ENGINEERING
11. S. Gahr and H.K. Birnbaum, Acta Metall. 26(1978): pp. 1781-1788.
12. L.A. Gypen. M. Brabers, and A. Deruyttere, Werkst und Korros. 35. 2(1984): pp.
37-46.
13. W.A. Spitzig, C.V. Owen. and T.E. Scott, Met. Trans. A 17A(May 1986): pp.
853-858.
14. M.W. Mahoney and N.E. Paton. J. of Engineering Materials and Technology
96(July 1974): pp. 201-206.
15. L.M. Adelsberg, G.P. St. Pierre. and R. Speiser, Trans. Met. Soc. AIME
239(1967): p. 490.
16. B. Ladna. C.M. Loxton, and H.K. Birnbaum. Acta Met. 34(1986): pp. 899-904.
17. J.E. Battles et al., Research on the Oxidation Behavior of Tungsten," ARL 62-
324. April 1962.
18. W.M. Allrecht, W.D. Goode. and M.W. Mallett. J. of the Electrochemical Society
106(Nov. 1959): pp. 981-986.
19. E. Veleckis, "The Thermodynamic Properties of the System Nb-H. V-H. and
Ta-H." Ph.D. thesis (ASTIA AD282433) (Chicago. IL: Illinois Institute of Technol-
ogy. January 1960).
20. B.C. Allen, E.S. Bartlett. and B.A. Wilcox, "Elevated-Temperature Ductility Minima
A New Practical Index
for Calcium Carbonate Scale Prediction
in Cooling Tower Systems
P.R. Puckorius* and J.M. Brooke**
ABSTRACT
Some calcium carbonate scaling indexes are shown to be inef-
fective and inaccurate in concentrated cooling tower water at pH
levels above 7.5. In addition, there is a misunderstanding by
many water treatment vendors on the use of the indexes. This has
resulted in confusion by both end-users and vendors. More im-
portantly, these indexes are shown to be inaccurate and ineffec-
tive for calcium carbonate scale prediction. This paper will review
many of the available indexes, the basis for their calculations,
how they compare, and which are effective in cooling water sys-
tems.
The development of a new index was started over 10 years
ago and has been verified in operating systems. Since most cool-
ing water treatment programs now operate at a pH level above
7.5 and as high as 9+, the index provides a more accurate and
practical estimation of calcium carbonate scaling tendencies.
Case histories are provided to show a comparison with other in-
dexes, such as the Ryznar and Langelier indexes.
KEY WORDS: calcareous coating, calcium carbonate scale,
cooling, cooling water inhibitors, cooling water system, corrosiv-
ity, inhibitors, Langelfer index, pH changes and effects, predictive
calculations, scaling, water
Submitted for publication August 1990. Presented as paper no. 99 at
CORROSION /90 in Las Vegas, Nevada, April 1990.
*Puckorius & Associates Inc., 1202 Highway 74, Suite 210, P.O. Box 2440,
Evergreen, CO 80439.
"Puckorius & Associates, Inc., 912 Old Ocean Ave., Sweeny, TX 77480.
0010-9312/91 /000085/$3.00/0
280 © 1991, National Association of Corrosion Engineers CORROSION -April 1991
and Creep Strengthening of Coated and Uncoated Columbium Alloys," Final Re-
port Contract No. AF33(615)-1727 (Columbus, OH: Battelle Memorial Institute,
1966).
21. M.L. Torti. "Development of Tantalum-Tungsten Alloys for High Performance Pro-
pulsion System Components." unpublished data obtained from Contract No.
NOrd-18787. National Research Corp. (1959-1961).
22. A.S. Rabensteine. "Tensile and Creep Rupture Properties of Tantalum-10%
