Chemical Bonding

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Chemical Bond
It is the force of attraction between two atoms which hold them together in a
compound or molecule.
The atoms in the resulting molecule are held together by chemical bonds.
Teligram/@padhleakshay
Noble gas electronic configuration can be achieved by
1. Transference of electrons
2. Mutual sharing of electrons
3. Donation of lone pair of electrons
Types of Bond

Ionic bond
YouTube/@padhleakshay
Covalent bond
Co-ordinate bond
Types of Bond Yaad
Metallic bond Kar lena
Hydrogen bond
van der Waal’s bond

Lewis Dot Structures

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Lewis dot structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a
molecule, as well as any lone pairs of electrons that may exist on those atoms.
In this diagram, the atomic symbol for each element is surrounded by dots,
representing the valence electrons (the electrons in the outermost shell).
The number of dots around an atom in a Lewis dot structure is equal to the
number of valence electrons for that atom.
*har ek Hydrogen ke
paas 2 valance electron
hote hai
Lewis structure of a water molecule
Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond that forms between atoms when one
atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom.
This results in the formation of two ions, one positively charged (cation) and
one negatively charged (anion).
The resulting attraction between the oppositely charged ions is what creates
the ionic bond.
Atoms are electrically neutral. Therefore, they possess an equal number of
protons and electrons. On losing an electron, an atom becomes positively
A A+ + e-
On the other hand, in case of atoms gaining the electron, the number of
electrons exceeds the number of protons and thus the atom becomes negatively
charged.
B + e- B-
Note : Electrovalency is the number of electrons lost or gained during
the formation of an ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
Electrovalency:
In an ionic bond, electrovalency is the number of electrons gained or lost by

an atom to form an ion.
For example : sodium chloride (nacl) mein, sodium (na) kee electrovalency +1
hotee hai kyonki yah positively charged ion (na+) banane ke lie ek electron kho
deta hai, jabaki chlorine(cl) kee electrovalency -1 hotee hai kyonki yah
negatively charged ion (cl-) banane ke lie ek electron gain karata hai .
Several factors govern the formation of ionic bonds between atoms,

including:
Electronegativity: The electronegativity of an atom determines how strongly it

attracts electrons. the atom with high electronegativity tends to take the
electron(s) from the atom with low electronegativity, leading to the formation
of an ionic bond.
Ionization energy:The amount of energy necessary to remove one electron

from the outermost shell of an isolated atom in gaseous phase and convert it
to a gaseous positive ion is known as ionisation enthalpy
Lattice energy: Lattice energy is the energy required to separate an

ionic solid into its individual ions. It is a measure of the strength of the teeno ke bare me ache se
padh lena
ionic bond. The stronger the ionic bond, the higher the lattice energy. very short me puch leta
hai
Characteristics of Ionic Compounds:
Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature
Ionic compounds are brittle
Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity when melted or dissolved in
water
Ionic compounds have a crystalline structure
Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water
Ionic compounds have high heats of formation
Overall, the characteristics of ionic compounds are a result of the strong

electrostatic forces between the positively and negatively charged ions that make
up the compound.
covelent bond
A covalent bond is a chemical bond between two atoms that involves the sharing
of a pair of electrons between the atoms.
This type of bond typically forms between two non-metal atoms that have
similar electronegativities, meaning they have similar abilities to attract
electrons.
The irregular spacing of electrons between the atoms causes a charge YouTube/@padhleakshay
difference in different parts of the atom. The molecule's one end is partially
positively charged, while the other end is partially negatively charged.
Example:
chlorine
Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
Valence bond theory was introduced by Heitler and London (1927) and developed
by Pauling and others.
It is based on the concept of atomic orbitals and the electronic configuration of the
atoms. Let two hydrogen atoms A and B having their nuclei NA and NB and
electrons present in them are eA and eB.
As these two atoms come closer new attractive and repulsive forces begin to operate.
1. The nucleus of one atom is attracted towards its own electron and the electron
of the other and vice versa.
2. Repulsive forces arise between the electrons of two atoms and nuclei of two
atoms. Attractive forces tend to bring the two atoms closer whereas repulsive
forces tend to push them apart.
Applications of Valence bond theory:
Valence bond theory in chemistry explores the characteristics of a chemical

bond in a molecule from the perspective of atomic valencies.
This concept is applied to the production of covalent bonds in a broad

range of substances.
Ans ke saath isko
bhi bana dena
pura no. mil jaye
ga
Orbital overlap concept

