

imitation fi t voluntary later involunta y of the

— rs — ,
r

method s of com position be queath ed to us by prede

 Rh y th m a nd Creati v e I magin ati on 187

c ess ors of different temperament instead of induc ,

ing instinctive elementary researches founded on the ,

consciousnes s Of actual physical and emotional capaci

ties Much has been written on the art t hat will follow
.

the cessation of hostilities as though the War itself must

,

exercise an immediate influence on art The dete min . r

ing factor in any new development of style will be our

a tti tude after the War and the extent to which we see k
, ,

in th e period of reconstruction and reparation to react ,

from past impressions and to throw ff every previous

, O

constraint purifying ourselves of effete doctrines and

,

automatic thoughts and productions and so becoming

—
capabl e of expressing forcibly and in an individual,

manner (though where necessary also collectively)

, , ,

our new emotions freed from obsolete forms and

—
methods of education and alive in every limb to the
,

acute consciousness of the present and the foreknow ,

he future .

the first concerns of the education of th e future

to be the extrication of the rhythms congenial
to particular individualities from the influences tending
to restrict their free expression and th e restoration to
,

the child of the exclusive control of

A constant appeal will be made to h '

nervous system will h ave to acquire the necessary

flexibility to prevent th e wealth of images issuing
through its agency from inducing a state of h ype sen r

s i tiv en ess
. The body instinct with motor force at
,

high pressure Will h ave to be prepared to execute

,

every behest of mind and after every s uch e e u

, ,
x c

tion to keep a sufficient reserve Of ne gy fl Many

,
l e r

parents at present shrin k from h aving the creative

 R h yt h m and Cre a tiv e I m agin ati on 189

the rhythmic elements theme to a general syn

thesis and rhythmic uni h yth m is the live essence
of feeling the , l e of a movement in s

th form impressed on it by the fi rst emotional eac

e r

/
tion i Elementary rhythm requires th e consonance of
.
‘

each of its subdivisions to enable it to retain its powe r

,
,
O f animating a continuously harm
Rh ythm and metre are the bases of all
said E merson are a corrupt version
,
“
ext n 1

nature with which they ough t to be

,
e to tally .

A rhyme in one of our sonnets should not be less pleas

ing than the iterated nodes of a sea shel l or th e resem -
,

bling difference of a group of flowers

”
.

I t is always interesting to distinguish th e personality

of an artist beneath the divers forms of his creation ,

to watch its modifications according to the whims of

his aesth etic instinct to follow the successive expe i
, r

en c es dictated by his temperament But th e h uman .

value of a wo k of art does not l ie in its display of origi

r

n ali ty in manne r and styl e it depends on the sincerity :

of th e pursuit and the disinterestedness of th e l ove

, ,

for beauty w h ich it manifests There is no dearth of .

artists whose sole motive is an ambition to devel op

,

their ego and wh o l ove nature only in so far as Sh

“”
, e

enabl es them to express and vary their personal fancies .

The great creative minds confronted with beauty b e , ,

come oblivious of everything that does not partak e

of T hey concentrate on expressing th e emo
tion it c alls f o th They humble th emselves before it
’
r .
,

becoming its passionate and faithful devotees They .

are prepared to sacrifice th emselves for it ; th ey seek

ever to raise th emsel ves to its l eve l ; th ey lay bare their
1 90 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc at i on
hearts for beauty to tak e possession of Wh at
are all our methods and systems what r if in ,

sti n t be primitive or c ul tured what is all tech nique

c s ,

and science without lov love for life in beauty and

—, e ,

beauty in life ? C ertainly there exist laws which enable

the artist to furnish a pe fect form for the images r

recorded by his intuition ; there are fundamental p in r

cipl s of ordination of lines of juxtaposition and co l

e , a

e ce
s n e c f colou s and sounds but in t h e completed
O r ,

work nothing of all this science should be manifest

, .

—
Al one the feel ing of rhythm that is the true ideal
, , , ,

creative essence the fundamental harmony of natu e

, r

sho ul d reveal itself a direct spontaneous and faithful

: , ,

reflection of Beauty .

It is the painter s function to diffuse himself in the

’

objects h e sees his works constituting an apparent ex

,

p n
a ison of t h e intense cu iosity fo the rhythms of life r r

and nature that animates his artistic consciousness .

This continual preoccupation with movement in pi to c

rial art shoul d commend itself to musicians P ainters .

must also like them acquire th e art of associating and

, ,

dissociating movements of accentuating consonances , ,

creating counterpoint treating human emotions sym ,

phonicall y and selecting appropriate gestu es and at

, r

ti tu d s for their expression in orch estration

“
e .

Rhythm is everywhe e as al l artists are ag eed ;

“ ”
r , r

but this sacred principle must not be allowed to remain

a mere statement Only hythm can assure th e unity. r

of human facul ties and constitute th at thi al i ndi vidu e c

ali ty— —
if I may be permitted t h e term the possession
of which reveal s our divers potentialities and trans ,

fo ms th e h uman o ganism into a confluence of ideas

r r ,
 R hy th m and C reat v e i I m agina ti o n 1 91

sensations and facul ties a living h armony of inde

,
—
pendent entities voluntarily united .

C reative imagination in every branch of art was

obsessed in the period before the War with the research ,

for novel effects completely out of touch with normal

,

life (Or was it that l ife itself h ad so lost touch with its
.

natural rhythms that the artist was no l onger capable

of h yth mi ci sing his work eali s tically? ) On the rising
r r
f

generation falls th e duty of seeking to create mentali

ties cl earer more in conformity with instinct and at
, , , ,

the same time more disciplined ; likewise temperaments

,

at once rich er in power and more conscious of thei r

composition Musical education of the future for in

.
,

stance will no longer confi ne itself to the l aws of syntax

,

and vocabularies but wil l comprise th e devel opment

,

of means of spontaneous expression and th e art of ,

combining and h armonising th em by th e process of

elimination and sel ection k nown as styl e Music must .

become once more a l iving l anguage a vital manifesta ,

tion of th ough ts and emotions And for this pu pose .

, r ,

greate scope must be all owed in its study for th e

r

qualities of effusion propul sion and repercussion that

, ,

characterise total expression by sound .

Musicians of to morrow must try to develop the art of

-

regulating planes pursuing lines and dete rmining and

, ,

controll ing pace And this development will depend on

.

a new o ientation that h as yet to be created to replace

r ,

the conventional methods of thematic development

(kil led for al l time by D ebussy ) by an architecture
satisfying at once the needs of emotional imagination
and the exigencies of form All young painters to .

day are unanimous in their desire and resolve to dis

 R hyt h m and Creati v e I magina ti on 1 93

s ti tu tefor the emotional state of th e moment a condi

tion that will respond to the motor sensibility of the
composer and only such a sense can endow the latter with
,

the capacity of expressing himself spontaneously with ,

out permitting theories of a literary or math ematical

order to trespass on the domain of purified physical
sensations The hearer of a work of music shoul d be
.

able to say : T hat is you rself! But he can only sense

”

this constitution of the work if it reall y appeals to him , ,

by means of emotions mutually and genuinely xp i

,
e er

en c d and sacrifices freely accepted

e ,
.

Th e muscular sense is at present so imperfectly de

v eloped bot h in the compose r and in the interpreter
, ,

—
that th e latter especially a pianist usually disregards
—
th e expressive potentialities of time duration ; while the -

former in many cases is unconscious of the sh o t om

, , r c

ings of most of his agogic effects In particular rubato .

,

effects are nowadays so exaggerated by pianoforte vi r

tuosi that the intimate relations subsisting between
the energy expended (accentuations ) and the changing
forms of the sounds (time values) are utterly distorted-
.

The pianist playing without orchestral accompaniment

, ,

is apt to follow his whim in modifying the sequence

and alternation of time values and accentuations that
-

constitute musical rhythm and by so doing dep ives , r

himself of an infinite variety f means of expression O .

I ncessant vagaries of ru bato compared with the pro ,

cesses of imagination are as the buzzing of a fly against

,

the window pane to the soaring flight of an eagl e

-
.

In fact not only the aesthetic expression inherent in

,

nuances of time as conceived by the composer but

, ,

—
al so the dynamic force itself is thus vitiated nuances ,

I 3
 Rhythm a nd C reati ve I maginat i on 1 95

while rhythm plays a preponderant r ole in a t serving

r ,

to unite all manifestations of beauty and animating

them with the same throbbing life it should constitute
,

a no less important factor in general education co ,

ordinating all th e spiritual and corporal movements of

the individual and evolving in the latte a mental
, r

state in which th e combined vibrations of desires and

powers are associated in pe fect h armony and balance
r .

Only the soul can guide th e body al ong t h e path th e

,

mind h as traced for it .

 C HAP TE R X

RHYTH M A N D GE STU RE I N MU SI C DRA MA

—
A N D C RI TI C I SM ( 1 9 1 0 1 91 6)

TH E INDIV IDUAL ART ST I

Th e tri ni ty f
o w ord , g es tu re, and —
mu si c Mus i cali s i ng of
—
mus cles Stai rs a n d i ncli n es — A dolph e A ppi a s meth od
’

— —
N nan ces of movements Th e trai ni ng of au di ences Relati on
—
between musi cal a n d corporal dynami cs Nudi ty and the
purificati on of bodi ly i nterpretati ons .

C RI TI C I SM

Uni vers al i gnorance of th e laws of plas ti c i nterpretati on

—
Orches trati on of the h uman body Conven ti ons a n d i ncon si s
tenci es —
Vani ty of i mpress i oni s ti c j udgments The role of the

TH E C ROWD

P assi on plays i n Swi tzerland th roug h ou t th e

-
ag es —Open
ai r fes ti vals - —
Th e role of th e crowd i n mu s i c drama Th e
law s f
o collecti ve —
g es tu re Relati on s betw een the crow d a nd the
i ndi vidu al a rti s t— Mass dynami s m -
Th e p olyrhythm f
o

crowds — Th e trai ni ng ch oru s

— Ges ture and li g hti ng
fa
o .
 C HAPTER X

RH YTHM A N D GE S TURE I N MU SI C DRAMA

—
A N D CRITI CI SM ( 1 91 0 1 9 1 6)

The I ndi vidual A rti s t

S I NCE Richard Wagner (foll owing Glii ck ) prescribed

for lyric drama the classic trinity of word gesture and
music and set himSEE to define th e i deal method of
, ,
- ’

interpreting his works and like Gretry to lay th e

, , ,

foundations of a school of lyric dramatic art the pub -

,

lic under the influence of its critics and amateurs has

, ,

concl uded tha t to the everlasting gl ory of th e contem

,

p o a
r r y stage sound
, movement, and speech have been
,

definitely uni ted in th e creation of an art form anal ogous -

to the Greek Orch esis and that all goes well in th e best
,

of all possible worlds .

I t may neverth eless be worth whil e to inquire wh eth er

the mere presence Of the three classic elements in a
lyric work suffi ces to establish their unity Actually a .

cursory analysis of modern lyric works including those

—
—
of Wagner must bring home to the most optimistic
that the classic unity has not been achieved and is ,

incapable of achievement under existing conditions of

musical education .

To unite word gesture and music it is not enough

, , ,

that t h e music sh ou l d b e intimatel y a lli ed to th e word .

I 99
2 00 R hy th m M us ic
, , a nd E duc atio n
nor that the word and the gesture shoul d correspond .

It is necessary in addition that physical movements

and sound movements the mgsigal and the plastic ,

e e j should be o ordinated If we now exa un

l mefi tS c -
. rr e

either the w orks or the productions of the modern

theatre we shall find ourselves forced to admit that
,

this last union has not yet been effec ted .

Just as verbal expression the poetic interpretation ,

of the text demands precise and definite gestures so

, ,

mu i al expression constituting the atmosphere of the

s c ,

piece exacts of the actor a similar and absolute physical

,

submission to the rhythm that produces it E ve y . r

movement of musical rhythm should evoke in the body

of the interpreter a correspon di ng muscular movement ;
every mood expressed in sound should dete mine on r

the stage an appropriate attitude ; every orchestral

nuance every r s endo di mi nu endo s tri ng ndo or
, c e c , ,
e

rallenta ndo should be impressed on t h e inte preter and r

exp sed by him

res as occasion demands I say as
, .
,

occasion demands because naturally as the purpose

, , ,

of the text does not require an appropriate gesture to

each word so not eve y musical rhythm calls for its
, r

physical interpretation It is how ever essential that

.
, ,

it should produce a mental attitude that it shoul d ,

develop in the mind of the interpreter a particular

image that shall animate his whole organism if we ,

—
really wish to see the ideal unity effected if we wish
to bring music into the heart of life We have only to .

visit any of our principal opera houses and study the

play of the performers while listening to the orchestra
, ,

to perceive at once that there exists a bar ier between r

th e orch estra and th e stag e and that th e orchestral ,

 R h y th m and Ges t u re 201

music acts as a mere accompaniment to the song or to

the attitude of the actors and does not reall y enter
,

into them and inspire their movements Th e music .

rises,
swells breaks out in grandiose resonance ; the
,

gesture either does not fo llow th e crescendo or does ,

not convey it to the spectator The music subsides .

,

dies away whispers and mu murs as in a dream th e

, r
-
“

attitude on the stage reveals a muscular tension which

is forti ssi mo! E ven musical rhythms that characterise
not soul movements but simple motions of the body
-
, ,

such as walking or running or sudden arrests or starts ,

are not ea l ised on the stage

r
— o are rea l ised inco rect l y
r r ,

which is worse ! C ertainly t h ere exist Opera singers wh o

feel th e necessity of this union of gesture and music ,

and who endeavour to exp ress rhythms of sound by mus

c ula rh yt hms
r But they do not succeed for want of a
.

special training as necessary to this end as is a special

—
finger training to enabl e a musician to exp ess himself r

through the medium of an instrument Not every

musician requires to express music in movement but
.

it is obvious that an opera Singer to be a compl ete ,

artist must possess this faculty of realising rhythms

,
” “

plastically Unfortunately if his education is incom

.
,

plete that of his public is much mo e so ; that is wh y

, r

so many non rhythmic singers attain success in spite

-

of this deficiency It will not always be so ; a new point

.

” A ”
.
i. "

of n umerous aestheticians 5 5 61 the time is

On
“

attenti ,

not far distant wh en lack of rhythm will be counted

as serious a flaw in a singe s equipment as tonal r
’

inaccuracy .
 R h y th m and Ges tu re 2 03

attitude and gestures all th e aesth etic emotions pro

v ok d by sound rhythms
e .

In his Mi en scene du drame Wagnéri n (pp

se e .

—
44 45 ) Adolphe Appia prophesying in 1 8 95 t h e col
,

lab o ation of rhyth m and drama quotes two significant

r ,

details f oni the ep es ntamon of the third act of th e

f
’
' ’

r r r e ,

Walky ie r .

“
Wotan arrives in a te ific cyclone t hat subsides rr

as he reaches the summit T h Walkyries h ave con . e

c eal ed Brunn hilde among them and seek to appease

their father T h e musical passage is quite s hort but

.
,

the incomparable polyp hony is meant to be accompan

i ed by an action that impresses it on t h e eye wit h out , ,

however obliging the maidens to separate from each

,

oth er It is effected by a light counte poin t in which

. r ,

th e successive ent ies mark the timid supplication in a

r

highly individual manner ; a h Walky i s hould ti me e c r e

her ent y a b at i n advance of th e s co e The last bars

r e r .

expand irresistibly ; t h e vocalists should interlace th eir

movements corresponding to t h e score and by way of , ,

furth er accentuation t h e whole group extended before

,

Wotan mi ght t ai ghten i ts elf and r oi l on th hard cho d

s r ec e r

that recalls the abrupt voice of the God One cannot .

,

in this scene carry too far the minute search for new
,

musical developments ”
.

It would appear to be easy to train artists according

to these indications ; but this is not th e case The .

clearest compreh ension by the actors of these directions

by no means assures their execution T0 make with
“

apparent ease a step in advance of a particular note ,

he must have gone through a whole se ies of exercises r

in advancing and halting aiming at th e acquirement of ,

204 Rhy th m M u s ic , , and Educ ati on
th e various kinds of balance of the body pose of th e ,

feet and muscul ar innervation of the legs necessary to

,

inte pret the different sound t mpi in all their shades

r e .

The gait of the actor must accord with the musical

movement and th e rhythm of his steps must fall quite
,

naturally into the rhythm of the sounds T h most . e

pe fect musician may be absolutely incapable of effect

r

i n g a rall ntando a c el rando or ru bato in walking

e ,
c e , ,

corresponding to the acceleration abatements and , ,

fluctuations of his musical imag ination Nor woul d he .

be able to change his attitude in a given time say — ,

—
over a crotch et or a quaver without having studied
plastic anacrusis th at is the laws of preparation of
, ,

movements He must next .

arm i n all d g e s of rapidi ty and en rgy first s imulta

e r e e ,

n eou s and corresponding movements of both a ms r ,

th en the same movements executed by the arms in

—
different directions fin ally different movements simul
tan eou s ly one arm for example making an angu lar
, , , ,

th e other a circular movement In this form of ex e , . r

cise movements of apparent simplicity prove exceed

,

i n g ly di ffi cult to execute To raise one arm in sixteen .

beats of an adagi o while half lowe ing the other in the r

same space of time requires a perfect acquaintance

with every shade of muscular innervation and in addi ,

tion conside able practice before this double action

,
r ,

wi ll convey an irn p ession of naturalness and c ase r .

To one p ractised in the correlating of movements in

~
-
time and space the sight of a gestu e completed before
M . O

,
r
-

f after th e beat of a musical rhythm produces a posi

f
/

O
y

tive aesth etic pain It is not until the arms are capable
.

of being moved with complete freedom that th eir

 R h y th m a nd Ges t u re 2 05

movements can be combined with l eg movements An .

infinite number of combined exercises have been con

tri ved t h e study of wh ich must inevitably produce
,

h armony of all h abitual movements thereby conducing ,

which is only anoth er word for ease and natu

n d whic h s attainable only t h roug h know l edge
i

of our physical possib il ties Th e factor c Oordinating

i

i .

arm and leg movement s respiration Singers confine

I .

th eir use of th e diaph agm to th e p oduction of th e

r r

necessary b reath for the l arynx and yet breathing is ,

not only an invaluable medium of physical bal ance but , ,

in addition a highly powerfu l agent of dramatic ex

,

pression and apart from th e rapid movements of costal

,

respiratio n by w h ic h our l y ic artists so frequent l y

r

express t h eir emotion in l ove scenes th ere exist a whole ,

h ost of oth er movements of th e torso produced by th e ,

breath compl ementary to th e movements of arms

, ,

legs and h ead Th e l atter sh ould also be submitted to

,
.

special exercises al l th e more so since vocal exercises

,

by no means encourage supp l eness in t h e neck .

But the maste y of body movements constitutes a mere

r

virtuosity unl ess th ose movements are emp loyed to

,

h el p out facial expression Th e same gesture may .

express ten different sentiments according as th e eye

gives the clue Th e correl ating of body movements
.

with facial play must th en also be made th e subject

, ,

of a special t aining ; but this sh ould not be under

r

taken until repeated exercises have brough t music into

—
direct communication with th e organism vibrations
of sound evoking anal ogous vib ations in the tissues r

and the nervous system which the body susceptib le

, ,

of musica l emotions h as l earned to transform into

,
 R h yth m an d Ges t u re 2 07

often suggest more effective interpretations if they

could command a visual representation of them in ges
ture and facial play in place of this accepted s upp es
,
r

sion Muscul ar dynamics must render musical rhythms

.

visibl e and musical dynam s plasti e h ythmsmueical

’

, 1c r

GéStu fe must define musical emotion and call up its

'

image And to that end we must educate our bodies

.

in "rhyth m and by rh ythm I t is not necessary that

-
.

VieShoul d be perfectly formed : the essential 3 that our 1

movements shoul d be h armonised and th at our habit ,

ual motions shoul d be refined ; in short that we shoul d ,

be artists We h ave all of us muscl es reason and

.
, ,

volition ; consequent ly we are all equal before Rh ythm .

We must vocalise our movements and establish a com

munion between them and music To that end it is .

necessary that we should l earn to know our bodies ,

and that is why withou t sharing the views f ae th e

, O s

ti ian s wh o in espect f costume advocate comp l ete

c , r O ,

return to the customs of Greek antiquity I myself ,

favour for my plastic studies a re turn to quasi nudity -

when exercising in private Nudity provides not only .

a medium of contro l indispensable for purposes of

physical expression but is in addi tion an a s thetic el e
, e

ment inducing t h e respect for t h e body that animated

th e great Greek philosoph ers I n proportion as the .

idea of sex subsides in the fervour of the artist an o In , r

the passion for complete absorption in beauty and

truth f expression so our bodies ta ke on new life and
O , ,

we feel lack of respect for nudity to be a sin against

th e Spirit Once ou O peratic singers have l earnt to
. r

understand the intricate mechanism of their movements

and the intimate relations between their bodies thei r ,
2 08 R hy t h m Mu s ic , , an d E duc a ti o n
minds their desires and their a sthetic instincts they
, , e ,

will emancipate themselves from the prejudices at

present encumbering them thanks to their education ,

and heredi ty and will regard their bodies as mediums

,

—
of el evation as instruments of pure art and b eauty .

