MCTIGUE, D. F., LIPKIN, J. & BENNETT, R. H. (1986). GOorechnique 36, No. 1.

1-9

Consolidation under an isotropic total stress

increase : part I, analysis for compressible
constituents

D. F. McTIGUE,* J. LIPKINi and R. H. BENNETTS

The response of a fluid-saturated porous body to a G elastic shear modulus

rapid change in external pressure is analysed using the k permeability
theory of linear poroelasticity, accounting for compress- K drained bulk modulus
ible constituents. Because water is more compressible
Kf fluid bulk modulus
than most mineral grains, the sample initially undergoes
undrained deformation accompanied by a negative
KS’ first solid bulk modulus
K,” second solid bulk modulus
excess pore pressure (suction). Subsequently, external
fluid diffuses into the body, the effective compressive Ku undrained bulk modulus
stresses relax, and the soil matrix expands. The initial m fluid mass content per unit volume
excess pressure, undrained displacement, relaxation rate m. reference fluid mass content
and asymptotic drained displacement are direct indica- P fluid pressure
tors of a pore pressure coefficient, the undrained bulk PO magnitude of external pressure change
modulus, the consolidation coefficient and the solid 4i fluid mass flux
constituent bulk modulus. Thus, measurements of the duration of linear external pressure increase
surface displacement and the pore pressure at one inter-
nal point determine four of the eight material properties
$ unit tensor
&ij matrix strain tensor
needed to characterize fully a linearly elastic porous
body. P fluid viscosity
V drained Poisson’s ratio
L’article analyse la rbponse d’un corps poreux saturt de V” undrained Poisson’s ratio
fluide B un changement rapide de la pression externe B PO reference fluid density
I’aide de la thborie de la porotlasticitC linkaire, prenant Oij total stress tensor
en considtration les constituants compressible% Parce porosity
que I’eau est plus compressible que la plupart des grains reference porosity
minkraux, au commencement I’&hantillon subit une d&
formation non-drain&e, accompagnte d’une surpression
interstitielle nkgative (suction). Par la suite le fluide
externe se diffuse dans le corps, les contraintes de com- INTRODUCTION
pression effectives se relPchent et la matrice du sol se For most applications of consolidation theory in
dilate. La surpression initiale, le d&placement non- geotechnical engineering, it is a reasonable
draini, la vitesse de relgchement et le d&placement
assumption that both the soil particles and the
drain& asymptotique reprt-sentent des indicateurs d’un
pore fluid are incompressible. Under these condi-
coefficient de pression interstitielle, du module de masse
non-drainie, du coefficient de consolidation et du tions, all volumetric deformation of the soil is
module de masse des constituants solides. Les mesures associated with pore volume changes that can be
du d&placement superficiel et de la pression interstitielle accommodated only by fluid drainage. However,
g un point interne dtterminent quatre des huit proprik situations do arise in which the compressibility of
tts matkrieiles ntcessaires pour la caractkrisation com- the constituents in a saturated soil plays a crucial
plete d’un corps poreux 1inCairement tlastique. role in observed phenomena. Indeed, in a com-
panion paper (Lipkin, Bennett & McTigue, 1986)
KEYWORDS: clays; compressibility; consolidation;
an experiment is described in which the measured
elasticity; pore pressures; soil properties.
excess pore pressures and deformation are due
exclusively to compressibility effects. Motivated
NOTATION
in part by the need to interpret results from that
B pore pressure coefficient
experiment, in this Paper a detailed analysis of
c consolidation coefficient
the response of a porous body to hydrostatic
Discussion on this Paper closes 1 July 1986. For further
pressure changes in the fluid surrounding the
details see inside back cover. body is presented. The analysis not only provides
* Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque. an understanding of observations in a particular
t Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore. experiment, but also suggests a general method
$ Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity. by which certain fundamental soil properties may
2 McTIGUE, LIPKIN AND BENNETT

be determined. These properties include per- uij and the fluid pore pressure p by
meability, drained bulk modulus and bulk moduli