If we refer to the minimum energy state in the formation of hydrogen molecule

the two H-atoms are enough near so as to allow their atomic orbitals to undergo
partial interpenetration.
This partial interpenetration of atomic orbitals is called overlapping of

atomic orbitals.
The overlap between the atomic orbitals can be positive, negative or zero
depending upon the characteristics of the orbitals participating to overlap.
Types of overlapping
The covalent bonds can be classified into two different categories depending
upon the type of overlapping. These are:
Sigma (σ) bond
This type of covalent bond is formed by the axial overlapping of half-

filled atomic orbitals.
The atomic orbitals overlap along the internuclear axis and involve end to
end or head on overlap.
There can be three type of axial overlap among s and p-orbitals as discussed
below:
s-s overlap : In this case, there is overlap of two half-filled s-orbitals along the
internuclear axis as shown below.
s-p overlapping : It involves the overlapping of half filled s-orbitals of one

atom with the half filled p-orbitals of the other atom. The bond thus
formed is called s-p sigma bond.
p-p overlapping : It involves the co-axial overlapping between half filled p-

orbitals of one atom with half filled p-orbitals of the other atom. The bond
as formed is called p-p sigma bond.
half filled ki baat ki gayi hai
pi (π) bond

This type of covalent bond is formed when the atomic orbitals overlap in
such a way that their axis remain parallel to each other and perpendicular
to the internuclear axis.
The orbitals formed due to sidewise overlapping consists of two saucer type
charged clouds above and below the plane of the participating atoms.
The electrons involved in the π bond formation are called pi-electrons
Bond Parameters:
Bond length: The equilibrium distance between the centres of the nuclei
of the two bonded atoms is called its bond length.
Bond energy: The amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds of
a particular type so as to separate them into gaseous atoms is called bond
dissociation enthalpy or simply bond enthalpy.
Bond order: In the Lewis representation of a molecule or ion, the number of
bonds present between two atoms is called bond order.
Hybridisation

Hybridisation is the process of intermixing of the orbitals of slightly different

energies so as to redistribute their energies, resulting in the formation of new set
of orbitals of equivalent energies and shape.
The atomic orbitals combine to form new set of equivalent orbitals known as
hybrid orbitals
Salient Features of Hybridisation

Only orbitals with comparable energies and belonging to the same atom
or ion can be hybridised.
The number of hybrid orbitals created equals the total number of atomic
orbitals combined.
Hybridization does not require the participation of all half-filled orbitals.
Hybridisation does not happen in isolated atoms; it only happens when bonds
are formed.
Important conditions for hybridisation

The orbitals present in the valence shell of the atom are hybridised.
The orbitals taking part in hybridisation must have only a small difference of
energies
.
Promotion of electron is not essential condition prior to hybridisation.
Types of hybridisation
sp-hybridisation

In this hybridisation one s and one p orbitals hybridise to produce two

equivalent hybrid orbitals, known as sp hybrid orbitals.
The two sp-hybrid orbitals are oriented in a straight line making an angle
of 180° and therefore the molecule possesses linear geometry.
Each of hybrid orbitals has 50% s-character and 50% p-character.
Example of molecules having sp-hybridisation are BeF2, BeCl2, BeH2 etc.
sp2-hybridisation
In this hybridisation one s and one 2p orbitals hybridise to produce three
equivalent hybrid orbitals, known as sp2 hybrid orbitals.
sp2 hybrid orbitals are larger in size than sp-hybrid orbitals but slightly smaller
than that of sp3 hybrid orbitals.
Each sp2 hybrid orbitals has 1/3 (or 33.33%) s-character and 2/3 (or 66.7%)
p-character. Example, BF3, BCl3, BH3 etc.
sp3-hybridisation

In this hybridisation one s and three p-orbitals intermix to form sp3

hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy and identical shape.
These four sp3 hybrid orbitals are directed towards the four corners of a
tetrahedron separated by an angle of 109° 28'. sp3 hybrid orbitals have 1/4
(or 25%) s-character and 3/4 (or 75%) p-character. Example, CH4, NH3etc.
sp3d-hybridisation
This type of hybridisation involves mixing of one s, three p and one d-orbitals
to form five sp3d hybridised orbitals which adopt trigonal bipyramidal.
Formation of PCl5 : The ground state electronic configuration of phosphorus is
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3. Under the conditions of bond formation the 3s-electrons get
unpaired and one of the electron is promoted to vacant 3dz2 orbital. The
ground state and excited state configurations of phosphorus are shown below :
sp3d2-hybridisation

