“enaprar 1Sqay DIGESTIVE TRACT (ORAL CAVITY) It has a core & three surfaces{ (1) Cutaneous surface (2) Red area (3) Oral surface + # Core is formed by skeletal muscle embedded in fibroelastic connective tissue. | Cutaneous Surface Covered by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium like ordinary skin © Contains hair follicle, sebaceous glands & sweat glands. [Red Area * Covered by non - keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with a thick stratum lucidum. There are numerous tall, highly vascular dermal papillae invaginating, in epidermis giving it a red appearance ¢ There are no hair follicles, sweat or sebaceous glands [Oral Surface * Covered by non - keratinized stratified squamous epithelium similar to oral mucosa + Small groups of mucous glands (labial salivary glands) are embedded in lamina propria. * Cheeks ¢ Substance is formed by skeletal muscles & fibroelastic tissue ‘Scanned with CamScannerSoft Palate + Tongue is a mass of skeletal muscle covered by mucous membrane + Muscle fibres ( on the basis of their direction ) are classified into: | ¢ Epithelium is stratified squamous variety, ernally it is lined by ordinary skin with hair follicles sweat & sebaceous slang a : s sa ie, non ~ keratinized stratified sqys' it is lined by oral muc ¢ Internally Ys epithelium i glands. ¢ Sub - mucosa contains numerous small mucous & mixed g] ¢ Consists of oral mucosa, sub - mucosa & palatine bone ¢ At periphery & midline mucosa is directly attached to the bone i.e. no sub ~ MUucosy present Sub - mucosa in posterior part of hard palate contains many mucous glands & in anterior part contains adipose tissue. ¢ Substance or core is formed by skeletal muscle ¢ Inferior or oral surface is lined by non - keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Superior or pharyngeal surface is lined by pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium . ¢ Lamina propria contains mucous glands on oral surface & mixed on pharyngeal surface. (i) Longitudinal ii) Transverse (iii) Vertical cornified on dorsal & non - cornified 0" ventral surface Dorsal surface is rough & irregular & can be divided into anterior 2/3 & posteriot 1/3 by a V - shaped sulcus terminalis ‘Scanned with CamScanner¢ Posterior 1/3 is irregular nodular b/c it lodges lymphoid nodules & constitute lingual tonsil + Roughness of anterior 2/3 of dorsal surface is due to presence of lingual papillae (small projection which are formed by a central core of connective tissue coverd by a layer of stratified squamous epithelium ) + These papillae are classified into: (j) Filiform papillae (ii) Fungiform papillae (ii) Circumvallate papillae Filiform Papillae * Most numerous @ Smallest @ Present over the entire dorsal surface ¢ Contain no taste buds Fungiform Papillae * Scattered singly among the filfiform papillae ¢ More abundant in the region of tip @ Shaped like a mushroom ¢ Taste buds are present on the dorsal surface Circumvallate Papillae * Only 8 to 12 in number ¢ Located just anterior & parallel to V - shaped sulcus terminalis + Itis large, rounded & surrounded by a deep trench + No taste buds are present on it. ‘Scanned with CamScanner9 @EaPrER 18@) 9, DIGESTIVE TRACT (TUBULAR STRUCTURES) General Structure of Tubular Organs Almost all the tubular structures of the GIT have more or less the following four principle layers. (1) Mucosa (2) Sub - mucosa (3) Muscularis externa (4) Adventitia / Serosa Mucosa + Consists of following three layers: + Epithelial layer (different types in different regions) + Lamina propria (contains fine, cellular type of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymph vessels & lymphoid tissue) ¢ Muscularis mucosa (a thin layer of longitudinally arranged smooth muscles) [Sub-Mucosa ¢ Composed of coarse areolar connective tissue ¢ Contains plexus of blood vessels & nerves ¢ Nerve plexus in submucosa is called sub - mucosal plexus or Meissner’s plexus. [Muscalaris Externa * Also called muscularis * Comprises of two layers of smooth muscles with varying degrees of thickness except the upper 1/3 of esophagus & external anal sphincter where there is skeletal muscle Inner layer is circularly arranged & outer is longitudinal ‘Scanned with CamScanner/w the two layers plexus is found b sus or Auerbach’s plexus. ¢ Vascular & nerve « called as myenteric ple @ Nerve plexus is [Adventitia / Serosa 4 It is the outer most coat, blood vessels & lymph vessels 4 Where adventitia is covered with peritoneum consists of loose connective tissue rich in ¢ (simple squamous epithetiu. termed as serosa Esophagus y All four layers are present. | Mucosa « Epithelium ——> non- keratinized contain mucus secreting glands in upper & lower stratified squamous epithelium ¢ Lamina propira —> esophagus & they are termed as cardiac glands 4 Muscularis mucosa —> thickest in esophagus. |__Sub - Mucosa Contain mucus secreting branched alveolar glands as esophageal glands. | Muscularis Externa Skeletal muscles in upper 1/3" + Both smooth é skeletal muscle in middle 1/3 ¢ Smooth muscles only in lower 1/3" ‘ ‘Arrangement is same as anywhere else in gut ie. inner circular & out ii Jer long | Adventitia / Serosa » Adventitia is present as an outer coat in cervical & thoracic parts of esophag® + It becomes serosa in abdominal esophagus Mucosa Mucosa is thrown into numerous longitudinal folds termed as rugae _ ‘Scanned with CamScanner¢ Epithelium —> — simple columnar epithelium ina propria —» A ¢ Lamina propria Abundant no, of glands which are discussed later Muscularis Mucosa —> a Wis very thin & arranged in inner circular & outer longitudinal layer [sub -_Mucosa > Contains