Unit 3 Transformer

Single Phase Transformer

TRANSFORMER THEORY

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power
in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in
current.
The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a
common magnetic flux. In this simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctanceas shown in
fig.(1). The two coils possess high mutual inductance.
If one coil connected to source of alternating voltage and alternating flux is set up in the
laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually
di
induced emf (according to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction e = M dt ).

If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred
(entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil, The first coil in which electric
energy is fed from the a.c. mains supply is called primary winding and the other from which
energy is drawn out is called secondary winding.
In brief a transformer is a device that.
(1) Transfers electric power from one circuit to another.
(2) It does so without a change of frequency.
(3) It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
(4) Where the two electric circuits are in mutual indicative influence of each other.

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Elementary theory of ideal transformer:-

Fig 2
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its winding has no ohmic resistance there
is no magnetic leakage & hence which has no I2R and core losses. In other words, an ideal
transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss free core.
Consider an ideal transformer fig.2 (a). Whose secondary is open & whose primary is
connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1, this potential difference causes an alternating
current to flow in the primary. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(secondary being open). The primary draws the magnetizing current I μ only. The function of
this current is merely to magnetize the core; it is small in magnitude and lags V 1 by 900. This
alternating current Iμ at an alternating flux Φ which at all times is proportional to the current.
(Assuming permeability of the magnetic circuit to be constant) and hence, is in phase with it.
This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings. Therefore, it
produces self-induced emf in the primary. This self-induced emf E1 is, at every instant, equal
to and in opposition to V1. It is also known as counter emf or back emf of the primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced emf E2 which is known as mutually
induced emf, this emf is anti-phase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns.
The instantaneous values of applied voltage, induced emfs, flux and magnetizing current are
shown by sinusoidal waves in fig. 2(b). Fig.2(c) shows the vectorial representation of the
effective values of the above quantities.

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Emf Equation of A Transformer:-

Fig 3
N1 = No. of turns in primary, N2 = No. of turns in secondary,
Φm = Maximum flux in core = Bm  A, and f = frequency of a.c. input in Hz
As shown in fig. (3) Flux increase from its zero value to maximum value Ф m in one quarts of
 1 
the cycle i.e. in  4 f  second.
 
 m 
 1 
 
So average rate of change of flux =  4 f 

= 4f Фm web per sec. Or Volts

flux
Now rate of change of turns means induced emf in volts.

So average emf per flux = 4f Фm Volts.

If flux Ф varies sinusoidal the rms value of induced emf is obtained by multiplying the average
value with form factor.
rms _ value
Form factor = average _ value = 1.11 (for sine wave)
emf
 rms value of turns = 1.11  4f Фm volts

Now rms value of the induced emf in the whole of primary winding
E1 = (induced emf per turns)  no.of primary turns
 E1 = 4.44 fN1Фm = 4.44 fN1Bm A ------------------ (1)

Similarly, rms value of the emf induced in secondary is,

E2 = 4.44 fN2Фm = 4.44 fN2Bm A ------------------ (2)
 E1  =  E 2 
 N   N 
From equation (1) & (2) that  1   2  = 4.44f Фm

emf
It means that turns is the same in both the primary and secondary winding.

In ideal transformer on no load V1 = E1 & E2 = V2 where V2 is the terminal voltage fig. (4).
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Fig 4
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO (k):
 E2  =  N 2 
   
From equation (1) & (2) we get  E1   N1  = k
This constant k is shown as voltage transformation ratio
(1) If N2 > N1, i.e k>1 then the transformer is called step up transformer.
(2) If N1 > N2, i.e k<1 then the transformer is called step down transformer.
Input VA = output VA
 I 2  = V1  = 1
   
V1I1 = V2I2 or from equation (1) & (2) that  I 1   V2  k
Hence current are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformer ratio.
TRNSFORMER with losses but no magnetic leakage: -
We will consider the cases (1) when such a transformer is on no load and (2) when it is loaded.

Ideal and Practical Transformers

Ideal Transformer

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Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal tr
ansformer. It is an imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and
no leakage flux. The ideal transformer has the following important characteristics.

1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.