"
NO longer will th e Philistines sn gger a t the igh t Of
i
I '

i s

Isadora D uncan dancing with bare legs Thenceforth .

critics will have to insist on th e young Siegfried di s

carding his miserable pink tights and on the Rh ine ,

D aughters assuming the authentic garb of water

sprites P urified by art we shall see in the body the
.
,

collaborator of conscience an agent of noble will and ,

pure imagination an instrument of wisdom beauty

, , ,

art and truth Th e interpreter will no longer seek art

, .

and beauty outside himself h e will have to induce ,

beauty and truth to descend into him to dwell with ,

him to become an integral element in his organism

,
.

Such are the benefits I anticipate from the cult of

rhythm as a result of which authors and actors
, ,

repudiating the old worn scenic conventions will , re

cover the purity of plastic sensation will ally in their ,

art t h e sensibility of the musician with that of the

—
sculptor and painter and will free themselves thanks
,

to a real education on principles pure as nature and

,

—
truth from the tyranny of meaningless virtuosity ,

lyi ng gestures and intellectual perversities

, .

The prog ess of the art of gesture is unfortunately

r

retarded by the ignorance of critics touching the powers

of expression possessed by t h e human body C ertainly .
 R h y th m a nd Ge s tu re 2 09

it is possibl e to appreciate the me its of a symphony r

w ithout being capable of playing al l the inst ruments of

—
th e orch estra and to recognise the merit of a singer
or pianist without h aving studied singing o t h e piano r .

I t is moreover true that sound visual intell ectual and

, , , ,

artistic faculties may make up for want of technical

knowl edge in criticising human gesture whether indi
, ,

vidual or collective But the opinions of people unin

.

formed as to the multiple resources of the h uman frame

can never have oth er t han a subjective value and should ,

not h ave th e power of influencing the education of eith er

artist or spectato r A musical critic can admittedly in
.

te est the public in ecording t h e impression produced on

r r

him by such and such orchestra l work although he u n ,

de stan ds only a pproximately t h e mechanism of each

r

instrument but h e wi ll be unable to explain why cer

—
tain things displ ease h im without an appreciation of
th e tone and character of the different agents of sound ,

an acquaintance with t h e l aws th at regulate the art of

grouping instruments and a knowledge of the essential
,

principles Of musical construction .

Human gesture and its orchestra tion conform to

el ementary principles of nature dynamic rhythmic , , ,

and agogi which it is absol utely necessary to under

c,

stand before one is justifi ed i n formulating a decision

as to th eir artistic worth C riticism O f a work or its
.

interpretation in so fa as these are the direct product

, r

of emotion and temperament can only be O f relative ,

value On t h e other hand that which is th e result of in

.
,

tellectu al qualities sense of form intuition of dyn amic

, ,

or rhythmic effects can be analysed But to be in a

, .

position to analyse it one must know something of the

,

14
 R h y t h m and Ges t u re 211

to follow the spectacle and vi ce v rsa It seems to

, e .

them quite natural that on the stage th e human body

should be perpetually t ying to epu di ate th e laws Of
r r

gravity that the ambition of the dancer sh ould be to

,

imitate the bird instead of to t ansfig u e the man to

, r r ,

produce the picturesque and artificial instead of to n , e

noble and r fine the gestures of natural life We sti ll

e .

look back with bewilderment and regret to interpreta

tions (quite pretty from the pictorial point of view) of
classical and modern compositions applauded by ,

capab l e musicians wh o simply did not perceive the

abyss created by th e dancers between the orchestral and
physical symphonies The truth is musicians have no
.
,

conception of th e capacities of the h uman body and ,

neither their sight n or their muscula sense is suffi r

ci ently acute to warn t h em of t h e errors of style com

mitted and of t h e nuances disregarded

, Th e troubl e is .

th at so many c itics imagining themselves to possess

r ,

intuitive k nowledge consider physical movement of

,

such seconda y importance as a medium of artistic

r

expression th at they do not h esitate to h ol d fo th ex

, r

cathedra on texts of whic h t h ey do not even suspect t h e

meaning ! How few peop l e said V auvenargues a e

”
, ,
“
r

capable of compreh ending every side of a question !

There it seems to me is the most common source of
, ,

human error ”
.

E ach time we attend a disp l ay of dancing we are ,

staggered by the incoh erence of the spectators Opinions ’

and th e contradictions of their sentiments Those wh o .

Ob ject in th e concert hall to the technical acrobatics

of instruments applaud it in the dancer Those who

, .

oppose transcriptions and arrangements of classical

2 12 R h y t h m Mu s ic , , and E duc a tio n
pieces approve the most ho ible travesties of th em as
, rr

perfo med by the artistes of the ballet Those again

r .

wh o complain of the inadequate delicacy of touch of

certain pianists pass without turning a h air th e crude
, , , ,

exagge ated and frantic gestures of pera singers !

r , O

Oth ers wh o are dependable autho ities on the pictorial r

or s culptura l rep esentation of t h e human form go into

r

raptures over the affectations and abno mal disloca r

tions of living and breathing bod ies Finally there are .

,

c itics and these are the worst so perverted in taste

r , ,

a n d steeped in the a tific es of conventional c h o r og re

r aph y t h at far from recognising the absurdity of these

, ,

disp lays they remain impervious to the efforts of pro

,

g ers s i v e artists to refo rm the dance as a simple and

natural expression — Of emotion On cethe profe ssional se

c itics h aVe W
.

fi tt n of a dancer that he has grace a

'

r e ,

good carriage balance and temperament they h ave

, , ,

said everything ! I t never occurs to them to consider

th e degree of sympathy h e has shown for the musical
thought it was his business to inte pret And yet as r .

much importance shoul d be attached to the processes of

p lastic interpretation as to those of musical execution .

But there again what divergences of Opi nion these

, ,

musical critics exhibit ! According as nature h as made

them rational “ ”
emotional or imaginative and
,
” “ ”
,
“
,

psychologists such as D r C h arles Odier can classify .

them as technicians and th eorists on the one h and ,

s entirn nt ali ts and emotionalists on the other (or

e s

u b classify the imaginatives as rationalists 1tu

” “ “ ) 7 H ‘
s -
,

p ess
r i o n i s t ands, intuitionists ”
) t h e “
works and -

interpretations are perceived and analysed by them

in a hundred and one different ways Fortunately the .
,
 R hy th m and Gest ure 2 13

value of a musical c iticism does not depend on the

r

nature of its conclusions but on the Simplicity and,

sincerity of the musician who makes it .

There is no inferior art of criticism but there are ,

inferior methods of practising that art Every man .

who wishes to devote his life to th e public appraisement

of artistic works and interpretations should make it
his business to be well informed and to move with the
times Unfortunately too few critics appreciate the
.
,

importance of their vocation Many of them imagine .

that their critical facul ties are definitely formed and ,

that they have nothing more to learn Some apparently .

consider their tas k to consist in picking out and ex ,

posing indiscriminately to public ridicule defects in ,

the works of all kinds presented to them It should .

rather consist in trying to get to the bottom of these

works and considering to what extent th ey may in ,

spite of their defects be made to serve th e purposes

,

of a t As La Roch efoucauld put it a sensible per

r .
,
“

son sees t h ings as they require to be seen He gives .

them their own value and causes them to exhibit to

,

him the side from which they may be viewed to best

advantage .There are few such sensib l e
people in the realm of criticism To say such and
”
.

such a piece pleases or displeases me without further ,

”

elucidation is the prerogative of the least educated

,

music lover ; it is the critic s function to fathom the

-
’

author s motives and to explain them to h is readers

’

, ,

without stressing his own personal preferences From .

this point of view Robert Schumann wh o coul d dis

, ,
“

cover a genius of so antipathetic a tendency as

”

Berlioz proved himself a model critic ; wh il e the ar

,
 R hy t h m and Ges ture 2 15

th e will to withdraw from one s own personality in ’

order to commune with other and different personalities .

It does not follow however because we refuse to be

, ,

impressed by slaves Of a schoo l or style who condemn

every work that does not conform to it that we ,

have any more respect for those who carry eclec

ti cism to an extreme and set t h emsel ves to di scover
beauty where it does not exist Only it is more common
.

to find a critic failing to fi nd beauty in a wor k because

h e does not want to find it or through lack of beauty
,

in himself I nstinct is not everything the faculty

.
—
and the desire to analyse would modify many of the
“
instinctive prejudices of those who undertake the
”

task of enlightening public opinion on the productions

of cl assical or contemporary music I n the words of .

that shrewd artist Jean Hur e The art of criticism

,
z
“

consists in recognising beauty wheresoever and in

whatever diverse forms it may conceal itself And .
,

before him Leonardo da V inci wrote

,
“

Love is born :
“

of Knowledge ”
.

It is all important th at th e majority of critics should

ag ee as to the essential qualities required for the art
r

O f dancin g and the p rincip l e that s h ould underlie t h e

,

va ious techniques involved It is a matter of the

r .

reciprocal influence of rh yt h ms and feelings in sound

and plastic ; a constant exch ange of psychic currents

and senso ial repercussions There may be a diversity
r .

in the external means of expression dependent on the ,

individualities of the executants but all dance s who , r

—
are real artists no matter how divergent their manners
—
of bodily expression must be guided by the same
motive th e interpretatio n of musi c Th e sou l of musi c
, .
2 16 R hyt h m M u s ic , , a nd E duc ation
radiates in an equal deg ee of intensity from all dan
, r ,

c ers worthy of t h e name of artist ; but just as a focus

of light makes a different impression according to the ,

degree of atmospheric resistan ce and the processes of ,

sifting and reverberation necessitated by the various

obstacles inte posed between it and our eyes so the
r
—
radiating influence of vita l music may appeal to spec

tato s in di fferent aspects arising from the diversity

r ,

of the physical agents of response in the dancer whether ,

in the st ucture of his limbs or in his nervous system

r ,

o temperament
r To the spectator accustomed to the
.

va ieties of physical mechanism these differences in

r ,

types of gestures and attitudes will not matter What .

ever the imaginative va iations in the embodiment of

r

musical ideas and feelings he will be able to recognise ,

wh ether the latter have really inspi ed th e corporal r

movements and to distinguish fusion from mere juxta

,

position creation from imitation sincere yn h ythm

, , s r

from vulgar synchronism spontaneous response from ,

considered adaptation E very musical work comp ises

. r

an element of inspiration and anoth er Of thematic ,

development and architectu e This latte element r . r

depends on the intellect and physique and may be ,

expressed differently by dance inte preters according r r ,

as their aptitudes or understandings have formed their

va ious techniques But the inspiration present at the
r .

creation of the music should be revived in the t an po r s

sitiou of musical rhythms into movements in space ; the

same breath sh ould animate both sound and corporal
expression A dancer of the old ballet school should
.

be able to express the soul of music as faithfully through

th e medium of th e t raditiona l p roce sse s to wh ich h is
 R hyt h m and Ge s t ure 2 17

limbs are accustomed as an I sadora D uncan by h er ,

immobility or a Sak h a off by h is p olymobile effects

, r ,

provid ed that s oul has been a bs orbed by each o f th em .

In the same way the really artistic spectator wi ll not

allow himself to be influenced by his personal p edilec r

tion for a particul ar technique any more th an an ideal ,

audience of absolute music w ill be biassed by tastes in

harmony construction or orchestration We cannot
, , .
,

of course contro l our likes or dislikes but these sh oul d

, ,

not intrude upon a general appreciation relating to the ,

int i nsic value and since ity of the artistic manifesta

r r

tion in question Moreover th e maste y of tech nique

.
, r

being a si ne qua non for pu poses of representation of a r

work we must be careful not to confuse idiosyncrasies

,

of artistic style with that mere pove ty of expressive r

resources which alas ! is the idiosyncrasy of so many so

,

called artists One cannot construct a wo k of art on

. r

inspiration alone ; the most profound though t may be

distorted by defi ciencies in the vehicle of its extern ali s a
tion Th at is why an artist sh oul d never obsess him
.

self wi th any particular meth od but sh oul d be con ,

s tantly experimenting with those w h ich h ave not come

instinctively to him And t h e same applies to a c itic

. r ,

whose analytical faculties s hould be adaptab l e to all

forms of styl e .

The understanding of art does not depend on study

however profound It is possessed comp letely only by
.

th ose whom taste and temperament have made capabl e

of responding to elementa y emotions whatever th e r ,

nature or construction of the wo k its r ,

system or its rhy thmic processes Without this it is im

, .
,

possibl e either tOjudge os te u nderstand a piece of mu sic

‘

.
 R hyth m a nd G e s tu re 2 19

serve h armony but whose manners do not ; rh etoricians

given to expounding justice without practising it .
”

If d amatic and musical critics instead of constantly

r

lamenting the deterioration of the art of gesticulation

in drama would take the trouble to analyse the corre
,

lation of gesture with musical rhyt hm they would

s ,

learn that there exist apart from i ndividual gestures

, ,

ollec ti ve g es tu res and that without a careful StudyOf “

c

mese last no representation involving movements of a

,

chorus can attain a really musical or artistic ch aracter .

Th e individuals composing a chorus however gifted , ,

will never produce a really dramatic effect so long as

they act independently of one another Forty persons .

each making a different gesture fail to convey the im ,

pression of a common emotion Their gestures are .

lost in space I t is with the choric element as with

.

music drama as a whole each of its elements should be

,

able to fuse with the others or temporarily withdraw from

them as necessity dictates The gesture of a crowd
, .

should be the result of a number of modifications ,

almost imperceptible of a fixed attitude imposed on all

,

its participants In modern spo ken drama each indi

.
,

vidual member of a crowd can act independently and

gesticulate acco ding to his fancy to give the impression
r

of for example a festival a strike or a battle ;

, , , ,

and we regard as masterpieces of this kind the extra

ordinary productions by M F G émi e of Th e Mer . . r

chant of Veni c and A n ton y and Cl op t

e But e a ra .

in l yric drama the crowd has an entirely different

22 0 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ation
function It mus t express the emotions of a whole
.

community to which end a very special process of

,

training is necessary .

This a sth etic education of a chorus the study of th e

e ,

laws which g overn coll ective gesture and movement ,

and which form an integral part of any system of h yth r

mic exercises deserves the special consideration of all my

,

compatriots who are gymnasts singers or sportsmen , , .

More than in anyother country in Switzerland popu ,

lar spect acles involve the participation Of numerous

supers and the happy influence of these Festspiele
, ,
”

to employ th e German term has l ong been recognised ,

by our psychologists pedagogues and even th eol ogians

, , .

From the twelfth century onwards the Swiss o , r

g an i d performances
se of P assion plays to which actors
and audience repaired n procession singing and danc i ,

ing T hese performances originally took place in

.

churches later they were carried into the open air

,
.

In certain cases the spectators took an active part in

them and we have an account of one in which the Pi
late reviled by two hund ed actors with diffi culty
, r ,

escaped with his life .

I n th e fifteenth centu y the colleges organised dra r ,

matic fetes under the influence of the humanist plays

of Terence and the pe formances of P assion plays in
, r

creased At Lucerne in particular they involved the

.

p a ticipation of hundreds of people ; at E insiedeln the

r ,

audience sang in common with the chorus ; at Berne

the poet and p ainter Nicholas Manuel produced panto
, ,

mi n s and carnival plays ; at Z urich Josias Murer in

r e , ,

his Si ege of B abylon and H al w a th in his Saul brought

,
z r ,
 Rh y t h m a nd Ges tu re 22 1

a wh ole army into pl ay Indeed pitch ed battles .

,

were fought in t h e course of the action and th e text ,

indicates that in the l ast act the popul ace appeased “

, ,

w ith one accord ceases fighting lies down and fall s , ,

asleep.
”
Th ere existed even at that period then a , ,

system of rhythm applied to crowds Th e stage dirc o .

tio ns a e h ighly significant in this respect Th e trum

r .

pets sound the populace fights attacks retires argues

, , , , ,

murmurs takes oaths dances and forms processions

, , , ,

thus playing in the piece a role as important as th at

of th e l eading actors .

These traditions have not been lost I f th e colleges of .

music h ave decayed and the mystery plays h ave prao

,

tically disappeared we may set against them those

,

great patriotic festivals of extraordinary vitality and

beauty organised by th e cantons on th e centenaries
,

of th eir ent y into the confederation Ph enomena of

r .

nature h ave al so inspired some wonde fu l demonstra r

tions such as th e unforgettable festival of winegrowers .

We may therefore pride ourselves t h at ou r count y r

possesses a natural instinct for grouping crowds and

mak ing them l ive in dramatic action I n th e Open ai . r,

under the glare of the sun in th e prodigious framework ,

provided by a gl o ious l andscape and sky in scenes

r ,

wh ere nature h erself furnishes every gradation of

heigh t depth and density p ocessions pass dance
, , , r ,

circles are formed men and women fall on their knees

,

in devotion without requiring any particul ar tech nique

,

of representation Bu t in a restricted area eve ything

. r

is different and th e framework of a space artificially

,

confi ned creates special conditions of movement and

g rouping Wou .l d ou r Swiss a tists but under tak e t h e r
 R h y th m an d Ges tu re 2 23

active part in the drama its movements constitute

gestures of action When it bears the role of co nfi dant
.

of the h ero or of mouthpiece of the religious or philo

SOph i c truths contained in t h e play its gesture partakes ,

of th e nature of mu 5 c 1 .

The collective gesture of action may consist simply

of a repetition by each member of the chorus of an
individual movement prepared in advance or even in ,

th e merging of a number of individual gestures inde

pendent of each other But where a musical gesture
.

has to be made with the object of indicating a situation

or c eating an atmosphere
r these individual gestures
,

must be unified each member of the chorus discarding

,

his personality to subordinate himself to the wh ole .

In other words the producer must orchestrate the

,

diverse movements of the actors in such a way as to

obtain a unity of collective gesture Before studying .

th e l aws by which this orchestration may be effected

simply cl early and naturally yet in such a way that
, , ,

these skilfully contrived collective movements retain

an essentially h uman character we must first under ,

stand th e l aws which estab lish the harmony of indi

vidual gestures .

No physical movement h as any exp essive virtue in r

itself Expression by gesture depends on a succession

.

of movements and on a constant care for their harmonic ,

dynamic and static h ythm The static is the study

, r .

of th e laws of balance and proportion the dynamic

—
that of the means of expression According to Fran .

cois del Sarte dyn amic harmony depends on the rela

,

tion that subsists between all agents of gesture Just .

2 24 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati on
as in music there are consonant and dissonant chords ,

so in mimic art w find consonant and dissonant e

gestures C onsonant
.
“
movements are produced by
the perfect c o ordination between limbs head and
-
, ,

to so the fundamental agents of gesture Exactly the

r ,
.

same is the case when it is a question of harmonising

different motive elements of a crowd .

A crowd may act either independently or conjointly

with a soloist In the former case it may exp ess an
.
,
r

affirmative or a negative attitude showing hesitation or ,

the reverse ; wh en acting with a soloist it introduces ,

an element of opposition or encouragement or even of

argument (that is to say a mixture of acquiescence and ,

resistance)
In the collective movement of a crowd we hav to e

observe both changes and successions of attitudes .

Just as in the in di vidual changes in the position of an

, ,

arm or l eg may become un aesthetic when accompanied

by superfluous movements of the shoul ders or in
congruous facial play so also changes of gesture and ,

attitudes while walking or running of a collection of

, ,

individuals will produce a harmonious effect on the spec

,

tator only by a subordination of each in di vidual gesture

in favour of the whole The crowd mus t be considered .

by the producer as an entity a single individual with , ,

many limbs The multaneous execution of in dividual

. Si

gestures will not of itself express the coll ective emotions

of a crowd Fifty persons slowly raising their arms
.

w i ll only produce the effect of a single strong l ine In .

order to convey the impression of a whole people rais

ing its arms the gesture of each isolated actor should
,

carry on the gesture commenced by his neighbour and

 R hy th m a nd Ge s tu re 22 5

transmit it to a third n pursuance of a continuous i

movement Similarly Where it is desired to manifest

.

an impetuous tendency a single step forward taken by

,

each member of the chorus will by no means suggest

the advance of a whole crowd T o accomplish this the .
,

rear members must remain stationary othe members , r

taking a slight step others again a longer and yet

, ,

others more than one st ep forw ard in such a way that

the wh ol e space is occupied and in consequence the , ,

group is extended .

It is the same with dynamic gesture Th e impression .

of a common release of energy does not depend on the

amount of muscula effort contributed by each indi
r

vidual member An effect of cr s c ndo could be ob

. e e

tain ed without any increase of energy on the part of

indi viduals by a simple shrinkage of the group analo
gous to that of the contraction of a muscle or on the , ,

other hand an extension which will cause it to occupy

,

a larger area Generally speaking dynamic effects are

.
,

obtained by modifications of space and emotive effects ,

by interruptions of continuous symmetrical formations .