loosely arranged coarse connective tissue ¢ No glands are present in sub - mucosa of stomach |Muscularis Externa Here it comprises of three layers of smooth muscle: © Inner oblique « Middle circular & * Outer longitudinal |Serosa It is a thin layer of connective tissue covered by peritoneum. | Mucosa Mucosa has numerous small finger like projections called as intestinal villi, + These villi consist of epithelium & a core of lamina propria which contains an arteriole, a venule & a lacteal (lymph capillary) ¢ These villi are leaf shaped in duodenum, cylindrical in jejunum & club shaped in ileum ¢ Epithelium ——> simple columnar variety consisting of two types of cells (i) columnar absorptive cells (ii) goblet cells 4 Lamina propria >» contains simple tubular glands called intestinal glands. Aggregates of lymphoid follicles are also present in lamina propria of ileum & they are called as peyer’s patches * Muscularis mucosae —> thin layers, running mainly in longitudinal direction. [Sub - Mucosa ¢ Contain simple branched tubular glands in the proximal part of the duodenum only ‘Scanned with CamScanner7 ¢ These glands are termed as Brunner’s glands Muscularis Externa * Usual arrangement like anywhere else in the gut Adventitia / Serosa * Serosa —» present over whole small intestine * Adventitia —» present over the posterior surface of duodenum. ithelium —» — simple columnar with both columnar absorptive cells & ‘goblet cells * Lamina propria —+ Intestinal glands more numerous than small intestine, Sub - Mucosa ¢ Same as that of small intestine Muscularis Externa * Outer longitudinal muscle layer is not a continous layer, it is present in form of three bands called tenia coli ¢ In rectum outer longitudinal layer becomes a continous layer Serosa / Adventitia ¢ Serosa is present every where except the posterior surfaces of ascending colon, descending colon & rectum. Appendix Thick walled organ with a relatively narrow lumen, [Mucosa ¢ Epithelium —+ simple columnar with columnar absorptive cells only ati ¢ Lamina propria —» fewer intestinal glands, relatively shorter, large ly™P”™ nodules are present in lamina propria extending into the sub - mucosa _ ‘Scanned with CamScanner—_— EE SE 0 Eo + Muscularis Mucosae —» It is an incomplete layer b/c of extension of lymphatic nodules from lamina propria to submucosa thru this layer |Muscularis Externa ¢ Inner circular layer + Outer longitudinal layer ( complete ) ¢ No Tenia coli are present. | Serosa/ Adventitia Appendix is covered by serosa. Anal Canal [Mucosa ¢ It shows a number of longitudinal folds which are called as anal columns of morgagni 4 Depression b/w anal folds are called anal sinuses ¢ Transverse mucosal folds join the lower ends of there columns & are called as anal valves ¢ Epithelium ——>above anal valves is simple columnar below anal valves it is non - keratinized stratified squamous * Lamina propria——> Intestinal crypts are present above the level of anal valves ¢ Mucularis mucosae —» _ becomes very thin & indistinct. Sub - Mucosa ¢ Simple branched tubular glands are present under anal sinuses * Thin walled longitudinal veins are present under anal columns ( responsible for piles ) Muscularis Externa ¢ Thick inner circular layer constitutes internal anal sphincter + This is surrounded by longitudinal layer of smooth muscle + External anal sphincter is fornted by skeletal muscle ‘Scanned with CamScanner| Classification Alc to Site (1) Gaste (2) Cant (3) Pyleric glands ——> | i sresent in fundus & body ofstomach or fundie glands kands ——p Pres aped area around cardia s > located in a narrow ring cated in antrum & pyloric canal [Gastric Glands ¢ Simple branched tubular glands ¢ Gland comprises of three regions viz :- Isthmus, neck & base + Three types of cells can be identified on H & E stain viz mucous neck cells, Pati or oxyntic cells & zymogenic or chief cells. ¢ Mucous neck cells , © Located in the neck region of gastric gland Pyramidal or columnar in shape with oval basal nuclie ¢ Produce acidic mucus ¢ Parietal or oxyntic cells ¢ Present in isthmus & neck regions « Pyramidal or spherical cells with central, rounded nucleus * Cytoplasm stains intensely eosinophilic ¢ Produce HCL & intrinsic factor ¢ Zymogenic or chief cells * Present in bases of gastric glands «Pyramidal cells with spherical nucleus lying towards the base of the cell * Apical region contains acidophilic secretory granules * Produce pepsinogen. Cardiac Glands Simple branched tubular glands with a relatively wide lumen * Structurally these glands resembles those found in| lamina ia & lowe 1/srd of esophagus mina propria of upper These glands are lined by mucus secreting cells * Produce mucus & lysozyme. Pyloric Glands ——“ ¢ Simple branched tubular glands ‘Scanned with CamScanner_ ¢ These glands are short but very tortous, + Lined by mucus secreting cells ¢ Produce mucus Intestinal Glands ¢ Also known as intestinal crypts or crypts of leiburkuhn ¢ Simple tubular glands, opening are present b/w bases of intestinal villi ¢ Lining is same as that of intestinal villi i.e. simple columnar epithelium with both columnar absorptive & goblet cells ¢ Inaddition entero - endocrine cells & paneth cells are also present ¢ Entero - endocrine cells are responsible for secretion of secretin, cholecystokinin & somatostatin + Paneth cells secrete lysozyme é& regulate microbial flora of intestine. ‘Scanned with CamScannerFEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM FRS consists of: (1) Sex glands > Ovaries (2) Genital ducts — Uterine tubes + uterus + vagina (3) External genitalia + Mons Pubis + labia majora + labia minora + clitoris [ Ovary. (1) Exocrine function > production of ova (2) Endocrine function — estrogen + progesterone production (3) Surface of ovary - germinal (cuboidal) epithelium (4) In section + 2 zones (a) Outer + Cortex > CT + ovarian follicles (b) Inner - Medulla — CT + blood V + lymphatics + nerves Ovarian Follicles * Composed of oocyte surrounded by epithelial (follicular) cells + 3 types (1) Primordial Follicle = Primary oocyte + follicular cells. (a) Female child has only primordial follicles. (b) 1° oocyte is arrested in prophase (diplotine) stage of meotic I division. (2) Growing Follicle = | (@) Primary Follicle (oocyte + single layer of follicular cells) (b) Pre-Antral Follicle (oocyte + multi layers of follicular cells) (c) Antral (Secondary) Follicle (oocyte + granulosa cells + antrum) (3) Mature / Graffin follicle . (a) Composed of secondary oocyte + zona pellucida + granulosa cells + antrum + theca interna + theca externa. * Primordial follicle (1° oocyte) -> primary follicle (1° oocyte) — secondary follicle (2° oocyte) * Granulosa cells + secrete estrogen ‘Scanned with CamScanner19 | a * Thea interna — secrete androgens * With the onset of puberty, the primordial follictes begin to Brow influence of gonadotrophic hormones (FSH+LH) * Paring each menstrual cycle, a number of follicles in both vari Progressive development. Normally only one growing follicle becom. mes F and ovulates at mid-cycle, All other follicles undergo a degenerative Prog Atresia. * Cortex of Adult Ovary shows: (1) Primordial follicle + growing follicle + Graffian follicle (all ty (1) End product of follicles (corpora lutea + atretic follicle + corp Corpus Luteum * After ovulation, the Tuptured follicle transforms into a corpus luteum (yellow body). Yellow colour due to lutein pigment in the cells, PES Of folic ora abicantiy glandular Structure Cally * Granulosa cells — Converts to granulosa lutein cells, Theca cells - converts to theca lutein cells, If the ovum is not fertilized, t] ovulation. he corpus luteum undergo degeneration After 9 days cg If fertilization takes place — corpus luteum persists for 6 months and then gradual declines over the remaining period of Pregnancy, Fallopian / Uterine Tubes (Oviducts) Conduct ova from ovary to the uterus * Wall composed of: (1) Mucosa (a) Thrown into folds (b) Simple Ciliated Columnar Epithelium (©) Lamina propria ~ richly cellular Gy (2) Muscularis (= smooth muscles) (a) Inner ~ circular layer (b) Outer — longitudinal layer (3) Serosa (a) Visceral layer of peritoneum (mesothelium = simple squamous E.) a ‘Scanned with CamScannerl uterus: Consist oft (1) Fundus ~ rounded upper end of the body (2) Body - upper expended portion (3) Cervix ~ lower narrow portion « 3layer: (1) Outer > Perimetrium (pelvic peritoneal layer) (2) Middle + Myometrium (composed of 3 layers of smooth muscles). (a) Stratum supravasculare - longitudinal (b) Stratum vasculare = circular (©) Stratum subvasculare - longitudinal (3) Inner + Endometrium (composed of) (a) Epithelium —> simple columnar epithelium (b) Lamina propria — CT + blood vessels (c) Uterine glands — secrete glycogen + mucus during secretory phase of menstrual cycle. Blood Supply Of Uterus Uterus is supplied by (1) 2 uterine arteries. Uterine Cervix Bulk of wall is formed by circular smooth muscle + Outer (vaginal) surface is covered by stratified squamous epithelium * Cervical canal (1) Upper 2/3 -> lined by simple columnar epithelium (2) Lower 1/3 — lined by stratified squamous epithelium [Vagina * Composed of 3 layers: (1) Mucosa (a) Transverse folds (negae) (b) Epithelium — stratified squamous epith () Lamina propria -> CT + blood vessels. (2) Muscularis (= smooth muscles) ‘Scanned with CamScanner(a) Inner > cireular layer (b) Outer — longitudinal layer (c) At lower end of vagina > bulbospongiosus (skeletal) muscle ( form sph; at introitus) Phi (3) Adventitia > CT + BV + Nerves CT=connective tissue BV= blood vessels ‘Scanned with CamScannerCurerer 15 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM TE ene MRS consists of: (1) Sex glands - testis (2) Genital ducts (3) Accessory sex glands (4) Penis [Testis Exocrine function > production of sperns Endocrine function — testosterone production Each testis is covered by a thick capsule — tunica albuginea Posteriorly tunica albuginea — projects into the testis + mediastinum testis > septa (septula testis) radiate from the mediastinum to the capsule Each testis has: (1) 200 - 300 pyramidal lobules — each lobule has 2 - 3 seminiferous tubules (2) Interlobular CT > interstitium [(A) Seminiferous Tubules Each 50cm long starts with blind end but anastomosis with neighbouring rubules At the apex of lobules — become straight (tubuli recti) + rete ae > efferent ductules > duct of epididymis [ Seminiferous Epithelium Composed of: (1) Germ cells / spermatogenic cells * 4-5 concentric layers (from base — apex) of cells: (a) Spermatogenia (type A + type B) (b) Primary spermatocytes (c) Secondary spermatocytes ‘Scanned with CamScannerEE i en (d) Spermatids (2) Sertoli / Sustentacular / supporting cells * Tall columnar cells Cytoplasm = lipid droplets + glycon Function as: igen + spindle shaped cr “ ¥stalloig () Support, protection and nutritional regul. ation of devey i Spermatozoa (6) Secretion — fluid used for sperm transport (c) Phagocytosis (@) Anti - mullerian hormone -> during fetal life Spermatozoa (Sperm) Mature sperm has: (1) Head (a) Condensed nucleus | (b) Acrosomal cap (golgi apparatus) (©) Contains hydrolytic enzymes | (2) Neck (a) Proximal centriole (b) Longitudinal fibers (3) Tail (a) Core has ~» axoneme ( ~ anterior to nucleus (axial filament = like