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    Day 12 Notes and Problem Set

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    128 A GLIMPSE OF ABSTRACT ALGEBRA In this lecture we will present some classical algebraic structures and we will see some particular examples of these structures that come out often when solving number theoretical problems. In the previous lectures, we generally restricted ourselves to the integers and the rational numbers. An important branch of number theory, called algebraic number theory, extends the theory for the integers to new elements that, have some common, properties with the integers. Definition 12.1 An algebraic integer is a complex number which is a root of a monic polynomial with integer coefficients. Formally, we say that a € C is an algebraic integer if there exists a monic polynomial f(r) € Z[r] such that f(a) = 0. For example, i is an algebraic integer because it is a root of the monic polyno- mial f(x) =? +1 Definition 12.2 Let d be a square-free integer. Numbers of the form a + bv, where a,b € Z, are called quadratic integers. The set of quadratic integers is denoted by Z[Vd], so ZlVa] = {a+ bVa | a,b € Z}. Clearly, Z C Z[Vaj € C. In particular, if d > 0 we have Z[Vva] CR. ES 4 quadratic integer is an algebraic integer of degree two. Indeed, if =a + bVva, where a,b,d € Z and d is square-free, then a) =Rd => 2? — Que + (a? — ad) 0x is a root of the quadratic polynomial f(2) = 2 —2az + (ad) Definition 12.3 If d = —1 in the previous definition, we obtain the numbers of the form a+ ib, where a,b € Z and i = —1, These numbers are called Gaussian integers. The set of Gaussian integers is denoted by Z[i], 50 ai {a+ib| abe Z}. A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 129 Definition 12.4 If 2asZ=a—bvd. = a+bviis a quadratic integer, we define the conjugate of Definition 12.5 A ring (R, +,-) is a set R equipped with two binary operations + and -, which we call addition and multiplication respectively, RxR => R (cy) > ety RxR —+ R (ey) ory such that the following axioms are satisfied: (Ai) (@+8) +e = a+ (b+0) for all a,b,c € R (associativity of addition); (Aa) there exists an element 0 € R such that 0+a O is the additive identity). +0 for all a € R (that is, (As) for all a € R there exists an element —a € R such that a+ (— 0 (that is, every element a has an additive inverse —a); = (-a)ta= (A) a+b =b-+0 for all a,b € R (commutativity of addition); (Mh) (ab) a(be) for all a,b,c € R (associativity of multiplication); (D) Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, which means that alb+o)=abtac, — (b+e)a=ba+oa for all a,b,c € R, Moreover, if the multiplication satisfies the axiom (Mz) there exists an element 1 Ruch that 1-a =a-1 =a for alla € R (that is, 1 is the multiplicative identity), we say that the ring has a unity. If the multiplication satisfies the axiom (Mg) ab = ba for all a,b € R, we say that the ring is commutative. It can be proved that if'a ring R has a unity, then the unity is unique. During this course we have encountered many times the structure of ring without being aware of it. EXAMPLES oF RINGS (i) (Z,+,-). This is a commutative ring with unity (this is the Lord of the Rings). (ii) Zn, +,-), where Zn is the set of residues classes modulo m and where the results of both operations are taken modulo n.. This is a commutative ring with unity. 130 (iii) The set of arithmetic functions with the addition (f + g)(n) = f(n) + g(n) and with the convolution product (f «g)(n) = SajS(@g (5). This is a a commutative ring with unity, also called the Dirichlet ring (iv) (Z{r],+,-), where Z[z] is the set of polynomials with integer coefficients and the addition and the multiplication are the ordinary addition and multipl- cation for polynomials. ‘This is a commntative ring with unity: (v) (Z[va),+,-), where d is a square-free integer. This is a commutative ring with unity. From now on, we will denote a ring by R instead of (R, +,-) for simplicity. Definition 12.6 Let R be a ring with unity 140. An element a € R, a #0, is called zero divisor if there exists b € R,b #0, such that ab =0 or ba = 0. For example, in Ze, [2]5 and [3]p are zero divisors because [2g - [3]6 = (Os. Definition 12.7 A commutative ring R with unity 140 having no zero called integral domain. For example, Z is an integral domain, but Z, not an integral domain. Definition 12.8 Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let a,b € R. We say that @ divides b if there exists ¢ € R such that b= ac. We denote this by a | b. Definition 12.9 Let R be a commutative ring with unity we Ris called unit if there exists v € R In other words, u is a unit if w| 1, ie. if it has a multiplicative inverse in R. We denote the set of the units of a ring Ras R’. 