1
for the soil particles, the last of which are often 1
&ii = G Qij + pa, - & fbkk+ 3P)6ij
difficult to determine by direct measurements.
[
Biot (1941) generalized Terzaghi’s consoli-
dation theory (e.g. Terzaghi, 1943) to a full three-
dimensional form that includes constituent -T& P6ij (l)
E
compressibility. More recently, Rice & Cleary
(1976) have recast Biot’s work in terms of where G is the shear modulus, v is the drained
material properties with a more straightforward Poisson’s ratio and K,’ is a bulk modulus for the
physical interpretation. Their notation is adopted solid comprising the matrix. The usual engineer-
here. The boundary value problem addressed ing sign convention is adopted, writing normal
with this theory is for the time-dependent stresses and strains as negative in compression
response of a right circular cylinder of saturated and positive in extension. The interpretation of
porous material, subjected to a change in fluid K,’ is quite clear if a body immersed in fluid at
pressure at its boundaries. The more familiar pressure p. is envisioned. The total stress acting
theory for incompressible fluid and solid constitu- on the body is then cij = -p,,6,, and, when the
ents predicts, in this configuration, an equal pore pressure is equilibrated, p = p,, . Under these
change in the magnitude of the isotropic normal conditions, the classical effective stress uij + pbij
components of the total stress and in the pore is zero, and only an isotropic strain eij =
pressure. Thus, the effective stress would be zero, -(p,/3K,‘)6ij remains, owing to compression of
and there would be no deformation and no tran- the solid.
sient consolidation. In contrast, the analysis In the theory for compressible constituents, an
shown here predicts that an increase in the exter- additional equation is needed to describe the
nal pressure induces undrained deformation and change in fluid mass content per unit volume,
a small negative excess pore pressure (suction), m - m,
followed by diffusion of fluid into the soil and
volumetric expansion. This is precisely the behav- 3P,(V, - v)
t2)
iour observed in the experiment described in part m - m” = 2GB(l + v)(l + vu)
II (Lipkin et al., 1986).
where m, is the reference fluid mass content and
In the following, the appropriate governing
p. is the reference fluid density. The pore pressure
equations are first summarized and the idealized
boundary value problem described above is coefficient B (Skempton, 1954) is given by
solved. The solution is then refined to account for 1 K( 1 - KJK,“)
certain practical constraints. First, the time- -=1+&J (3)
dependent boundary pressure changes that are B K,U - K/K,‘)
more easily implemented in the laboratory are
where 4. is the reference porosity, K =
allowed for. Second, early time asymptotic solu-
2G(1 + v)/3(1 - 2v) is the drained bulk modulus,
tions are developed, which are necessary for a
K, is the fluid bulk modulus and K,” is a second
numerical evaluation of the results. Finally, an
solid bulk modulus. The parameter v, is the
annular sample geometry is considered because of
undrained Poisson’s ratio and is given by
conditions peculiar to the experiment described in
part II (Lipkin et al., 1986). In the concluding 3v + B(l - 2v)(l - K/K,‘)
remarks, ways in which an experiment such as (4)
vu = 3 - B( 1 - 2~x1 - K/K,‘)
that described here might be used to determine
certain material properties are discussed. It should be noted that a distinction has been
made here between two solid moduli, K,’ and K,“.
The physical significance of the second modulus
LINEAR POROELASTICITY FOR is made clear by the relationship for the change in
COMPRESSIBLE CONSTITUENTS porosity implied by equations (1) and (2)
Rice & Cleary (1976) have presented the com-
plete governing equations for quasistatic defor- ‘$ - 40 =
mation of a fluid-saturated porous elastic
material, accounting for the compressibility of
both the fluid and the solid phases. The theory is
briefly outlined here, with emphasis on features
germane to the analysis to follow. Idealized models of linearly elastic porous media
The matrix strain .sij is related to the total stress yield the term in equation (5) that is proportional
 CONSOLIDATION UNDER STRESS INCREASE 3

to ulrt + 3p (Robin, 1973; Cornet & Fairhurst, is obtained. It should be noted that, using equa-
1974). When K,” differs from K,‘, equation (5) tions (3) and (4), the coefficient of p in equation
allows for an additional contribution to the poro- (12) can be written as 1 - K/K,‘, retrieving a
sity change due to local compression of the solid. widely used definition of the effective stress (e.g.
This effect is usually ascribed to the presence of Nur & Byerlee, 1971).
unconnected porosity in the medium (Biot & Solving boundary value problems for oij, Q,
Willis, 1957; Cornet & Fairhurst, 1974; Rice & and p using equations (lH12) can, in general, be
Cleary, 1976). The two moduli K,’ and K,” are quite involved because of their strong coupling.
often taken to be equivalent, but the distinction is However, the problem considered here is trac-
retained here for generality. table because the deformation is isotropic.
Compatibility is given by