flagellum) © 2central singlet microtubules © 9 peripheral doublets (b) 3 parts: (i) Middle Piece: + Mitochondrial sheath (periphery) * Axoneme (cium with 9 + 2 arrangement) + Nine outer dense fibers (ii) Principle Piece: ¢ No mitochondrial sheath | + Fibrous sheath * Axoneme * 7 outer dense fibers (iii) End Piece: teeters Le ‘Scanned with CamScanner+ Axoneme (cilia with 9 + 2 arrangement) [(B) Intertitium « Composed of CT + + BV + LV + nerves + Interstitial cells of Leydig at puberty (1) Arranged in groups around blood vessels (2) Rich in lipid droplets (3) Rod - shaped crystalloids of Reinke (4) Secrete testosterone | Male Genital Ducts Vasa recta / tubule recti (simple cuboidal E) — rete testis (simple cuboidal E) > vasa efferentia (simple columnar E) — epididymus (simple columnar E) > ductus / vas deferens (stratified columnar E) — seminal vesicle (pseudostratified E) — prostate (pseudostratified) — urethra (pseudostratified + transitional + stratified squamous E) [Vas / Ductus Defference (4) Mucosa — longitudinal folds — star shaped lumen (a) Stratified columnar E (b) Lamina propria (2) Muscularis (=SM) (a) Inner — longitudinal (b) Middle = circular (c) Outer > longitudinal | Prostatic Gland * Prostate is a collection of 30 directly into prostatic urethra ~ 50 compound tubuloalveolar glands -> ducts open © 3 zones of glands: 7 (1) Mucosal glands undergo hypertrophy > 45 yr (BPH) (2) Submucosal glands undergo hypertrophy > 45 yr (3) Principal glands > Carcinoma arises from these. * Prostate is enclosed in a CT capsule ‘Scanned with CamScanner© Stroma -» CT + smooth muscle * Parenchyma — secretory alveoli + tubules (1) Lined by simple columnar / cuboidal E (2) Prostatic concretions / corpora amylacea > condensations of Secretory + concentric layers Semen © S.Fluid + sperms * Sperm count 2000 - 600 million / ejaculate Penis * 3 cylindrical masses of erectile tissue: (1) 2 corpora cavernosa > on dorsal side (2) 1 corpus spongiosum — around urethra * Corpora cavernosa +> surrounded by capsule (tunica albuginea) and b/w 2 co) cavernosa ~ pectinate septum * Corpus spongiosum — also surrounded by CT capsule ‘Scanned with CamScannerURINARY SYSTEM ————— ystem consists of: Urinary (1) Kidneys \ (2) Ureters G3) Urinary bladder (4) Urethra | Kidneys + Kidneys are enclosed in CT capsule * Oncut section — 2 parts (1) Outer — cortex (granular + dit renal corpuscles, PCT, DCT) (2) Inner -> medulla (striated + dit parallel blood vessels, loop of Henle) (3) Cortical substance into modulla — renal columns (of Bertin) (4) Medullary substance into cortex + medullary rays (collecting tubules) (5) Medulla is composed of: (a) 8 - 18 pyramids (conical masses) base towards cortex, tip (papilla) towards pelvis. (b) Each pyramid is a ‘lobe of kidney’ «© Parerichynia of kidney is composed of: (1) Uriniferous (renal) tubules * Stroma composed of —> interstitial connective tissue, BV (A) Renal (Uriniferous) Tubules Two parts (1) Nephron — derived from metanephric blastema (2) Collecting tubule > derived from ureteric bud (A) NEPHRON Composed of: (1) Bowmans's Capsule ‘Scanned with CamScanner‘sation > glomerulus (t . occ ee Pilg : . ide capsule © Two layers: anh ae yer > simple squamous epithelium (a) Outer / parietal la mpl (b) Inner / visceral layer > epithelial (podocyte ) cells (©) Capsular / urinary space > b/w two layers © Renal Corpuscle (= Glomerulus + Bowman's capsule) {@) Glomerulus composed of: + Afferent arteriole > entering the glomerulus «© Bfferent arteriole + leaving the glomerulus «Tutt of capillaries ° Mesangium (extracellular matrix) + mesangial cells (b) Bowman's capsule (2) PCT (Promal Convulated Tubules) Proximal © Longest and most tortous part of renal tubule + Columnar epithelial cells: (a) Striated (brush) border - microvilli (b) Basal striations + basal infolding + + mitochondria (c) Lateral interdigitations -> on E/M (@) Stains deeply (c) Central spherical nucleus (®) Large cells — less number (3 - 5) of cells (8 nuclei) under L/M (3) Loop of Henle + Composed of: (a) Thick descending segment (= PST = proximal straight tubule) * Similar to PCT (b) Thin descending segment * Simple squamous ({lat) cells (©) Thin ascending segment + Simple squamous cells (@) Thick ascending se; = gment (= DST = di : ee istal straight segment) * Two Typ. es of NEPHRONS: (a) Cortical nephrons + short loop of henle ‘Scanned with CamScannerel; — —_—_———————___§_- "Un, lls (8) Juxtaglomerular nephorns — long loop of henle (at cortico - medullary junction) (4) Distal Convulated Tubules (DCT) tle) + Tortous, less numerous than PCT + Simple cuboidal epithelium : (a) No brush border (b) Basal striations + basal membrane infolding + no. of mitochondria (c) Stains faintly ‘Lcgys (8) Collecting Tubules / Ducts « Are not part of nephron « Are excretory ducts «Lies in medullary rays «Lined by simple cuboidal cells «No brush border / No basal striations «Open into large [papillary ducts (of Bellini) +> open into apex of renal papillae ria Juxtaglomerular Complex / Appratus (JG Appratus) * Lies at vascular pole of renal corpuscle + Composed of: (1) Macular densa > DCT (2) JG cells > modified muscle cells of afferent arteriole, ) under L/ (3) Mesangial (Lacis) cells -> in b/w afferent and efferent vessels « Macula densa (DCT) — senses osmolarity of fluid in DCT — causes release of renin from JG cells : ight tbl 56 ces (emooth muscle cells afferent art) -> senses J BP > release of renin. «+ Mesangial (lacis) cells > receptors for angioleusin Il, atrial natriuretic peptide Filtration Barrier © Compose of: (1) Capillary endothelium > fenestrated (2) Basal lamina > common for endothial