A single person rising gently out of a kneeling group

will produce a stronger impression than if the whole rose
at th e same moment The effect will be increased ten
.

fol d if while he rises those wh o remain kneeling bow

, ,

themselves to the ground Just as every gesture of the .

arm attains its maximum significance by the opposition

of another limb so a collective gesture should be set
,

off by carefully contrived contrasted gestures An ad .

v an ci ng body wi l l convey a far stronger impression of

its forward direction if simultaneously oth er bodies are

seen retiring .
22 6 R h y t hm Mu s ic , , and E duc ation
Thus polyrhythm ought to pl ay a highly important
part in the training of stage crowds ; not alone poly
rhythm as applied to the choru s but that formed by ,

counterpoint between the gestures of the individual

actor and those of the crowd O pposing continuous slow ,

movement to lively and irregular movement linking ,

in canon gestures and steps producing all manner of ,

variations of attitude T h study of the relations b

. e e

tween stage gesture and space demonstrates the need

of dispensing with painted representations of artifi cial
dimensions in favour of real inclines and staircases ‘

which permit the body to vary its attitudes in pursuit

of balance But it is not enough to have provided actors
.

with materi al conditions more suitab l e for bodily move

ment The essential is to give them the special edu
.

cation required for the utilisation of such condi tions .

This education must adjust the relations between space

and time ; hence it will be essentially musical for ,

music is the only art that teaches time nuance The -

.

chorus must reproduce the elementa y rhythms of mu r

sic ; i t must give fo m and a framework to the indi

r

vidual actions of the protagonists In an orchestral .

ensemble full freedom is allowed th e individual mu

,

si ci an s in interpreting the domin ant motives of the

work but their lyric expansion is continually restrained
,

and toned down by the necessity of respecting the gen

eral form and of preserving the bal ance of the i nt p e er r

tati on as a whole As we have said it is th e chorus

.
,

that creates the atmosph ere in which the indivi dual

artists perform ; the l atter must obvi ously be permitted
freedom of individ ual action but only so l ong as they ,

1
See pag e 2 02 of th i s C h apter .
 R h y th m and Ges t ure 22 7

keep within the limits imposed by the a sth etic and e

emotional atmosph ere of th e piece Fo th e rest each . r ,

individual wh ether in th e chorus or outside it must

sacrifi ce his particula idiosyncracies of expression in
r

th e i nte t of t h e gene a l impression ; the crowd

res s r re

taining its special function of pointing the similarity

and contrasts between th e imagina y lives oft h e d mati r ra s

p o
ersnce and the o dina y l ives and
r r h yt h m ofrt h e
spectators .

The special training for choruses p oposed by Appia r

twenty years ago and since p actised by us aims at r ,

giving pe fo mers the necessa y flexibility fo adapting

r r r r

themselves spontaneously to all th e rhythms however ,

compl ex called into play by the inspiration and wh at

,

we may be permitted to cal l the music of the c ea

” “
r

tive imagination This education sh ould be imposed

.

likewise on conductors producers and specialists in , ,

stage painting and lighting whose efforts s h oul d com ,

b ine to produce an imp ession of unity for they can r ,

remain independent and iso l ated only at serious risk

to the work as a wh o l e .

tage lighting does not generally attemp t more th an

S
a pict uresque imitation of th e effects of nature h ardly ,

ventu ing outside th e Scope of scenic decoration I ts

r .

action all ied with music h owever would create new

, , ,

and varied possibilities of expression D iscarding its .

h abitual function of representing th e various sh ades

of day and night it migh t participate directly in th e
,

dramatic action accentuating sudden ch anges of feel

,

ing wh ether impul ses or reactions permeating the

, ,
 CH A P TE R X I
HOW TO RE V I V E D AN C ING ( 1 912 )
—
Defini ti on of danci ng The s o called -
cla s si cal da n ce
,

and th e n eg ati n of g ravi ty

o — —
A crobati cs of ges tu re Metre a nd
rhyth m
— —
E xces s i ve i s ola ti on of mu s i c from dan ci ng D a ncers
and c ompos ers of ballets — Creati on of c h oreog raphi c s tyle
—
P h ras i ng a nd pa ce of da nci ng D i vers exerci s es i n fu s i on of
—
mu s i c a n d movi ng plas ti c Ges tu re a nd expres s i on— Si nceri ty
and traves ty — P las ti c polyrhyth m — F
i cti on a nd fa ct i n the
theatre— Th e dan ce of th e fu ture .
 C HAP TER X I
I
H OW TO RE V V E DA N C N G I ( 1 9 12 )

DAN CI NG h as always from t h e time of Lucian to that

,

of Goethe and Th eophil e Gautier been described in ,

dithy ambic and aerial terms calling up vague dreams

r ,

of a supernatural order in which b odily form man i

, , e c

pated from th e l aws of gravity floated h igh above the ,

realities of h uman existence These are not th e terms .

in which I propose to frame my discourse on the dance

to day ; my object is to determine within what limits
-

the art of dancing may approach in its conception and ,

by purely h uman means governed by physiological laws

, ,

the a t at present in full cou se of development from

r , r ,

which it ve y directly derives namely music

r , , .

There exist and there will always exist exceptional

, ,

beings who naturally gifted in music and moving plas

,

tic imbued with the joy of living and permeated with

, ,

the profound impression of beauty derived from h uman

emotions contrive to n d s oun d rhythms visibl e
, re er
‘

and to create music plastically without any special

re -
,

training guided solely by their intuition and by the

, ,

unconscious subordination of their physical faculties to

their imaginative and emotional capacities These are .

spoilt c hildren of fortune and education is only wasted,

on them .

Numerou s norma l individuals a e attracted to th e r

23 1
 How to Re v iv e D ancing 233

due partly to the exaggerated development of bodily

virtuosity at the expense of expression and partly to ,

the absol ute negation of the principle of unity of c or

poral plastic and musical rhythm .
I

In stage dancing as may still be witnessed in th e ,

more important operatic performances bodily move ,

ments tend neither to express feelings nor to transpose

sound movements T hey rarely harmonise at all with
.

the music which is supposed to have evoked them and ,

the limbs that execute them are not even themselves in

harmony The arms ign ore the movements of the l egs
.
,

or rather they have the air of refusing to follow the l atter

in th eir evolutions They confine themselves to main .

taining balance and might as well belong to a different

,

body As to the legs their r ole would appear to consist

.
,

in repudiating the weight of the body On e can under .

stand how by eliminating from their drawings the

, re

presentation of certain muscular contractions painters ,

contrive to dispel the impression of weight with the ,

definite object of conveying an illusion of i mmat ri e

ality (in the ascension of saints fligh ts of angels , ,

But dancers without knowing it merely emphasise th e

, ,

material aspect of the body in seeking to negative its

weight by a series of leaps and bounds These are onl y .

T rainin gi n ( so- called ) cla s si cal b all et dan cin g ai ms at th e acquire

ment of a certain nu m b er of auto matisms , of an a cro b ati c n ature, w h ich
can b e link ed to g the er in v ari ou s w ays . Th e fu n cti on of th e ma i tre de -

ballet c onsi s ts in a d ap tin g th em to th e d iv ers

m u s i c t h ey are f or ms of

intended to i nterpret O
n ce d an cers h av e p ass ed th eir
. n al examina fi
g fi
tion , th eir t ech ni qu e i s re ard ed as n i sh ed , an d any arti sti c d ev elop m ent
con s i dered s up erfl uou s . g
T h rou h ou t th eir career th ey c on tinu e to exh i i t b
b
to th e pu lic th e vi rtuoso effects w h ic h th ey a c quired i n th eir trainin g , and

Which c ons ti tute w h at i s pop ularly k n ow n as th e art of ch oreography .

2 34
'

R hyt h m Mus ic , , a nd E duc ati on

effected by strenuous efforts of contraction Th e im .

materialisation of a body can only be exp essed in r

dancing by the g aduation of dynamic di mi nuendos in

r

li mbs other than the legs since the latter in the cou se
, , r

of the dance are bound to be contracted This imma

, .

te i ali s ation incidentally cannot possibly be conveyed

r , ,

to the audience unless the dancer is sincerely and com

p l et ley absorbed in immaterial thoughts But spiritual .

faculties can never be developed normall y and com

p el t el y in a dance r who specialises in restricted mov e

ment and particularl y in the realistic movement of

leaping .

A complete though t an association of ideas and feel

,

ings a s tate of soul can only be interpreted by a

,
“ ”
,

body wholly absorbed in that thought Just as in op .

,

era mere aiml ess singing wholly concerned with virtu

, ,

osity conveys to ar tists an impression of insincerity

,

and futility so bodily movements where not inspired

, ,

by the need for externalising feelings or interpreting a

really vital piece of music constitute a form of idi u , r c

lous stage acrobatics D ancing and mimicry in relation

.
,

to the modern stage have become inferior arts (in ,

pantomime gestures serve merely to express onv n

, c e

ti on al feelings and realistic actions ) through p i ali a s ec s

tion in purely technical effects Of what avail the vari .

ety of these effects or even the care of certain dancers

,

to produce th em synchronically with the measured a c

d en es of the orchestra
c ? Not measu e but rhythm r , ,

assures the originality of musical expression It is .

futile for dancers who are not artists to make their

steps exactly correspond with the musical phrasing
th ei r m ovem ents ex press no t music b ut merely i ts ,
 How to Rev iv e Da ncing 2 35

external fo rms dep rived of all vital impul se Rapidity .

or slowness of sound o bodi l y movement can only b e

r

come expressive wh en made to epresent a s tate of r

concentration or excitement produced by s timulat

ing and emotive mental images A slow walk or .

a light run can only produce an aesthetic impression

where the general pace of th interpreter indicates toe

th e spectator the rel ations between the visible move

ments and t h e concentrated s tate of mind and soul that
has evoked t h em I f t h e speed of th e wal k or run be
.

influenced by immaterial causes t h e general attitude ,

—
of the whol e body will be simil arl y influ enc ed which
only proves the insincerity of most of th e regular danc
ing steps for whic h onl y th e l eg muscl es are required
,
-
,

and which furnish an anal ogy to th e audacious scal e

passages so justl y tabooed from modern instrumental
mus1c .

Th ere is no l onger any necessity to p lead t h e case for

the ol d operatic ballet ; t h e case h as al ready been
judged and lost ! Th e public has ceased to tak e any
interest in choreograph y and artists no l onger regard
,

it as an art ; but the deplorable part is th at neith er

artists nor public appreciate th e real grounds of th eir
contempt We find th em still extolling t h e merits of
.

individual dancers of repute from which we migh t con

,

c lu d that t h e decadence of choreograph ic art l ay in

e ,

their opinion in the inferiority of the standard of danc

,

ers V ery few performers are conscious of the disco d

. r

existing between musical metre and rhythm and t he ,

manner of exp essing them plasticall y Th e gulf sepa

r .

rating th e orchestra from the stage a ppears to them a

 How to Re v i v e D a ncing 237

of individuals In dancing it must transpose itself at

.
,

once into sound and movement Sound music regu .

-

lates controls and refines plastic which otherwise

, , ,

would be abandoned to the anarchy of movements .

I n addition it strengthens expression by means of its

,

stimulating properties Plastic on the other hand ren .

, ,

ders sounds visible and gives them a human touch .

In the modern ballet music and dancing are separated ,

ow ing to the isolation of musical and choreographic

training T his has been the case fo so long that there
. r

exists very little ballet music suitable for dancing and ,

very few bodily rhythms involved in dancing that

can inspire composers with original musical ideas .

There is no common ground between dancers and com

posers for the ballet nor any apport between rhythms ,
r

in time and those in space .

I

Once it is admitted that bodily movements should

be controlled by musical rhyt hms it becomes important ,

that the latter should be susceptible of corporal reali

s ation If we examine the present day ballet music we
.
-
,

If you point out th i s s tate of affairs to a p ainter , h e wi ll tell you ,

1

g
wi th apparen t lo ic , th at , from h i s p oint of V i ew , th e s i h t of h armoni ous g
mov emen ts i s more importan t th an th e s ou n d of adequat ely h armoni sed
music and th at th i s juxtaposition of differen t elements s eems to h im
,

to d estroy t h e unity of th e plastic imp res sion n dou tedly— as s umi n . U b g

k
h e lac s a on rm al eel in fo r f
m i
us c l— noth i n g
can b e more le i tim ate g g
g
th an movi n plas tic d i sp ens in g wi th mu sic an d d rawi n all i ts resources , g
from th e h uman ody b b
Th e trou le i s th at n on mu s ica l dan cers i n
.
-
,

g
mpable of i nterpretin th e music wh i ch i s supposed to b e i nspirin th em g ,

are not content to di sp en s e wi th , an d con triv e ra th

ert p dy i t
o aro , .

One th in or g ard mus i c as a

th e oth er, ei th er th ey re g m g t f
ere a en o

control over mov emen ts , i n wh i ch cas e any i n s tru en m t fp o i ercu s s on

will serve th eir purpose or, acceptin mu s ic as a , enu g g i ly i pi i g

ne ns rn

f orce, th ey must su bmit th emselv es to i ts impulses , an d s are u s

p th e
revolting spectacle of i ts p rostitution,
 3 8 R hy th m Mus ic , , and E duc ati on
find that the time units are comm only too short to -

enable legs and arms to express them syn chronically ,

whence we may conclude that composers of ballet are

unacquainted with the instrum ent for which they are
writing and are producing music the g eater part of
, , r

which is impracticable for its proclaimed pu poses r .

Th ey accumulate technical musical devices to di imu ss

late thei lack of understandi ng of the human body

r ,

and its potentialities of expression .

On th e other h and we find that when in t h e cours , , e

of ballet music passages suitabl e for expression by the

,

body do occur the dancers do not even attempt to

,

reconcil e their movements with the rhythm of the

music and content themselves with adapting the con
,

ventional interpretation This leads u s to our second .

conclusion that ball et dancers are ignorant of the laws

,

of sound rhyt hm in relation to those of plastic rhythm

,

and find t h emselves confronted with music in the

— — ,

situation of a vil lage fi ddl e abl e to repeat by h ea t a r r

certain number of airs which have been crammed into

hi m but wh o p l aced in an orchestra knowing not hing
, , ,

of the laws of musical prosody would seek to adapt ,

these airs as best he could to the music he was t to

— — se

read and which was a dead l etter to him These two

, .

conclusions bring us to a thi d viz that if we wish to r ,

.
,

instigate a revival of dancing as an a t we must pro r ,

vide an education that will enable dancers to under

stand the music they are set to express plastically and '

familiarise composers with the laws of balance and bod

ily movement in all their nuances Only in this way .

can there be any question of an adequate rhythmic and

plastic exp ession of emotion for only wh en we a
r ,
re
 HOW to R i
ev v e D nci ng
a 2 39

thoroughl y versed in the multipl e signs of a language

can we effectively employ these signs to express our
feelings .

Th e a t of musical rh yt hm consists in differentiating

r

time durations combining them in succession a ang

-
, ,
rr

ing ests between them and accentuating them con

r ,

s i ou ly or unconsciously acco ding to physiological

c s , r

law The art of plastic rhyt hm is to designat e move

.

ment in space to interpret long time values by slow

,
-

movements and short ones by quick movements

, ,

regulate pauses in their divers successions and express ,

sound accentuations in their multiple nuances by ad

diti on or diminutions of bodil y weigh t by means of
s ,

muscular innervations .

Th e dance student (and by th e term dancer I impl y

r
-

every interpreter of music by means of bodily move

ment including O peratic singers and conductors ) should
,

therefore undergo a double and parallel training as a ,

'

result of which he will acquire a knowledge of and ,

sensitiveness to music and an understanding of the

, ,

rhythms that inspire it together with the faculty of ,

interpreting these plastically without sacrificing th eir ,

e —
styl that is th alterations the composer h as effected
, e

in th e rel ations of th e rhyt hms as between th emselves .

I t is th ese alterations that express his emotions and

all the dynamic and pathetic nuances comprising the
emotional element in the music shoul d be executed by
the dancer by means of modificati ons i n the regula i ty r

f
o mu scu la r movemen ts efi ec ted by h i s ow n s ensi bi li ty .

These modifications can only be produced as a result

of special exercises and th e following seem to me indis
,
 How to R ev ve i D a ncing 241

rubatos , in walking without losing his balance I n

,
.

addition different kinds of walking are evo ked by t h e

,

different pace of musical phrases and adapted to s tac

catos l ga tos po tandos and the like effects of the music
,
e , r ,
.

There exist here as many variations as in the bow

strokes of a violinist and the same comparison wil l
,

enable us to follow the special exercises and training

necessitated by the different styles of walking and halt
ing whet her abruptly or slowly To attack a phrase
, .

on the vi olin by an anacrusis of three semi quavers -

necessitates a di fferent position for the bow and a di f ,

fe en t kind of muscular activi ty from that required for

r

an attack on a semibreve p layed pi ani ssi mo or on a ,

crotchet played forte and followed by a rest Th e

, .

study of repressions of steps is of even more impo tance r ,

inasmuch as the cessation of movement constitutes for ,

dancing purposes a potent means of creating contrasts

,
.

and of introducing polyph ony in the expression of

feelings I n many respects the dance may be compared
.
,

with a concerto for vi oli n and orchestra in whi ch the ,

soloist engages in a dialogue with th e other instrume nts ,

and where now one now anoth er of the two protagon

,

i sts remai ns silent for a moment to enable his inter

locutor to speak In dancing however the dialogue is
.
, ,

conducted in two diffe ent languages p l astic phrases re

r :

sp ond to musical phrases Th e essential is th at artistic

.

and aesth etic emotion sh ou l d be expressed ; for th e rest ,

plastic l anguage h as no l ess and varied resources th an

th at of music .

To return to our exercises in walki ng : it goes without

saying that th ese are not confi ned to a flat s urface ,

16
2 42 Rh y t h m Mus ic , , and E duc ati on
but are practised on inclines strewn with objects and ,

on staircases of every kind and dimension Once we .

are concerned with utilising the whole body for the

expression of human emotion it becomes bviously ab , O

surd to deprive it of opportunities of freely dispo ting r

itself in its divers modes of activity The walk of a .

man will va y according to the surface on which he is

r

moving ; it is therefore necessa y that in the theatre r , ,

he should be given practice in moving on different

kinds of u fa s H ave you ever seen children danc
r c es .
I

ing on a grassy slope ? And do you know the deep

impression made by the sight of a crowd of men labo i r

ou ly climbing a mountain ?
s

P reliminary exercises in walking should be executed

without the aid of the arms T hese are reserved for .

other than the purely balancing functions to which

ballet dancers devote them T h arms form the prin . e

ci pal medium for the expression of feelings called up by

dancing and lend themselves to an infinite number of
,

combinations of movements I should say that the .

symbols forming the language of gesture are almost as

numerous as those of the language of articulate speech .

The study Of gestures their oppositions and combina ,

tions is however u nknown in operatic ballet circles

, , ,

where the arms serve only to maintain balance D an .

cers of the D uncan school employ more va ied beauti r ,

ful and numerous gestures but th ey are usually con

, ,

fined to antique models reproducing the attitudes of ,

Greek statues and by no means asse ting the person r

ality of the dancer o expressing spontaneous and sin

, r

cere emotion Apart from that they Operate in space

.
, ,

See C h apter X , p . 2 02 .
 How to Re v i v e D ancing 2 43

w ith out o der Of sequence ; th ey are never l ed up to

r ,

th ey occur at h aphazard ; th ey are not th e inevitable

product of nuances of feeling dictated by th e music ;
fi nally they fail to inte pret th e mentali ties Of con
,
r

temporary human beings .

In studying diction t h e pupil is taugh t carefully to

,

modulate his voice according to his temperament and ,

not in imitation of the vocal nuances conceived by

others Th e same applies to th e study of gesture which
.
,

should depend on th e sh ape of limbs th e force and fl exi ,

bility of muscles and t h e particu l ar dispositions of the

,

joints To give an idea of th e infinite number of combina

.

tions of gestu es l et us take th e movement of raising the

r ,

left arm and h ol ding it vertically above th e h ead This

, , .

gesture may va y in form and expression according to

r ,

the divers inclinations of th e torso and h ead the degree ,

of tension or fl exion of the elbow or w ist th e position r ,

of the fingers in th e hand pen or cl osed and the dis ,

O ,

pl acements of th e torso or oth er parts of the body .

Again whil e raising th e left arm the right may remain

, ,

stationary or si nk in contrast or bend to th e ight or , r

left or rear in eve y nuance of tension or fle ion

, r x .