In this type of hybridisation one s, three p and two d-orbitals

undergo intermixing to form six identical sp3d2 hybrid orbitals.
These six orbitals are directed towards the corners of an octahedron and lie
in space at an angle of 90° to one another.
Formation of SF6 : The ground state outer configuration of 16S is 3s2 3p4. In the
excited state the electron pairs in 3s and 3px orbitals get unpaired and one out of
each pair is promoted to vacant 3dz2 and 3dx2-y2 orbitals. The ground state and
excited state configuration of 16S are given as follows:
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used to predict
the shapes of molecules based on the arrangement of atoms and electrons
around the central atom.
The theory is based on the principle that electrons in a molecule repel each
other and will try to position themselves as far apart as possible.
The VSEPR theory is based on the following postulates:
The valence electrons of an atom repel each other and try to get as far
away from each other as possible.
The shape of a molecule is determined by the number of electron pairs (bonding
and nonbonding) surrounding the central atom.
The bond angles between the electron pairs are determined by the repulsion
between the electron pairs.
The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs placed at
maximum distance.
Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)
*bahut imp topic hai tho
acche se padhna
Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) is a model used to describe the electronic
structure of molecules.
The theory is based on the idea that the electrons in a molecule are not confined
to individual atoms, but instead occupy molecular orbitals that span the entire
molecule.
These molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals
from the individual atoms in the molecule.
Important features of M.O.T:
Molecular orbitals exist around the nuclei of molecules, just as atomic orbitals
exist around the nucleus of an atom.
The molecular orbitals are not the same as the atomic orbitals from which they
are created.
In the molecular orbital, the constituent atoms' valence electrons are thought to
be moving under the effect of the nuclei of participating atoms.
Like atomic orbitals in an isolated atom, molecule orbitals have varying energy
levels.
The shape of molecular orbitals is determined by the forms of the atomic

orbitals that they are created from.
Resonance

When a compound has same molecular formula but different structural
formulas and structures differ with respect to electrons only.
These structures are known as resonating structures or canonical

structures. None of these structures can explain all the properties of
that compound. This phenomenon is known as resonance
Hydrogen Bonding
H H
When highly electronegative elements like nitrogen, oxygen, flourine are attached
to hydrogen to form covalent bond, the electrons of the covalent bond are
shifted towards the more electronegative atom
Thus, partial positive charge develops on hydrogen atom which forms a bond
with the other electronegative atom.
This bond is known as hydrogen bond and it is weaker than the covalent bond.
Types of Hydrogen Bonding

Intermolecular hydrogen bonding : It is a type of hydrogen bonding between

two similar or dissimilar molecules.
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding : It is a type of hydrogen bonding within the
molecule. Example : Salicylaldehyde, O-nitrophenol etc.
Applications of Hydrogen Bonding
Water and ice formation: Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in the formation
of water and ice.
Protein folding: Hydrogen bonding plays a significant role in the folding of

proteins.
Solubility : Only those covalent molecules are soluble in water which have
tendency to form intermolecular hydrogen bonding with water molecules.
Boiling point : Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point

of compound. For example, NH3 has higher boiling point than PH3. This is
because, there is intermolecular hydrogen bonding in NH3 but not in PH3.
Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that occurs in metals and metal
alloys.
It is a type of bonding that arises from the sharing of free electrons among a
lattice of positively charged metal ions.
Here are some key characteristics of metallic bonding:
Delocalized electrons: In metallic bonding, the valence electrons of metal atoms

become delocalized and move freely throughout the metal lattice, allowing for
good electrical conductivity.
Electron sea model: The "electron sea" model describes metallic bonding as a sea

of valence electrons surrounding a lattice of positive metal ions.
Conductivity: The presence of free electrons in metallic bonding allows for good
electrical conductivity.
Important Questions
Ques:Explain the non linear shape of H S2 and non planar shape of PCl 3 YouTube/@padhleakshay
using valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
In the Lewis structure of PCl3 , the phosphorus atom is surrounded by three bond
pairs (chlorine atoms) and one lone pair. These four electron pairs are arranged in a
tetrahedral geometry around the central phosphorus atom.
Due to the presence of lone pair of electron on the phosphorus atom, PCl3
will have a distorted tetrahedral geometry.
Thus, it will form a pyramidal shape and is non-linear in structure.
In HS2 , the central sulphur atom is surrounded by two bond pairs and two lone
pairs of electrons. It can be said that these four electron pairs are arranged in a
tetrahedral geometry. Due to the presence of two lone pairs on the central sulphur
atom, the lone pair-bond pair repulsion happens and due to this the molecule HS2
has a V-shaped geometry and is non-linear in structure.
Ques:Explain the shape of BrF5 .
In BrF5 the central bromine atom has 7 valence electrons. It makes five bonds
with the fluorine atom and one lone pair of electron is left. Due to the lone pair-
bond pair repulsions, BrF5 makes a structure of square pyramidal geometry. Due
to the distortion of fluorine ions, each fluorine ion makes an angle of 90 .
Ques:Explain why PCl5 is trigonal bipyramidal whereas 5 IF is square pyramidal.
In the structure of PCl5 , phosphorus atoms forms five bonds with the chloride ion.
Phosphorus has 5 valence shell electrons and it uses them to form five bonds with
chlorine by sharing its electron from 3s and 3d orbitals.
Hence, the hybridisation of PCl5 will be 3 sp d . Due to the absence of lone pair of
electrons on the phosphorus atom, the chloride ions are arranged in such a way
that three bond pairs are attached at equatorial position and two bonds are
attached at axial position. Thus making a trigonal bipyramidal geometry.
In the structure of 5 IF , there are 7 electrons in the valence shell of iodine. Out of
the 7 electrons, iodine shares 5 to make bonds with the five fluoride ions. Two
electrons are left which forms one lone pair on the iodine atom. Due to the
presence of a lone pair on an iodine atom, the bond pairs are arranged in such a
manner that they form an angle of 90 . Thus, forming a square pyramidal shape.
Thus, the hybridisation of 5 IF is 3 2 sp d .
Ques:In both water and dimethyl ether, oxygen atom is central atom, and has the
same hybridisation, yet they have different bond angles. Which one has greater
bond angle? Give reason
Although the hybridisation of the central atom oxygen in both the molecules is 3 sp
but dimethyl ether will have a higher bond angle than water molecule.
Due to the presence of two bulky methyl groups in dimethyl ether, the repulsive
forces will be greater in them than the two hydrogens in water molecules. In
dimethyl ether the -CH3 is a group attached to three hydrogen atom through σ
bonds. Thus, the C- H bond pairs increase the electron density on the carbon atom
which results in lone pair-bond pair repulsions. Due to this lone pair-bond pair
repulsions, the bond angle of dimethyl ether is greater than that of water
molecules
Ques:Arrange the following bonds in order of increasing ionic character giving

