CHAPTER FIVE - THE EYE AND VISION Contents Page FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE... 5-1 ‘THE CORNEA. Sr rl THE IRIS AND PUPIL... THE LEN THE RETINA... THE FOVEA AND VISUAL ACUITY. LIGHT AND DARK ADAPTATION NIGHT VISION (SCOTOPIC VISION).......0 THE BLIND SPOT... STEREOPSIS (STER OSCOPIC VISION)... EMPTY VISUAL FIELD MYOPIA.. HIGH LIGHT LEVELS. SUNGLASS! -7 EYE MOVEMENT. 5-8 VISUAL DEFECTS... 5-8 USE OF CONTACT L COLOUR VISION .. COLOUR BLINDNESS... VISION AND SPEED. MONOCULAR AND BINOCULAR VISION. ..:cesssccese cin Si= 12 CHAPTER 5. - REVISION QUESTIONS...HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 52 FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE The eye is the organ which receives electromagnetic waves within the visual spectrum from the external world and passes them to the brain for interpretation into an image. The basic mera with an aperture, a lens, and a light sensitive screen structure is similar to a simple called the Retina BLIND SPOT (the point where blood vessels and PUPIL fee RETINA OPTIC NERVE Figure 5.1 The Structure of the Human Eye. To be able to keep tracking a moving object, the eyes need to act in harmony with one anoth Which means co-ordinated control of the muscles of the two eyes by the brain, In a fatig person, this co-ordination sometimes fails and the result is quite differis transmitted from each eye. Subsequently double vision occurs ied mages are Light enters the eye through the Cornea, a clear window at the front of the eyeball. The comea acts as a fixed focussing device and is responsible for between 70% and 80% of the total focussing ability of the eye. The focussing is achieved by the shape of the Cornea bending the incoming light rays. 51 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE ‘THE EYE AND VISION 53 THE IRIS AND PUPIL The amount of light allowed to enter the eye is controlled by the Iris, the coloured part of the which acts as a diaphragm, It does this by controlling the size of the Pupil, the clear centre of the iris. The size of the pupil can change rapidly to cater for changing light levels, If the eye observes a close object the pupil becomes smaller and, if the object is at a distance, the pupil becomes larger The amount of light can be adjusted by a factor of 5:1. But this factor is not sufficient to cope with the different light levels experienced between full daylight and a dark night and a further mechanism is required, In reduced light levels a chemical change takes place in the light sensitive cells on the retina which enable them to react to much lower light levels, THE After passing through the pupil the light passes through a clear Lens. Its shape is changed by the muscles (ciliary muscles) surrounding it which allow the final focussing onto the fovea. This change of shape is known as accommodation, The power of a affected by the aging process or fatigue. When a person is tired, accommodation is diminished, resulting in blurred images. modation can be In order to focus clearly on a near object, the lens is thickened. To focus on a distant point, the lens is flattened, ‘The image is inverted and reversed by the lens onto the retina. However the brain perceives the object in the upright position because it considers the inverted image as the normal THE RETINA The re ight sensitive screen lining the inside of the eyeball. On this screen are light- sensitive cells which, when light falls on them, generate a small electrical charge which is passed to the visual cortex of the brain by nerve fibres (neurones) which combine to form the Optic Nerve. The optic nerve enters the back of the eyeball along with the small blood vessels needed (o bring oxygen to the cells of the eye, na is a ‘The light sensitive cell-receptors of the retina are of two types- Rods and Cones. ‘The centre. of the retina is called the fovea (see below) and the receptors in this area are all cones. Moving outwards, the cones become less dense and are gradually replaced by rods, so that in the periphery there are no cones. Vision through the functioning of the Rods is called Scotopic the operation of the Cones is known as Photopie Vis on whereas vision through 5-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 5.6 Mesopie Vision is that when both the Rods and Cones are in operation, a) Cones The cones are used for direct vision in good light and are colour-sensitive. Each con has its own neurone and thus can detect very fine detail. The human eye is capable of distinguishing approximately 1,000 different shades of colour. b) Rods The maximum density of rods is found about 10° from the fovea, Several rods are connected to the brain by a single neurone. The rods can only detect black and white but are much more sensitive at lower light levels. As light decreases, the sensing task is passed over from the cones to the rods, This means that in poor light levels we see only in black or white or varying shades of grey. Rods are responsible for our peripheral vision. At night time, with a dimly lit fight deck, the colour of instruments must be bright enough for cone vision to be used. Rods and cones are the nerve endings of the optic nerve, Thus, as an extension of the brain, they are very much affected by a shortage