Br

Notes
indus ap prruid
ein is tuet ctano chrst
an rlana hen o
aduontoau & liita trons
9) hat au thye dt keu

pHa's dlbeunt froy tadibonal

3) How au
pebelum taud plastis
ard hauo it redvus dkpundtne dn fnit petboleum
Avautag and fratvntag f ang
| Evaluat te sprad of abi,
nleceines for qosveting lhe
tn dueloptng countits ?
sus the advantagu o Ph Yectine over
6)
tadibonal vacdnes, 6 EO oJ diteaN1 thot RrlA
Vacein au len duulo d and tsted for
1 bua a taiuingprcn fo foase Araly ses on

How dou tn onsumption o ohey paotetn as q

kuplu wmeut fod coutibulb to nusei recovny s
Esplain thr pes function a luaning aqents or

bie SMuuei tnggme by consring is propeties.

s Sign Date

the lndustal
Analye The ndustatal ahliattm o
eanhlanatin of thett' detuthanaitnih
anbehydnalu hauea ide name of
0 ood Benenagecanbshydnatn ane
iofdali id las weetonay, Hikenm,
and aabilizin lood and buenaqe

Ohanacuttialh canbahyanallyiaeud
phaieautlal
and bloauallaktlily of dug.nachlal
hey aealdo
Saaiiem fuadeela
onelya-kanbohydrao au uaed n
eneti fanedh huh as. Aualatuen,
Anao audLoalttnty te hreide

Beeshde
d a
e

nteationn owd an
Aqnaling hattloays
)ehat a lhe huy aowantag cnd bo
linltciem

dawantag
Rulrenmsntally frndly
Aent-effeuhe
XVattle
ferad ekautal stugih
enical eeiatane

tattattowa
7lteaaboin f Centaln
entoluanta0
eattud ilesinn P
*DeMut to stonalize

Ma afet ahte taste 4)

are PHAA
frsbialum band"jlantbta
payhydrayalkasatu (nA.)
biohejoadahe aud biocoinja tile folyabds
 Dat

buteta and
blolastie
gan sd
and ai tedred
Amutr ah
to'be an enutronne
nlally faludly alkonalie to budtiona
PHA: ebi'odegradableiiauddan bniak
deunlnlo wtu anddaibon dloude
PHAS an blsonabible' and kan be uned
enmu dlial dies, heh a hutie E
ahlanbuefthout auain adwhae
A,haue &ilaj uelhautealihiopentls
otnathonàl sel'oeembaedasttu,
dAllcalions

uenewahle lereunes end halt ed

-dpendne fuile pboluinseeiee
1.1.3 PLA as Bioplastic
Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and bio-based plastic made from com starch,
sugarcane, or other natural resources.
CH,

Figure: Molecular formula of PLA

It is commonly used as a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics in
various applications such as packaging. disposable tableware, and 3D printing. However, it's
important lo note that while PLA is biodegradable in industrial composting facilities, it may not
break down in the environment as quickly as advertised and may still have negative impacts on
wildlife and ecosystems if not properly disposed of.

Properties of PLA as bioplastic

. Biodegradable: PLA can be broken down by microorganisms in industrial composting
facilities, reducing waste in landfills.
Renewable: PLA is derived from renewable resources such as corn starch or sugarcane,
reducing dependence on finite petroleum resources.
Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent appearance, making it suitable for
packaging applications.
Heat-resistant: PLA has arelatively low meltingndtemperature and is not recommended for high
heat applications, but it can maintain its shape and stability up to 60°C.
" Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible, making it suitable for food packaging
and medical devices.
Stifness and Strength: PLA has good stiffhess and strength, but not as strong as traditional
petroleum-based plastics.
Printability: PLA is commonly used in 3D printing due to its good printability and ease of use.
3)walee advantagen and dersdy
otatdng DNA'Vacetu
Vala for
he head of Pe bie,'in
dwetyug
Adwantag
ay DNA Vaelnu haw ben an
uabiu lebnen both dninuh
husantulab, DNA Vaelne wai foeud

henglaabing hnotubenm - NA
and Aenglaitig 6)
ashih nian Hat
thy an aioiude htubion agalnl
stndd hihlsda
eayo adnaai,aa thiy anheqia

eliated
t l4ubye DNA aaelnu au lab'iuey
thadtttonal sainea, nohih dan e 8

Aues an liited
 Date

ady 5)eded luk ! &xde elheli- DNA Vauines

2n
de nat entath diu nebs artidu
hih neann that
nfn Ad haue a

ghan
pcdNantagu
tolenane to the aatgn
battotal and
Lnelted to fasten 'Lnenuunesen
6)9acwsLhe adwantagea o PNA Vauiu
Dwi tadih'anal aulne, yiue
qaln dea as talRAA Lau'ne ae
duelapd and tuted for