Tungsten Alloy Sheet," Marquardt Corp., Contract No. AF33(657)-8706, Report
PR 281-10-2 (Sept. 12. 1962).
23. A.H. Cottrell and B.H. Bilby. Proc. Phys. Soc. 62(1949): pp. 49-62.
24. C.R. McKinsey, A.L. Mincher, W.F. Shealy, and J.L. Wilson, `Investigation of
Tungsten-Tantalum-Columbium-Base Alloys," ASD Technical Report 61-3, July
1961.
25. P.L. Hendricks and J.W. Spretnak, Trans. AIME 236(1966): pp. 1657-1661.
26. G.G. Bantle and W.T. Chandler, "Effects of Hydrogen Environments on Colum-
bium and Tantalum Alloys." AFML-TR-66-322, Part II, September 1968.
27. W.D. Klopp. "Oxidation Behavior and Protective Coatings for Columbium and Co-
lumbium-Base Alloys." DMIC Report 123 (Columbus, OH: Battelle Memorial Insti-
tute. January 15. 1966).
INTRODUCTION
In the past, calcium carbonate scale prediction in water systems
has relied upon various indexes. Most of these indexes have been
developed for drinking water. Those most commonly used for cool-
ing water have been the Langelier and the Ryznar indexes. These
indexes have often been referred to as the saturation index
(Langelier [LSI]) and the stability index (Ryznar [RSI]), based on
the saturation pH of calcium carbonate (Table 1). The develop-
ment of the Langelier was for potable water quality rather than for
cooling water. The same is true for the Ryznar index. However,
the Ryznar index has been more meaningful and accurate for
cooling water than the Langelier index, even though many still use
this index for cooling tower water scale predictions.
Several problems occur in the use of the Langelier and Ryz-
nar indexes. One problem is that the results obtained by each in-
dex often do not agree. With the same water characteristics, the
Langelier index can indicate scale whereas the Ryznar index, no
scale. Another problem is that both indexes can predict scale and
in actual practice, none occurs. These results cause confusion for
system operators in the prediction of the calcium carbonate scal-
ing tendency in cooling tower waters.
Both the Langelier and Ryznar indexes are only for the pre-
diction of calcium carbonate scale and the degree at which it will
occur. When the indexes indicate no scale to be produced, the
values based on these indexes have been interpreted to mean
corrosiveness of the water (Table 2).
As we know, the Langelier index provides values that are
positive or negative. The positive numbers indicate scale, with an
increasing scaling tendency as the numbers get larger. Negative
numbers indicate no scale. They are often interpreted as corrosiv-
 ENGINEERING
These two developments have caused considerable confu-
TABLE 1 sion and frustration for end-users and even for some water treat-
Calcium Carbonate Scale Indexes ment service companies since the indexes do not relate to actual
operating results.
Langelier's Saturation Index (LS1) A major concern is that the Langelier and Ryznar indexes no
LSI = pH ac , - pH s + = scale longer provide valid information with the current treatment controls.
- = no scale This concern has resulted in an extensive study by the authors of
hundreds of cooling water systems from the mid-1970s to the cur-
Ryznar's Stability Index (RSI) rent period.