of oxygen, excess of alcohol, drugs or medication, Icis worth noting that the human eye has approximately 1.2 million neurones leading from the retina to the visual cortex of the brain, while there are only about 50,000 from the inner ears. The eye is about 24 times more sensitive than the ear, THE FOVEA AND VISUAL ACUITY Fovea ‘The central part of the retina, the Fovea, is composed only of cone cells. Anything that needs, to be examined in detail is automatically brought to focus on the fovea. The rest of the retina fulfils the function of attracting our attention to movement and change. Only at the fovea is vision 20/20 or 6/6. This is termed as Central Vision. ‘The Visual Field comprises of both the Central and Peripheral vision. Visual Acuity ‘This is a measure of central vision and the figures above are a means of measuring visual . tis the ability to discriminate at varying distances. An individual with an acuity of 20/ 20 vision should be able to see at 20 feet that which the so-called normal person is capable of ing at this range. It is sometimes expressed in metres iv. 6/6. The figures 20/40 (or 6/12) mean that the observer can read at 20 feet what a normal person can read at 40 feet (6 /12 metres). Any resolving power at the fovea drops rapidly as the angular distance from the fovea increases, At as little as 5° from the fovea the acuity drops to 20/40 that is half as good as at the fovea. At approximately 25° acuity decreases to a tenth (20/200). See Figure 5.2 below 5-3 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 66 20/20 Relative Visual Activity 62 20/40 6/60 20/200 60 40 2 oO 2 40 60 Degrees ecentric from fovea Figure 5.2 The change in acuity across the retina Limitations of acuity. In effect acuity will be limited by many factors among which are : a) Angular distance from the fovea b) Physical imperfections within the visual system, °) Age d) Hypoxia. ° Smoking, fy Alcohol, 2 Visibility (dust mist ete.) hy Amount of light available i) Size and contours of an obje: i) Distance of the object from the viewer. k) Contrast of an object with its surroundings p Relative motion of a moving object. m) Drugs or medication, LIGHT AND DARK ADAPTATION Light Adaptation. When experiencing sudden high levels of illumination the eye q adjusts (approximately 10 seconds), However: iekly if a person has been in bright light for a long time, large proportions of the photochemieals in both the cones and rods are reduced thereby reducing the sensitivity of the eye to light. Thus going quickly from outside on a sunny day into a darkened room has the effect of vision being severely reduced until dark adaptation takes place. 5-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION Dark Adaptation On the other hand, if the person in darkness for a long time the reverse takes place and both the cones and rods gradually become super-sensitive to light so that even the minutest amount of light causes excitement of the receptors. |GHT VISION (SCOTOPIC VISION) You may have noticed that in dim light it is easier to focus on an object if you look slightly away from it. As the fovea contains no rods, which would be required for vision in very low brightness levels, the centre part of the eye becomes blind to dim light. Itis then necessary to look away from the visual target so that the peripherally located rods can perform their sensing task. This is most noticeable when night flying You can demonstrate this to yourself by looking at dim stars on a clear night, Some of them will be invisible with direct viewing but will be discernable if you look 10° to 15° off to one side. I takes time for our eyes to adapt to darkness. This adaptation does take time - about 7 minutes for the cones and 30 minutes for the rods. However even a brief exposure to bright light will require a further period of adaptation to recov r effective night vision, It is good airmanship to avoid bright lights about 30 minutes prior to a night flight, Itis also advisable to turn up cockpit lights when approaching a weather pattern which might produce the possibility of lightning. It is possible that fatigue may also necessitate the increase of instrument ligt From sea level to 3,000m is known as the “indifferent zone” because ordinary daytime vision is unaffected up to this altitude, There is, however, a slight impairment of night vision. Without supplemental oxygen, the average percent decrease in night vision capability is: 5% at 1,100 metres 18% at 2,800 metres 35% at 4,000 metres 50% at 5,000 metres ‘The most common factors affecting night vision are = a) Age (see Presbyopia later in this Chapter) b) Mild hypoxia ©) Cabin altitudes above 8,000 ft d) Smoking (a consumption of 20 cigarettes a day results in a night vision degradation of approximately 20%) ©} Alcohol {Minor illnesses Deficiency of vitamin ‘A’ 5-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 59 5.10 ‘THE BLIND SPOT. ‘The point on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eyeball has no covering of light- detecting cells. Any image falling at this point will not be detected. This has great significance when considering the detection of objects which are on a constant bearing from the observer, If the eye remains looking straight ahead it