2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeability means
less magnetising current is required for magnetising their core.
1. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux
induced in the core of the transformer links with their primary and secondary
winding.
3. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from
hysteresis and eddy current loss.

The above mentioned properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal
transformer, there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input
power.

Behavior of Ideal Transformer

Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The voltage source V1 is applied
across the primary winding of the transformer. Their secondary winding is kept open. The
N1 and N2 are the numbers of turns of their primary and secondary winding.

The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through the primary winding of the
transformer. The magnetizing current produces the flux φm in the core of the transformer. As
the permeability of the core is infinite the flux of the core links with both the primary and

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secondary winding of the transformer.

The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E1 because of self-induction. The
direction of the induced emf is inversely proportional to the applied voltage V1. The emf
E2 induces in the secondary winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.

Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure below. As the coil of the
primary transformer is purely inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer
lag 90º by the input voltage V1. The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and
secondary winding of the transformer. The direction of the induced emf inversely
proportional to the applied voltage

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Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer

Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer

It has 100% efficiency.
It has no losses.
Purely inductive material is
used.
It has no I2R losses.
It has no iron loss.
There is no ohmic resistance
drop.
It has no leakage drop.
In its ideal condition.
It is not used in practical
condition.
It has 100% below efficiency.
It has no losses.
It is two purely inductive
materials used.
It has I2R losses.
It has iron loss.
There is an ohmic resistance
drop.
It has a leakage drop.
In its practical condition.
It is used in practical condition.

Losses in Transformer, regulation and efficiency

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Losses in a Practical Transformer
The different losses in the transformer are as follows
Click image to enlarge

Copper Losses (Winding Resistance)

Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher
frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

Core or Iron Losses

There are two types of core or iron losses in a Transformer.

a) Hysteresis Losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis
within the core. For a given core material, the transformer losses are proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
We can find Hysteresis losses by this formula.
Wh = ηB1.6maxf.v watt

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b) Eddy Current Losses

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore
circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating
of the core material.
The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
square of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a
stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers
operating at low frequencies using laminated or similar cores.
We can find Eddy currents losses by this formula.
We = PB2max.f2t2 Watt
Stray losses (leakage Flux)
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields
is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts
nearby conductive materials such as the transformer’s support structure will give rise to eddy
currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating
magnetic field, but these are usually small and negligible.

Dielectric Loss
In the solid insulation or transformer oil i.e. insulation material of the transformer, dielectric
loss occurs when the solid insulation get damaged or the oil gets deteriorated or its quality
decreases over the time. Hence, the overall efficiency of transformer may be affected due to
this loss.

Transformer on no –load:

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Even when the transformer is on no load the primary input is not wholly reactive. The primary
input under no load conditions has to supply.
(1) Iron losses in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and
(2) A very small amount of copper loss in primary (there being no cu loss and it is open).
Hence the no load primary input current Io is not at 900 behind V1 but lags it by angle
Фo<900. No load input power Wo = V1 I 0 Cos Фo
Where cos Фo is primary power factor under no load condition. No load condition of an actual
transformer is shown vectorially in fig. (5). Form fig. (5) Primary current I 0 has two
components.
(1) One in phase with V1 this is known as active or working or iron loss plus small quantity
of primary cu loss. Iw =I0 cos Фo.
(2) The other component is in quadrature with V1 and is known as magnetizing component
Iμ because its function is to sustain the alternating flux in the core. It is wattles.
Iμ = I0 sin Фo. Obviously I0 is the vector sum of Iw and Iμ Hence I02 = (Iμ2 +Iw2).
Note:-
(1) The no load primary current I0 is very small as compared to the full load primary current.
It is about 1% of the full load current.
(2) As I0 is very small the no load primary cu loss in negligible small which means that no
load primary input is practically the iron loss in transformers.
(3) As it is principally the core loss which is responsible for shift in the current vector angle
Фo is known as hysteresis angle of advance.
Transformer on load:
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Fig. a: Ideal transformer on load

Fig. b: Main flux and leakage flux in a transformer

When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I2 is setup. The

magnitude and phase of I2 w.r.t. V2 is determined by the characteristics of the load current
I2 and is in phase with V2 if load is resistive, it lags if load is inductive and it leads if load
is capacitive.