V2a,, +
qv,- 4
v2p = 0
RESPONSE OF CYLINDRICAL SAMPLE
(6) TO SUDDEN INCREASE IN EXTERNAL
B(1 - $1 + V”)
FLUID PRESSURE
The fluid mass balance can be written in terms of A test is now examined in which a saturated
the mass content m and the mass flux qi = soil sample is immersed in water in a pressure
po&,(ui - vi), where ui is the fluid velocity and ui vessel such that changes in the external fluid
is the solid velocity, as pressure are communicated instantaneously to all
boundaries of the sample. In the experiment
described in part II (Lipkin et al., 1986) this con-
figuration was achieved by reconsolidating the
soil in a rigid container with an open top, lined
and the fluid momentum balance is assumed to
with highly permeable drainage fabric. It is the
be given by Darcy’s law
measurable response of such a sample to changes
in the external fluid pressure, i.e. when the
qi= -po-- k aP (8) changes in total stress and boundary pore press-
p axi
ure are identical, that is of concern here.
where k is the intrinsic permeability (dimensions Consider a cylinder of length 2L and radius R
of length2) and p is the fluid viscosity. Equation (Fig. 1). It is necessary to solve equation (9)
(8) neglects the gravitational body force, so that p subject to the sudden application of a total stress
is to be interpreted as the excess pressure above o,(R, L, t) = -p. hij and a boundary pore press-
hydrostatic. Combining equations (2) (6), (7) and ure p(R, L, t) = p. for time t > 0, where p,, is the
(8) results in a diffusion equation for cklr + 3p/B magnitude of the external change (Fig. 2). Thus

cv’(ri,,+~P)=~(“I*+~P) (9) 3
ckk + B P = 3P0 (134

1(10)
where

P(1
-24
k 2G(l - v) B2(1 - 2~x1 + vJ2

m
c=-------
9(v, - v)(l - V”) t*
It should be noted that for incompressible con-
stituents, v, = l/2, B = 1 and the term in square
brackets in equation (10) is unity. The parameter
c is then recognized as the consolidation coefh-
cient commonly used in soil mechanics for one-
dimensional deformation.
The effective stress is defined in the context of 2L r

IN----4
this theory as that which is related to the defor-
mation through Hooke’s law

V
2&..
V
= ,J’!’
U
- - geff(j. (11) y_-------___j
1 + v kk ”

Comparing equations (1) and (11) and using

equations (3) and (4)
EXTERNAL FLUID p.
3(v, - v) Fig. 1. Definition sketch for a saturated porous elastic
CT;?= Dij + P6ij (14
B(l - 2v)(l + v,) cylinder subjected to a change in external fluid pressure
 McTIGUE. LIPKIN AND BENNETT

a constant boundary temperature. The solution is

well known (e.g. Carslaw & Jaeger, 1959)

1
Jdh 4

m(-
A,RJ,(A,R) exp (-cAn2r)

11
1)” cos (A,z)
exp (- d,*t)
i,L
oE___ (14)
where A, R is defined by J&i, R) = 0 and A,,,L =
(2m f l)n/2.
Noting that eLL = -3p,, equation (14) can be
rearranged to give

P = p. 1 - 4(1 - B) f f _L,(r, z)
[ n=l m=O

x exp (-u,,t)
1 (15)

j_J_A- where f,,(r, z) corresponds

0 __---_---- -----------
to the summed func-
tions of r and z in equation (14) and t(,, =
c(A,* + jl,*). It should be noted that for incom-
pressible constituents B = 1, and there are no
transient effects; the pore pressure is instantane-
ously equal to the external pressure everywhere.
I Thus, all the effects of interest are due to the
TIME compressibilities of the fluid and the solid, in con-
trast with most classical consolidation problems.
Schematic representation of excess pore press-
Substituting from equation (15) into equation
ure and surface displacement in response to a step change
(12), the effective stress is given by
in external pressure

e;Y= -poE[l +4(5-l)