is possible for a closing aircraft to remain in the blind spot until a very short time before impact. Safe visual scanning demands frequent eye movement with minimal time spent looking in any direction. ANANW UT) Figure 5.3 The Blind Spot Use Figure 5.3. to demonstrate to yourself the existence of the blind spot. Hold the drawing at arm's length, close the left eye and keep the right eye open. Now move the picture towards the face keeping the right eye focussed on the cross. The aircraft will disappear, then reappear as it gets closer If both eyes of the observer are open and unobscured the blind spot is not a problem as each eye is able to see the detail in the other eye’s blind spot. However there is a very real possibility that an approaching aireraft on a constant bearing will not be seen since it remains in the blind spot of one eye and an object/person within the cockpit is obscuring the aircraft from the pilot's other eye. STEREOPS iS. (STEREOSCOPIC VISION). Some of the optic nerve fibres cross over in the brain, Because one eye is alittle more than 2 inches (5 cms) to one side of the other eye, the images on the two retina are different to one another. This enables the brain to compare the slight differences seen by each eye. The brain interprets this as depth/distance perception. ‘Thus a person with two eyes has a far greater ability 10 judge relative distances when objects are nearby than & person who only has one eye. However Stereopsis is virtually useless for depth perception at distances beyond 200 ft./60m. 5-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION SAL EMPTY VISUAL FIELD MYOPIA In the absence of anything to focus on (Empty Field) the natural focus point of the eye is not at infinity, as was long assumed, but on average at a distance of between just under J metre and 1.5 metres, although there are wide variations between individuals. This is very significant in searching for distant targets when vismal cues are weak, as the eye will not be adjusted to detect them. The condition is aggravated when there are other objects close to the empty field range, rain spots on the windsereen for example, as the eye will naturally be drawn to them, This phenomena can 0 uniformly overcast sky or when resting the eyes. in cloudless skies at high altitudes, in total darkness, under a Aircrew should minimise the risks associated with empty visual field by periodically and deliberately focussing on objects thus exercising the eyes. HIGH LIGHT LEVELS Icis possible for too much light to fall on the eye. Pilots, like Arabs and Eskimos, are exposed to much higher light levels than most people. Very high light levels occur at altitude where light may be reflected from cloud and, more importantly, where there is less scattering of the s by the atmosphere Normal sunlight contains all the colours of the spectrum but at high altitudes pilots are exposed to light that contains more of the high energy blue and ultra violet wavelengths than is experienced at sea level. ‘The higher energy blue light can cause cumulative damage to the retina over a long period, Ultra violet wavelengths can also cause damage, mainly to the lens of the eye, but most are fillered out by the cockpit windows. SUNGLASSES Wearing appropriate sunglasses can provide complete protection against the above problems. When purchasing sunglasses always consult a knowledgeable supplier, Sunglasses. should have the following cl aracteristics ¢ a) Impact resistant. b) ‘Thin metal frames (minimum visual obstruction). ©) Coated with polycarbonate for strength d) Good optical quality. ©) Hayea luminance transmittance of 10-15%. f) Appropriate filtration characteristies. 5-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION a Pilots are strongly advised to avoid using cheap sunglasses as they can allow the light to be over-difflused across the eye thus causing perceptional problems in flight. The use of Polaroid sunglasses should be avoided since problems can occur when used with laminated aireralt windscreens. Light sensitive lenses (Photochromic) are also generally forbidden for use in flight due to the time taken for the lens to clear when moving from a bright situation to one of low light. This delay may significantly reduce visual acuity at a critical time. EYE MOVEMENT. Moyement of the eye is achieved by 6 extraocular muscles that allow movement in two planes; up/down and lefUright. Normally both eyes move together to view an object. The surface of the eye is lubricated by a liquid secreted by the lacrimal glands. ‘Tears are drained by the tear duets into the nose. At low humidity levels the eyes can hecome dry and may feel painful. ‘Tears also have a slight antiseptic property. VISUAL DEF! HCTS Most visual defects are caused by the distorted shape of the eyeball. a) Hypermetropia. In long sightedness, Hypermetropia, a shorter than normal eyeball along the visual axis results in the image being formed behind the retina and, unless the combined refractive index of the comea and the lens can combine to focus the image in the cor- rect plane, a blurring of the vision will result when looking at close objects. A convex lens will overcome this refractive error by bending the light inwards before it meets the