reason N-H, F-H, C-H and O-H
The ionic character in a molecular species is decided by the electronegativity
difference between the two bonded atoms. Greater the electronegativity
difference between two bonded pairs, the greater will be the ionic character.
The electronegativity difference of the given species is:
C - F = (2.5 - 2.1) = 0.4

N - H = (3.0 - 2.1) = 0.9
O - H = (3.5 - 2.1) = 1.4
F - H = (4.0 - 2.1) = 1.9
According to the above given difference in the electronegativities, the order of

increasing ionic character is:
C - H <N - H <O - H< F - H
* after studying from this

notes
NOTE : Worksheet (Important questions of all typology with answers)

is provided as a seperate PDF on website padhleakshay.com

Chemical Bonding

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van der Waal’s bond

Note : Electrovalency is the number of electrons lost or gained during

In an ionic bond, electrovalency is the number of electrons gained or lost by

Several factors govern the formation of ionic bonds between atoms,

Electronegativity: The electronegativity of an atom determines how strongly it

Ionization energy:The amount of energy necessary to remove one electron

Lattice energy: Lattice energy is the energy required to separate an

Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature

Ionic compounds have a crystalline structure

Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water

Ionic compounds have high heats of formation

Overall, the characteristics of ionic compounds are a result of the strong

Valence Bond Theory (VBT)

Applications of Valence bond theory:

Valence bond theory in chemistry explores the characteristics of a chemical

This concept is applied to the production of covalent bonds in a broad

If we refer to the minimum energy state in the formation of hydrogen molecule

This partial interpenetration of atomic orbitals is called overlapping of

Sigma (σ) bond

This type of covalent bond is formed by the axial overlapping of half-

s-p overlapping : It involves the overlapping of half filled s-orbitals of one

p-p overlapping : It involves the co-axial overlapping between half filled p-

The electrons involved in the π bond formation are called pi-electrons

Hybridisation is the process of intermixing of the orbitals of slightly different

Salient Features of Hybridisation

Hybridization does not require the participation of all half-filled orbitals.

In this hybridisation one s and one p orbitals hybridise to produce two

Each of hybrid orbitals has 50% s-character and 50% p-character.

Example of molecules having sp-hybridisation are BeF2, BeCl2, BeH2 etc.

In this hybridisation one s and three p-orbitals intermix to form sp3

In this type of hybridisation one s, three p and two d-orbitals

The VSEPR theory is based on the following postulates:

The shape of molecular orbitals is determined by the forms of the atomic

When a compound has same molecular formula but different structural

These structures are known as resonating structures or canonical

Types of Hydrogen Bonding

Intermolecular hydrogen bonding : It is a type of hydrogen bonding between

Protein folding: Hydrogen bonding plays a significant role in the folding of

Boiling point : Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point

Here are some key characteristics of metallic bonding:

Delocalized electrons: In metallic bonding, the valence electrons of metal atoms

of valence electrons surrounding a lattice of positive metal ions.

Ques:Explain why PCl5 is trigonal bipyramidal whereas 5 IF is square pyramidal.

Ques:Arrange the following bonds in order of increasing ionic character giving

The electronegativity difference of the given species is:

C - F = (2.5 - 2.1) = 0.4

According to the above given difference in the electronegativities, the order of

* after studying from this

NOTE : Worksheet (Important questions of all typology with answers)

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