RSI = 2pH 3 - pH,, >6 = no scale

<6 = scale NEW INDEX DEVELOPED

Practical Scale Index (PSI) As a result of this study, Puckorius and Brooke have devel-
oped the practical scale index (PSI), which provides a more accu-
PSI = 2pH 5 - pH. >6 = no scale rate indication of the calcium carbonate scaling tendency of cool-
<6 = scale ing water. The net result for the end-user is a much more
effective, practical tool to predict calcium carbonate scaling ten-
dencies of water and to optimize inhibitor dosages for scale con-
pH s pH of saturation
trol, often cutting treatment costs.
pHact Actual measured pH
The basis of this index is the pH of saturation of calcium car-
pH. Equilibrium pH based
on the total alkalinity value bonate, which is also the basis for both the Langelier and Ryznar
(see alkalinity pH e charts) indexes. To illustrate this, we will show how the PSI is calculated,
what values are used in its development, and how the PSI com-
pares with other indexes.
The PSI value is obtained with the following calculation:
TABLE 2

Scaling Severity Keyed to Indexes PSI = 2pH s - pH e (1)

LSI PSI/RSI Condition The pH s is the pH of saturation of calcium carbonate and is easily
developed using tables, slide rules, or computers.' The pH s is cal-
3.0 3.0 Extremely severe culated using the following parameters of the cooling water: (1)
2.0 4.0 Very severe total dissolved solids, (2) temperature of bulk water, (3) calcium
1.0 5.0 Severe hardness (as CaCO 3 ), and (4) total alkalinity (as CaCO 3 ). Each
0.5 5.5 Moderate parameter provides a factor developed by Langelier, Ryznar, and
0.2 5.8 Slight Larson 2-4
0.0 6.0 Stable water The pH s value is used in the formulas developed by Lange-
6.5 No scaling, very slight tendency
lier, Ryznar, and the authors. However, the measured pH value is
to dissolve scale
7.0 No scaling, slight tendency to not used in the calculation of the PSI, as in the other indexes. The
-0.5
dissolve scale basic concept is that the PSI converts the total alkalinity value,
-1.0 8.0 No scaling, moderate tendency which is used in the initial calculation of the pH s values, to an
to dissolve scale equilibrium pH (pH.), which is used in the PSI calculation. The
-2.0 9.0 No scaling, strong tendency to pH e resulted from the study of hundreds of actual case histories
dissolve scale recorded and evaluated by the authors over the past 12 to 15
-3.0 10.0 No scaling, very strong years. Brooke studied the water qualities and developed the math-
tendency to dissolve scale ematical formula

(A) No scaling, no tendency to dissolve scale. pH e = 1.485 log TA + 4.54 (2)

ity of the water and, as the negative numbers get larger, an in-
crease in corrosivity, or more appropriately, the scale-dissolving
tendencies (Table 2).
The Ryznar index has values that are always positive. The
value 6.0 is considered stable water. Any numbers lower than 6.0
indicate scaling tendencies and greater intensity as the number
gets smaller. Likewise, the opposite occurs when the numbers rise
above 6.0, the water is scale dissolving or often interpreted as cor-
rosiveness of the water (Table 2).
The use of these indexes has been greatly limited by two re-
cent developments. First, new treatment chemical programs, oper-
ating at pH levels above 7.5, often between 8 and 9.5, have re-
sulted in greater inaccuracies with these indexes. A second
development that has affected the indexes is the use of new scale
inhibitors. Many chemicals used are solubilizing inhibitors. The in-
dexes are effective for this type of inhibitor. A second group of
new inhibitors, known as crystal modification inhibitors, allows
scale to occur. Because scale ingredients are removed from the
cooling water, these indexes are ineffective.
for predicting the equilibrium pH based on the total alkalinity val-
ues as established in these case histories. A detailed reference
table is used for obtaining the proper pH 0 for the total alkalinity
measured (Table 3). The net result has been the development of
an index that provides a more accurate and useful value for pre-
dicting scale formation.
Verification of the PSI under practical, actual cooling system
operating conditions has been obtained, resulting in much greater
meaning from an operational standpoint than a theoretical stand-
point, or laboratory testing as used for the LSI and RSI.
The case histories used in evaluating the LSI, RSI, and PSI
incorporated evaluations of actual scale tendencies in the heat
exchange equipment of the cooling water systems. Also, scale-
monitoring test units were often involved in measuring the amount
and extent of calcium carbonate scale formation.
However, as its importance will be shown later in this paper,
actual monitoring for scaling tendencies should always be done
and the ultimate criteria should not be the index to predict scaling
tendencies but the use of monitoring tools simulating actual plant