cornea. b) ightedness, Myopia, the problem is that the eyeball is longer than normal and the image forms in front of the retina. If accommodation cannot overcome this, then distant objects are out of focus whilst close up vision may be satisfactory. A concave lens will correct the situation by bending the light outwards before it hits the cornea. Pilots with either hypermetropia or myopia may usually retain their licences, provided that their corrected vision allows them to read normal small print in good lighting at a distance of 30 cms and have at least 6/9 vision in each eye. This is equivalent to reading a car number-plate at about 40 metres, as compared to the driving test requirement of 23 metres. Bifocal spectacles may be used when flying. ©) Presbyopia. The ability of the Jens to change its shape and therefore focal length (accommodation) depends on its elasticity and normally this is gradually lost with age. Alter the age of 40 to 50 the lens is usually unable to accommodate fully and a form of long-sightedness known as Presbyopia occurs. The effects start with difficulty in reading small print in poor light. The condition normally requires a minor correction with a weak convex lens, Half lenses or look-over spectacles will suffice. 5-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE ‘THE EYE AND VISION NORMAL SHAPED EYE SHORTENED | EYE HYPERMETROPIA - LONGSIGHTEDNESS (CURED BY CONVEX LENS)| ELONGATED EYE MYOPIA - SHORT SIGHTEDNESS (CURED BY CONCAVE LENS} Myopia Concave lens Hypermetropia Convex lens Figure 5.5 Correction of Myopia with a concave lens and correction of hypermetropia with a concave lens Red line = Uncorrected vision Blue line = Corrected vision 5-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 5.16 d) Astigmatism. ‘The surface of a healthy comea is spheroidal in shape. Astigmatism is usually caused hy a misshapen or oblong cornea and objects will appear irregularly shaped. Although astigmatism can be cured by the use of cylindrical lenses, modern surgical techniques can reshape the cornea with a scalpel or, more easily, with laser techniques. ce) Cataraets. Cataracts are normally associated with the a use cataracts at any age. With time, the lens can become cloudy causing a marked loss of vision. For severe cases, traditional surgery is carried out in which a section of the lens is removed and replaced with an artificial substitute. Surgery utilises local anaesthesia on an out-patient basis and, following successful treatment, pilots will normally be allowed to return to flying. igeing process though some diseases can 1) Glaucoma, Glaucoma is a disease of the eye which causes a pressure rise of the liquid around the eye (aqueous humor). The fluid protects the lens and nourishes the cornea. It passes through a small shutter which can either be flawed or can become jammed causing a rise_in pressure of the eye. The normal pressure range is 10 - 20 mm Hg. Glaucoma damages the optic nerve and may cause severe pain and even blindness. Part of the JAA medical examination is a test for Glaucoma. The cure can either be by eye drops (Timitol) or by an operation in which a hole is made in the shutter. Glaucoma can be inherited or may result from the aging process, The main symptoms of Glaucoma are: i) Acute pain in the eye ii) Blurred vision ili) Sensitivity to high light levels iv) Visual field deterioration v) Red discolouration of the eye Aircrew who haye to wear spectacles are required to carry a spare pair during flight, USE OF CONTACT LENSES Contact lenses provide better peripheral vision and are not subject to misting. Therefore many pilots are attracted to the idea of wearing them instead of spectacles, But there are a number of problems a) As the cornea does not have its own blood supply, it obtains its oxygen from the ambi ent ait. Mild Hypoxia and dehydration, caused by low humidity on the flight deck, increase the potential for cornea damage when using contact lenses. b) Cabin decompression may result in bubble formation under the contact lens. ©) The lens may be dislodged by careless rubbing of the eyes (for example when the humidity is low), a accidental knock or increased G forces. Whereas the use of contact lenses by aircrew is permitied, under authorised medical supervision, bi-focal contact lenses are prohibited. 5-10 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 5.17 Note: Should a pilot be cleared by the Authorities to use contact lenses for flying it will be on the proviso that a pair of ordinary spectacles is carried at all times while practising the privileges of hishher licence. COLOUR VISION Good colour vision is essential for flight crew because of use of colour associated with the following : a) Navigation lights of aircraft. b) Runways and airfields. ©) Ground obstructions. @) Cockpit displays and instruments, ©) Maps and charts. f) —_ Emergeney flares. 