at z = &-I+ r = R. By symmetry

a
-(
ar
3
ok/(+-p
B > =o (1W
where
X f f h,,,(r, Z) exP (-c&r)
n=l m=O
K, = 2G(l + v,)/3(1 - 2v,) is the un-
1
Sij (16)

at r = 0, and drained bulk modulus. It follows from equation

(11) that the matrix strain is
(134
(17)
at z = 0. Finally, the initial condition is obtained
from equation (2) by noting that, at t = 0, before Finally, equation (17) is easily integrated to
the fluid has had time to flow in or out of the obtain the vertical displacements w
sample, the change in fluid mass content must be
zero.

3
crkk+ s p = 0 (134

at t = 0 and all I, z.
It is apparent that the problem given by equa-
tion (9) along with equations (13aH13d) is com-
pletely analogous to that for conductive heating
of a cylinder at zero initial temperature, subject to (18)
 CONSOLIDATION UNDER STRESS INCREASE

Table 1. Limiting values of pore pressure, effective stress, strain and

displacement for a cylinder*

t=O tG+cc

Centre Top Centre Top

P POB PO PO PO
K
- PO F -PO ff_ -po5Sij -po53,j
gi,
cff
”
sij
KS’
stj
KS’ KS’

- $- s,j - f$ s,, - 2 sij - f-J&sij

6, ” I s I

PO _-
PO
w 0 3Ku 0 3K,’

* Values given are for the centre (r = z = 0) and top (r = 0, z = L).

Each of equations (15H18) has a straightfor- the relative compressibilities of the fluid and solid
ward physical interpretation (Fig. 2). All show an phases (equation (3)). The difference between the
instantaneous undrained response, with effective external and internal pressure is then (1 - B)p,.
elastic moduli 11,and K,. At this time (t = 0), the That pressure difference drives fluid into the
pore pressure is everywhere equal to Bp, (B < l), sample until the pressures are equal (equation
with the departure of B from unity being due to (15)) and only the hydrostatic effects remain. The
effective stress (equation (16)) is initially at a
maximum and relaxes with a characteristic time
L’/c (assuming that L and R are of the same
order). In response to this, the surface, for
example, is initially displaced (equation (18)) by
~(0, L, 0) = -p. L/3K, and rebounds with the
same characteristic time to the asymptotic value
lim,, I, ~(0, L, t) = -p. L/3&‘. Limiting values
of the pore pressure, effective stress, strain and
displacements are summarized in Table 1.

RESPONSE TO TIME VARYING EXTERNAL

PRESSURE CHANGE
The step change in external pressure described
in the foregoing is particularly amenable to a
straightforward physical interpretation. In addi-
tion, it captures the essence of a simple test con-
figuration in which the boundary pressure is
increased rapidly relative to the relaxation time
L’/c. However, as a practical matter, the bound-
ary pressure in the laboratory will be changed
over finite time. The exact solution for a change
in the form of a linear ramp over the time interval
t, (Fig. 3) is developed here.
In this case, the boundary condition (13a) is
replaced by
3 1-B
Okk + i P = 3h -
( B >

to TIME
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of excess pore press-
where H(t) is the Heaviside
X
[
; H(t) - 7 H(t - to)

step function. The

1
(19)

ore and surface displacement in response to a ramped

change in external pressure problem for a time-dependent boundary condi-
6 McTIGUE, LIPKIN AND BENNETT

tion is easily solved by application of Duhamel’s is of primary interest. Thus, it is necessary to

superposition integral, leading to develop asymptotic solutions for early time to
avoid convergence problems in the calculations
for that and other cases of practical interest. The
procedure employed is to obtain the solution to
the step pressure increase problem in the taplace
x 4 2 2 f.Ar, %Ar) (20) transform domain, to expand for large values of
n=l Ill=0 the transform variable and to invert term by
term.
ts
where the time dependence is given by
The problem given by equations (9) and (13a)-

1
(13d) is first recast in terms of a function Il =
sdt) = Qm
S[to
0
H(S) - y
m- to) p - p. and the Laplace transform is applied