CORROSION—Vol. 47, No. 4 281

ENGINEERING
operations. Monitoring the system at the specific operating condi-
tions is crucial to determine whether scale is occurring and to what
degree. Then this criteria may be used to modify or readjust the
index if necessary.
BASIS OF THE PRACTICAL SCALE INDEX
To show how these indexes compare, we will illustrate the
validity of the PSI and how the indexes vary from actual operating
conditions.
After calculating the pH s value to develop the PSI, the next
value that must be obtained is the equilibrium pH, pH e . This pH
value was originally drawn from historical information on several
hundred different cooling water analyses over the past 12 to 15
years. This pH e value is derived from the total alkalinity measured
by standard titration of the water:
pH e = 1.485 log TA + 4.54 (3)
where TA denotes total alkalinity (Table 3). For example, a total
alkalinity of 150 ppm would have a pH. value of 7.73, while a total
alkalinity of 510 ppm would have a pH e value of 8.51.
It would be worthwhile at this time to discuss why this equilib-
rium pH is used rather than the actual pH that is measured. First
of all, the pH that is measured is certainly correct for a pH mea-
surement of the water when promptly taken, but it does not relate
directly to the tendencies of the water for calcium carbonate scale
formation at pH 7.5 and above, particularly in the pH range of 8.5
to 9.0.
The basis for this reasoning is quite fundamental. Calcium
carbonate scale cannot form from anything except calcium ions
and bicarbonate or carbonate ions found in the water. Specifically,
the most soluble bicarbonate ions are engaged in the formation of
calcium carbonate scale by the following simple equation:
Ca(HCO 3 2 —. CaCO 3 + H 2 O
)
The calcium bicarbonate will react under heat and water to form
calcium carbonate scale, a traditionally understood reaction. With
cooling water treatment programs of higher pH, there are fewer
(often none) bicarbonate ions and more carbonate and hydroxide
ions present in the water. The presence of hydroxide is not un-
usual in waters of pH 9+. The number of bicarbonate ions is
much less above pH 8.3. The predominate species are carbonates
and hydroxides.
The simple question arises: Can calcium carbonate scale
form only with hydroxide alkalinity and calcium hardness? The an-
swer is no. However, with a blend of hydroxide alkalinity and car-
bonate ion, scale can form but at a greatly reduced rate because
the presence of carbonate is much reduced in the water. The
chemical treatment programs in use today result in higher pH val-
ues where less carbonate/bicarbonate is present and more hy-
droxide alkalinity occurs.
What has been done to eliminate the hydroxide effect on the
pH as used in the Ryznar and Langelier indexes? The carbonate
and bicarbonate ions, the most important factor, produce a lesser
effect on the pH than hydroxide ion. Since these are the only two
ions that will form calcium carbonate with calcium hardness, the
elimination of the hydroxide effect on pH is very important to ob-
tain a valid index for predicting calcium carbonate scale. The Ryz-
nar index and Langelier index use the actual pH measurement,
which results in a prediction of a greater scaling tendency when, in
fact, there is not.
282 CORROSION —April 1991
INDEX COMPARISONS
We would like to illustrate the discrepancy in this prediction
with six case histories. The first two cases are cooling water sys-
tems using lime-softened makeup water. Often a low total alkalin-
ity and high pH occurs. The tests show how the different indexes
compare (Table 4). As can be seen, the Langelier index shows
both these waters to have a very severe scaling tendency, the
Ryznar index indicates both to be moderately scale forming, and
the practical scale index indicates both to be non-scale forming.
Both waters have a slight to moderate tendency to dissolve scale
and are frequently interpreted as being slight to moderately corro-
sive. In actual practice, both these waters are non-scaling and are
corrosive.
Both the Langelier and Ryznar indexes would predict the wa-
ter as being very scale-forming in tendency and requiring a scale
inhibitor. These predictions are found in actual practice of the
Langelier and Ryznar indexes. The PSI indicates no scaling ten-
dency of the water and no need for scale inhibitor. Certainly, the
big question is which index is correct. These examples showed no
scaling tendency of the waters and, in fact, the waters are very
aggressive, with considerable corrosion or scale-dissolving quali-
ties. One aspect of the investigation illustrates that the total alka-
linity at 50 ppm or 100 ppm shows an actual measured pH of 9.5
and 8.9, which cannot have any bicarbonate alkalinity present and
little carbonate. Hydroxide alkalinity is the predominate species of
alkalinity. Therefore, the waters are unlikely to have calcium car-
bonate scale to the extent as shown by either the Langelier or the
Ryznar index.
Additional examples of the variations shown by the different
indexes are shown in Table 5.
As noted by these four cases, the Langelier index in all ex-
amples shows a scaling tendency and, in most cases, a moderate
to severe scaling tendency. The Ryznar index shows two exam-
ples with scaling tendencies and two with non-scaling tendencies.
The calculations for the PSI shows that all four cases are non-
scale forming. These values were all verified by monitoring for cal-
cium carbonate scale formation by system inspection and deposit
monitors, and no scale was found. All four case histories involved
the use of scale inhibitors, and upon their discontinuation, no scale
formed. This was verified by standard monitoring techniques de-
scribed in the referenced paper.'
IMPACT OF TREATMENT CHEMICALS
It is important to consider the different chemical treatments
that can be present in the cooling water system and how this will
impact the validity of the indexes. Let us first take the phosphate
treatment programs used extensively today in place of chromates.
With a phosphate-based program, the PSI, LSI, and RSI cannot
be used because calcium phosphate is the controlling scaling spe-
cies, not calcium carbonate. If any of these indexes are used, as
has been done by a number of vendors, the results are in error
and invalid. This is often misleading to the end-user who believes
the indexes are providing valid information. These indexes cannot
be effectively used with a phosphate-based treatment program.
However, if the treatment programs are using zinc, molyb-
date, or chromate, and no phosphate is present, the predominant
species that will occur from a scaling tendency is often calcium
carbonate. In this case, the indexes can be used; however, it
should be remembered that if any phosphate is present, even from
the degradation of phosphonates, the index is not accurate to the
extent of phosphate present.
In the process of evaluating these indexes, a variety of differ-
ent inhibitor programs were being used in the cooling systems.
Usually, various phosphonates and polyacrylates were being
added either alone or in combination. The water quality was evalu-
 ENGINEERING