cells + podocytes - bears “-ve" charge > seg dlt heparin sulphate (3) Filtration slits — slit diaphragms present ‘Scanned with CamScanner[(B) Renal Interstitium Seanty in cortex; abundant in medulla | — ll | | | ° || + Composed of '| (1) Fibroblasts | (2) Mononuclear cells | (3) Bundles of collagen (4) Proteoglycan matrix Blood Supply of Kidneys . . . | e Renal artery > interlobar arteries — arcuate arteries > interlobular attri (type 1V) fibers intralobular arteries «Afferent arterioles > glomerulus > effere + venulae rectae) -> arcuate veins > interlobar v > renal vein Functions of the Kidneys (1) Removal of waste products (2) Regulation of water - electrolyte an: nt arterioles — vasa recta (arteriole d acid - base balance (3) Secretion of renin - control of BP (4) Secretion of enythroposetin -> formation of RBCs Ureters © Composed of: (1) Mucosa (a) Transitional epithelium (6) Star shaped lumen — dlt. Folds of mucosa (c) No glands (2) Muscularis (=SM) (a) Inner — longitudinal (b) Outer > circular (c) In lower end — outermost > longitudinal (3) Adventitia (a) CT + blood vessels Urinary Bladder * Composed of three layers: (1) Mucosa (a) Transitional epithelium 7 al ‘Scanned with CamScanner\ (b) Thick lamina propria (c) Mucus - secreting glands (2) Muscularis (=SM) (a) Inner - longitudinal (b) Middle + circular (c) Outer + longitudinal (3) Adventitia (a) CT + blood vessels [Urethra + Male Urethra — three parts (1) Membranous + transitional epithelium (2) Prostatic > pseudostratidied columnar epithelium (3) Penile + pseudostratified + squamous epithelium + Female Urethra (1) Lined by stratified columnar + pseudostratified + stratified squamous epithelium ‘Scanned with CamScanner“Mey, ~~ = ws CugPrar LS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM a [Glands (Glandular Epithelium) “Glands are invaginations of surface epithelium, which produce hormones or secretions or excretions”. (1) Exocrine Glands Glands “continuos” with surface epithelium via a “duct”, e.g salivary glands. (2) Endocrine Glands Glands having no contact with surface epithelium, “No” duct, “Ductless Glands”. ‘These release their products (Hormones) into blood stream, Hormones carried to “Target Tissue” via blood stream [Endocrine System Consist of endocrine glands, hormones and target tissues (where hormones act) + Togather with nervous system, it regulates and integrates the function of all physiological systems. Endocrine System Organized into: (1) Discrete Endocrine Glands (a) Pituitary (b) Adrenal (c) Thyroid (d) Parathyroid (©) Pineal Gland * Described later (2) Diffuse Neuro - Endocrine System (DNES) * Scattered cells with endocrine function * APUD Cells (Amine Precursor Uptake and Decarboxylation) (a) These cells take up Amine Precursors (e.g deoxyphenylalamine, 5 - hydroxytryptophan) ‘Scanned with CamScannercursors Lo biogenic amines, (eg (b) These cells decarboxylate pres “B ping. “he, NE, Dopamine, Serotonin) «PUD cells are also known as PARANEURONE (a) Derived embryologically from CREST cells (b) Are highly “modified” Neurons (c) Produce biogenic amines (Neurotransmitters) i * APUD cells (paraneurone) | (a) Should possess dense - core vesicles (membrane - bound Secretary with “electron - dens core” and surrounding “electron - lucent halo’) \W (b) Should exhibit both receptor and secretary function (c) Should be neuroectodermal origin * DNES consist of: (a) Central Division: } + Hypothalamus (neurones regulating pituitary gland) * Pituitary cells (ACTH, MSH producing cells) (ADH, Oxytocin) ¢ Pineal gland cells (pinealocytes) (b) Peripheral Division: ¢ ‘C’ cells (parafollicular cells) of thyroid + “chief” cells of parathyroid gland * adrenal medullary cells. (chromaffin cells) i * All pancreatic endocrine cells (Islets of langerhans) * entero - endocrine cells of GIT (enterochromaffin cells) i ¢ “Renin” producing cells of kidney (Juxtaglomerular (JG cells) ¢ Chemoreceptores of carotid body ° Mast cells (3) Glands With Endocrine + Exocrine Function (a) Pancreas (b) Testis (©) Ovary i (@) Kidney (©) Placenta Pituitary Gland (Hypo hysis Cereberi [Pineal gland — epiphyses cereberi] ‘Scanned with CamScanner— 5 cells) a «Pituitary gland is the “master” gland producing: (1) Trophic Hormones (influencing other endocrine nsH g other endocrine glands) (b) ACTH (©) FSH (@) LH (2) bea Hormones (directly acting on non ~ endocrine tissues) a) (b) Prolactin () MSH (@ ADH (e) Oxytocin « Pituitary gland (1cm diameter) lies in sella turcica, connected to hypothalamus by pituitary stalk + PGhas following parts: - (1) Anterior pituitary / Adenohypophysis (2) Posterior pituitary / Neurohypophysis / Pars nervosa (1) Anterior Pituitary ® It is derived from oral ectoderm. (Rathke’s pouch) + Ant, Pituitary is divided (by residual lumen of Rathke's pouch) into: (4) Pars distalis (5) Pars tuberalis (6) Pars intermedia «Pars Distalis (75% of hypophysis): (1) Lies anterior to vestigial lumen of Rathke’s pouch 2) Endocrine cells are of following types: (a) Chromophobes (50%) (No affinity for stains) «Are degranulated chromophils, smallest cell type in ant, Pituitary (b) Chromophils (50%) (affinity for stains) (i) Acidophils (70%) « (60%) Somatotropes —> GH (Somatotropin) [orange G] + (20%) Mammotoropes -> PRL (Prolactin) [Azocarmine] Lactotropes (ji) Basophils (30%) ‘Scanned with CamScanner© (20%) Corticotropes ACTH + (6%) Thytrotropes TSH = [Aldehyde (5%) Gonadotropes > FLH + Pars Intermedia oa (1) Lies posterior thy (2) Rudimentary in humans (3) Secretes MSH (Melanocyte 5 to vestigial lumen oF timulating Horme) * Pars Tuberalis oo. (1) It surrounds pituitary stalk (or infundibulum) (2) Function