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The secondary current sets up its own emf (= N2I2) and hence its own flux Φ2 which is in
opposition to the main primary flux Φ which is due to I0. The secondary ampere turns are
known as demagnetizing ampere turns. The opposing secondary flux Φ 2 weakens the
primary flux Φ momentarily, hence primary back emf E1 tends to be reduced. For a moment
V1 gains the upper hand over E1 and hence causes more currents to flow in primary.
Let the additional primary current be I2’. It is known as the load component of primary
current. This current is anti-phase with I2. The additional primary emf N1I2’ sets up its own
flux Φ2’ which is in opposition to Φ2 (but is in the same direction as Φ) and is equal to it in
magnitude. Hence, the two cancel each other out. So we find that the magnetic effects of
secondary current I2 are immediately neutralized by the additional primary current I2’
which is brought into a distance exactly at the same instant as I 2. The whole process is
illustrated in fig.6.
Hence, whatever the load conditions the net flux passing through the core is approximately
the same as at no load. An important deduction is that due to the consistency of core flux
at all loads. The core loss is also practically the same under all load conditions. As
Φ2 = Φ2’
Therefore, N2 x I2 = N1 x I2’
N2
I2
Or I2’ = N1 = kI2
Hence, when the transformer is no-load, the primary winding has two currents in it; one is I 0
and the other is I2’ which is anti-phase with I2 and k times in magnitude. The total primary
current is the vector sum of I0 & I2’.
In fig.7 are shown the vector diagrams for a loaded transformer when the load is non-
inductive and it is inductive. Voltage transformation ratio of unity is assumed so that primary
vectors are equal to the secondary vectors. With reference to fig.7 (a) I 2 is secondary current
in phase with E2. It causes primary current I2’ which is anti-phase with it and equal to it in
magnitude (since k=1). Total primary current I1 is the vector sum of I0 & I2’ and lags behind
V1 by an angle Φ1.
In fig.7.b Vectors are drawn for an inductive load. Here I2 lags E2 by Φ2. Current I2’ is
again anti-phase with I2 and equal to it in magnitude. As before, I1 is the vector sum of I2’ and
I0 and lags behind V1 by Φ1. It will be observed that Φ1 is slightly greater than Φ2. But if we
neglect I0 as compared to I2’ in fig.7.c, Then Φ1 = Φ2 moreover under this assumption:
N1I2’ = N1I1 so It shows that under full load conditions, the rate of primary and secondary
currents is constant. This important relationship is made the basis of the current transformer –
a transformer which is used with a low-range ammeter for measuring current in circuits where
the direct connection of the ammeter is impracticable.
The different components of the primary current are shown below:
I1
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--------------------------------------------
I’2 = KI2 I0
--------------------------
Iμ Iw

Transformer with winding resistance but no magnetic leakage:-

An ideal transformer was supposed to possess no resistance but in an actual transformer, there
is always present some resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Due to this
resistance, there is some voltage drop in the winding. The result is that:
(1) The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the secondary induced emf E2
by an amount I2R2 where R2 is the resistance of secondary winding. Hence, V2 is equal to the
vector difference of E2 and resistive voltage drop I2R2.
So V2 = E2 – I2R2 vector difference
(2) Similarly, primary induced emf E1 is equal to the vector difference of V1 and I1R1 where
R1 is the resistance of primary winding.
E1 = V1 – I1R1 -------------------- vector difference.

Equivalent Resistance:-

Fig 9
In fig. (9) is shown a transformer whose primary and secondary have resistance of R 1 and R2
respectively to the winding.

MAGNETIC LEAKAGE:

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Fig 11 (a) Fig 11 (b)

If it is found that all the flux linked with primary does not link the secondary but part of it
i.e.  l completes its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around the core as
1

shown in fig.11 (a). This leakage flux produced when the emf due to primary ampere turns
existing between points a & b acts along the leakage paths. Hence this flux is proportional
to the primary amp turns alone because the secondary turns do not link the magnetic circuit
of  l .The flux  l is in the time phase with I1. It induces an emf el in primary but none in
1 1 1

secondary.