TABLE 3
Equilibrium pH (pH 6) Used
to Calculate the Practical Scale Index (A)

Tens
Hundreds 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 6.00 6.45 6.70 6.89 7.03 7.14 7.24 7.33 7.40

100 7.47 7.53 7.59 7.64 7.68 7.73 7.77 7.81 7.84 7.88
200 7.91 7.94 7.97 8.00 8.03 8.05 8.08 8.10 8.15 8.15
300 8.17 8.19 8.21 8.23 8.25 8.27 8.29 8.30 8.32 8.34
400 8.35 8.37 8.38 8.40 8.41 8.43 8.44 8.46 8.47 8.48
500 8.49 8.51 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.56 8.57 8.58 8.59 8.60
600 8.61 8.62 8.63 8.64 8.65 8.66 8.67 8.67 8.68 8.70
700 8.71 8.72 8.73 8.74 8.74 8.75 8.76 8.77 8.78 8.79
800 8.79 8.80 8.81 8.82 8.82 8.83 8.84 8.85 8.85 8.86
900 8.87 8.88 8.88 8.89 8.90 8.90 8.91 8.92 8.92 8.93

(A) pH e = 1.485 log TA + 4.54; total alkalinity (ppm CaCO 3 )

TABLE 4 TABLE 5
Index Comparisons Index Variations

Water Quality/Conditions Case Number

Condition Case No. 1 Case No. 2 Condition 3 4 5 6

Temperature (°F) 120 110 Temperature (°F) 110 120 110 110
TDS (ppm) 1000 1500 TDS (ppm) 1000 1000 1000 3000
Calcium hardness (ppm) 200 250 Calcium hardness (ppm) 500 500 100 800
Total alkalinity (ppm) 50 100 Total alkalinity (ppm) 50 100 200 60
pH (measured) 9.5 8.9 pH (measured) 7.5 8.2 8.8 7.8
pH s (calculated) 7.47 7.16 pH s (calculated) 7.15 6.77 7.25 6.90
pH e (from chart) 7.03 7.47 pH 8 (estimated) 7.03 7.47 7.91 7.14
Index Index
Langelier (LSI) +2.03 +1.74 Langelier (LSI) +0.35 +1.43 +1.55 +0.90
Ryznar (RSI) 5.44 5.42 Ryznar (RSI) 6.80 5.34 5.70 6.00
Practical (PSI) 7.91 6.85 Practical (PSI) 7.27 6.07 6.59 6.66
Actual conditions No scale in all examples