2) Light sig COLOUR BLINDNESS ‘Total colour-blindness is a bar to the issue of a flying licence. It is caused by a defect in the structure of the colour-sensitive cones in the retina - normally when a single group is missing. Whereas total colour blindness is extremely rare, many people suffer from this defect to a degree (colour defective). The most common form is red/green blindness. These colours are seen in shades of yellow, brown or grey. It does not affect acuity and many people go through their lives with no knowledge that they suffer from this imperfection Colour blindness is rare in women, however they do act as ci congenital flaw. jers of this incurable and VISION AND SPEED In high speed flight (greater than approximately 450 knots), particularly at very low altitudes of below 500 ft,, the principle problem is extension of the total reaction time (visual input, brain reaction, perception, recognition, evaluation, decision, action and response), In the ideal circumstances this takes about 5-7 seconds. Although many factors - including workload and fatigue - may prolong this period, it is the initial triggering of visual input, brain reaction, perception and recognition (or the “visual perception caseade)” that is especially important. In perfect conditions the visual perception cascade takes approximately 1 second however the following factors may extend this time period : a) Poor atmospheric conditions. b) Darkness. ©) Size and contrast of object. d) Angular approach. An aircraft, for example, approaching head-on will stimulate the retina less than one tracking tangentially across the visual field, 5-11 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION 5.20 MONOCUL AND BINOCULAR VISION Binocular vision is not essential for flying and there are many one-eyed (monocular) pilots, currently flying. However should a pilot lose an eye it normally takes some time for the brain to learn to compensate for the Joss of binocular vision and for the individual to regain hissher medical certificate, However, a one-eyed person cannot he accepted by JAR as fit to fly.HUMAN PERFORMANCE THE EYE AND VISION CHAPTERS - REVISION QUESTIONS ‘What part of the eye bends the most light ? a) b) °) ad Which part of the eye has the best visual acuil The cornea The lens ‘The pupil ‘The retina a) ‘The retina b) The fovea ©) The lens d) The cornea ‘The resolving power of the fovea decreases rapidly __from its centre a) 5° b) 13° 16 oy 3 d) 2°to 3° What is “empty field myopia” a) Itis a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus at infinity. Icis a term used when the eye, iff it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus between 4 to 6 metres It is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus between 10 to 12 metres Ic is a term used when the eye, if it has nothing on which to focus will tend to focus between just under I to 1.5 metres What causes long or short sightedness ? a) by ° d) Presbyopia Astigmatism Distortion of the eyeball Distortion of the cornea 5-13 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE, lo. Is a pilot allowed to fly wearing bi-focal contact lenses ? a) b) °) d) ‘What part of the spectrum should sunglasses filter out ? a) b) °) ad) Whaat four f a) b) ©) d) Cones detect a) b) °) d) Yes Yes , if cleared to do so by a qualified Aviation Specialist Yes, if cleared to do so by the Authority No ‘The red and UV end of the spectrum ‘The blue and UV end of the spectrum All high intensity light UV only tors effect night vision ? Age, alcohol, altitude and smoking Age, altitude, Instrument lights and smoking Instrument lights, alcohol, altitude and smoking Age, alcohol, altitude and instrument lights Black and white fovea Colour fovea Black and white retina Colour entry point and are mostly concentrated on THE EYE AND VISION ‘What is the recommended course of action if encountering an electrical storm during flight? a) b) °) d) Where is the “Blind Spot” a) b) ° d) Pull the visors down Turn the cockpit lights down Turn the cockpit lights to full Put on sunglasses if available On the iris On the fovea On the edge of the lens At the entrance to the optic nerve 5-14 © Oxford Avietion Servioas LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE ‘THE EYE AND VISION 12, Peripheral vision is looked after by the a) Rods b) Cones ©) Rods and cones d)— Fovea Does lack of oxygen affect sight ? a) Yes b) No ©) Sometimes d) —_It-depends on the health of the individual ‘The amount of light allowed to enter the eye is controlled by the : a) Corea b) Retina ©) his d) — Fovea Accommodation is controlled by the : a) Ciliary muscles b) Iris ©) Lens d)—— Comea The maximum number of rods are found ._ from the fovea a) 10° b) 20° 1S? 30° Dark adaption takes about .orcedOF the F008 AN nse for the cones a) 30 minutes? minutes b) 7 minutes30 minutes ° 15 minutes20 minutes d) 25 minutes45 minutes 5-15 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedHUMAN PERFORMANCE 18, 19, 20. 22. Stereopsis is associated with : a) Night fying b) Depth perception ©) Acuity Colour blindness Hypermetropia is caused by a... a) BlongatedConvex by ShortenedConcave ¢) — ShortenedConvex d) — BlongatedConcave Astigmatism is normally associated with the a) Retina bd) Fovea ©) Tris d) Cornea Glaucoma is caused by : a) An increase in the pressure of the eye b) A decrease in the pressure of the eye ce) A defect of the comea @) A defect of the retina Cataracts are associated with the a) Retina b) Tear ducts ©) Tris d) Lens Does colour blindness affect acuity ? a) Yes b) No 5-16 eyeball and is corrected by a ‘THE EYE AND VISION © Oxford Aviation Services Limited