Reach of Distance Relay:

A distance relay is set to operate up to a particular value of impedance; for an

impedance greater than this set value the relay should not operate. This
impedance, or the corresponding distance is known as the Reach of Distance
Relay.

To convert primary impedance (impedance of the line referred to the line

voltage and current) to a secondary value (line impedance referred to the relay
side) for use in adjusting a distance relay the following relation is used:

where the CT ratio is the ratio of the HV phase current to the relay phase current,
and the PT ratio is the ratio of the HV phase-to-phase voltage to the relay
phase-to-phase voltage all under balanced conditions.

The tendency of a Reach of Distance Relay to operate at impedance larger than

its setting value is known as overreach and similarly the tendency to restrain at
the set value of impedance or impedances lower than the set value is known
as underreach.

An important reason for overreach is the presence of d.c. offset in the fault
current wave, as the offset current has a higher peak value than that of a
symmetrical wave for which the relay is set.

The transient overreach is defined as:

Where

Zos = the maximum impedance for which the relay will operate with an
offset current wave, for a given adjustment

Zsy = the maximum impedance for which the relay will operate for
symmetrical currents for the same adjustment as for Zos.
The transient overreach increases as the system angle tan -1 X/R increases. Figure
(5.20) shows the variation of overreach with system angle.

A distance relay may underreach because of the introduction of fault resistance

as illustrated in Fig. (5.21). Relay at O is set for protection up to P. Now if a fault
at P occurs such that fault resistance (PP’) is high and by adding this resistance
the impedance seen by the relay is OP’ such that P’ lies outside the operating
region of the relay, then the relay does not operate.

Occasionally a fault may occur in the zone 1 and the relay may begin to operate.
If the fault impedance now increases due to the arc resistance the total
impedance seen by the relay will be the sum of the line impedance up to the
fault and the arc impedance. This sum may be more than the impedance setting
of the relay in which case the 1st stage operation will stop and the fault will be
cleared as if it is located in the second or third zone. In order to prevent this
impedance relays are locked once they begin to operate on the basis of the true
impedance up to the fault. Any increase in impedance due to are will not affect
the relay once it is locked.

Scheme of Distance Protection:

In developing an overall Scheme of Distance Protection, it is necessary to

provide a number of relays to obtain the required discrimination. Modern
practice is to adopt definite distance method of protection applied in 3 zones
(steps).

A number of distance relays are used in association with timing relays so that
the power system is divided into a number of zones with varying tripping times
associated with each zone.

The first zone tripping which is instantaneous is normally set to 80% of the
protected section.

The zone 2 protection with a time delay sufficient for circuit breaker operating
time and discriminating time margin covers the remaining 20% portion of the
protected section plus 25 to 40% of the next section. Also in the Scheme of
Distance Protection the Zone 2 also provides backup protection for the relay in
the next section for faults close to the bus.

Zone 3 with still more time delay provides complete backup protection for all
faults at all locations.

In practice, the initial pickup of the zone 3 relay may be used as a starter for the
equipment, since its own measuring action will take place only after a long time
delay.
The three stepped characteristics of a definite distance scheme has already been
discussed for feeders fed from one end. Now if fault can be fed from both ends
as in the case of an interconnected system, assuming zone 1 to be 80 % of the
protected section then there will be 40% of the feeder on which faults will finally
be cleared in the zone 2 time. This is clear from Fig. (5.22). This is undesirable
from stability point of view and in general it will be necessary to avoid this delay.
This is possible if the distance relay which has tripped instantaneously in zone
1 sends an intertrip signal to remote end of the feeder in order to trip the
breaker quickly in preference to waiting for zone 2 tripping.

In some distance schemes, carrier acceleration is applied which utilises a carrier

signal transmitted over the power line. The combination of the carrier signal
and the position of the starting elements of the remote relay cause tripping
without further time lag.

Distance Protection Impedance Relay:

Distance Protection Impedance Relay – It has already been pointed out that the
impedance is directly proportional to the length of the line, and hence an impedance
relay which measures impedance can be used to recognise a fault condition and operate.
As such an impedance relay has no directional feature and will operate irrespective of
the direction of current.
Figure (5.23) shows the characteristics for a 3-zone impedance relay with directional
unit D. It is usual to make maximum torque angle Φ of the electromagnetic relays,
smaller than the line angle θ.
In ease of static relays the maximum sensitivity angle is made less than θ. This is done
in order to reduce the effect of are resistance on the reach of the relay.