These va ious combinations of the arm may assume a

r

totall y differ ent signifi cance according as t h e actor s

’

eye is directed to the l eft arm igh t arm elbow wrist , r , , ,

or fingers They produce varied impressions according

.

to the degree of resistance of th e i nh ibitory muscl es ,

and the slowness or rapidity of th e movements (one

arm may be aised s l owly w h i l e t h e ot h e r m ak es a rapid
r

gestu re) Yet again while the l eft arm is being raised
.
, ,

the righ t may execute quite a number Of movements ,

and each of these gestures may be seen in a different

 HO W to Re v iv e Da nc ing 245

plays a negligibl e Ole and is reall y superfluous Th e

r .

stimulating conflicts between resolution and weakness ,

doggedness and resignation masterful love and tender

,

ness struggles perilous enterprises the slow b ut sure

, , ,

advance Of Progress th e overcoming of obstacl es resist

, ,

an c es and compunctions the victories over self all—

, ,

these must give way to the conventional travesty (or

what i one to call an art in which Siegfried R enaud
s , ,

and Tristan are represented by women ?) in which th e

man conscious of the decadence of ch oreographic art
, ,

dare not assert his virility nor afli m his dignity of,
r

authority nor manifest plastically his innate aesthetic

,

qualities the instinct for domination and for tenacious

,

resistance What more repu lsive spectacle can the e

. r

be than that of the male dancer assuming f eminine

graces ? The eternal conflict of the sexes must be the
keynote of the revival of the dance and the l atter can ,

only recover its social influence and character of human

truth when the eternal adversa ies whose oppositi ons
,
r ,

and reconciliations form the basis of all vital d amatic r

art are adequately represented and staged

, .

Who can doubt but that once balance has been ,

restored , the divers nuances of expression will only

appear in individuals capable of feeling emotion when ,

brought into contact with art under th e influence of ,

sincerely felt sensations and sentiments Part of the

?

dancer s education will have to be devoted to his nerv

’

ous system ; specia l exercises habituating the nerves

to transmit th e orders of the brain to the limbs en
trusted with their execution and establishing by means
,

of rhythm a vital and regular circul ation covering all

—
—
nuances of movement between the divers agents of
2 46 R hyt h m Mu s ic , , a nd Educ at i on
th e organism Numerous automatic movements must
.

be created and made subservient to the conscious will

, ,

under whose direction they may be applied or with

held combined Opposed or superposed The sub
, , , .

conscious manifestations of individuality will also have

to be developed while not overb urdening the ne vous
, r

system nor destroying the plastic harmony of the organ

,

ism Before all else the plastic interpreter of musi

.
,

cal emotions must however be made capable by vi tue

, , , r

of an artistic and moral training of deepl y sensing ,

these emotions for any attempt at expression on the

—
part of one not genuinely inspired by music is a sham .

C onsider the admirable Russian d ancers with ,

their fiery temperament their g ace flexibility and , r , ,

—
undeniable rhythmic qualities watch them on occasion
di scard their dizzy gyratory effects to bring out the ,

lyric essence of a dramatic situation ! T heir movement

at once loses all ease and sincerity Sentiment is e . r

placed by sentimentality natural expression by grand

,

iloqu en e eac h gesture

c ,
f passion shame desire O , , ,

suffering is exaggerated to an extreme A constant

, .

vi bra to animates their movements ; a continuous crude

expansion asserts itself ; the immodesty of simulated

emotion is exposed in all its nakedness ! D oes this mean
that the dancers lack science tact and intelligence ?
, ,

N ot in the least The cause of this exaggeration of

.

attitudes and gestures is the lack of a close o ordination c -

between their sensibilities and those of the musician .

The music does not directly e act on their sensitive r -

faculties does not irresistibly inspire the natural means

,

of bodily expression ; they are unable to express music ,

through incapacity to tak i t i n e .

 Ho w to R ev i v e D a ncing 247

Th e inte preter is no true artist unl ess h e is capabl e

r
—
not only of gi vi ng but once having received humbly
, ,

,
” —
and joyfully th e message of the work Of creating
“

anew what he has received and of conveying to others , ,

transfused the essence of th at message and of himself

, .

To th e majority of ball et dancers music is only a ,

pretext for decorative effects in moving plastic Beauty .

of gesture is sought in no oth er interest th an that of

th e aesth etic application of their physical resources .

Th ey do not realise that no attitude can produce an

impression of since ity and beauty unl ess it is th e
r ,

product of a state of mind o indeed of soul The

— r , .

researc h for externa l grace excludes eve y e f fect of r

simple and natural beauty This latter is the p oduct . r

of inner physical and intellectual effort tending to the ,

pursuit after h igh er universal elements Before ex , .

pressing music the dancer s h oul d be capab l e of living

, ,

and of esponding to its impulses in a comp letely dis

r ,

inte ested spirit Th e body is neve so beautiful as

r . r

wh en eflecting beauty of thought and the spontaneous

r

stimulus Of life As Wagner said : Only life can

.
“

create a real need for art and can furnish art with ,

both matter and form ”

.

The dancer artist sh ould make use of h is whol e

-

body in expressing his emotions through music and , ,

inversely in expressing music through his emotions ; it

,

is therefore indispensable not only that all h is limbs

should be trained but that his sensibility and musical
,

intell igence should be adequately developed A special .

education aiming at awakening a feeling for the rela

,

tions between movements in music and those of the

mu scul ar and nervou s sy stem s h oul d b e imposed not ,
 How to Re v i v e D ancing 2 49

majority of dancers concerned with inte preting music r

do not know their notes or if they do h ave no real

, , ,

understanding of music of the intimate rel ations of

,

which with p l astic art th ey are comp l etely ignorant .

P l astic po lyrhythm is un k nown in our ballet dancing .

Th e art of contrasting movements and attitudes is still

in an embryonic stage Th e simul taneous execution of
.

slow movements with th e same movements at doubl e ,

t iple or quad uple speed has never been attempted

r , r .

The nuances produced by the co Operation of a large -

number of individualities in the expression of a

single composite emotion cannot be achieved so
long as those individualities remain incompletely de
v eloped or even as is often the case without power
, , ,

of expression .

Th e very bodies of the most gifted and fully trained

dancers are hampered in their strivings towards com
p l et e power of expression by the artificial light devoid
, ,

alike of subt lety and truth in which th ey are obliged ,

to execute thei r movements I t is vi tually impossibl e

. r

for t hem to express themsel ves plastically without the

suppo t of lighting effects which at once reveal and
r , ,

inspire th em creating an atmosph ere in space analo

,

gous to that created by the play of music in time The .

present system allows for no play of natural shadows ,

no contrast of delicate movements with firmly sil

h ou etted attitudes n o attempt at representing a c es
, r

c nd o by a gradation from darkness to light

e directly ,

—
inspi ed by the mu si c no connection between the
r

space wherein the dancers disport themselves and the

rhythms they execute between the respective emotions
,

created by the environment and the action .

2 50 R h yt hm Mu s ic
, , a nd E duca tion
In an exhibition Of dancing to which several arts
collaborate in harmony (moving plastic music decora , ,

tive staging) it is highly desirable to avoid any conflict

between the artifi cial and the real Reality will always
.

hold the spectator s attention more forcibly than a ti

’
r

fice, making the latter unsatisfactory and ridiculous .

For this reason the three dimensions of space should

never in a setting for dancing a dmi t of an imaginary
, ,

—
perspective of the painter s creation nor will the real
’

and vivid light which reveals the reality and vividness

Of those thre e dimensions in moving plastic suffer i m

ag inativ e l ighting effects in the staging Similarly .

,

the rhythm of moving plastic should be spared the

competition of imaginary but fi xed movements of
statuary and painting E xisting stage decoration is
.

th e morta l enemy of real rhyt hm executed by the

h uman body in the three real dimensions Of space .

D ecoration in two real dimensions and a fictitious depth

is out of place in a space involving real d epth ; while
a lighting which suppresses shadows compromises the
real value of plastic and movement Th e setting for a.

display of dancing should be of a genuinely plastic

nature and the lighting the aim of which should be to
, ,

reveal the bodily rhythms in the most natural way ,

should fall from heaven or break from the horizon

, .

Since all sources of expressive movements in moving

plastic are of an imaginative natu e a direct contactr ,

with reality should not be permitted to compro mise the

illusion and destroy the imaginative effects conveyed
th ough that medium of expression The illusion
r .

should be produced by the expressive action confined

to time an d s pace musical atmos phere and l i gh t
,
The .
 How to R ev i v e D ancing 25 I

flowers a dancer stoops to pick must be fi ctitious and

exist only n his imagination or in the music which
1 ,

dictates the gesture of picking flowers ; neither real nor

artifi cial flowers should be laid on th e ground Th e .

smell of these fictitious flowers has no real existence .

You may convey it by the same gestures as those ex

pressive of th e joy of breathing the fragrance of life ;
you do not require to have the stage sprinkl ed with
p e
r fu m e ! The I
sources of joy sorrow despair and
, , ,

energy have no real existence in the scenic representa

tion of these passions or at least exist only in the actor ;
,

but all the impressions which have moul ded his thoughts
and feelings are expressed by h is attitude and move
ments by t h e proportion of t h eir duration and th eir
, ,

accentuation by the combination of the degrees of

,

lightness and weigh t Of his various limbs and by th e ,

collaboration of his muscles t h e servants of h is tem

,

p e
r a m ent In that sense the means of expression are
.

realistic and anything forming part of the setting

, ,

outside space and light becomes a lie As O pposed to

, .

pantomime which cannot dispense with real O bjects

, ,

because t h e relations between man and his environment

are therein specialised to an extreme natural dancing ,

generalises feelings and emotions expressing them in

!

their elementary form That is why th e causes of

.

these feelings l ose th eir intensity in being made mani

fest ; their meanness renders unconvincing and di p o s r

po ti onat the lyr ic g andeur of thei r expression

r e r For .

example fear in face of the dangers of nature is experi

,

en ced by all h uman beings ; but such dangers as epre ,

r

sented by material means in th e restricted space of a

1
A i
s t i h i b iti
n c er a n ex fD d d N g
on s o d i g d th li k
a a an e ro an c n , an e e .
 HO W to R e v i v e D a ncing 2 53

position in which only appearances a e ch anged

, r

doubtl ess it will be possible at th at stage to dance ,

w ithout the accompaniment of sounds The body will .

suffice to express the joys and sorrows of men and will ,

not require the co operation of instruments to dictate

-

their rhythms itsel f comprising al l rhythms and ex

— ‘

pressing them naturally in movements and attitudes .

Meanwhi l e th e body must submit to th e intimate co l

,

lab oration of music or rat h er be willing to yiel d wit h

, , ,

out restriction to th e discipline Of sounds in al l their

,

metrical and p ath etic accentuations ad apting their ,

rhythms to its own or better still cont iving to Oppose

, , , r

pl asti c? to sound rhythms in a rich counterpoint never

,

before undertaken and which must definitely estab lish

,

th e unity of gesture and symp hony And th us the .

dance of to morrow will become a medium of expres

-

sion and poesy a manifestation of art emotion and

, , ,

truth.
 C HAP TE R x 11

E U RHYTH MI CS A N D MO V ING P LA STI C ( )

1 91 9

—
The art of th e E u rhythmi s t i s s elf s ufii ci ent A nalysi s of the
-

ar t of movi ng pla s ti c
— Mus cula r cons ci ous n es s and i ns ti nct
fo r a tti tu de s — T a ble of e l em e n ts c om m on to m u s i c a n d m ovi n g
p la s ti c
— R h y th m s m u s i ca l a n d i n tellectu a l— A r h yth m — P o s

si ble ameli orati on of mu si c corporal

-
i nterpretati ons Se —
q u en c o o f a tti tu des — L
’
A p r e
-
s m idi d’
u n F a une, R u ss i an ba lle t ,

and con ti nu ous movemen t Vi s ual a nd mus cu lar experi ences .

.
r
C lass ificati on of elements common to movi ng plas ti c a nd
— —
musi c Dynami cs A gogi cs (di vi s i on of ti me) Di vi s i on of -

s pace — —
Relati ons between ti me a nd s pace Di vi s i on of ti me
and s pace i n relati on to the s i tuati on f the i ndi vi dual i n
o

s pace — —
Sequ ence of g es tures Ges tu res from the aes theti c poi n t
of vi ew — —
P las ti c and musi cal valu e of ges ture Ges tu res of
g rou ps —R h yth m an d h u ma n s oci ety .
 C HAP TE R X II
E U RHYTHMI CS A ND MOV I N G P LA ST I C ( 1 91 9 )

Y THMI CS aims at the bodily representation of musi

RH
cal values by means of a special training tending to
,

muster in ourselves the elements necessary for this

representation which is no more than the spontaneous
—
externalisation of mental attitudes dictated by the same
emotions that animate music If the xp ion of . ,
fi
w
e res s

the emotions does not directl y react on our sensorial

facul ties and produce a correspondence between sound
rhyth m
,

s and our physical rhythms and between their ,

expulsi ve force an d our sensibility our plastic exter ,

n ali s ati on Will become mere i mi ati on I It s this th at . I

distinguishes eurh ythmics from th e old systems of callis

th ni s musical drill and dancing
e c ,
All external effects
,
.

of corporal expression born of an understanding of

,

rhythmic movement and music are the inevitable ,

product of a state of emotion quite free from aesthetic

ambition Their manifestation satisfies the exigencies
.

of art since art consists of magnifying ideas and emo

,

tions and giving them a decorative form and style

, ,

while developing their vital qualities and rendering

them susceptible of communication to others The .

eurh ytll ni t is he who both creates (or

r s creates ) artis re -

tic emotion and experiences it : In ,

humanises the idea and the idea spiritualises sensation

, .

f ”
I7
2 57
 E u rh y th mic s and M ov ing P l a s tic 2 59

to these movements on the part of the dancer E du I

,
.
-

n d n rhythm aims before all else at produc

c ati o
nbl a i , ,

ing n the student a psycho physical sensibility al u

’

i , c c

l ated at once to create the need and furnish the means ‘

Of spontaneously externalising musical r h yth ms genu

in ely felt and interpreting them by any means inspired

,

by a perfect knowl edge of the rel ations of space time , ,

and weight T h conventional dancer adapts music to

. e
—
his particular technique and a number in reality very
restricted of automatisms ; the eurhythmist li v this
— es

mu si c mak , _
it his own f hi s movements quite natu
—
es
-
r

int rp eting it A training in moving plastic will

m
”

ll
”

t
ay e r .

also teach him to select among these movements those , ,

most expressive and suitable for producing effects of a

decorative order which will convey to th e spectator
th e feelings and sensations which h ave inspired them .

The main thing is that the emotions which have in ,

spired the sound rhythms and th e form in which they

have taken sh ape (also the processes of a geometrical
and architectural order which have determined th e
harmonies and developments) should be reproduced ,

in their plastic representation and that the same life ,

force should animate sound music and the music of

gesture alike .

Once the limbs are trained once the senses and mind ,

have been awakened by rhythm th e nervous resistances ,

eliminated and the divers forces of th e organism con

,

n t d by a continuous and powerful current it b ecomes

ec e ,

necessary to complete the muscular sense the feeling ,

for space and familiarity with its l aws as wel l as that

—

for shades of time by the acquisition of aesthetic

—
qualities and of the instinct for divining the results
2 60 R h y th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc a t ion
certain movements will produce on others and whi h ,
c

enable the plastic artist to realise with his limb “ ”

s

gestures and attitudes he has previously imagin d e .

P laced before a mirror he should see reflected the p , er

f t plastic expression of a preconceived n mbl of

ec e se e

lines and curves ; for just as merely being musical w ill ,

not enable a man to create music so the mere possession ,

of a feeling for plastic beauty and emotion will not

s ufli to transpose emotion and beauty into external
ce

forms of physical movement While acuteness of visual .

powers and a cultivated decorative sense enable a

draughtsman to convey graphically the beauty of the
human body in movement these qualities will by no ,

means serve to enable h im to represent those move

ments through the medium of his own body For that .

purpose he will have to acquire by means of a special ,

training the i nward sense of decorative line and form

, ,

balance and dynamism necessa y for plastic p e , r re r

s entati on .

E very vi sual or auditive activity begins with a simpl e

registration of images and sounds and the receptive ,

faculties of eye and ear will only develop an a sthetic e

activity when the muscular sense is sufficiently devel

oped to convert the sensations so registered into move
ment As we have said elsewhere and frequently
.
, ,

movement is thef basis Oi a n d n o arti s ti _ _

. c

cul ture s poss bl w th ou t a p ev ou s s tudy of the forms

-fl
' ” r fl

1 I e 1 r i
_
_

of movement and training of oE fHEi SfRZE

‘

_
I .

I t was this discovery that led us to pre

cedel sOns n solf ege by a training of the nervous and
'
'

es I

muscular systems according to the l aws of time and ,

rhythm ; the same phenomeno n shows us the danger of

 E urh y t h mic s a nd M ov ing P l as t ic 26 1

undertaking the study of moving p l astic (corporal sol

fege) without reiterated experiences tending to th e
acquisition of a host of qualities producing collectively
a feeling for space in time and time in space by means , ,

of movement .

A point i s reach ed when moving p l astic becomes

completely musicalised by the study of the multiple
elements of an agogic and dynamic nature which consti
tute the expressive language Of sound It will then .

seek to create forms of movement at once decorative

and expressive wi thou t ort to s ound by the exclusive
, res ,

aid of i t ow n musi c D oubtless these mediums Of

s .

musical expression can never become really complete

without the o operation of whole groups f people
c -
O ,

for it is a matter not only of endowing the human body

with all the divers mediums of expression possessed by ,

the art of music and of making th at body the direct

,

—
agent of thought and creative emotion but also of har
m on i i n g and orchestrating several bodies in movement
s .

Th e elements common to music and the modern

ballet are exclusively time and more or less as an ac ,

ces so y rhythm
r , The elements common to music and
.

movi ng plas ti are c :

Movi ng P las ti c
Po siti n d dir cti n f g
o an e o o es

ture in space
s

I t ity
n ens of sound Muscul r dy mi a na cs

Ti mbr e Diversity in c rpor l f rms o a o

(the se e ) x s

Dur ti ona

T im e

Rhythm
 E u rh yt h mic s and M ov ing P l as t ic 2 63

lab orator ; it neith er inspires penetrates nor animates , ,

th e gestures movements and attitudes T h at i s why

'

.
, ,

s o called classical dancing does not constitute a com

“ ”
-

p l et e art nor , contribute to the progress of the art In .

fact the ballet dancer possesses intuitively neither i n

,

t llectu al nor physical rhyt h ms his virtuosity being

e ,

formed from a combination of automatisms that his

emotion cannot replace at will by spontaneous rhythm
, ,

i manifestations The composer of ballet music for

c .
,

his part has only intellectual rhythms at his disposal

, ,

and th ese are likewise automatised to such a pitch

th at he cannot interrupt a development of a pure ly
musical character in his score in favour of spontaneous
rhythms of a corporal origin D ancer and musician
, .

alike are sl aves of time as unversed in nuances of time

,

duration as in the dynamic rel ations of sound and cor

,

poral movements The composer may bserve th e

. O

conventional musical rhythms but is a rhythmic from ,

-

a muscu l ar point of view The dancer for the most .

,

part is a rhythmic both from the muscular and musical

,
-

points of view for lack of an education th at woul d

,

enable him both to break his automatisms (or adapt

them to modifications of time duration) and to incor -
,

p o ra te and l ater externalise sound rhyt h ms with com

p l et e ease and flexibi l ity Let me exp l ain
. what I mean
To be a hythmi c is to be incapable of following a
-
r

movement in the exact time required for its normal .

execution ; to hur y it here or delay it there instead of

r

keeping it at a uniform pace not to know h ow to accel ,

e ate it when acceleration is necessary or to draw it

r ,

out when protraction is necessary ; to make it rough

and jer ky instea d of sm oot h an d co ntinuous and vi ce ,
264 R hy th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc ati on
vers a; to commence or finish too late or too soon ; not
to be able to link a movement of one sort on to a move
ment of another sort a slow to a quick a flexible to a
—
,

rig id
La g
vi orous to a g entle ,move m ent ; to b ei n ap ab l
'

c e

of executing simultaneously two or more conflicting

nor to kn ow how to shade a movement ,

s to execute it in an imperceptible gradation

,

p i a n o to fo t and i e v a
r e, or to a n tu
v c ers , c ce

i t metrically or pathetically at the points fixed

by the requisites Of the musical shape or emotion .

All these deficiencies without exception may be at , ,

tributed either to inability of the brain to issue its

orders suffi ciently promptly to the muscles responsible
for th e execution of the movement inability of the ,

nervous system to transmit these orders accurately and

smoothly to the right quarters or inability of the ,

muscles to execute them infallibly A rhythm arises .

-
,

th en from a lack of harmony and o ordination b

,
— c e

tween the conception and the execution of the move

ment and from the nervous irregularity that in some
, ,

cases produces and in others is the product of this

, , , , ,

dis harmony With some people the brain may con

-
.
,

c i e ve the rhythms normally enough having inherited ,

a supply of clear and distinct rhythmic images but ,

the limbs while perfectly capable of executing these

,

rhythms are hampered by a disordered nervous system

,
.