+sfj
1
x exp [-a,,,& - s)] ds (21) (1 - B)PO co
v2ii - (26)
C C
The integral in equation (21) is found by applica-
tion of inversion theorems for Laplace transforms with the boundary conditions
li=o (27a)
sdt) = & (Cexp (-a,,r) + a,, r - 11fW) atr=R,z=L
“In0 aii
-._=l-J
- {exp C-h& - toI1 ar
+ a,& - to)- 1IWt - hJ) (22) at r = 0 and
aii
For t > to, expanding for small an,,,to gives 0 (27~)
z=
g,,(t) = 1 - exp (-anm t)(l + fa,, to + . . .) at z = 0. Overbars indicate the Laplace transform
(23)
Thus, as tO+ 0, equation (14) is recovered. Equa- f(s) = m exp (-st)f(t) dt
tion (23) also implies that, for t > to, the effect of s0
the ramped pressure increase is negligible if the The problem thus appears in the form of a steady
time of the ramp is small compared with the state heat conduction problem with a tem-
relaxation time perature-dependent source and homogeneous
boundary conditions. The solution is _
to + tR - L2/c (24)
where it is assumed that L and R are of the same
order.
rf = _ (1 - @PO
s I[ AA,&1
1 _ fo(fi r)
R)

by
The initial rise (0 d t < to) is given, for small t,

g,,(t) = g [l + O(r,,t)] (25)

JRDJ(;;&)
-2“:I& ;.n1‘II
nm 0 cash [(In2 + s/c)“~z]
(28)
The pore pressure, effective stress, strain and ’ cash [(A,’ + s/c)"~L]
displacement responses to the ramped boundary where Jo(i.. R) = 0.
pressure (Fig. 3) are obtained from equations Equation (28) is now expanded for large values
(15HlS) with exp (-r,, t) replaced by g,,(t) ofs
(equation (22)).
li = -(l - B)p,f
EARLY TIME APPROXIMATION
R 112
The series solutions given by equations (1st
(18) along with equation
slowly for small dimensionless
(22) converge

tion (24)). In the experiment described in part II

very
time t/t, (cf. equa-
x

-
[ 0
l- -
r

{expC-&V- -
L-&W exp

.41
- 41

(Lipkin et al., 1986) the characteristic length scale

is 0.5 m and the consolidation coefficient is about + exp C-&7& + 411
2.6 x lo-’ m2/s; the relaxation time is about
9.7 x 10’ s. The time for each pressure increase, (29)
t,, is typically about I.8 x lo3 s, so that t/tR B 1
 CONSOLIDATION UNDER STRESS INCREASE

Inverting equation (29) term by term

R l/2
P
-=1-(1-B)
PO [
l-
0; erfc tj

- erfc 5 - erfc [
1 (30)

obtained where ‘t=(R-r 2&, r=

: - 2)/2J- ct and c = (L + z)/2 J ct. Equation
(30) then represents the asymptotic expansion of
equation (15) for early time. It should be recalled
that it is the response to a sudden step increase in
external pressure to p. .
To extend this analysis to the problem for
ramped external pressure, the Duhamel super- I
position integral is again used as in equations
(19H22). This procedure leads, after considerable Fig. 4. Definition sketch for a hollow cylinder
manipulation, to
and

z R “’
h’(r, z, t) = L ; i2 erfc ‘I’

II
0
+ i2 erfc 5 + i2 erfc [ H(t)
- &ho - to) (t3 erfc 5’ + i3 erfc [‘)
L

The solutions (31) and (32) are very accurate for

t/t, < 0.02, after which the series solutions (15),

II
(18) and (22) converge rapidly and pose no diffi-
+i2 erfc 5’ + i2 erfc <’ H(t - to) culty.

(31) RESPONSE OF HOLLOW CYLINDRICAL

where
R-r SAMPLE
f z For reasons to be discussed in part II (Lipkin
2&=G et al., 1986) the foregoing analysis has been
L-z
extended to the case of an annular body of
5’ = porous material (Fig. 4), again subjected to a
2Ja=2 sudden step increase in external fluid pressure.
The results are of a form that is identical with
that of equations (15H18), in which the function

and i” erfc are repeated integrals of the comple-

mentary error function. Finally, equation (31) can
2.$A n~Yg)R)
exp ( - cAn2t)
1”
(33)

be integrated to obtain the vertical displacements is simply replaced by

U’
------=
. s1-7
PO L/ J.1”
--;1;[;-4(2-
s
1)h(r,z, t)]H(i)

in which U,(a, r) is the cylinder function

uO(% r) = J& r)Yo(% R2) - J,(a, R2)Y,(m, r)