The zone 3 element Z3 controls the operation of the timer and thus is the starting unit,
the contact circuit is shown in Fig. (5.24).

The zone 1 element operates without any intentional time delay, but still it has some
finite time of operation T1, whereas Z2 and Z3 operate with a time delay of T2 and
T3 respectively.
Distance Protection by Reactance Relays:

Like impedance relays, Distance Protection by Reactance Relays are also

amplitude comparators and thus require an additional directional unit.
Although the performance of reactance relays on single-fed systems is not
unduly affected by fault resistance, there may be occasions in double-fed
systems where errors in reach may occur, particularly when the phase relation
between the respective source emfs is widely different and the value of fault
resistance high.

Figure (5.25) shows the 3-zone characteristics of plain reactance units and two
reactance units with an additional mho unit which acts as a directional unit and
also as a zone 3 protection and for starting. The mho unit prevents the
undesirable operation of reactance units under load conditions. Time
coordination is very important in such a scheme, in that care should be taken
to ensure that zone 1 and 2 measurement cannot occur after the starting relay
has dropped off, since it is possible for reactance relays to operate under load
conditions.
The arrangement of contact circuit of Distance Protection by Reactance Relays
is shown in Fig. (5.26). The maximum torque angle or sensitivity angle of the
starting unit (Φ) is made smaller than the line angle (θ) for reducing the effect
of fault resistance on the reach of the relay.

It is also possible to have all the three zones as reactance units and a mho unit
which acts as directional unit and starting unit. Such a scheme will also provide
tolerance to fault resistance in zone 3.

MHO Distance Protection:

The 3-zone mho distance protection does not need any directional unit as the
mho unit itself is inherently a directional unit. Figure (5.27) shows 3-zone mho
distance operating characteristics.

Zone 3 mho unit which acts as a starting relay or for controlling the timer can
also be replaced by an offset-mho unit which has a definite advantage under
closeup fault conditions as it encloses the origin. Contact arrangement is shown
in Fig. (5.28).
Power Swings in Power System Protection:

The impedance measured or seen by a distance relay during normal load is

shown in Fig. (5.29). Normally this would be outside the tripping zone of the
distance relay, but, on a very long line where the length of the line in miles
exceeds the system KV, the impedance characteristic may have to be made so
large as to involve the point L. Furthermore as the load increases point L moves
towards, the relay characteristic in the direction of arrow and during a Power
Swings in Power System Protection, it may oscillate up to a point such as PS
where it may enter the tripping zone of the relay, even on a medium length line.

Power Swings in Power System Protection are surges of power due to the
oscillation of generators with respect to each other which may occur because
of changes in load, switching or faults. The presence of a power swing does not
necessarily mean that the system is unstable. It is of paramount importance
therefore that the relay must distinguish between a fault and a power swing,
and respond correctly.
For determining the performance of distance relaying during power swings and
out of step conditions let us consider a simple case of Fig. (5.30). The feeder to
be protected links the two generators A and B and has an impedance Z L. ZA and
ZB are the impedance of the generators A and B respectively. Therefore, the total
impedance of the system is

EA and EB are the voltages behind the transient reactances and are assumed to
be constant in magnitude but varying in phase during swings or out of step
conditions. The angle δ between E A and EB is therefore a function of the loads
on the generators and the system characteristics, taking E B as a reference and
EA to be leading EB by an angle δ.

When the steady-state conditions are disturbed due to some reason, power
swings occur, and in extreme cases the generators may go out of step. Behavior
of the system during power swings is the same as that during initial stages of
out-of-step operation. Under these abnormal operating conditions the angle
δ will vary until new equilibrium conditions, are established.

For considering the effect of Power Swings in Power System Protection on

distance relays, it is better to plot the swing impedance chart on the complex
impedance plane. Such a chart represents the swing impedance loci for different
values of δ between the emfs of two swinging groups of generators, i.e. EA and
EB. The relay operating characteristics and the locus of the impedance seen by
the relay during fault conditions can also be represented on the same plane.
Such a diagram enables us to see the behavior of relays under different possible
conditions such as normal load conditions, power swings, out-of-step operation
and faults.
Referring to Fig. (5.30) the impedance seen by the relay during swings and loss
of synchronism can be derived as follows:

If Zr represents the impedance seen during swing by the relay situated at one
end as shown in Fig. (5.30), we get

where Vr and Ir are voltage and current applied to the relay. Therefore

Assuming the relationship between the magnitudes of the two emfs to be |E A/EB|
= K where K is a real number which can be less, equal to or more than unity, Eq.
(5.11) becomes:

In particular when K=1

where eJ8 = cos δ = j sin δ

Equation (5.12) represents a family of circles with K as parameter and δ as the

variable such that Zr = f(δ). The centres of these circles lie on the straight line
colinear with the impedance ZT. If K>1, the centres of the circles Zr = f(δ), i.e.
swing impedance loci will be located in the first quadrant; for K<1 the centres
will be in the third quadrant; and for K=1 the swing impedance locus is circle
with infinite radius, i.e. a straight line which is the perpendicular bisector of the
total impedance ZT.

It can also be seen that for constant values of δ and K as variable, the swing
impedance loci are circular arcs or a straight line for δ=1800, the ZT itself, with
extremities on the ends of the ZT (i.e. A and B). Both these families of the swing
impedance loci are orthogonal to each other and these families form the swing
impedance chart; one such is shown in Fig. (5.31).

The vector drawn from the origin (relay location) to any point on the impedance
chart will represent the impedance seen by the relay Z r. For all practical purposes
from protection point of view the swing impedance loci for constant K and
variable δ in the first quadrant are almost straight lines parallel to locus for K=1.
The effect of power swing is generally seen from the swing impedance locus
corresponding to K=1.

The impedance seen by the relay Zr will move along the swing impedance locus
during swinging and wherever the swing impedance locus intersects the fault
impedance locus, the Zr will be exactly the same as under a three-phase fault.
This point is known as the electrical centre of the system and lies approximately
midway electrically between the ends of the tie line connecting machines A and
B.

It may be noted that the value of 8 determines the mode of operation of the
system: (i) for normal operation -0°≤δ≤60°;300°≤δ≤360°; (ii) for swing
operation -60°≤δ≤120°;240°≤δ≤300°; (iii) for out-of-step operation -
120°≤δ≤240°.

As pointed out earlier, by superimposing the relay characteristics on the

swinging chart the effect can be studied.

Prevention of Tripping during Power Swings: If the relay tripping area does
not include any part of swing impedance locus, but at the same time is wide
enough to include fault resistance, such a relay will not trip during swings, while
tripping successfully during faults.

To overcome the maloperation of a distance relay during a swing or overload,

the angular range of its pickup characteristic should be reduced so as to enclose
only the fault area of a transmission line. This can be achieved by using (a)
elliptical relay, (b) use of blinders in conjunction with mho and offset mho units,
(c) reversing direction of zone 3 unit of the distance relaying scheme and (d)
using a rate of rise of current monitoring relay.

Current and Voltage Connection in Distance Relay:

It is essential for the distance relay to measure the same distance between the
fault and the relay under any type of fault condition. It is possible to supply the
relays so that they will always measure Z 1 the positive sequence impedance of
the protected feeder, by suitable choice of Current and Voltage Connection in
Distance Relay, under any fault condition. It is usual to employ three phase fault
measuring relays and three earth fault measuring relays—one for each phase-
pair and phase respectively.

(i) Connections for Phase Fault Relays: In the case of phase faults comprising
three-phase, phase-to-phase and double-phase-to-earth faults, this is achieved
by supplying the relay with voltage across the faulty phases and the vector
difference of the currents in the two faulty phases, i.e.

With these signals the relay measures Z1 of the line section up to the fault
location for any of the type of phase faults. Basic connections of phase-fault
relays are shown in Fig. (5.32).

Sequence network connections are shown for different types of phase faults in
Fig. (5.33). For a given phase-pair, say b-c, positive and negative sequence
voltages at fault Vf1 and Vf2 are equal.
Similarly for a three-phase fault also the positive and negative sequence
voltages at fault are zero and hence again are equal. At relay location the
positive and negative sequence voltages are:

where I1 and I2 are sequence currents and Z1, Z2 the sequence impedances of the
line. Since Z1 = Z2 for lines and Vf1 = Vf2, we have
Similarly

Hence

This shows that for any type of phase faults the impedance seen by the relay
will be the positive sequence impedance of the line up to the fault point.