Others suffer from the inability of their limbs to exe

cute the perfectly distinct orders of the brain and this ,

ineffectual nervous functioning eventually produces a

breakdown of the system With others again who .
,

possess perfectly sound nerves and muscles the clea r ,

registration in th e brain of durab l e ima g es is im peded

, ,
 E urhy t h mic s a nd M ov ing P l a s tic 2 65

by inadequate education in rhythm .

rhyth mi c trai ni ng i s to reg u la te th e natu o f

a nd , by thei r mati sati on to
a u to , create defini te
i mages i n the brai n .

S ome considerable time must elapse before th e

desired renaissance of rhythm in music can be a om cc

p l
si h d
e but I claim
,
that
I
a relatively short time should
suffice for a rhythmic training to reform musical dra ,

matic and choreographic interpretations In the first

,
.

place theatrical performers actors singers and danc

,
—
, ,

ers who undergo a course of such rhythmic training

—
should at once realise that without it a satisfactory , ,

and rhythmic musical expression is out of the question .

Nine tenths of the auditors of an opera are unaware of

the constant conflict between the orchestra and the
action Singers and dancers alike i m pose their ges
.

tures and attitudes utterly regardless of time on music

, ,

which eith er they do not understand or else th ey

.

understand imperfectly T hei feet are set in motion . r

when they should remain stationary their arms are ,

raised when they should be motionless their bodies no ,

more harmonise with the music than would their

th oats if they sang out of tune or time or suddenly
r ,

began an air from another opera while the orchestra ,

continued to play from the original score ! And these

deficiencies are the product alike of the clumsiness of
limbs ill trained in rhythm and of mind in ufl i i n tly
-
‘
s c e

cultivated and consequently ignorant of the intimate

,

relationships between movements in space and move

See Ch ap VI I , p . . 1 45 : Eurh yth mi cs an d Musical Composition .
 E urh y t h mic s and Mov ing P l as t ic 2 67

for bodily movements attitudes stereotyped by pain ters

and sculptors .

Often when present at disp l ays of dancing frantic ,

ally applauded by eminently artistic spectators I h ave ,

wondered why my musical taste was offended and why , ,

despite the undoubted talent of th e performer a feeling ,

of discomfort was awakened in me as well as an im ,

pression of someth ing artificial something prepared ,

and unnatural I have heard painters endowed with

.
,

admirable judgment express their enthusiasm at the

,

splendour of the attitudes the refinement of the ges

,

tures the harmony of the groupings and the audacity

, ,

of th e acrobatic movements ; and while admitting these

qualities while bowing before so much artistic feeling
, ,

sincerity ability and knowledge I could not bring

, , ,

myself to feel the slightest aesth etic emotion and could ,

only accuse myself of coldness l ack of understanding , ,

and philistinism .

A production of D ebussy s L A p e mi di d u n Faune

’ ’
r s -
’

a few years ago revealed to me the cause of my mis

givings and distaste A procession of nymphs moved
.

slowly on to the stage pausing every eight or twelve

,

steps to enable their charming attitudes (copied from

Greek vases) to be adequately admired On continuing .

th eir march in the l ast attitude assumed they would ,

attack the following attitud at the moment of the

— e

fresh pause in walking without any preparato y move

— r

ment thus giving the jerky impression that would be

,

conveyed at the cine ma by a series of movements from

which the essential portions of the film had been sup
pressed I then understood that what shocked me
.

was the l ack of connection which sh ould be present in

2 68 R hy th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc ati on
every manifestation of life heightened by thought .

T h e exquisite attitudes of the G reek nymphs follow ed

each other without any attempt at li nking them by a
human and natural process T hey formed a series of .

pictures most artistic in effect but voluntarily deprived

, ,

of all the advantages btained by time duration I

O - -

mean onti nui ty the potentialities of slow development

c , ,

the easy preparation and as it were inevitable climax

, ,

—
of plastic movement in spac all of them essentially k

musical elements and which alone assure truth and

,

naturalness to the union of gesture and music .

Guided by this experience I analysed in the same ,

way the movements of various dancers of the highest

distinction and noted that those among them who
,

were most truly musicians while endeavouring to fol ,

low the pattern oi the music in the most scrupulous

manner had no more regard for the principle of con
,

ti nuity of movement and of plastic phrasing than the

nymphs mentioned above I mean that in the play of .

their limbs the point of departure was the attitude and

not the movement itself
Musicians will follow me in compositions of a con :

t ap u n t al nature the lines of the polyphony are not

r ,

embroidered on a canvas formed of chords chosen , ,

fixed and linked together in advance On the contrary

,
.
,

the chords depend on the outlines and patterns of the

melody The ear does not sense and analyse them as
.

such until the parts cease moving and become sus

,

tai n d notes
e In moving plastic the same thing should
.

happen Attitudes are pauses in the movement E ve y

. . r

time that in the uninterrupted sequence of movements

,

forming what might be called the plastic melody a ” “

,
 E urh y th m ic s an d M ov ing Pl a s tic 2 69

punctuation mark is ins rted a pause corresponding e ,

to a comma semicolon or full stop in speech the

, , ,

movement becomes static and is perceived as an

attitude .

But the real perception of movement is not visual

it is muscular and the living symphony of steps ges
, ,

tures and consecutive attitudes is formed and con

,

trolled not by th e agent of mere appreciation the —

eye but by that of creation the wh ole muscul ar

,
:

apparatus Under the action f spontaneous feelings

. O

and irresistible emotions the body vibrates starts into ,

movement and eventually assumes an attitude The

,
.

latter is the direct product of th e movements which

prepare it whereas in choreographic art of the present
,

day movement is only a bridge connecting two differ

,

ent attitudes Thus there exists in the art of dancing

.
, ,

as at present understood in our th eatres a confusion ,

between visual and muscular experience D ance s . r

I

choose models for their attitudes among masterpieces

of sculpture or of painting and take inspiration from ,
-

Greek frescoes statues and paintings ignoring the

, , ,

fact that these works are themselves the product of a

—
special cultivation of styl e Of a sort of compromise b e

tween the rel ations Of movements a series of diminu ,

tions and sacrifices which have enabled their creators

to convey th e illusion of movement by synth etic means .

But if it be necessary for the p l astic arts deprived of ,

the help of the time element to produce a synthesis by ,

means of fixed corporal attitudes it is against truth ,

I
1
l fh
n s ev erap l t i i t p t ti
o I d D
er asi ti c n er re a on s , s a ora un can ns nc

ti ly
ve d h b dy t
surren ti
ers m m t
er d th
o o c on nuous ov e en , an es e are

alw y th m t i t l
a s e d tim l ti g f h
os v d a an s u a n o er an c es .
 Eu r hy th mic s and M ov ing Pl as tic 27 I

unison with those th ey see expressing themselves in

physical movement In short they feel awakening and
.
,

palpitating in them a mysterious music which is the ,

direct product of their feelings and sensations This .

music of the individuality would suffice to control

h uman movements if mankind had not lost that sense
of order and of th e shading of physical expression ,

Without which a revival of t h e dance can never be

achieved There is no tradition of corporal movements
.
,

and as we have seen modern dancers borrow from the

, ,

fine arts a cult Of attitude which substitutes int llec e

tual experiences for spontaneous feelings and relegates ,

dancing to a secondary plane in th e realm of art There .

is only one way Of restoring to the body t h e complete

scale of its means of expression and that is to submit ,

it to an intensive musical culture to give it complete ,

control of all its pow ers f dynamic and agogic expres

sion and the power to feel all shades of tm u ic and
_
O
-

, s

express them muscularly A special education will lib .

c rate the mus c m p s on ed in the soul of the artist

i 1 r1

th e i ndi vidual music that entering into and fusing ,

with the music to be interpreted gives it an increasing ,

life s o much so that the individual rhythms of all the

,

interpreters of a c horeographic work achieve a colle c

tive emotion that is the very genesis of style As .

Elis ee R eclus puts it The people of which we form

“
: ,

part moves in consistent rhythm ; in each of us an

,

inner music t h e cadences of which resound in our

,

breasts contro l s the vibrations of our flesh the move

, ,

ments of our steps the impulses of passion even the

, ,

course of ou thoughts ; and all these activities have

r

only to unite in one harmony for a multiple organism

2 72 Rhy t h m M u s ic , , an d E duc ati on
to be constituted comprising a wh ole crowd and giving
, ,

it a single soul .
”

This is not the place to analyse in detail a ll th e ele

ments indicated above as being common to music and
plastic ; nor to set out all the exercises designed to
aw aken in the mind the sense of a fusion of these two
arts superficially so different I would commend to
, .

the reader desirous of familiarising himself with these

,

exercises my book on Moving Plasti and will here

, c,
I

confine myself to establishing certain fundamental rela

tions between the two essential musico plastic elements
— .

( ) Dynami cs ( o called) that is the science of grada

1 — s -
,

tions of force ; (2 ) A g ogi (time division ) that is the

— cs -
,

science of gradations of speed This latter involves a .

further element (3 ) th di vi i on of space these two con

, e s ,

ce p t i on sbeing inseparable in defining movement .

It goes without saying that the dyn amic is closely

related to the agogic element and that the gradations ,

of force are Often inseparable from those of speed or

slowness But for the sake of accuracy we will con
.
, ,

sider each of these two concepts separately in the

following tentative essay in classification This las ifi . c s

cation does not claim to be definitive nor to comprise ,

the whole of the questions relating to plastic It is .

intended simply as a lucid if abstract exposition of , ,

the fundamental elements of moving plastic and their

relations to music These two arts plastic and music .
, ,

being essentially of a dynamic nature it is natural ,

that a study of the gradations of movement should be

x
E i d pl
x erc ses iq i mé
e L as t J bi Ci L d ue an e. ausann e : o n e, on on ;

Novello Co .
,
1 60 Wardour St . W .
 E u rhy t h m ic s an d M ov ing P l as tic 2 73

b ased on music We will therefore designate as mu

.

i al movement
s c every movement conforming to the
,

dynamic laws that g overn music .

D YN AMI C S

The function of dynamics in music is to vary the

g radations of force and weight of sounds whether ,

abruptly by t h e ef
,
fect of sudden contrasts or p og , r res

siv ely by c es cendo and d cres cendo

,
r e .

The instrumentalist entrusted with the interpreta

,

tion of these musica l dynamic gradations must possess

-
,

th e mechanism necessary for producing sound in all

—
its degrees of force for increasing and diminishing it
according to the composer s intentions Where the
’
.

instrument c h osen for t h e interpretation O f music is

th e wh ole human body this body must have acquired
,

a perfect kn owledge of its musc ul ar potentia l ities and ,

be capable of consciously exercising them This will .

necessitate a profound study of technique in relation to

musical dynamics : a training in the differentiation of

joints of wh ic h each must be exercised separately ; a
,

training in muscular contraction and d e ont a tion of c r c

the whole body or of one of its limbs or indeed of two

, ,

o more limbs operating with conflicting muscular gra

r ,

dations ; finally a training in balance flexibility and

, , ,

elasticity .

I n th e majority of gymnastic systems of a h ygienic

or athletic character dynamics dispenses with the hel p
,

—
of agogics that is to say the movements are practised
,

an d movements the ins tr,uctors paying insuffi cient e r

gard to th e modifications introduced by differences of

18
 E u rh y th m ic s a nd Mov ing P l as tic 2 75

limbs th e low passages I t may achieve low effects

S , . S
— unusual in mu i ~ b a flexible succession of ges s c
y
tures attitudes and displacements ; and moreover may
, , , , ,

by means of dissociated movements of separate limbs ,

interpret no matte what poly hyt hm r r .

Unity in th e di vision of time is achieved in bodily

movement in the same way as in music A S regards .

division Of space we can only formulate a general ,

—
principle the application of which must be l eft to the
initiative and whim of the teach er .

A S we have seen moving plastic is based on move ,

‘

ment and not on attitude Its alph abet will therefore

,
.

be composed of Signs representing not the attitudes ,

but th e passages from one attitude to anothe Th e r;

body in an up igh t stationary position may be ega ded

r r r
—
as the axis so far as movements of the to so and h ead r
—
are concerned f an imaginary sph ere which we divide
O ,

by nine adii Each of t h e radii (th at is the di stance

r .
,

between the centre and no matter what point on the ,

circumference) may be sub di vided into x notch es The .

Sphere i tself may be divided into eight ho izontal seg r

ments (plan ) es .

Each of t h ese divisions is ega ded as a resting p l ace r r -

,

marking the boundaries of movements ; but in practice , ,

these marks se ve to represent th e distance between

r

the starting point and no matter wh ich of th e resting

-

places We al so have occasion to uti lise th ese nine

.

gui di ng points as li nes of mov ment: th us th e forearm

-
e ,

may be made to follow line 8 while th e arm follows ,

line 3 etc and th e torso h ead and a ms can be man

, .
, , , r

oeuvre d different l y in each of the eight horizontal

planes Wh en we add that we h ave devised eight ways
.
2 76 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ation
of utilising the joints of the arms it will be appreciated ,

that the number of combinations is incalculabl e .

T h Space to be covered by the legs may also be

e

divided into eight planes and the space within range ,

of the thigh into nine radii .

For the body in motion we employ fi ve steps of ,

different lengths and thus create a great number of

,

combinations of movements and new attitudes each :

step forwards backwards or ideways modifying the

, , S ,

position of the body in relation to an arm fixed in a

point of space To mak e ourselves quite clear imagine
.
,

the arm outstretched in a horizontal line th e forefinger ,

pressed against the wall To make a step backwards .

involves a forward attitude for th earm ; to kneel down

mak es an oblique line etc Th e point fixed in space
, .

is not necessarily concrete and in all our exercises in ,

manoeuvres in Space th e body evolves about an invisible

,

and imagined point .

D I V I SI ON OF SP ACE IN RE LATI ON TO

D I V I SI ON OF T I ME

A gesture executed in x time necessitates a given

muscular force This muscular force is the product of
.

the relations between the action of the synergic and

the inhibitory muscles ; thus if a gesture executed in a ,

certain space of time is to cover the same distance in

a shorter space of time the activity of the i nhibito y
, r

muscles is reduced while that of the synergic muscles

,

increases and vi ce v s a (whether the movement be

,
er

made vigorously or gently the proportions remain the ,

s ame) Thus once one h as decided to assume a definite

.
,
 E u rh y th mic s an d Mov ing P l as t ic 27 7

attitude without stiffness it becomes necessary to ob

,

tain from th e muscles in question a sort of compromise

between th ese two conflicting activities and to exercise ,

control over th eir rel ations in such a way as to exp ess

,
r

th e g adations of time and weigh t by appropriate

r

movements .

Most novices are apt to make th eir gestures or steps

either too l ate or too soon The former which is the
.
—
—
most frequent case arises from a surplus of activity
in the inhibitory muscles ; th e l atter from an inadequacy
of th at activity .

D I V I SI ON OF T I ME AND SPA CE IN RE LATI ON TO T HE

SIT U A T I ON O F TH E I N D I V I D UA L I N SP A CE

( )
I If we now consider not one moving body ,

but several bodies in motion at t h e same time we are ,

obliged to take note of the relations of these bodies

between th emselves Th e student must adapt his
.

movements to th ose of his comrades mindful ever of ,

th e general effect Movements are thus both pe fected

. r

and simplifi ed The nuances of energy of each body in

.

isolation have no influence on the general nuances

effected by t h e group as a wh ole By this means a .
,

group of men can produce an impression of rescendo c

by an extension (th e men spreading themselves out)

or by a h inkage (th e men pressing together analo
S r

g ou s ly to a muscle contracting ) And vi c v.ers a e .

(2 ) To t h e same category bel ongs t h e s tudy of t h e

estimating of space to be covered the space in w h i h f
: c

th eb ody operates serves as a frame to the dimensions ,

of which the movements have to adapt themselves .

 E urh y th mic s a nd M ov ing P l as t ic 2 79

of the l atter It is not th erefore the res ult of that

.
, ,

movement .

We t erm anacrusi c any action that discloses its prepa

ration i n such a way as to give this visible prepara
tion the appea ance Of the act itself The inevitable
r .

result of this preparation is subservient to the laws of

gravity A S examples we may mention th e movements
.
,

of th e wood choppe or b l acksmith and the actions of

-
r ,

pulling and pushing etc , .

We term cru si c any action the preparation of whi ch

is concealed in such a way that the result of this prepa
ration appears as the real beginning of the action Th e .

spontaneous movement that constitutes th e action

itself inevitably produces an involuntaril y and less
emphatic movement the reaction ; for example the
—
,

actions of rowing reaping planing turning a lathe

, , , ,

drawing a bow throwing a stone etc It goes without

, , .

saying that the majority of actions may be at once

c u si c and an ac us i : t h at is to say that the reaction
r r c ,

from one movement may be t h e preparation for its

successor .

S UGGE STI ON OF G E ST URE S FROM T HE ZESTHE TI C

.

P OI N T OF V I E W

The P las ti c Valu e is anoth er

of the Ges tu re — T h e re
element th at Should be mentioned wit h c usi and ana r c

u si c actions and that is the sta ting point of the “ ”

cr , r -

co poral phrase
r .

—
V oluntary actions Should be local ised that is to say ,

the willing of a movement to be effected should be

conc ent rated fi rst in one or ot h e r di ffe rent parts of the
280 Rh y t h m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati on
body or limb to be moved so as first to distribute the ,

effort and eliminate every useless muscul ar action from

the movement and then to adjust the effort
, .

In the movements of manual labour this localisation ,

is usually unconscious Thus with the wood chopper.

,
-

raising his axe : if it is heavy the starting point of the ,

-

movement will be in the back which in mak ing the , ,

first effort enables the arms to lift the axe more easily
,

than if the effort had been confined to the hands ; if

the axe be light the hand hol ding the implement makes
,

the first effort and inevitably brings the rest of the arm
into play It is this localisation that gives the move
.

ment its plastic T his principle is at the root of

“

all aesthetic of movements But once a .

movement is realised as part of a succession the local ,

i s ati on is not essential and its adoption becomes more

complex For instance take again the gesture Of raising
.
,

the arm the gesture may be effected so as to give the

:

impression that the act of volition determining it has

its starting point either in the breathing the arm or
-
, ,

the forearm or the hand and that the parts of the

, ,

body where the spontaneity of the first movement is

not evident have been brought into play by the localised
preparatory action .

If the movement to be effected is of no emotional or

intellectual significance generally peaking it links in ,
S ,

action heavy with light limbs .

The trunk being the heaviest limb of the body and ,

that first influenced by emotion owing to the action of ,

the diaphragm it follows that the most important and

,

common instigator of all movements is the breathing .

Breathing is at the basis of eve y manifestation of r

 E urhy t h m ic s an d M ov ing Pl as tic 28 1

life and plays as well esth etically as physiologically a

, a ,

r Ol of the very highest importance in moving plastic

e .

( V i d in my book
e, on E u h y th m i the chapter de r cs ,
I

voted to the different methods of breathing ; see also

the little volume on my method entitled B thi ng nd ,
rea a

Mu ula I nne vati on with anatomica l diagrams )

sc r r ,
2
.

It may be said in general that even in cases where ,

breathing does not engender the movement the ,

phrase will begin with an expiration and end with an

inspiration .

Movements may however have t h eir starting points , ,

-

in other parts of the body T h torso arms legs . e , , ,

hips hands houlders may alike give the impulse to the

, , S ,

movement And once the atti tude is assumed with its

.

starting point in one or other of the limbs breathing

-
,

will assume the function of modifying the intensity of

the arrested gesture .

P LA STI C A ND MU SI CA L V AL UE OF G E ST URE
very time our conscious will selects a starting point
E -

for a movement a new phrase is begun We have , .

already pointed out that the characteristic of a phrase

is its collocation of elements dependent on one an
other and culminating in a rest But these elements .

may be linked in succession in a manner more or less

constant P recisel y as a literary phrase may be com
.

posed of different sentences separated by commas or ,

1
E urhythmi cs . Part I . Rh yth mi c Mov ement . L ondon : Nov ello
Co .
,
1 60 Wardour St .
, W .

2
L a Respi rati on et l i n nervati on
’
Musculai re . Lausanne J bi
o n et Ci e .

London : Novello Co .
 Eu rhyth mic s and M ov ing P las tic 283

sequences fo m what one may call the orchestra

,
r

tion O f h uman movement Th e dynamic principles

”
.

are quite different from those Of a single muscular

apparatus and th e guiding in space of an ens mble of
,
e

plastic artists modifies the direction of th e gestures of

each isolated artist A new polyrhythm is produced
.
,

compound of movements and lines and the expression ,

of which even more so than the pol yrhyt hm of a Single

,

body in motion brings home to us the fact that moving

,

plastic and music are two arts Of the same nature ,

capable of h eightening eac h othe s effect even if not r

’

created for that pu pose In endeavouring to express

r .

with th e body the emotion evo ked by music we feel ,

this emotion penetrate our organism and become more ,

personal and vital as it sets in vibration th e deepest

fibres of our being The student by gradually training
.
,

his body in th e dynamic and rhythmic laws of music b , e

comes more musical generally and eventuall y capable ,

of inte preting sincerely and Spontaneously the inten

r

tions of th e great composers on no matter what in t u

, s r

ment h e may choose The marching running and

.
, ,

dancing to fugues of Bach wi ll not constitute a l és e

maj e té against that profound genius who composed ex

s

pressly fo t h e h arpsichord ; this corporal interpretation

r

does n ot profess to render t h e complete though t of the

master and to substitute an arbitrary mode of inter
p r eta ti on for the means of exp r ession selected by h im :

it is merel y a matter of th e substitution fo the purely , r

intellectual analysis of the work of the experience of ,

sensations of the whole organism T0 bring out the .

different parts dissociate the polyrh ythms realise the

, ,

s tretti , and oppose th e nuances of dynamic contrasts

2 84 R hy th m Mu s ic , , an d E duc ati on
will become for the student a pe fectly natural process r .