(32) (35)
where
z R Ii2
The c(, are the roots of U,(cc, R,) = 0, and R, and
h(r, z, f’=L ; iz erfc q
R, are the inner and outer radii respectively.
0
The response to a pressure increase that is
ramped over finite time to is again obtained by
-L(2+ i3 erfc 5 + i3 erfc [)
replacing the function exp [-c(r,’ + &‘)t] by
 8 McTIGUE, LIPKIN AND BENNETT

g,,(t) as given by equation (22). The asymptotic In part II of this Paper, an experiment is
approximation for early time may be constructed described in which an attempt is made to carry
in a fashion that is identical with that shown in out a similar procedure. However, it is assumed
equations (26H32), although this has not been here that a direct pore pressure measurement at
done here. an interior point cannot be obtained in a small
laboratory sample, while surface displacements
SUMMARIZING REMARKS can be resolved. In this case, independent knowl-
The problem addressed in this Paper exhibits edge of five material properties is required and
certain features, such as stress relaxation due to three can be determined. As an example, it is sup-
pore fluid diffusion, that are encountered routin- posed that &,, G and k are known from conven-
ely in geotechnical engineering. However, the tional water content, direct shear and
problem falls beyond the scope of conventional permeability tests respectively, and that K, and p
applications of consolidation theory to, for for water are available in standard tables. Then,
example, foundation settlement or the oedometer fitting equation (18) to data for the surface dis-
test. In these more familiar applications, the com- placement will yield, after minor manipulation,
pressibility of the porewater and soil particles can values for K, K,’ and K,“. It is noted in particular
usually be neglected. Here, a situation has been that there are few values reported in the literature
examined in which there would be no response at for the last two of these parameters, and they are
all if the constituents were incompressible. difficult to measure directly.
The analysis shows that, when the pore fluid is The procedure described here can be difficult to
more compressible than the solid (K, < K,“, implement if the parameter B is very near unity.
equation (3)), a change in the boundary pressure In this case, the pore pressure difference (1 - B)p,
induces a small negative excess pore pressure that drives all the effects described can be very
(suction). External fluid diffuses into the porous small, and the transient in the surface displace-
body, and the soil expands to recover some of the ment would be difficult to resolve. Indeed, in the
undrained deformation. What remains is the experiment detailed in part II, the quantity 1 - B
volumetric strain due to the compressibility of the proved to be of the order of 5 x 10m4. Meaning-
solid constituent alone at the fully equilibrated ful information could be extracted only because
hydrostatic pressure. This process would also the sample was so large that small strains resulted
prevail if the solid were incompressible (K,‘+ co), in displacements that were measurable without
in which case the rebound would recover all the undue difficulty. In addition, the sample size was
undrained deformation (equations (16)--(18)). If such that pore pressure probes could be inserted
the constituent compressibilities are identical, to obtain additional data constraining the param-
there is still undrained deformation (equations eters.
(17) and (18)), but there is no pressure difference Although B near unity characterizes typical
(equation (15)) to drive fluid flow and the tran- clay-rich soils, rocks often exhibit values of B as
sient stress relaxation. low as 0.5, so that the compressibility effects dis-
These results suggest what is, at least in prin- cussed in the foregoing can be quite significant in
ciple, a simple test by which certain fundamental some geological materials.
material properties can be determined. The linear
poroelasticity theory requires eight constants to ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
characterize the system fully, e.g. the initial poro- The Authors would like to thank D. E. Amos,
sity &,, the drained bulk modulus K, the shear S. K. Grifhths and M. J. Martinez for extensive
modulus G, the solid bulk moduli K,’ and K,“, discussions of the analysis, and an anonymous
the fluid bulk modulus K,, the fluid viscosity p reviewer for incisive comments and corrections.
and the permeability k. Time-resolved measure- This work was performed at Sandia National
ments of the displacement of one surface point in Laboratories, supported by the US Department
the test described here would yield three param- of Energy under contract DE-AC04-76DP00789.
eters. The initial displacement is characterized by
the undrained bulk modulus K,, the transient REFERENCES
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