Dali a ataiu haga fo farunade

khae

buuifty nd lnltatfows
ely

8)He doa Ihe Loasuntion s wiy peo'n

aa a suleen fed ontibukta
 1.2.4 RNA Vaccines for Covid19
RNA vaccines for COVID 19 are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from the
SARS-COV-2 vius, in the forn of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the virus. The
vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and
used to produce viral proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which
triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the vius.

The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized for
emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions of people worldwide.
Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized for emergency use in December
2020.

Importance of RNA Vaccine for Covid 19

RNA vaccines bave emerged as a promising tool for preventing the spread of COVID-19.
offering several key advantages over traditional vaccine annroaches
appro Here are sone of the main
reasons why RNA vaccines are important in the fight against
covD-19:
High efficacy: RNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective at preventing
coVID-19 infections. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines, for example,
have reported efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical trials.
Rapid development: RNA vaccines can be rapidly developed and manufactured, making
them particularly useful in the context of a pandemic. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. cine, for
instance, was developed in under a year, and went from the initial discovery of the viral
genome to emergency use authorization in less than ll months.
Easy to modify: RNA vaccines can be easily modified to target new strains or variants of
the virus. This means that if a new variant emerges that is resistant to the existing vaccines,
it is possible to quickly modify the vaccine to provide protection against the new strain.
Safe: RNA vaccincs are generally considered safe, as they do not contain any live virus
icles. They work by instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of the vius (in this
partcl
case, the spike protein), which triggers an immune response that provides protection
against virus.
Potential for broader use: RNA vaccines have the potential to be used in the prevention of
other infectious diseases, such as influenza, HIV, and Zika, as well as in the treatment of
cancer.
1.2.5 Forensics - DNA Fingerprinting
is a technique
DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting.
used in forensic science to identify an individual based on their unique DNA profile. The process
involves analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA, called markers, which can vary from
person to person

Working of DNA flngerprinting for forensic appications Here

is how it works:
is extracted from a biological sample, such as blood, semen, or hair.
Sample collection: DNA
The sample is then purified and processed to isolate the DNA.

DN amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified using a technique called

polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR produces many copies ofa specific DNA region,
which allows for more accurate analysis.
DNA analysis: The amplified DNA is then analyzed using a technique called gel
electrophoresis. The DNÁ fragments are separated based on size and charge, and a DNA
profile is generated.
DNA comparison: The DNA profile obtained fom the biological sample is then compared to
the DNA profiles of other individuals, such as suspects or victims, to determine if there is a
match.

DNA comparison is typically done manually by forensic analysts, as it involves analyzing

complex DNA profiles and comparing them to control samples to determine if there is a match.
However, artificial intelligence (Al) is beginning to play a more prominent role in DNA analysis,
particularly in the development of automated DNA profiling systems.
The DNA profile consists of series of bands on a gel, which represent specific DNA
fragments. The bands are compared to those from a control sample. such as blood or saliva from a
suspect or victim, to see if there is a match. If there is a match, it is considered strong evidence
that the biological sample came from that individual.
Forensic DNA fingerprinting has become a critical tool in criminal investigations,
allowing investigators to link individuals to crime scenes and to exonerate innocent individuals
who may have been wrongly aceused. It has also been used to identify victims of natural disasters
and mass casualties, and to resolve paternity disputes.
Use of whey protein as food
Whey protein is atype of protein derived from cow's milk and is commonly
used as a food supplement. There are several uses of whey protein as food,
including:
Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts
to help build and repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise,
and increase overall muscle mass.