All the structural details of the phrasing and shading

will be made clear because felt by the body and so
,
—
become organic In hort the student will have the
. S ,

music within him and his instrumental interpretation

,

will become more convincing spontaneous vivid and , , ,

individual .

Again the rhythmic and dynamic faculties of the

,

body will expand as they take their starting point in -

music the only possible field of development In

— .

fact music is the only art directly founded on dyn amics

, ,

and rhythm which is capable of giving style to co poral

, r

movements while permeating them with the emotion

,

which h as inspired it and which it in turn inspires .

Once the body has become musicalised and saturated

in rhythms and their nuances moving plastic will ,

gradually evolve into a higher and self s uffi cient art -

.

It Should also furnish the public with the opportunity

of expressing its aesthetic will and its instinctive love
of beauty in evolutions and combinations of gestures ,

steps and attitudes forming veritable festivals

, ,

musical and rhythmic H ow fine is the ight of a . S

host of men or children executing the same gymn astic

movement in time ! But how much finer the effect
of a crowd divided into distinct groups of which each
, ,

takes an independent part in the polyrhythm of the

whole ! Art th ives on contrasts and it is these con
r ,

t as t that form what we call the valu s of art

r s In a e .

plastic display the sthetic emotion is produced by the

,
a
e

opposition of lines and the contrasts of time ; and it is

a powerful and really human emotion because directly ,
 E u rhy th mic s a nd Mov ing Pl as tic 285

inspired by the mechanism of our individual life of ,

which we may retrace the image in the rhythmic evo

lutions of a whol e populace .

Rh yt h m as we have said is the basis of all art ; it is

, ,

also th e basis of human society Corporal and spiritual .

“
economics are a matter of o operation And once
”
c -
.

society is properly trained from school upwards it , ,

will itself feel th e need for expressing its joys and o s r

rows in manifestations of collective art like those of ,

the Greeks of the best period We hall then be offered . S

well organised festivals which will express the popular

-
,

ae sthetic will and w h ere divers groups will perform in

,

the manner of individuals in a form at once metrical

and individual that is to say rhythmi cal for rh yt hm
— , ,

is individuality given style Th ere are such won .

”

ders to be created in the domain Of collective rhyt hmic

movement So few people realise that this domain is
.

almost unexplored and that a whole people may be ,

made to execute movements in order and symmetry

without presenting the aspect of a battalion of soldiers ;
that it may co un terpoint th e musical design in a h und
red diffe ent ways by gestures steps and attitudes
r , , ,

while conveying an impression of consistent unity and

order A generation of children trained in rhythm
.

would prepare for itself and for us undreamt of aesthetic

j y
o s There
.
I
is no greater happiness than in moving
I m y b p d
3
d f am ti i g
e m tt
ar on e f d my
or en on n , as a a er o recor ,

F ti l
es d i
va f 9 3 i wh i h t L
vau o s o d
1 0 t h di
,
i n f c , a ausann e, un er e rect on o

G émi her, a cf 8 p t kp t
oru s o di g t my p i ip l
1 00 erson s oo ar ,
a c cor n o r nc es

(l g b f
on th p d ti e ore f R i h dt)e l th
ro F t pi l
uc f my
on s o e n ar ; a so e es s e e o

sch l t H lloo wh
a f th fi t tim i 9 I hi d i
e erau ere, or e rs e, n 1 11, ac ev e , n
O phr d th w k
eu s , an p ly h yt h m f
o wd
er t i
or d
s, a o r o cro s on s a rcas es an

i li
nc nes L t th p f
. m a er,f th F a d J
e i i
er or9 4 t an ces o e te e u n n 1 1 , a
 C HAP TE R X I II
MU SI C A N D T HE D AN CE R ( 1 91 8 )
—
Th e P hi li s ti n e a nd the dance I g n orance of th e publi c
—
The muscular s ens e D anci ng a nd i mi tati on of clear c u t plas -

— —
ti c atti tudes Quali ti es of emoti on a nd s tyle N uances of
fo rce a n d fl e x i bi li
, ty a n d th ei r rela ti on s wi th th os e of ti me
— —
Opposi ti on of g es tu re Res ts Th e con s tru cti on of a da nce
—
Space a nd di recti on Conventi onal techni ques D a n ci ng a nd—
— “ ”
mus i cal th oug h t I ntellectu al mu s i c a n d li vi ng mu s i c
—
Choreographi c li teratu re Creati on of a n ew mus i co plas ti c -

s tyle— The compos ers of to morrow -

.
G r ou p ri
Ex e c s es
 A T
CH P E R XIII T o my fri en d
P E RCY I N G H A M
.

M U SI C A N D THE DAN CE R ( 1 91 8 )

C HORE O GR APH I C performances have been for some years

past on th e increase in every country and the public ,

appears to be taking more and more to th em We

“ ”
.

regard this as a h ealth y Sign of the times .

In th e ol d days t h e provincial Philistine would have

,

believed himself l ost if his presence at a local perform

ance of dancing had been discovered P ossibly h e is .

beginn ing to wonder to d ay if dancing may not b e or —

—
be capabl e of being as pure and expressive as any
other art D oubtless s nobbi shne s plays its part in
? s

this new interest ; but the cult of sport is also partly

responsible A training in gymnastics for hygienic
.
-

purposes may have awakened his interest in aesth etic

gymnastics Unfortunately this l atter requires more
.
,

encouragement th an is accorded it in contemporary

sport and society circles to enabl e it to contribute to
the progress of pl astic art .

It has been said th at in matters of choreography

ligh t comes from th e North We for our part have
.
, ,

always found the ballet audiences at Moscow and

P etrograd content wit h a mere ocular amusement and ,

it was certainly not their influence that inspired certain

tal ented Russian dancers to seek new outlets for their
art In fact they constitute the most frivolous incon
.
, ,

20
289
2 90 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc at i on
Sistent and reactionary of any pub lic and t h very
, , e

last to regard the dance as other than a superficial n e

t tai nm en t
er .
—
In other countries in Sweden France , ,

Switzerland Germany and E ngland the public has

,
— ,

far better judgment di scerns in dancing a higher me: ,

di u m of expression and is only perplexed at not being

,

able to explain the satisfaction it derives from its v a

rions forms One h as only to mingle with the audi
.

ence in the intervals or at the close of a performance

, ,

to appreciate thei embarrassment at not knowing r

whether they have enjoyed or disliked the dancing ,

whether or not to yield to their first impression The .

reviews in the Press the following morning set them at

ease and form the basis of their ul timate judgment
, .

—
They have no suspicion that the critics whatever their
erudi tion and artistic taste in other branches know as —
little as themselves in matters of dancing Journalists .
,

completely out of touch with the art of movement ,

regard themselves as authorised in matters choreo ,

graphic ! As to those who specialise in drama and the

ballet th ey are so pe v e ted b y their familiarity with
, r r

the old routine that they prove even less competent

than the others to distinguish the sincere endeavou s of r

genuine artists to restore natural dancing from the pre ,

tensions of the swarm of opportunists on the mak e .

I

1
I i tig i fi
s st th t m i l
n i ti
can wh
a h i d
u s ca l cr cs , o av e rece v e no ocu ar

t i i g wh t
ra n n id th m l f l ly q li fi d t j dg m i
a ev er, c on s er e se v es u ua e o u e u s co

p l t
asi p f
c m d
er ori g d an ces
pp l im
es l t ne ly t to
y d a ea s u aneou s o e e an ear ;

w h ile on th e o th er h an d , n on - mu s i cal p las ti c exp ert s do n ot h es itate

to lay down th e law o n arti stic man ifes tati on s , i n w h i ch musi c plays a

p p
re on d eran t rOle I t i s O vi ou
. s t h at t h e c ribti ci sm of p er orman ces f
inv olvi n g a fusion of th e art s of m u s ic an d b odi ly mov ement sh ould be
en tru s ted only fi
to i n divi duals quali ed to appreciate and an alys e each of

th e s ep arate c on sti tu en t s of th i s arti s ti c com in ati on b .

 Mu s ic a nd th e D anc e r 2 91

I t i ha dly possible to appreciate any art without a

s r

certain understanding of the phases of its evolution

and th laws of its technique How is one to produce
e .

any sort of constructive critici sm on the decadent

dancing in ogue to day or to app eciate new reforms
V -
, r ,

un less one feels the need for these reforms and attempts ,

to ascertain and analyse the source of th at feeling

and before all else to establish the na ture and pu pose
, , r

of the art that for the last fifteen years has been steadily
deteriorating
I n analysing painting and music our eyes and ears ,

however badly trained provide us with the points of

—

comparison necessary for any serious attempt at an

Objective appreciation But fully to appreciate the
.

styl e of human movement we require a pecial the —

,
S

mu ula
sc — sense complemented by wh at scientists have
r ,

called the kinaesthetic or stereognostic sense (or imply S

sense of space) and wh at Professor L Bard of Geneva

,
.
, ,

has ecent ly and apt ly desc ibed as sense of gyration

r
”
r
“
.

Neith er conventional gymnastics port nor lessons in , S ,

depo tment and g ace suffice for this pu pose the

r r r ,

movements they produce having no direct elation with r

th e multiple nuances of agogics (variations in time) and

of dynamics On the other hand our instinctive ap
.
,

preciation of human attitudes lines and gestures is , ,

wa ped by a conventional education restrictive of all

r

spontaneous corporal exp ession to say nothing of a r ,

long addiction to stock theatrical fare .

Numerous dancer artists have trained th emselves to

-

assume attitudes borrowed from Greek statuary and ,

have sough t to revitalise them in reconstructing plastic ,

maste pieces chall enging compa ison with th e original

r r .
 Mus ic and t he D anc e r 2 93

Th e spectator of a plastic interpretation hould also S

demand from the dancer general qualities Of form and

of gradation in development and not be content with ,

th e successions of isolated effects and moments ,

“
,

without cohesion to which too often dancers of the new

,

school confine themselves ; and choreographic compo

s i tion Shou l d be as carefully formed as musical or pic
to i al composition
r Its life and emotion hould be
. S

given styl e and this style will depend as much on the

,

position value and proportion as on the intensity of

, , ,

i ts expressive e l ements In a conception of moving '

plastic th e executant requires not only all the resources

,

of corporal technique but in addition a training in

,

their careful and conscious application in the ubo di , s r

nation of particular to general effects the combination ,

and contrasting of the latter and the modification or ,

even elimination of particular elements in accordance ,

with absolute principles the Observance of which ,

( whet h er spontaneous or deliberate ) produces tyl s e .

The significance of an arm gesture depends on the

contrasting or parallel atti tudes of the head the other ,

arm l egs and torso the divers motions of breathing

, , , ,

variations in balance produced by the displacement of

t h e weight of the body and the time occupied in their
—
deployment T o an untrained spectator none of these
.
,

nuances will be n oti abl Hi s only concern is that

ce e .
I

the arm Should be rounded and graceful Just as an .

audito whose h earing faculties are undeveloped must

r

fail to appreciate melodic and harmonic successions and ,

th e divergences of sound relations so the spectator who ,

lacks an adequate isual training can follow only the

V ,

See Ch apter X II , pp .
—
2 79 2 8 1 .
294 R hy th m Mu s ic
, , an d Educ ation
general outline of a gesture and is incapable of distin
'

g u i s h i n g its relations in space and sensing the g eater , r

or lesser muscular intensity I recall after a display .

,

by Isadora D uncan at the Ch atelet Theatre hearing ,

people of artistic repute confine their remarks to the

, ,

physical proportions and in particular the bare feet

, , ,

—
of the dancer which is equivalent to an audience at a
pianoforte recital confining its attention to the qualities
of the instrument and ignoring those of the interpreter
, .

C onfronted with the delicate shading of gesture f e

fect d by dancers l i ke Sak k a off the untrained spec

e r ,

tator will exclaim It s the same thing over and over

:
“ ’

again without perceiving that in fact these a tists

,
”
r

are performing before him the whole scale f variations O

of a Single gesture And he will applaud in other

.
,

dancers a gesticulation over elaborated and lacking in

,
-

rests which is the common failing of many quite sensi

,

tive and enthusiastic beginners And this raises .

the question of the importance in plastic interpretations

of the elimination of useless movements the installation ,

of rests the distribution of expressive effects over local

,

ised parts of the organism counterpoint phrasing poly , , ,

r‘hythm of associated and harmonisation of synergi c

(

ov em en ts

Another factor in plastic unity and order to which

too little attention is devoted is the understanding of
the relations between movements and displacements of
the body and the space in which th ey are executed .

A certain popular dancer in particular whom we e , , r

member as giving u s the impression of a bird flutte ing r

frantically about its narrow cage in search of an outlet , ,

was doubtless unaware of the fact that the dance Of

 Mus ic and th e D anc e r
‘

2 95

a s oloist requires to be composed with th e same are c

for lines and direction as the evolutions of a company ,

whether of sol diers or dancers According to the con .

“

Struct i on O f a dance the eye of the spectator records

”
,

an impression of order or disorder harmony or decora ,

tive anarchy The evolutions cannot be consigned to

.

th e impulse or inspiration of the moment any more ,

than in musical counterpoint th e lines of polyrhythm

, ,

may without danger be submitted to a course of modu

, ,

lati on s and r h ythms traced at haph azard It is i m .

portant in music that the repetition of a them in a

, ,
— e

rondo for example

,
— hould be confined to a particular
S

key ; the particular quality of the r frai n lies in the e

manner in whic h the composer has prepared its reap

p a a
e rn ce in the initia l key Similarly in the p la.ti c , s

interpretation of a rondo it is essential that the attitude

,

and movements interpreting the musical theme into

corporal l anguage should be concentrated at the mo ,

ment of th e repetition in a fixed portion of Space The

, .

Space of whic h a dancer avails himself Should be a

matter of careful consideration and his position delib ,

erat ely and not arbitrarily related to the construction

and proportions of the wor k to be interpreted E very

concatenation of movements and displacements of bal
ance or evol utions results inevitably in a resolution “ ”

(to use the musical term ) a climax in the centre

, or in ,

one of the corners of the space whether on a flat surface , ,

or on an incline or graduated plane An attitude trans .

ferred from one point of space to another must either

gain or lose in expressive force According to its di c . re

tion and the distance from its base it may entirely

, ,
”

chan g e its Si gnificanc e The prearrang ed disposition of

.
 Mus ic and th e D anc er 2 97

partaking exclusivel y of th e nature of gymnastics .

Th e same applies to the positions of the legs head and , ,

torso On the other hand a special technique has been

.
,

devised to develop th e action of leaping (to th e detri

ment of expressive walking) and has replaced the ,

pursuit Of natur al balance by means of slow or quick

corporal di splacements by abrupt tensions on tiptoe .

Dancing has become a form Of acrobatics and the arms ,

are employed merel y to maintain balance This has .

produced a species of physical deformity that prevents

the dancer habituated from h is yout h to the processes
,

of the traditional ballet from cultivating an easy and

,

natural Slow gait the divers brachial dynamisms and

, , ,

generally t h e most Simpl e exp essive expedients of the

, r

dance a la Duncan
“
One cannot serve both God
.
”

and Mammon .

One must however admit th at some of the ballet

, ,

effects in question po ssess a certain grace and pi tur c

es qu en ss that may give rise on occasion to considerab l e

,

e , ,

pleasure But it is a pleasu e confined to the eyes and

. r ,

cannot attain any really emotional or musical value .

And yet music is the basis of the most conventional

dance and we have a righ t to demand from dancers that
,

elements of musical phrasing sh ading time and dy , , ,

nami c s s h ou l d be observed by them as scrupulously as

practicab l e To dance in time is not everything The es

. .

se n ti al is to penetrate the musica l thought to its depths ,

whil e following t h e melodic lines and the rhythmic

pattern not necessarily to th e letter which would
,
“ ” -

—
be pedantic but in such a way th at th e visual sen
s ation s of the spectator may not be out of harmony

with those of his au ditive a pparatus Music shoul d .

298 R h yt hm Mu s ic , , an d E duc at ion
be to dancers not a mere invitation to th e play of or c

poral movements but a constant and profuse source of

,

thought and inspiration (mu i al and not literary i n s c , ,

—
spiration for the stagey effects of exte nal imitation r

and the transmutation of natural musical impulses into

sentimental little stories should be confin ed to Panto
mime) Music should reveal to the dancer inner and
.

higher forces that any intellectual analysis or pursuit

of the picturesque can only weaken It will serve his .

purpose only so long as he does not exploit it in the

interests of an exclusively ratiocinative expression .

But it must not be inferred that to revive musico ,

plastic art it will suffice to give ou dancers a sound

, r

musical training They must in addition be made to

.

understand the intimate connection between musical

and bodily movement between the developments of a ,

theme and the successive sequences and transforma

,

tions of attitudes between sound intensity and mu s cu

,

lar dynamics between rests and pauses

, ,

and ounte g e tu e melodic phrasing and breathing

c r s r ,

i n hort between space and time

S , .

Thi s understanding cannot be improvised but n , e

c essitates a general training We do not commend it to .

dancers who aim no higher than at the amusement of

—
the eye or the exercise of their muscles nor to those
whose vocation consists in executi ng popular and na
tional dances the C ourt dances of past ages or the
, ,

capricious evolutions of the mode n ball oom and café r r .

But it is essential to every dancer who ventures to

transpose works of absolute music into corporal move
ment Th ere may exist in the theatre an art of deco
.
, ,
“

rati v plas ti c confined to embellishing the o utlines of

”
e
 Mus ic an d t he D anc er 299

musical architecture but th er e also exists an expr s i ve

,
e s

plastic t h e rOle of which consists in extracting from

,

music its ideal aspirations and whole emotional life .

This Should not be undertaken unless accompanied by

a profound respect for music as an inspiring force and ,

for the human organism as its potential interpreter .

We must bear in mind that plastic is never n e es c

Sary to absol ute music which works in the deeps

“ ”
,

of the spirit and the emotions of which frequently

,

suffer by being brough t to t h e surface Music is cer .

tainly the most potent agent that exists for revealing

to man all the passions that surge in the Obscure pro
fundi ti es of his subconscious self I ts vibrations suffi ce.

to awaken and distribute his feelings ; its tonal and

rhythmic combinations constitute a special language
complete without the addition of any oth er agent of
expression Every phrase directly issued from an essen
.

ti ally musical sou l is self s u ffi ci n t and any attempt at

-
e ,

strength ening the expression by means of mediums of

another order can only prejudice its clarity and power .

Why s h oul d we desire to improve on it wh en it is ,

compl ete in itself Similarly any direct revel ation of

?
,

inner feel ing by means of moving plastic can only

assist the sound expression wh ere it is a spontaneous ,

emanation and manifests itself in a naturally emotive

, ,

eloquent and distinct form In so doing it qualifies as

, .

music itself Since the art of music is only in R Pas

, , .

man ik s definition the revel ation of t h e quintessence

’ “
,

of the universe .
”

But just as music may be allied to the word in th e

,

form of music drama or ballad so it may be combined ,

with plastic to express elementary emotion in a mixed

 Mu s ic a nd th e Danc er 3 0 1

counterpoint is often of such a strictly digital character ,

that a corporal interp etation can only be achieved at

r

the cost of a fatal decrease in pace That is why it .

Sh ould be essayed as with the abstract th ematic de

—
v elopm en ts of t h e succeeding period (Haydn Mozart ) ,

onl y in an analytic and pedagogic spirit Th e same .

ris k attac h es to orc h estral transcriptions for dancing ,

purposes of mode n and romanticist pianofort e pieces

, r .

We recall with a feeling of discomfort the cumbersome

effect of Schumann s Carni val interpreted by th e
’

Russian Ba ll et in the styl e of pantomime D ancers .

woul d do well to insist on contemporary composers writ

ing special music for t h em But the l atter must bear in
.

mind that t h e collaboration of gesture whil e it o ffers ,

them novel and interesting possibilities imposes cer ,

tain special restrictions on th eir freedom of expression .