unknown (2) Posterior Pituitary / Neurohypophyses | issue (evagination or down - * It is derived from nervous ti hypothalamus to which it is attached by pituitary stalk) «PP has following parts: (1) Pars nervosa ~ lies posterior to intermediate lobe. (2) Pituitary stalk (infundibular stem) — connects pars neme hypothalamus. (3) Median eminence > (a) Infundibulum = infundibular stem + median eminence (b) Pituitary stalk = infundibulum + pars tuberalis of * Neurohypophysis con: (1) Axons (unmyelinated fibers form hypothalamus) > avons from su Jucli ete ons fi Nuclie > secrete ADH > axons from paraventricular Nuclie > sw Oxutocin (2) Supporting, neuroglial cells - called pituitocytes (3) Blood vessels . Hoi e ytocii i. mete (ADH, Oxytocin) are synthesized in hypothalamic nuctei (cell bi — trav in ax steri ituil - - er In axons to posterior pituitary — where they are stored synthesized) and released into the circulation. : Blood Supply Of Pituitary Gland sae arteries arise from the internal carotid : ; al carotii epee hypophyseal arteries Pass to median emit > veins + run downwards — arteries and circle of capil ence and give rise (© GP” atistatls around pituitary stalk -> reach pars ‘Scanned with CamScanner— a — sinusoidal capillaries (Hypothatamo ~ Hypophyseal portal system | = [since 2 sets of capillaries = portal system), + Inferior hypophyseal arteries pass directly to post lobe to supply it. «Veins from ant. And post lobes drain into o " avernous sinus, | Suprarenal (Adrenal) Glands + Each adrenal gland is surrounded b the substance of the gland. + Adrenal gland has 2 parts: (1) Cortex...outer, yellowish part Y a capsule from which fine septa penetrate into ~ Brojs |! "S @) Medullar...inner, reddish brown part | (1) Cortex * Cortex has 3 zones (no sharp distinction b/w adjacent zones) | . (a) Zona Glomerulosa Sets * Outer zone of adrenal cortex | * Composed of columnar or pyramidal cells arranged in rounded clusters and curved columns (called Glomeruli) | * Secretes mineralocorticoids (especially aldosterone) (b) Zona Fasciculata | « Thickest zone (80% of cortex) | * Composed of polyhedral cells arranged in cords or columns from sie + Cytoplasm of cells has fat droplets, which is removed during histological | 'ytop! | 8 8 uclie 7 procedures, giving the cells a vacuolated or spongy appearance « Secretes glucocorticoids (especially cortisol) Zona Reticulata * ‘nner most zone of cortex 4K «ells arranged in branching or anastomosing cords | « Secretes adrogens (especially DHEAS = dehydroepiandro-sterone) ( lei (ce rest (2) Medull , | | ° « ‘Adrenal medulla is composed of “chromaffin cells”, arranged in anastomosing cords. * Cytoplasm of these cells contains fine granules which become brown when oxidized by potassium bichromate (hence, the name chromaffin cells) * Cytoplasmic granules contain catecholamines : ‘Scanned with CamScannerE_-~—seed=—=—- (a) Noradrenaline (nor - epinephrine) (b) Adrenaline (epinephrine) (80% of cells) Supra Renal Glands Nerve Supply To Supra ee un / Ne parca glands receive a large number of pre ~ ganglionic symp n adrenal medullary cells thet ri i ending mostly on + Each medullary cell is innervated Sympathetic fibers stimulate cells t Thyroid Gland Thyroid gland is covered by a thin connective tissue capsule, from which F in pars into the gland to divide it into indistinct lobules. o secrete catecholamines, © Parenchyma of thyroid gland consists of: (1) Thyroid Follicles: : (a) These are irregular spherical bodies made up of single layer of epity rt My cells (follicular cells) resting on basement membrane, Surrounding a (follicular cavity) 4 (b) Follicular cavity is filled with gelatinuous material called cols (thyroglobulin) | (c) Follicular cells (or principal cells) shape depend on the state of Funct activity. + Inactive state...cuboidal shape (due to Ting pressure of fing amoustg thyroghobulin — Active (functional state) ...columnar cells (due to + pressure of colloid) (a) Follicular cells secrete thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) (2) Colloid: (a) Amount of colloid varies with functional state of the thyroid gland. ~ More colloid in inactive state than active state. (b) Consists mainly of thyroglobulin (3) Parafollicular / ‘C’ Cells: (2) These cells are present between follicular or in the epithelium of th follicles (b) Secrete calcitonin ‘Scanned with CamScannerCuaprer = ete AY stroma of thyroid gland is highly vas : (1) Reticular connective tissue coat nat and consi (2) Blood vessels, synthesis. Storac le and Secretion of Th roid + Principal (follicular) cells secrete thyroglobulin + Thyroglobulin is stored in follicular lumen, + Iodide is taken up by follicular cells > conve « Iodination of thyroglobulin occurs in lumen + lodinated thyroglobulin is stored in lumen «In response to secretary stimulus, of; taining lymphocytes and macrophages. 