Similarly a secondary amp. turns(or emf) acts across point’s c & d setup leakage flux  l 2

which is linked with secondary winding alone (and not with primary turns). This flux  l 2

is in time phase with primary and secondary winding carrying huge current. Hence large
emf is set up which, while acting on leakage paths, increases the leakage flux. As said
earlier the leakage flux linking with each winding produces a self-induced emf in that
winding. Hence in effect it is equivalent to a small chokes or inductive coil in series with
each winding such that voltage drop in each series coil is equal to that produced by leakage
flux. In other words a transformer with inductive coils connected in both primary and
secondary circuits as shown fig.11 (b). Such that the internal emf in each inductive coil is
e L1
X1 =
equal to that due to the corresponding leakage flux in the actual transformer I1 &
eL 2
X2 =
I 2 . The terms X1 and X2 are shown as primary and secondary leakage reactance
respectively.
NOTES:-
(1) The leakage flux links one or the other winding but not both, Hence it in no way
contributes to transfer of energy from the primary to secondary winding transformer.
(2) The primary voltage Vl will have to supply reactive drop I1X1 in addition to I1R1.
1

Similarly, E2 will have to supply I2R2 and I2X2.

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Unit 3 Transformer
Transformer with Resistance and leakage Reactance:-

Fig 12
In fig. (12) are shown the primary and secondary windings of the transformer with
reactance taken out of the windings. The primary impedance is given Z1 = R1 + X 1 .
2 2

Similarly the secondary impedance is given Z 2 = R2 + X 2 . The resistance and leakage

2 2

reactance of each winding is responsible for some voltage drop in each winding. In primary
the leakage reactance voltage drop is I1X1 (usually 1 or 2% of V1). Hence V1 = E1 + I1
(R1 +jX1) = E1+I1Z1.
Similarly, there are I2R2 and I2X2 drops in secondary which combine with V2 to give E2.
E2 = V2 + I2 (R2 +jX2) = V2+I2Z2.

Equivalent Circuit:-

The transformer shown in the diagram can be resolved into an equivalent circuit in which the
resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be external to the winding
whose only function then is to transform the voltage. The no load current I0 is simulated by
pure inductance X0 taking the magnetizing component Iμ and non-inductive resistance R0
taking the working component Iw, connected in parallel across the primary circuit. The value
of E1 is obtained by subtracting vectorially I1Z1 form V1. The value of
X0 = E1 / Iμ and of R0 = E1 / Iw. It is clear that E1 and E2 are related to each other by expression
E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = k.

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Efficiency of a transformer:-
As in the case with other types of electrical machines, the efficiency of the transformer at a
particular load and power factor is defined as the output power divided by the input power.
The two being measured in the same units.
η = output power/ Input power
But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment, has very small loss hence it is
impractical to try to measure transformer efficiency by measuring input and output. These
quantities are nearly the same. A better method is to determine the losses and then to calculate
the efficiency from:
η = (output) / (Output + Losses) = output / (output + Cu loss + Iron loss)
Output = V I cos φ
It may be noted that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt-
amperes, although losses are proportional to VA load, the efficiency depends on PF being
maximum at a Unity PF. Efficiency can be computed by determining core loss from no load
or OC test and from the SC test.
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:-
Cu loss = I1 2 R01 or I2 2 R02 = Wcu
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss = We + Wh = Wi
Considering primary side,
Primary I/P = (V1I1 cosФ – Losses) = (V1I1 cosФ - I12 R1 - Wi)
V1I1 cosФ V1I1 cosФ
=1- I12 R01 - Wi
V1I1 cosФ V1I1 cosФ
Differentiating both side wrt I1, we get
dη = 0 - R01 + Wi
dI1 V1 cosФ V1I12 cosФ
Or Wi = I1 2 R01 = I2 2 R02
Cu Loss = Iron Loss.
The output current corresponding to maximum η is I2 = √ (Wi / R02).
Note: 1. If we are given iron loss and full load Cu loss, then the load at which two losses would
be equal( corresponding to maximum η) is given by
KVAMax η = KVAFL √( Iron loss / FL Cu loss)
2. The η at any load is given by
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η = X. FL KVA. pf. 100
X. FL KVA. pf + Wi + Wcu
Where X ratio of actual load KVA to FL KVA

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