We Shall require th e co mposition of a music intention

all y non rhythmic to a llow for completion by rhythm
-

of a corporal ch aracter On th e other hand the har

.
,

moni ous attitudes of dancers exclusivel y occupied

in interpreting t h e superficial aspect of certain soul
states might be accompanied by musica l rhythms to
strengthen th e vital impression of t h ei ideal presen r re

tati on
. Th e dance coul d also be made to serve to
express t h e Dionysian Side of artistic expression whi l e ,

music conveys the Apollonian Side or conversely , ,

sounds could reproduce th e frenzy of el emental passions

in sensorial language whil e the dance embodied their
,

decorative forms in space In one as in the other case

.
, ,

we Shoul d achieve a spiritualisation of matter a pure ,

expression of soul an idealisation of form and an emo

, ,

ti on ali ati on of sen s ation

s .
3 0 2 R h y thm Mus ic , , an d E duc ati on
It is always dangerous to attempt to adapt subj ective
music f an essentially human character to the physi
, O ,

cal resources of temperament The intimate essence of .

a work is never wholly revealed to us when an i n t u s r

—
mentalist o conductor endeavours to adapt it to hi s
— r

individual manner of expression In making the work .

his ow n he robs it of its universal emotional character

,
.

H is not interpreting but rather transforming

e , ,
re

creating i t T h e inevitable coarsening of a thought

, .

cannot fail to jar on those who were familiar with it

in its original form In a musico plastic combination
.
-
,

no one of th agents Of expression should seek to fuse

e

completely with another each should endeavou to

: r

bring out the other To obtain this result it is n ces

.
, e

sary not only that the dancer should be completely

initiated into musical science but that the composer ,

Should utilise every one Of the expressive potentialities

of the h uman organism .

A musician would not venture to compose a vi olin

c on e to without a knowledge of the resources of that
c r

instrument How then can he dare project a score for

.

that complex instrument the h uman body without

, ,

familiarising himself with its capacities for interpreta

tion ? If he understood these he would not limit him ,

self to recording musical rhythms and leaving the ,

mai t d ball t to procure their imitation by his troupe

re e e ,

he would produce a score wherein the miming gestures , ,

movements and attitudes of the dancers would be as

,

scrupulously entered as are those of the string wind , ,

and percussion instruments in a symphony .

Instead of alw ays developing the sound and plastic

movements along parall el lines effects Of contrast might ,
 Mus ic and the Da nc er 3 3
0

be achieved in th e metre and rhythm as well as in the

melody and harmony For instance music arranged in
.
,

Simple tune (binary pulse) might be set ff as in orien O ,

tal music by plastic motifs in compound time (ternary

,

pulse) T o the rhythmic accentuations of each tonal

.

ph rase would be o ffered corporal accentuations em

p h as isi n g other fragments of the same phrase M usical .

melody mi ght be applied to a harmony of plastic move

ments executed by several individuals acting in concert ,

—
or in groups o b y way of variation a succession of
,
r
—
corporal movements of a monorhythmic character
might be accompanied by harmonies of sound One .

migh t devise a whol e h armonic system of gestures

arranged in chords and having th eir inevitable resolu
tions like combinations of sound .

Effects of concord and discord of contrast and fusion , ,

created by the combination of orchestral symphony and

corporal polyrhyth m migh t be enriched by various
,

combinations involved in moving plastic which de —

mands before all else the o operation of groups of
, ,
c -

indivi duals A dancer would require to be a genius of

.

a very high order to dance solo to divers musical works

throughout a whole recital without producing an effect
of monotony .

Too many solo dancers are content to narrate cor

p o rall y a series of l ittle sto ies without attempting
r to ,

vary the medium of expression V arieties Of facial play .

do not suffice to produce varieties of movements of

the whole body T here is not a ingl e musical in t u
. S s r
—
ment with the exception of th e polyphonic piano
that could be played to the exclusion of every other
, ,

for two consecutive hours without wea ying an audi , r

 v F tiv
G en e a es al , 1 91 4
 Mu s ic an d the D anc er 3 05

and can initiate us into th e mysteries of styl e This .

trans fig u in g art
r —the art that by its rhyt h m unites
our whol e o rganism to the quintessentia l expression of
—
the soul would seem to be on t h e wane ; but it is
onl y a c loud that obscures it .Music is always
with us Let us open ourselves to it ; we h ave reliu
.

q sh ed to it the ardent expression of our inner l ife

u i ,

let us yield to its new demands deliver up toit without

, ,

reserve th e whole rhythm of our bodies to be t ansfig

, ,
r

u ed and emerge in the a

r esthetic world of ligh t and

Shade fo rms and colours controlled and animated by

, ,

its creative breath .

 C HAP TER X IV

R HYTH M TI ME , , A ND TEMPE RA ME NT ( 1 919)

B alance ofp y h s i cal a n d emoti on al fa cu lti es — Rhythm a nd
—
i ts characteri s ti cs ; conti n ui ty a nd repeti ti on Ti me a n i n
—
tellectual pri nci ple N ecess i ty for cou nterbalanci ng regulari ty
of m ovem ents b y c o n tra s ti n g p
s on ta n eou s i mpu ls es D.a n g er

of s tereotypi ng i n s ti n cti ve motor facu lti es — Rhyth m and I ntui

ti on — —
Motor habi ts and character Mani es tati on of di vers
f
temperaments — Table of quali ti es and defects of a rhyth mi c
natu re, in u ntrai ned chi ldren —A ss oci ati on a nd di ss oci ati on
fm
o otor a nd a udi ti ve fa cu lti es —N a tu ra l a pti tu de for rhyth m
and musi c i n chi ldren of difierent E u ropean countri es
’

.
 To
C HA PTE R X IV JA C Q U E S CH N EE V I ER E
RH YTHM T I ME
, , A ND T E MPE RA MENT ( 1 919 )

MU SI C i s th e direct reflection of 1,
as of mate
rial life and mu icaf h ythm S
, ,
s
’

r I

into soun d of movements and dynam sms Spontane i

ou sly and involuntar il y express ng emotion C on i . se

qu ent l y evol ution n the art of Music must depend on

i

the progress of the individual by means of a careful ,

training in the balancing Of h is physical and moral ,

instinctive and ratiocinative forces As a matter of , .

fact very few people suspect th at if every form of ar

, ,

ti sti c progress depends on a general menta l advance a ,

reform of musical education can be achieved only

through a reform of general education Th e l atter in .

our present day schools l ays stress on mere instruction

-
,

concerns itself exclusively with intellectual develop

ment and ignores the cul tivation of temperament
, .

A balance O f the fundamental faculties of the indi

vidual can never be attained unless from an early age , ,

the organism is h abituated to the free play of its forces ,

an unhampered circulation of the divers currents of its

thought and motor powers and a regul ar alternation ,

controll ed alike by sub conscious instincts and conscious

-

- —
will power Of physical and spiritual rhythms of whi ch ,

the ens emble constitutes temperament Th e man Of .

3 09
 R h y th m Ti me , , a nd Te m p era men t 3 1 1

taneou s manifestation of our inner being directly e , r

presenting the rhyt hms of its life .

The characteri stics Of h yth m are continuity and _

i r

motor manifestation isolated in ,

tiffi éf p es ents an exceptiona l and momentary emotional

'

aspect which 5 lost the moment it is repeated to form

, 1

part of a continuous whole evolving at once in time and

space Th e two fundamenta l lement s of rhythm
.
_
m
e ,

space and ti me a e insepa abl I n certain of the arts

,
”
r r e .

one or other of these el ements may be predominant ,

,
—
in music and in the supreme art life they a dis , re

soluble and of equal importance Life in effect is .

, ,

itself a r hythm that is a continuous succession of

, ,

multiple units forming an indivisib l e whol e Indi

, .

v i duali ty may a l so be regarded as a rhyt hm for the ,

combination of its faculties many of t h em conflicting , ,

constitute an entity But every life and every work .

of a t t h at confo ms only to th e idiosyncracies of the

r r

individual is a rhythmic for th e rhythm of art and of

-
,

life demand the fusion of all traits of character and

temperament .

Metre an intel lectual expedient regulates m e h ani

, , c

call y th e succession and order of vital el ements and

th eir combinations whil e h ythm assures th e integrity
, r

of t h e essential principl es of life Metre involves ratio .

c ination rhythm depends on intuition

, Th e metrical .

regulation of th e continuous movements constituting

a rhythm shoul d not be permitted to compromise th e
nature and quality of those movements .

The musica l education foll owing the lines of the ,

gene al education provided in our sch ools is inspired by

r ,

th e desire to reg ul at e s ound s and ha monies estab l is h r ,

3 1 2 Mu s ic R h y th m , , a nd E duc a tio n
ing th e theories of the science and reducing it to a ,

system all f them activities of a material order C

,
O . er

tain ly the regularity and precision of mov ements are

sure evidence of h ealthy volition but educationists are ,

mistaken in regarding the will as the sole medium of

control and begetter of a complete individual and well
, , ,

proportioned work of a t Th e creation of a movement

r .

of synthetic life is a matter of temperament ; pedagogues .

are oblivious Of the fact that a pecial training will S

develop the spontaneity of vital rhythmic manifesta

tions and by placing the student in a position to feel
,

clearly every instinctive movement and providing him ,

with the means of subduing all the forces inhibitory of

the expansion of his motor habits will enable him also ,

to breathe in a new emotional atmosphere and free ,

his emotions to attain a maximum intensity Instead .

of directing m usical s tudies towards rhythm we limit ,

their scope to the metrical plane T h e encouragement .

,

by assiduous cul tivation of the ffl o c n e of motor

, e res e c

impulses is neglected in favour of a concentration on

the creation of measured volitions The same applies .

to dancing which in our best known academies is con

,
— ,

fined to the acquirement of a corporal technique ; the

training aims at the conquest of measure and is confin ed ,

to the regulation of arbitrary successions of gestures and

movements instead Of inspiring by the development
, ,

of temperament the expansion of natural corporal

,

rhyt hms Music and dancing alike are at the present

.

day taught along mechanical l ines .

A machine however perfectly regulated is devoid of

, ,

rhythm being controlled by time TO regulate the move .

ments effected by a manual labourer in the exerci s e of

 R h y th m Ti me , , and Te mp e rame nt 3 3
1

hi s calling is by no means to assure the rh yth m of his

,

activity The handwriting of a copyist conveys the

.

impression of mechanical and impersonal regularity .

That of a writer giving rein to his inspiration records

, , ,

on the oth er h and the rhythm of h is temperament

,
.

V e ifi ation is only the metrical ide of poesy

rs c Th e S .

rhyt hmics of poesy depends on the underlying th ought ,

impul se and non reasoning qualities Natural dancing

,
-
.

may be duly measured without revealing the impulsive

,

,
—
spirit th e physical and moral phantasy th at is the ,

—
rhythm of the dancer Th e submission of our breath .

ing to discipline and regularity of time woul d l ead to

the suppression of every instinctive emotion and th e
disorganisation of vital rhythm .

The voluntary exercise of th e recurrence of th e beat

—
assures regularity and th ere are times wh en this egu r

la ity is in di spensable
r But to confine oneself to this
.

form of activity would be to ris k depriving one s char ’

acte of all Spontaneous vital expression Time fur

r .

nish es man with an instrument which in many cases , , ,

ends by making him its servant influencing the dy ,

nami and agogic elements in his movements and e

c , r

pressing his individuality in favour of a conventional

mechanism Th e metrical regulation of bodily move
.

ments one of the main features of most systems of

—
gymnastics has been made possible by the discovery
—
that many organisms h ave lost their elementary char
acter and natural impulses and require to be remoulded ,

through the will But in every h ealthy body the need

.
,

for movement is associated with other needs of a super

met ical order (as Lieut Hebert well understood) and
r .
,

th e resultant expres sio n aris es fro m th e nervou s con

 R h y th m Ti me , , an d Te mperame n t 3 5
1

our motor organs the faculties of elasticity resilience , ,

and relaxation the free play of which will give rhythm

,

to t h e expression of our emotional being .

This training is also the only one that can restore

the art f dancing The present training obliges th e
O .

dancer to illustrate by concurrent steps and gestures

a music deprived of rhythm by the exclusive cultiva
tion of metre There again we find the mechanism
.

of instinctive motor qualities and the intellectual ,

i s ati on of fundamental emotions The imperative .

impulse evoked by a feeling can express itself ade

q u at el y only by the aid of a spontaneous gesture .

Once the will h as intervened the current between ,

nerves and muscles is interrupted Unde these con . r

di ti on s all exercises aiming at the automatisation of

,

conventional successions of gestures and attitudes are

prejudicial to the development of the rhythmic fa ul c

ties A renaissance of the dance can only be achieved

.

by the Sub ordination of xt nal m tre to the free and

e er e

continuous expression of i nner rhythm !Esthetics s .

shoul d be born of Ethics In t h e same way musical

.
,

rhyt hm can only flourish with the support of expressive

elements issued directly from the depths of the ego and
supplanting all the formulas of metre .

Apar t from that artistic feeling can only be devel

,

Oped with the o O peration of music th e only art

'

c -
, ,

inherently free from ratiocination TO suppress by .

,

certain educative means t h e nervous and intell ectual

,

inhibitions that prevent the organism from submitting

to the control of musical rhythms and to teach that ,

organism to vibrate in unison with sound vibrations ,

will be to liberate impulses long repressed by a m h an i ec

3 1 6 '

Mus ic R hy t h m
, , a nd E duc ati o n
cal training restricting the instinctive inspiration of
mankind ; more it will idealise our physical and
, , re

suscitate our spiritual forces and thus heral d the bi th

, , r

of a musical art at once more emotional and more vital .

The rhythm of eve y work and of every action reacts

r

immediatel y on the nature or the deg ee of individuality r

of its author representing always the direct expression

,

of the sensations and feelings of th e indi vidual D oubt .

less it can be imitated and stereotyped but in that , ,

process it loses its fundamental principle being born

, ,

of emotion which can only be expressed by means di

,

r ectly insp ired by intuition The imitation of el emental .

rhythms relates to the realm of purely intellectual pro

cesses based on deduction A S James S h ll y has
, . c e e

aptly expressed it in an article on Rh ythm and Art

, :

Rh ythm is to intuition emotion and aesthetics what , , ,

scientific order and logic are to the intellect One Of .

— —
the essential qualities if not th essentia l quality of e

rhythm is its power of conveying the presence of life .

Mechanical order on the other hand is Objective and

, ,

impersonal Time passes and is scientifically

.

recorded by the mechanical oscillations of the pendu

lum And yet for some of us time ambles withal
.
,
‘
,
’

for others he trots and gallops withal for others again

‘
,
’

, ,

he tands still with al

‘
S .
’

T here is an i mm edi ate connection between the in

sti n cti v e movements of our body the contin uity of ,

w hic h forms and assures r h ythm and the processes of ,

our psychic life .

It would seem that hythm imprints a defin ite cha r r

acter on the speculations f thought moulding their O ,

 R hy th m Ti m e , , a nd Te m p e r ame nt 3 7
1

fo m of expression and dictating the language suitable

r

for revealing the fundamental principles of sensorial

life and transplanting them into the realm of emotion .

It would seem moreover that by irtue of some secret

, , V

mechanism not yet defined by psycho physiologists th e -

,

mind possesses the power of choosing from among all

th e motor sensations of the individual those most con
genial for t ansfig u ation into durable impressions and
r r

definitely r h ythmic images .

Th e more we succeed thanks to our education in

— —
detaching our instinctive corporal movements from the
Shac kl es forged by circumstances and environment and ,

preserved by heredity the more we shall eliminate

,

intell ectual and nervous inhibitions adverse to the ,

spontaneous motor manifestations f our organism ; th e O

more also will our muscul ar play evoke precise rhythmic

images expressive of our individuality for the service
, ,

O f t h e mind and t h e latter will contrive to record

,

certain sequences in such a way as to confirm its

momentary impressions Th ese sequences will vary a
. c

cor di ng to the state of the mind at the moment it is

engaged in fixing these images Intuition will indicate
.

those that must be eliminated to avoid compromising

t h e direct expression of th e temperament as attuned ,
“

at any given moment of our life This attunement is .

capabl e of considerabl e variation and that is why th e ,

rh yt h ms of certain works of art may appeal to us dif

fer
ently according to th e moment wh en t h ey are presented
,

to us although our mech anical processes of judgment

,

cause us to appraise them from th e intellectual point

,

of V iew in a consistently similar manner

, .

The function of temperament shoul d be to adop t

 R h y th m Time
, , and Te mperame n t 3 9
1

tain ly be followed sooner or later by all other countries .

I t is the duty of educational authorities to see that edu

cation does not stagnate and to seek progress in the
,

direction of a new system designed in elementary ,

school s as at the universities to limit the number of

,

purely intellectual subjects in favour of conveying to

the minds of our future citizens what we may call their
temperamental sense .

The possession of high ly developed impulses and

racia l instincts Sh ould be supplemented by the power of

controlling t h ese facul ties by an intelligence instructed

in th e diversity of th ei powers E ducation must no
r .

longer confine itself to the enlightenment of pupils in

intellectual and physical phenomena It must conduce .

to the formation of character assuring to chil dren the

,

consciousness both of th eir weaknesses and of th eir

capacities and rectifying th e former as it strength ens
,

the l atter while enabling them to adapt themselves to

,

th e exigencies of the new social order It is no longer a .

question of a Simple development of th e scientific and

analytical mentality but rath er of an evolution of the
,

entire organism .

It is often in the most trivial actions that th e most

intimate traits of character revea l th emselves Motor .

habits betray them as distinctly as facial expression .

Motor h abits can be modifi ed by education and trans

mit this improvement to t h e character E ducation .
“

with out a definite aim produces an indefinite character ,

”

as Leg ouv é expressed it and conversely one that aims

, , ,

consistent l y at th e regularisation of organic functions

under the control of a l ucid well ordered and resolute
,
-
,

mind must inevitably influence the character in th e

3 2 0 R h y t hm Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati o n
same direction Character is not only the direct ex
.

pression of temperament but also the product of the ,

mind s discoveries in relation to the general faculties of

’

the motor and nervous systems the control and har ,

moni i ng of which form part of its functions And if

s .
,

Taine was right in affi rming that the Character of a “

people may be regarded as the compound of all its past

sensations it follows that the acquisition of more
,

numerous and stronger sensations under the influence ,

of a new education must serve to create in our mentali

,

ties reactions inevitably mo di fying the essence f our O

cha acter
r .

I t is diffi cult to determine whether one race is n e

dowed with stronger rhythmic sense than another ; but

it is obvious that th influence of climate customs and
e , ,

historical and economic circumstances must have pro

du d certain differences in the rhythmic sense of each
ce

people which are reproduced and perpetuated in such

,

a way as to imprint a peculiar character on the dynamic

and nervous manifestations at the root of every original
corporal rhythm C ertain peoples for instance present
.
, ,

marked differences in their muscular capacity (which ,

according to P eron is greater in Europeans than in

,

savage races ) and in the nuances f their nervous mani O

f tati on
es Th
s .structure of the human body also
e

varies according to race and must play an important ,

rOl in all forms of motor expression

e .

T emperament is bviously responsibl e for the moto

O r

form of corporal rhyt hmic phenomena C ertain peoples .

are more nervous than full blooded more lymphatic -

,

than choleric and it does not require a profound analy

,
 Rh y th m Ti me , , and Te mpera men t 2
3 1

sis o a multitude of experiments to determine th e

r

eno mous influence of the fusion and association of

r

tempe aments on the phenomena of reaction and corpo

r

ral expression on variations of dynamics agogics (that

, ,

is shading O f time) and manipulations of space pro

“ ”
, ,

du ed by di fferent aptitudes for natura l rhythmic a c

c

tions T h divers degrees of susceptibility of the motor

. e

organs introduce nuances into the spatial character of

gestures and their dynamic expression Rhythmic fac .

ulti s are undoubtedly less highly developed in some

e

countries than in others but as these depend not ,

only on the muscular and gyratory senses but on , ,

the general or particul ar state of the nervous sys

tem we may assume that they may easily be modi
,

fi d by training
e The same applies to gifts of hearing
.

and distinguishing of sounds which conjointly with ,

rhythmic qualities cons titute th e substance of musical

,

talent .

h hmic training can make a person musical since

R yt ,

imp ion of musical h ythm s i n vi tab ly evo ke some

'

res s s r w g
r
e ‘

s o t Of motor image n the ig g an d i nsti nc ti v

. fl

'

;
r 1 g e

Th h a flrMuscular sensa e e re
’

tions eventually coalesce with fi hditi v sensations ‘

e

which thus inforced add to the facul ties of ap

, re -
,

preciation and analysis The ca and th e larynx are . r

organically related and their functions are connected

,

by syn ergic forces dependent on th e associated ne ve r

centres The vibrations perceived by th e ear may

.

be increased by the augmentation of the vibratory

powe of other corporal sources of resonance ; for sounds
r

are perceived by other parts of the human organism

CI
 R hy th m Ti , me, and Te m p e ra me nt 3 3
2

of bal ance in the excessive contrasts of pitch in th e case

of the Slavs !
A child devoid of rhythmic feeling wil l punctuate a
song in the same manner as that in which he moves ,

while walking and gesticulating But there are consid .

e ab le differences in rhythmic aptitudes and i nn u m er

r ,

able gradations also i n the divers manifestations of a

musical temperament in respect of facul ties of intona
,

tion and audition .