4 ted to iodine iodinated thyroglobulin is endocytosed by follicular cells + hydrolysis of thyroglobulin by lysosomal enzymes -— release of 13, T4 amino acids > T3 and T4 (in ratio of 1:20) then released to blood vessels lying adjacent to basal lamina of follicular cells. [Parathyroid Gland + Each gland is covered by connective tissue capsule, from which delicated septa peneterate into the gland, separating parenchymal cells into anastomosing, cord - like clusters. Fenesterated capillaries are found in close association to the parenchymal cells + Parenchyma of parathyroid gland consists of: 2 cells: (1) Chief cells (principal cells) (a) Are most numerous (b) Secret PTH (Parathyroid hormone) (2) Oxyphil cells (a) Appear at 7 years and t with age | | | | (b) Function unknown. * Stroma consists of: (1) Reticular connective tissue (2) Fat cells (t with increasing age) ‘Scanned with CamScanneri EE \ EnaPTER 19 Eye Bye has 3 layers (coats): (1) External > fibrous coat (sclera + cornea) (2) Middle - vascular coat (uveal tract) (3) Internal > nervous coat (retina) . |Selera It forms posterior 5/6 of the fibrous coat * Opaque white * 3layers: (1) Episcleral tissue > CT + blood vessels (2) Sclera proper >» CT (3) Lamina fusca > dark (melanocytes) + CT [Corea * Forms anterior 1/6 of the fibrous coat * Transparent © Slayers: - (Ant. — post) (1) Epithelium — stratified squamous (noncornified) (2) Bowman’s membrane + basement membrane of epithum (3) Substantia propria (stroma) —> parallel collagen fibers (4) Descemetis membrane -> BM of endothelium (S) Endothelium — flat cells [Choroia * Forms posterior part of the uveal tract (= iris + ciliary body + choroid) * layers: - (Ext. -> int.) ‘Scanned with CamScanner(1) supra choroid -» CT 7 (2) Ve thickest + black color ( 7 melanocytes) (3) Capillary layer -> fen (4) Lamina elastica / brush’s membrane sel layer -> estrated endothelium [Ciliary Body * Lies anterior to ora serrata (ant. end of retina) «Iris + suspensory ligament of lens are attached to it * 2zones: (1) Posterior 2/3 — pars plana (smooth) (2) Anterior 1/3 pars plicata (70-80 ciliary processes) + 6 layers: (1) Ciliary muscles -> 3 groups: (a) Longitudinal (meridional) (b) Radial (0) Circular (equatorial) (2) Vessel layer (ciliary stroma) (a) CT + vessels (3) Lamina vitera (a) Continuation of Bruch’s membrane of choroid (A) Ciliary epithelium (a) Columnar, unpigmented cells (b) Continuation of epithelium of retina (5) Internal limiting membrane [Iris + Thin, circular, pigmented diaphragm b/w cornea and lens * Ciliary margin — attached to ciliary body + Pupillary margin - surrounds pupil * 2layers: (1) Iris stroma > CT + BV + Nerve fibers + melanocytes (a) 2 smooth muscles: * Radial > dilater pupillae * Circular ~> sphincter pupillae ‘Scanned with CamScanner ON_~ [Retina | . (2) 2 posterior epithelial layers: (a) Anterior epith layer — in contact with iris stroma (b) Posterior epithelial layer + heavily pigmented cells | Inner most layer of the eyeball «It develops from forebrain (optic vesicle + optic stalk) 40 layers: (Ext Int.) (1) Pigment epithelium — single layer of low columnar cells (2) Layers of rods + cones (3) External limiting membrane (4) Outer nuclear layer (5) Outer plexiform layer (6) Inner nuclear layer (1) Inner plexiform layer (8) Ganglion cell layer (9) Optic nerve fiber layer (10) Internal limiting membrane + Elements of Neural Retina: — 4 groups of cells: (1) Photocreceptors —> rods + cones (2) Direct conducting neurons -» bipolar N + ganglion cells (3) Association Neurons -> horizontal cells + Amacrine cells (4) Supporting cells > muller’s cells + neurogha Functions Of Retinal Pigment Epithelium (1) Absorption of light (2) Storage of vitamin A and its supply to the photoreceptors (3) Phagocytosis (4) Formation of blood - retina barrier Blood Supply Of Retina + Devoid of blood vessels: (1) Pigment epithelium (2) Rods + cones layer (3) Outer nuclear layer (4) Outer plexiform layer ‘Scanned with CamScanner| eee ants «The above are supplied by choriocapillaries of the choroid (by diffusion, e Remaining layers are supplied by retinal vessels ) Lens ¢ Transparent, biconvex, situated b/w Iris and trous body © 3 parts: (1) Lens capsule - surrounds the lens (2) Sub capsular epithelium (3) Single cuboidal layer + only on anterior side (4) Lens substance + composed of: (a) Outer - cortex (b) Inner > nucleus ‘Scanned with CamScanner| tiie 1 ae CHaPTER DO | \ Ear has 3 parts: (1) External ear > receives sound waves (2) Middle ear > transmits sound wav es to internal ear (3) Internal ear — organs of hearing + balance [External Ear « Consists of: (1) Auricle (Pinna) — elastic cartilage (2) External Auditory Meatus ~ elastic cartilage + temporal bone (a) Cartilagenous part + lined by skin + ceruminous glands (b) Bony part — lined by skin + closely adhevrent to bone (3) ITympanic Membrane / Ear Drum: > 3 layers (a) Outer — cutaneous layer > stratified squamous E (b) Middle — fibrous layer -> collagen + elastic fibers (c) Inner - mucosal layer — simple cuboidal E. | Middle Ear * Middle ear cavity contains — ear ossicles (1) Mallers, incus, stapes > compact bones. (No Marrow cavity) * Cavity lin. by + simple squamous E + lamina propria (CT) * 2 Parts (1) Membranous Labyrinth + membranous sacs (a) Filled with endolymph (b) Vestibule has 2 sacs * Utricle > Macule * Saccule + Macule ‘Scanned with CamScanner(c) Cochlear duct — organ of corti Q (a) Semicircular canals > ampulla (dilated part) | (c) Memb, Labyrinth lined by simple squamous E (derived from ect : 0 | (2) Bony Labyrinth > consists of: very) (a) Vestibule | ~~ (b) 3 semicircular canals | (c) Cochlea * Bony and membranous labyrinth separated by — perilymphatic Space fi, le perilymph dng crea Ampularis (Kinetic Labyrinth) In the ampula of semicircular canal + membranous wall thickened (Cristy | consists of (1) CT + BV+ nerve fibers Lined by specialized columnar epithelium (1) Supporting / sustentacular cells (2) Type I hair cells ~ flask shaped neuro epithelial cells Wt (3) Type I hair cells -> cylindrical neuro epithelial cells (4) Hair cells -» “hair bundle” / 30 to 100 stercocilia + one single Kinocelium ove ii apical surface (5) Gelatinuous materious -> cupula is spread over free surface of the cells | + Respond to angular acceleration + deceleration of the head | Maculae: (Static Labyrinth) i Found in sacule and utricle * Specialized columnar