(ii) Connections for Earth-Fault Relays: Under earth-fault conditions the

impedance measured by the relay would be equal to Z e the earth loop
impedance if the relay was supplied with phase-neutral volts and phase neutral
current on a system earthed at one point only behind the relay location.
However, on a system earthed at more than one point the measured impedance
would vary depending upon the position and number of earth points. In order
that the relays again measure the same impedance Z 1 under earth-fault
conditions on a general system, it is necessary to add to the phase-neutral
current a proportion of the residual current at the relay point. This is known as
residual compensation and is achieved in practice by means of a tapped auto-
transformer in the residual circuit of the main CT as shown in Fig. (5.34).
The voltage drop to the fault is the sum of the sequence voltage drops between
the relaying point and the fault, viz. for fault on phase a in reference to Fig.
(5.35).

Also

where Ires is the residual current and Ia, Ib, Ic are the phase currents at relaying
point.
In order to make this equal to Z1 the second factor in Eq. (5.23) has to be
eliminated which is done by adding (K-I) Ires/3 to the phase current.

The combined relay current input arrangement for phase and earth faults can
thus be represented as in Fig. (5.36).
Selection of Distance Relay:

The factors to be considered for the Selection of Distance Relay scheme can be
enumerated as follows:

1. Speed of operation.
2. Measuring relay characteristics.
3. Fault coverage.
4. Economic considerations.
1. Speed of Operation:

Operating time is of great importance on systems which are liable to become

unstable if the fault persists for more than 5 cycles or so. Zone 1 operation in
non-switched schemes where separate measuring units for different phases are
used is in the region of 2-3 cycles; but about 40% of the protected section
viewed from both ends is covered in zone 2 operating time. Such a scheme in
conjunction with the power line carrier is used to extend the zone 1 reach for
internal faults, thereby ensuring simultaneous high-speed operation of breakers
at both ends, the scheme however works as a plain distance backup for external
faults.

All switched schemes which use single measuring unit for different phases
switched by proper selectors or starters, are slow speed protections. Thus in
general non-switched schemes are applied on all important feeders at sub-
transmission and distribution voltage levels, and in combination with power line
carrier, on all feeders at bulk transmission voltages. Switched schemes are
applied as an economic alternative to time graded forms of protection on radial
and ring distribution circuits and on less important transmission lines.

Because of the long clearance times with the switched schemes, it is usual to
add out-of-step blocking and tripping relays to the scheme to prevent serious
shut-down during power swing condition.

2. Measuring Relay Characteristics:

The field of application of various Selection of Distance Relay overlap to a large

extent and as such a hard line cannot be drawn for their respective fields. The
length of the line to be protected and the voltage of transmission play a very
important role in the choice of these

Reactance relays are preferred for short line sections because of being
insensitive to fault resistances which may be large compared with the line
impedance. Since power swings affect reactance relays to a large degree than
the other factors these relays are unsuited to long line protection.

The impedance relay is better suited for phase-fault relaying for lines of
moderate lengths. The effect of arc on impedance relay is more than in a
reactance relay but less than a mho relay. Power swings affect an impedance
relay less than a reactance relay but more than a mho relay, but schemes using
either may require supplementary relays to prevent maloperation. The
impedance relay will always require a separate directional unit.

As the mho relay is less affected by power swings and encircles the smallest
area on the complex plane it is best suited for long lines. It has an additional
advantage of being inherently directional which renders starting relays
unnecessary. For very long heavily loaded lines, mho unit blinders or elliptical
relays are better suited.

With cables, it is the sensitivity of the relay rather than the fault resistance that
determines the minimum length of cables that can be protected. The
conductance relay is more tolerant to fault resistance than mho or plain
impedance and more economical than the reactance unit because it needs no
directional unit. It is applicable to distribution lines both overhead and cable.

3. Fault Coverage:

Where a system is not effectively earthed or earthed through an arc suppression

coil it is only necessary to apply phase-fault schemes of protection; while on
effectively earthed systems fault coverage for both phase and earth faults is
provided.

4. Economic Considerations:

The foregoing discussion makes it amply clear that there are a number of
alternatives to achieve the objective of feeder protection. Maybe time graded
overcurrent protection is sufficient under particular circumstances. As far as
earth-fault protection is concerned overcurrent earth-fault protection works
quite satisfactorily and is normally provided with phase protection as one of the
Selection of Distance Relay schemes. The occasional slower clearing time with
overcurrent relays is unimportant because single phase of earth-faults have
negligible effect on system stability.