We find at one extreme chil d en compl etely devoid

, , r

of rhyt h mic and musical feeling to wh om all sound is ,

mere noise and wh o though intel ligent generally are

, , ,

s h ee idiots musically their ears impervious even to

r
—
the nuances of spoken sounds (gentleness severity , ,

irony ,

Others are endowed with well developed rhythmi c -

s ense marching and gesticulating in time and with ease

, ,

but are unab l e eit h er to distinguish or Sing a tune .

Oth ers good h yth mi cians can at first distinguish

— — r

tunes only by their rhythms and cannot recognise ,

s imple successions of unrhythmic sounds In these once .

,

they are submitted to a training by and in rhythm one ,

may produce a l onging to distinguis h the sound of tunes ,

which l eads in time to the attainment of this facul ty .

Others again are bo n with good ear and rhythmic

. , r

s ense . But this class may be subdivided into

infinite catego ies and sub catego ies
r -
r .

Good hearers for examp l e may be bad readers and

, ,

singers and vi ce vers a

, .

Good heare s of isolated sounds or tunes become bad

r

or mediocre w h en it is a question of distinguis hing

,

ch o rds and successions of h armonies .

3 4
2 R h yth m Mus ic , , an d E duc at ion
Good hearers may be incapable of mentally ordi c o-

nating and analysing their auditive sensations .

Good hearers may be able to appreciate pianoforte

music but not that of other instruments or the human
,

voice and vi ce v rsa

,
e .

Good hearers may be subje ct to pe iods of bad hea ing r r

( nervous depressions or over stimu l ations ) or again

-
, , ,

may h ear well only du ing a po tion of the music lesson

r r

( that probably where their natura l instinct does not

cl ash with mental effo t ; or where on the other hand
r , ,

fatigue disturbs the mental concentration necessa y to r

c e tain peop l e to assure good h ea ing)

r r .

As to the divers aptitudes of a rhythmic subjects -

,

they are likewise of very different natures Some of .

them exhibit :

1 . E ase in conceiving or sei ing musical rhythms but

z ,

difficulty in expressing them .

2 . E ase in expressing rhyth ms with certain limbs ( g e .

the arms) and diffi culty with others (for example ,

in walking in time or in dancing) .

E ase in expressing rhythms with the voice difli ,

culty in executing them with the body and vi ce ,

vers a .

Ease in executing rhythms with any limb or organ

separately but not with combinations of organs of
,

arms and legs arms and voice voice and l egs etc
, , , .

E ase in executing kn own rhythms but diffi culty in ,

distinguishing and memo ising unknow n ones r .

Di fficulty in understanding distinguishing and , ,

executing rhythms but ease in continuing this

,

execution once they are known and assimi lated ,

and the l imbs made flexible by exercises adapted

to the special nature Of the rhythm s .
 R h y th m Ti me , , a nd Te m p e ra me n t 3 5
2

Difficu l ty in continuing correctly for long a rhythm

which has been commenced correctly .

‘
Difli u lty in dispensing with constant mental con
c
trol of the body (whence a ises a lack of ease r

and smoothness in the movements or the u n on c

scious alteration of rhythms) .

9 . D ifficulty i n retaining the mental impression of a

rhythm without continual recourse to physical
sensations .

Difficulty in accustoming limbs to certain

automatisms .

D ifli u lty in interrupting automatisms whether ao

c ,

quired with ease or diffi culty .

E ase in acqui ing automati ms in certain limbs

r s ,

difficulty in combining them with automatisms in

another limb .

E ase in imagining and then executing rhythms ,

diffi culty in executing rhy thms given by another ,

and vi c v a e ers .

E ase in distinguishing and executing the most com

plex rhythms difficulty in distinguishing the most
,

S imple polyrhythm .

E ase in executing rhythms in a certain movement ,

diffi culty in varying their speed .

E ase in executing a rhythm without dynamic had S

ing diffi culty in introducing in any kind of emo

,

ti on l accentuation of nuance without modify ing

a

the form .

E ase in s h ading a rhythm but at the sac ifice f , r O

metrical accuracy etc , .

All these diffi culties arise from :

Muscular we akness Lack of ne ve tone Muscul ar
— — r
—
stiffness Muscular Hypersensitiveness Nervous dis
—
harmony Lack Of balance due to inadequate sense
—
—
of Space Exces sive intrusion of c itical faculties pro r ,
 R h y th m Ti m e , , an d T emperam en t 3 7
2

ren of one country reveal blemis hes in the motor sys

tem not to be found in children of another count y r ,

there are also approp i ate exercises to combat al l forms

r

of bad motor habits and to transform them into new ,

and good ones ; the teaching of eurhythmics s houl d .

ce tainly vary according to the temperament and ch ar

r

acter of the children of every count y in which it is r

introduced It only remains to persuade psychologists

.

and educationists alike to direct th eir experimental

researches towards th e study of rhythmic aptitudes and
motor and auditive predispositions Meanwhil e it may .

b e of interest to record certain observations of a general

character on the rhythmic and musical aptitudes Of
chi l dren Of the countries I have had most frequent
occasion to visit I hasten to disclaim any scientific
.

exactitude for these impressions .

Genevan chil dren possess in general a less flexible vocal

apparatus than the children of Ge rman Switzerland .

Their capacity for distinguishing sounds on the other ,

hand is more devel oped than in the German speaking

,
-

cantons especially among the middle classes Rhythm

,
.

i c fee ling hopelessly de fi cient in the old Genevan

,

families is quite normally developed among the pro

,

l ta iat where it is not perve ted by pronounced

e r ,
r

nervous and intellectual resistances In German Swit . z

erland as in South Germany met ical feeling is more

, , r

conspicuous than rhythmic feeling and a superficially ,

rhythmic individuality is Often marred by extreme mus

cula stiffness prohibiting the dynamic and agogic
r ,

shading necessa y for the externalisation Of natural

r

rh ythms This stiffness is far l ess common in th e Rh ine

.
3 8
2 R hyth m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc ati on
provinces and is only rarely found in Austria and
,

Hungary In these tw o countries movements possess

.
,

an extraordinary elasticity and variety as among the ,

working population of certain Russian provinces But .

this refinement of rhythmic feeling and capacity for

shadin g movements is counterbalanced in Austria by ,

a mental versatility ften disconcerting and in Russia O , ,

among the i nt lli g n i a by a hypersensitiveness pro

e e z , ,

du cin g the same inhibitions as the introspective excesses

that de rhythmicise Genevan society Auditive f cul
-
. a

ties highly developed i n Austria are very light in

, , S

Russia where moreover the vocal po wers of children

, , ,

are frequen tly of a deplorably low standard I am .

speaking of course of the children and adults whom I

, ,

have had occasion to teach and whose studies and inter ,

pr e tati on s have been conducted under my control .

I n Germ any where the love and cultivation of music

,

is more general than anywhere else the auditive sense ,

is certainly not more refined than in any other country .

E xtreme mental slowness combined in males with an

—
excess f self confiden
O — impedes the functioning of
-
ce

the agents of analysis or at any rate involves a con , , ,

s i de ab l
r waste of time between sensations and d du
e e c

tions T his defect is compensated especially among

.
,

women by qualities of perseverance and assimilation

, ,

rarely to be met with among the Slavs whose sudden ,

enthusiasms ardent aspirations and commendable am

, ,

bitions for intellectual artistic and social progress are , ,

counteracted by their irresolution and constant crises

of moral depression and distrust of self .

Swedish children are remarkably well endowed with

rhythmi c faculties and possess quite na turall y a feelin g
,
 R h y t hm Ti me , , a nd T em p erament 2
3 9

for bodily harmony I have n o t had sufficient oppo

. r

tu n i ty of following the development of their auditive

faculties to enable me to speak autho itatively on the r

subject but their musical feeling and vocal capacities

,

are certainly above the average The p imary schools . r

lay great stress on gymnastics and in recent years , ,

music the stimulating influence of which was perceived

,

by their great educationist Ling A movement is in .

vogue in that country for the revival of folk songs and -

dances spontaneous representations of which by school

,

children in the Open air may be witnessed in all parts of

th e country In Norway musical instruction in schools
.
,

also Shows an upward tendency while musical aptitudes ,

are approximately the same as in Sweden T h charm . e

ing old town of Bergen holds a largely attended public

orchestral concert twice daily and the children emerge ,

from their schools inging and dancing The p l astic

S .

talents of these children are no l ess pronounced in

country districts than in the towns On e may see l ittle .

peasant children after a few months physical training ’

moving with really m

, ,

arvellous grace and natural bal ance .

One finds th e same ease of movement in D anes but ,

thi s quality is with rare exceptions not applied to

— —

such refined aesthetic conceptions as with Swedes The .

obsolete cult of grace for grace s sake is still in force

“ ’ ”

there and the public infatuated with ball et dancing

, , ,

appreciates hardly any but external virtuoso effects .

I n purely musical gifts they appear to me to be entirely

deficient and D enmark requires more than any other
, ,

count y a thorough overhauling of its system of musical

r ,

training in schools .

Du tch chi l dren a e natu rally g ood Sin gers l es s

, r ,
 R hy th m Ti me , , a nd Tem pera me nt 33 1

remarkable for its accuracy and balance On the other .

hand music is too commonly regarded in social circles

, , ,

as a mere accomplishment and its cultivation in schools

,

and p ivate musical academies is largely superfi cial and

r

conventional Once the efforts of the reconstruction

.

enthusiasts have su cceeded in obtaining a due regard

for music and E urhythmics in the school curriculum ,

the English peopl e will not be low in attaining a stand S

ard worthy of the descendants of the great composers

who represented it so honourably in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centu ies r .

I have unfortunately not had the Oppo tunity of

, , r

studying French Italian and Spanish children ade

, ,

q u ately to express a definite O pinion on their capacities .

Musical education is very lightly regarded in their

schools and on the other hand their musical students
, , ,

rarely emerge from their respective countries I have .

,

however, had occasion to Observe the French stu dents of

my Eurhythmic Institute at Geneva ; I have also at
tended performances of my children s songs in va ious ’
r

impo tant provincial schools and been present at

r ,

Eurhythmics classes in P aris The feeling for .

vigorous accentuation seemed to me far more developed

than in Engl and but there was less ease of movement
, ,

and th e stiffness of gait and gesture seemed curiously

in consistent with the mental and imaginative flexibility
of the people I do not attribute this coarseness to eithe
. r

nervous or intellectual causes it is more probably due :

to the absurd fear of ridicule which produces both in ,

the family and at school an excessive repression of ,

physical manifestation of feeling too often accompanied ,

by reserve due to sex feeling It is gratifying to find .

33 2 R hy th m Mu s ic , , a nd E duc atio n
—
that Sport has at last thanks to the effo rts of a few
—
influential persons entered the curriculum of mas cul ine
education but physical culture does not yet form pa t
, r

of the training of children being reserved for adul ts , ,

while intellectual rather than physical or musical

games are cultivated at schools Even among the peo .

ple I speak of the P arisian people the only ones whom

—
,

I know well dancing aptitudes are little developed

—
,

and public balls are patronised chiefly by professional

dancers whose grace is ften not over marked at that
, O -
.

Once let them cultivate their natural individual gifts

as they do on the stage and they will how evidence of
— S

sufficient artistic feeling and imagination to furnish high

hopes for the development of rhythmic bo di ly move
ments among the people so soon as steps are tak en ,

in that direction Incidentally French children love

.
,

movement and I have noticed in several classes of

,

suburban elementary schools with what delight the

children took to E urhythmics and on the other hand , , ,

w ith what amazement school inspectors regarded t h eir

great joy .

From the auditive and vocal points of iew the same V ,

obstacles impede the normal development of natural

aptitudes Th Frenchman as a musician reveals
.
‘
e , ,

artistic qualities of the first order a highly flexible ,

sensitiveness an innate sense of propo tion and balance

, r ,

and a delicate feel ing for nuances But e fforts should .

be made in this country to liberate music from its

monopoly by the a istocracy and to introduce it by
r , ,

a greater care for the inner life of th e child to the ,

homes of the people where at present it appears

—
, ,

to be in uncon genial su ro unding s One neve r hears

r .
 R h yth m Ti me , , a nd T emperamen t 3 33

French ch il dren spontaneously singing national folk

songs on school excursions nor is part Sin ging cul
, ,
-

tiv ated by students in t h eir social gat h e rings And .

yet there is no dearth of choral wo ks avai lable for r

'

execution .

It will be seen from these summa y observations that r

rhythmic and musical instincts vary according to th e

natural dispositions of races .

They are not the same in Russia as in England in ,

France as in Sweden in French as in German Switzer

,

l and even i n Lausanne as in Geneva

,
.

I n certain count ies dynamic fee l ing and the sense

r ,

of intensity of nervous reactions require to be devel oped ,

and more frequent and spontaneous motor manifesta

tions provoked ; in others on th e contrary quite other , ,

results Sh ou l d be sough t ne rvous manifestations equ i

, r r

ing to be tempe ed and th e dynamic play of muscles

r ,

softened In one coun try vocal training in another th e

.
, ,

devel opment of hearing facul ties wil l require Special at ,

tention I n eve y count y Jewis h children s houl d be

. r r ,

Specially urged to undergo a t raining in E urhythmics for , ,

while thei musical facul ties and artistic intelligence are

r

in general of a remarkably hi gh o rder th ei a rhythm , r -

and l ack of h armony in moto r and ne rvous functions

are l iable to hamper th ei aesthetic devel opment and r

their attain ment of intell ectual and physical b alance .

These remarks however disjointed are based on a

, ,

whol e se ies of positive expe iments rarely befo e

r r , r

attempted by psycho physiologists E ve y peopl e is

-
. r

capable of evo lving to its advantage or disadvantage

according to th e care with which its children are reared
 MUSI CA L SU P PLE ME N T .

AMPL E N 9
1 .

B ot af t e r a note .

Tw o d o ts a
f t er a n ot e .

dJ J
i
h Th ree d ots
'
d ;
f
a te r a n ot e .

Ceng i h enzn by
'

i ts va l u e
g a n ote one qu a r te r o
f .

c
v
J J: J J5
V
Th e s e c ond d ot u nd er th e f i rs t

0 J J) J J i b05 A d ot a f ter th e t w o d ots,

on e a bove th e of

I ioo dots on e a bove th e oth er a

f ter th e i rs
f
l en
g th en i ng a n ote by one ei g h th o
f i ts va l u e .

Th re e d ots one a b ove th e oth er; of

tati on of t h e mi te v al ue o f
- mi b rev e
Of a S e N o tati on Of the n ote -val u eof Of a Semi b r ev

3
8

5
/
8

9 3
8 .

(a l l a breve) e tc , etc .
1) LE NG HENT F A BEAT .
(P w ri tt en011

2) A DDI TI ON OF A RE S T . (RI en ut o, He s Ag og i c res i s tan c e .

)

TT
3 ) RE PE I I ON OF A EEA YTHMIC ELE

T
4) A DDI I ON OP AN APP OGGIATURA . Extens i on or Ex p re s s i ve mpli fi c
a c

a mel odic and rh yth mi c el e ment .

5) ADDIN G OR LEN THENING BYAN ANACRUSIS OR A

G

mEXTENDING oa SHORTENING A HHYTHHIC EL EME NT BY

TWI CE AS FA ST ( ac oa m ) '

LE NGTH or AT
. .

a) D0UBLING THE
.

A BE .

b) DOUEL I NG THE LENGTH OF AB A R .

c H ALVI NG TH E LENGT Hor A BEA T .

C
t)
7th a n a cr us es
‘
.

IIMJ
’ ’ d
u
n I uun u | D
'

. IJ J J AI In n
ua Wn
i
n !4 . m IJ
an n l mu
w n u B l ? Am i
“ -
m IT
N n n M NJNJ J J IWH
t
Ji J
“ '

J : ’
’

. . e

{ A MPLE N 3 9 .

‘
I I VITY A ND RES T
CON R S A ND B
. NCE T AT ALA .

A rhy th m s evera l ti mes rep eated, foll ow ed by a res t th e val ue f

o the wh

TR ASTS OBTAINE D BY SHORTER

N _
RE s va l u e qf one bea t )

U IT“
J JTJ J 3 7 H
'

J TJ J . . ;
V

( T RA ST OBTA INED B Y A DIFF E RENT R HYT HM L E s s I MP ORTA NT ( l . a { o f

An unfi nzlsh ed rhy th mfollow ed by mp lete ba r

' ’
‘
a n zn c o .

WRAST BY REPEATI NG T
A RHY HMI C E E ME N L T .

th e a na cru s i s

m Am
.

Jm
A s A
'

I v flfi ffi
- fil v 5 73
Contra s t obta i n ed by d iffere n t { on e qua n ti ty (dyn tmi c s h a di ng )
i
. .

JTM J J
'

A li - 5 M
“

J . h F MJ J
“

M
6
E) Con tra s t obta i ned by a cha n h m m el oay '
f
‘

g e
o a r ony or ,

-
J osi ea u to

D
G
m m
,

11 : n ln n n n l n
I) Contm s t by d i m i n u ti on o
f a rhy th m (tw i c e as fa s t .
)

13) by a ug men ta ti on rhy th mi c el e men t ( tw i c e a s s l ow )

IW ” J?
.

I IX ?
C) by d i m i n u ti on (th re e t i me s as fa s t) .

Len to

Rh yth mi c s quaren e s s o f c l a s s i c a l mp o s e rs
J)
co not neces s ary for ph ra se

b —
R hyth m i c c ont ra s t i s s uffi c i en t .

m —IJ
2 -

m an
ar s 1
r

J J 5 3 J .
J Jfi lz
r
— 4 ba r 1 b ar -
1 r
—
1b —1 ar

K) Con tra s t obta i ned by the

fl ) “M4
—
JJN

m
DI FFE RE
l n
a

1)
fl
N T OM NAT ION
C
n n
BI
A AB M
S
EQ
.

— —
"
BB A A B A B B BA BA
— — —
2) A BB B ABA A B BAA AB
'

.
 o
f a bea t qf a ch a nd a

-
s
1 b ea t s may b e for me d on t h e s a me p ri n c i p le in an y k i nd of b a r, 6 g :

OF .8 .

V
Ir d i vi s i on s .

equal b e at s .

equ al h e at s .

e rh y th m in 3 u ne qual h eat

lar d i vi s i ons

equal Heat s .
 9
A T S Q F DI FF E RENT SUBDI V I SIONS OF L ONGN OT E VALU ES IN
S -

E L ODIE S
.
10

2) ME L ODY W I T H UNE Q UAL B A RS

EXA MP LE N9 11 . H AL VI NG THE V AL UE OF A BE AT .

a) 1) Wi th o ut "
a n ac r u s i s .

IIJ I J ?
(Femi n i n e r h yth m) .

h a l v ing O f note va l ues i s frequentl y

-
met w ith m b oth c las s i cal
w ork s b ut i t i s rare wi th a n a na c r u s i s .

2) fi thou t anac r us i s ‘Wi th ana cr u s i s

l m II J
M
. .

IJ J J
3) Wi th ou t a na c r us i s Wi th a na c r u s i s

M
. .

’
aJ J J H l J J J
’

J J J I F J It J
'

e J l J J J IJ
’ ’

b) DOUB L I NG THE VALUE OF A B EAT

Wi t t n Wi th
.

1) i ho is
u a nac r u
a ac ru s s
s
. .

IJ IJ J 1I J
=
IJ J I J
‘

2) Wi th ou t a n c r us i s . Wi th a n ac r u s i s

|I J J J | J a
.

’
J
C) SW E SSIONS OF AUGMENTATI ONS A ND DIMINUT IONS .

(I u l c i r c u l a on ti f th blod ) Th t p t i ti
oo e ex a c re e on of a rh yt h
rr e
g a r e
u eq l b
.

f s t or tw i c e a s s l w p d o ro uc e s n ua ars .
 J J | J J J J Jl
- ’

IIJ J J IFJ I TJ I JW J J J IJ J J J I J J J J JI
’ ’ ’ '

SYNCOPAT I ONS T WICE A s FAST A ND T WI CE AS SL OW .

Mos t of t h e fol l ow i ng rh y th ms a re foun d i n Or i e nt a l mu s i c )

W
.

1) i th ou t a na c rusi s
.

MEL ODI E S WI T H AUGME NTAT I ON A ND DI MI N UTION .

A GOMP OUND BE AT ( TERNARY) T HREE T IMES AS FAST OR SLOW .

0 5 o f o l
‘
l o fi nd thri c e th e Speed of a note, di vide it i nto 3 par ts a n d us e onl y