epithelium (1) Supporting cells (2) Hair cells (type I + Il) (3) Gelatinous material ~ otolithic membrane - otoliths + Respond to linear acceleration and pull of gravity Cochlear Duct + This triangle duct compris (1) Vestibular membrane (roof) (2) Barilar membrane (base) ‘Scanned with CamScanner6) Stra vascularis (Lateral wall) -> forms e ndolymph Cochlear Duct contains Organ of Corti: ’ (1) Inner + outer hair cells -> stercocilia (No kinocelia) neuron of cochlear ganglia (2) Supporting cells are in contact with Bipolar (3) Hair cells + supporting cells are covered by > tectorial membrane (4) Organ of corti responds to sound which induces vibration of basilar membrane. Nerves Of Labyrinth + Kinetic (Semicircular canals) labyrinth > vestibular N (VIII) «Static (Utricle + saccule) labyrinth > vestibular N (VIII) + Cochlear ducts + spiral ganglia > cochlear N (VIII) ‘Scanned with CamScannerCuaPTarR 10 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM eT «CNS = Brain + Spinal cord. | Cerebrum + Two cerebral hemispheres joined together by corpus callosum. ° Cerebral cortex (gray matter) covers the inner white matter containing nuclei. Cerebral Cortex * Allocortex = olftactory cortex + cortex of hippocampal formation. Simplest in structure, consisting of two layers: A deep layer cont. superficial layer composed of neuron processes, * Neocortex = cortex other than allocortex. ing nerve cell bodies & a Cells of Cerebral Cortex (1) Ryramidal Cells Pyramid - shaped multipolar neurons. * One main dendrite arises from the apex of cell body, passes outward to end in most superficial layer. © Four or more dendrites arise from the base. ¢ Axon emerges from the centre of base of cell body, goes into white matter to become a projection or association fiber. (2) Nonpyramidal Cells (a) Stellate Cells * Small, polygonal neurons ( granule cells ) * Many small dendrites & a short axon. (b) Horizontal Cells * Small, fusiform, horizontally placed neurons, found in most superficial layer. © Many short dendrites & a long axon which runs parallel to the surface of cortex, ‘Scanned with CamScanneras found in deeper layers of cortex ends to end in Superficial 1 Yer (e) Martinottl Cells + Small, mullipol short dendrites &al ar neuro} ong axon which asc . ebral Cortex inwards these are: Layers of Cer f cerebral cortex. + _ Six layers of (1) Molecular Or Plexiform Layer: | © Composed chiefly of nerve fibers & some horizontal cells. (2) External Granular Layer | © Large number of small pyramidal cell: (3) Pyramidal Cell Layer © Large pyramidal cells * some granul (4) Internal Granular Layer Many stellate cells. «© Horizontally arranged ne baillarger. (5) Ganglionic Layer Contains large « Ttalso has inner band of baillarger. (6) Multiform Layer Contains many types of neurons (pyramidal, stellate, & martinotti cell), From without 5 & stellate (granule) cells, Je cells. ave fibers in this layer are called outer tag pyramidal cells + some stellate & martinotti cells. Cerebellum = Two cerebell Gray matter is located on the surface the white matter. far hemispheres joined by vermis. Fy (cortex) covering white matter. «Nuclei are present within Cerebellar Cortex + Three layers , fro (1) Molecular Layer «Mainly composed of cell processes. «Two types of neurons are present: stellate cells & ba’ . Stellate Cells: small, star - shaped neurons. Dendrites ? > single, extends transversely to make synapses with de! cells. © Basket Cells: small neurons, Dendrites > numerous bri many m without inwards these are: isket cells. many, short. ndrites of PA anchings * toward: wards surface. Axons > run horizontally, gives branches ‘Scanned with CamScannerform basket-like terminal arborizations around cells. (2) Purkinji Cell Layer + Large multipolar, flask-shaped neurons, arranged the outer & inner cerebellar layers. + Dendrites > two or three dendrites arise from # enter molecular layer & branch exte arboization. « Axon > arises from the ba es white matter. Most end in cerebellar nuclei. (3) Granular Layer . - «Contains many small neurons called granule cells and golgi tyP* I neurons. + Granule Cells: Dendrites > four or five short dendri called glomeruli. Axon > ascends to molecular la the surface of cortex (parallel fibers) & synapse with den cells. «Golgi Type II Cells: Dendrites > extend through all layers of cortex. ‘Axons > synapse with mossy fibers. Afferent Fibers of Cerebellum (1) Climbing Fibers < «These originate in inferior olivary nuclei of medulla. «In the cortex they synapse with the dendrites of purkinji cells in molecular layer. (2) Mossy Fibers + Originate in spinal cord (spinocerebellar tracts) or in brain stem (vestibulocerebellar & pontocerebellar fibers , etc). Terminate in glomeruli of cortex by making synapse with dendrites of granule cells & axons of golgi type II cells. Spinal Cord * In transverse section > roughly oval in shape, more flattened ventrally than dorsally. * Inthe center > central canal filled with CSF. ‘Scanned with CamScannerponer dr mi seam }) to central canal i POL anterior (ventral) median fissure (doo, cet, + Posterior (dorsal neuroglia). «Anterior (ventral) to central canal Gray Matter , « Arranged-around central canal thie form letter “HT «The posteriorlimbs of H > . _ The anterior limbsof H > fissure). + Inall thoracic & upper one or two Iumbar segments there is an additional hor, between anterior & posterior horns >plateralthorn-(contains motor neurons whig, give rise to preganglionic sympathetic fibers). White Matter rT . Divided into-two parts oreachr side: (1)-Dorsal-White'Column (2) Ventrolateral White Column «Lies betwee - § ‘Scanned with CamScanner