ated to determine the scaling tendencies of the water and the ef-
fectiveness of the inhibitor. This provided a basis for evaluation of
different dosages and an extrapolation of the effectiveness of
these inhibitors under various scaling tendencies. The result is that
inhibitor concentrations can be optimized to prevent excessive-
treatment levels. Often much lower treatment costs can be real-
ized and the use of a scale inhibitor may even be eliminated when
it is unnecessary.
It is not unusual to obtain cost reductions of 50 to 75 percent
from the recommended dosages of the vendors. In a number of
cases, it was shown that no scale inhibitors were necessary be-
cause the water was truly non-scale forming. This was verified
when the scale inhibitor was eliminated and no scale occurred.
Inhibitor programs for calcium carbonate scale involve three
basic varieties that are common today. 6 The older treatment pro-
grams use two phosphonates, 1-hydroxy-ethylidine-1, 1-diphos-
phonic acid (HEDP) and amino-methylene phosphonic acid (AMP).
Newer phosphonates are also very effective for calcium carbonate
scale control. These all perform by increasing the solubility of cal-
cium scale components and are frequently referred to as solubiliz-
ing inhibitors. They affect the scaling indexes by shifting the stable
water value for the indexes to different values, usually 4 to 5.
The second basic scale-control chemical used is the
polyacrylates, also identified as polyacrylic acids. These products
also solubilize scale and shift the stable water value as high as
4.5.
The third class of inhibitors are not principally solubilizers;
they are mainly crystal modifiers. The modifiers are products such
as polymaleic acid (PMA), sulfonated styrene maleic anhydride
(SSMA), high-molecular-weight polyacrylamides, and some copoly-
mers. These inhibitors prevent the use of the indexes because
they allow scale to occur, but modify the scale crystals to a nonad-
herent form, and thus, do not stick to heat transfer surfaces. When
an index value is calculated on these programs, the index is
slightly on the scale-forming or non-scaling side (5.8 to 6.0). The
higher scaling values developed with other treatments are never
obtained because the water is in a precipitation or scaling mode
and the scale is being formed as sludge or suspended solids con-
ditioned by these new inhibitors.
There are treatment programs that use both the solubilizing
inhibitors like HEDP or polyacrylate along with the crystal modifi-
ers. This means that the system is in a solubilizing mode before
these inhibitors are exceeded and pass into a precipitation mode.
Thus, the index can be used to predict scale, but less effectively in
the absence of the crystal modifiers.
Our study of many cooling tower system waters has resulted
in the use of the PSI to quantify the amount of certain scale inhibi-
tors to be used at various scaling tendencies. The phosphonate
HEDP for calcium carbonate scale control can be used at the lev-
els and scale tendencies shown in Table 6. The other
phosphonate, AMP, is very similar. These levels are as "active"
phosphonate, not as the formulation.