Weight L managenent: Whey protein can be used to help manage weight by

increasing satiety and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by
prescrving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been
shown to have various health benefits, including improved immune function,
lower blood pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a
drink or in a varicty of food products. It provides a quick and convenient source
of protein, making it a popular option for people with busy schedules or limited
access to fresh foods.
Whey protcin is available in a varicty of forms, including powders, bars, and
drinks. It is often added to smoothies, baked goods, and other food products to
increase the protein content. When using whey protein as food, it is important to
choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial swecteners, flavors, and
other additives.
1.4.2 Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents
Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are commonly used as
emulsifiers and surfactants in personal care products, such as shampoos, soaps, and lotions.
Industrial cleaning: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents in various industrial applications,
such as metal cleaning, degreasing, and stain removal.
Laundry detergents: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are used as ingredients in
laundry detergents to improve their cleaning and sudsing performance.
Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents for hard surfaces,
such as floors, countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
Lipids have several properties that make them suitable as cleaning agents, including their
ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils. Additionally, lipids can forn micelles, which are
tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt particles, making it casier to remove them.
However, it is important to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents
and that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is
needed to optimize the use of lipids as cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective
lipids for this purpose.

Examples of lipids used as cleaning agent

. Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction of an alkali with a fat or oil.
Soaps are made from various types of lipids, including animal fats and vegetable oils.
Fatty acids: Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in personal care
products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.
Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production and can be used as a cleaning agent in a
varñety of applications, including household cleaners and industrial cleaning solutions.
Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryi alcohol, can be used as cleaning agents in
personal care products and industrial cleaning solutions.
There are many other
These are a few
ro ps nat are usedforas cleaning agents.
ipids with different that can be used cleaning, depending on the specific
requirements of each application.
Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent
The working principle of lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on their ability to
dissolve grease and oils. Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing) and hydrophilic
(water-loving) regions, which allows them to surround grease and oils, effectively breaking them
down into smaller particles that can be more easily removed. This is why lipids are commonly
used in cleaning products such as soaps, shampoos, laundry detergents, and dishwashing liquids.
When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to asurface, the hydrophobic regions of the
regions interact with
lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the hy
combinntionac
water, allowing the mixturete rins away. The
to be insed lipid water also forms
which helne
an emulsion, to suspend and remove rt and debris.
In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering
capabilities, that can enhance their cleaning performance. For example, fatty alcohols can be used
as foaming agents in shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering properties. These additional
properties can help to loosen and remove dirt and debris, making the cleaning process more
effective.
Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors for the detection of
glucose levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine. The enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of
glucose to gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide (H;02), which can be easily detected and
quantificd by a transducer.

Sabstrate arbohydrte
chans
(Glucooe)

Products
Pavin adenne Duconolctone
dioudeotide FAD) and HO)
Figure: Schematic representation of GOx
In glucose biosensors, GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate, such as a polymeric
film, to ensure stability and specificity. The transducer in the biosensor can be an electrode, a
floorescence-based system, orother type of sensor. depending on the desired level of sensitivity
and specificity.

Advantages of Biosensors

Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can detect target analytes at low
concentrations, making them useful in applications that require precise quantification.
Specificity: Biosensors can be designed to specifically recognize a target analyte, which
minimizes interference from other substances in esample.
Rapid response time: Biosensors can provide results in real-time, making them useful in
situations where quick results are required.
Portability: Biosensors can be designed to be small and portable, making them useful in field
applications and remote locations.
Cost-eflectiveness: Biosensors can be manufactured at a low cost, making them an attractive
alternative more expensive analytical methods in some applications.

Limitations of Biosensors
" Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental conditions, such as temperature and
pH, which can lead to degradation of the biological recognition element and loss of
sensitivity.
Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other substances in the sample, which can
interfere with the performance of the biosensor.
Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration to ensure accuracy, which can
increase the time and cost associated with using the biosensor.
Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life, and the biological recognition element
may degrade over time, leading to decreased sensitivity and specificity.
Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture and use, requiring specialized
equipment and expertise to operate effectively.
Despite these limitations, biosensors have proven to be a valuable tool in various
industries and applications, and research is ongoing to improve their performance and reduce
limitations.