CORROSION-Vol. 47, No. 4 283

ENGINEERING
TABLE 6
Phosphonate Inhibitor Dosages
for Calcium Carbonate Scale Control
Practical Scale
Dosage HEDP Dosage Polyacrylate
Index Value
(ppm) Active (ppm) Active
Stable Water (A)
0.0 6.0
0.5 5.5
1.0 5.1
2.0 4.6
3.0 4.0
4.0 3.9
5.0 4.0
10.0 4.6
(A) Stable water; no scaling, no tendency to
dissolve scale.
When determining the PSI or scaling tendency of the water, if
the PSI is appropriate for your system conditions, the inhibitor lev-
els can be adjusted to control calcium carbonate scale without us-
ing an excessive amount of inhibitor. Substantial cost reductions
are possible by eliminating these overdosage levels.
For example, if a PSI value of 5.5 is obtained for the water
quality in the cooling water system, then a dosage for HEDP,
which should be maintained in the system, is 0.5 ppm. Even if a
safety factor of 50 percent or higher is used, this would mean a
dosage of 0.8 ppm. This could involve a substantial reduction in
chemical usage particularly if the current use level is from 3 to 5
ppm of HEDP. The result is greater than 80 percent savings. If the
PSI value is 4.6, a savings of 50 percent is likely. Notice that
HEDP and other phosphonates have a limit as to how much scale-
driving force can be controlled. The PSI limit is roughly 4.0, al-
though 3.9 does occur in the chart but reverses back up again.
The increased scaling tendency actually decreases the ability of
the phosphonate to prevent calcium carbonate scale. The effect is
that calcium phosphonate scale forms. The hardness reacts with
the inhibitor giving a net result of decreased effectiveness.
The second category, polyacrylates of a molecular weight
from 1000 to 2500, show a lower level of effectiveness compared
to the phosphonates for calcium carbonate scale control (Table 7).
The maximum scale control for a PSI value of 4.4 is commonly
used. Again, higher levels of polyacrylate create an increase in
scale, this time as calcium polyacrylate.
The third category, the crystal modifiers, cannot use the PSI
to optimize treatment levels because scale is forming when they
are being used. The index is meaningless since the value is sel-
dom less than a PSI value of 6.0, regardless of scale intensity.
The calcium carbonate is forming and being removed from the wa-
ter.
The authors are developing charts for various types of phos-
phonates, polyacrylates, and new multicomponent polymers that
can maintain good calcium carbonate scale control, particularly
those functioning as solubilization rather than as crystal modifica-
tion. We hope this will be the basis for additional technology,
which can be reported in the near future.
284 CORROSION-April 1991
TABLE 7
Polyacrylate Inhibitor Dosages
for Calcium Carbonate Scale Control
Practical Scale
Index Value )
Stable Water <
0.0 6.0
0.5 5.5
1.0 5.0
3.0 4.5
4.0 4.4
5.0 4.5
10.0 5.0
(A)Stable water; no scaling, no tendency to
dissolve scale.
New polymers and new treatment chemicals are being used,
which indicates a need to obtain more data on these new treat-
ment programs in actual systems and to determine their impact on
the indexes. We need to know if the indexes are meaningful and if
they can be used to help predict scaling tendencies in the pres-
ence of these inhibitors. The best criteria is to evaluate the scaling
tendencies. This can be done primarily with deposit monitors on
heat transfer surfaces in actual systems and by comparing them to
the indexes found under those conditions. 7
SUMMARY
In conclusion, the PSI is a new development that supercedes
the LSI and RSI, particularly with the new treatment programs
where pH levels are above 7.5. It provides an accurate tool that
can reduce or even eliminate scale and chemical costs by properly
identifying the scaling tendencies, in contrast to the errors occur-
ring from the use of the Langelier or Ryznar indexes. The PSI is
an effective tool for cooling water systems since it was developed
and optimized specifically for cooling water systems rather than
any other water systems. However, we caution that conditions
should be monitored with scale detectors that are sufficiently sen-
sitive to identify the presence or absence of scaling tendencies
and that the index be adjusted to fit the specific system conditions.
REFERENCES
1 P.R. Puckorius, Power (September 1983): p. 79.
2. W.F. Langelier, AWWA J. 28, 10(1936): p. 1500.
3. J.W. Ryznar, AWWA J. 35, 4(1944): p. 112.
4. E.T. Larson and A.M. Buswell, AWWA J. 34, 11(1942): p. 1887.
5. P.R. Puckorius and J.M. Brooke, "Effectively Evaluating Cooling Water Treatment
Programs," CORROSION/88, paper no. 17 (Houston, TX: NACE, 1988).
6. S.D. Strauss, Power (June 1984): p. S-4.
7. S.D. Strauss, Power (May 1989) p. 31.
8. J.M. Brooke, "The Calcium Carbonate Story," CORROSION/83, paper no. 284
(Houston, TX: NACE, 1983).