1 #0. An element uch that ww = vu = 1 Definition 12.10 Let 7 be a commutative ring with unity 1 4 0. Two elements a,b € R are associates in R if a = bu, where w is a unit of R. For example, in Z the only units are 1 and —1, i.e, Z* = {1,—1}. In Ze the only units are (I)¢ and [55 (check!), ie. 25 = {[I]6, [S]a}. If & € Z, then & and —K are associates. Finding all the units in a ring is not always an easy task! However, we can easily find all the units for some special rings like the ring of residue classes modulo n or the ring of Gaussian integers Definition 12.11 Let (R,+,-) be a ring with unity 14 0. If every nonzero clo- ment of Ris aunit, then (R, +,-) is called a division ring. A field is a commutative division ring. A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 131 For example, Z is not a field because 2 is not a unit (it has no multiplicative inverse). However, Q and R are fields. Let’s go on with other definitions. Definition 12.12 A nonzero element p that is not a unit of an integral domain Dis called an irreducible of D if in every factorization p = ab in D, then a or b is a unit, Note that an associate of an irreducible p is again irreducible. Definition 12.13 A nonzero element p that is not a unit of an integral domain Dis called a prime if for all a,b € D, p| ab implies that p | a or p |. Definition 12.14 An integral domain D is a unique factorization domain (UED) if the following conditions are satisfied: (i) every element of D that is neither 0 nor a unit can be factored into a product of a finite number of irreducibl (ii) if pupa--..-pe and qigy-...-4q are two factorizations of the same element of D into irreducibles, then r = s and the indices can be relabeled so that p; and qy are associates For example, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic tells us that Z is a UFD. Ina UFD the concepts of irreducible and prime coincide, but this is not trne in general for integral domains (see Proposed Problems). Definition 12.15 A Euclidean function on an integral domain D is a function ¥:D\ {0} 9N such that the following conditions are satisfied: (i) for all a,b € D with 6 4 0, there exist q,r € D such that a = bg +r, where cither r= 0 or u(r) < v(6); (i) for all a, € D\ {0}, v(a) < v(ab). An integral domain D is called Euclidean domain if there exists a Euclidean fune- tion on D. For example, Z is a Euclidean domain: take v(n) = |n| for n #0 as a Euclidean function. Another example is F(z], the ring of polynomials with coefficients in a field F. This is a Euclidean domain: take v(P) = deg P for P # 0 as a Euclidean function. We give the following important result (without proof), 132 Theorem 12.16 Every Euclidean domain is a UFD. We want to prove the following result. Theorem 12.17 Let D be a Euclidean domain with a Buclidean function v. Then, HC) = ani, u(a) and w € D is a unit if and only if vw) = v0). Proof. If a #0, then y(1) < v(1-a) = v(a). On the other hand, if wis a unit in D, then ve (1). Thus, if w is a unit in D, we conclude that 1(w) = v(1). Conversely, suppose that aw € D\ {0} is such that p(w) = v(1). Then, by the Division Algorithm there exist qr € D such that 1 = ug +r, where either r= 0 or v(r) < v(u). But Hu) = HCl) = ain, v(d), which contradicts the fact that u(r) < v(u). Hence, < v(uum =O and 1 = ug, $0 w is a unit. a Corollary 12.18 (i) Z* = {-1,1}; (ii) If F is a field, then Flr)" = {a | ae F\ {0}}. Proof. The proof follows from the previous theorem. (In Z with v(m) = Inf, we get that v(u) = v(1) = nip, lal = 1 and itis reached for @ = +1. So, 1 and —1 are the units in Z. fi) In F(a] with o(P) = deg P, we get that (u) = (1) = min deg P = 0 (8) In Fla] with 1(P) = deg P, we get that H(u) = v0) = pin des and it is reached when P(r) = k, where k #0, i.e. for the nonzero constant polynomials. So, all the elements k € F \ {0} are the units in P{r]. What we have seen until now can be applied to the ring of Gaussian integers 2hi) Definition 12.19 Let a aby a+ ib be a Gaussian integer. We define the norm of N(a) =0-@= 0? +07 Lemma 12.20 Let a, 8 € Z[i]. Then, the following properties hold: (i) N(a) > 0; (ii) N(a) =0 if and only if =0; (iii) N(a3) = N(a)N(3). A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 133 Proof. Easy. a Lemma 12.21 The ring 2|j] is an integral domain. Proof. Observe that Z[i] © C, so Z[i] is a commutative ring with unity. Moreover, if Z[i] had zero divisors, then also C would have zero divisors, contradiction, Theorem 12.22 The function v given by v(a) = N(a) for a € Zli]\ {0} is a Euclidean function on Zi. $0, Z{i] is a Euctidean domain. Proof. If 8 = bi + iby # 0, then N(A) = 63 +53 > 1 and so for all a,8 4 0 in 2 [i] we have N(a) < N(a)N(8) = (a8) and the condition (ji) for the definition of Euclidean function is satisfied. Now, we want to prove condition (i) for N. Let a, 9 € Z[i], $ #0. We must find o and pin Zi such that @ = Bo + p, where either p = 0 or N(p) < N(B). Observe that for any complex number a + ib, the norm N(a + ib) = a? +6? is the square of the distance of a + ib from the origin in the complex plane. In C, the farthest ‘a complex number can be from an element of Z[i) is 1/V/2 since the center points of 1 x 1 squares with vertices in Z{i] are at distance 1/V/2 from the vertices. Now, consider 0/3 as a complex number. This is in some 1 x 1 square having vertices in Z{i]. If it is on one of the vertices, we take o = 0/8 and p = 0, so let’s assume that it is in the interior of some 1 x 1 square. Let € Z[i] be the vertex of the square that is nearest to a/3. So, | < 1 v2 li Multiplying both sides by [8], we get la = Bol < Squaring both sides, we obtain N(a—8e)< 5N(B) < N(B). Now, set p = a — Bo. a EX From the previous theorem, we conclude that Z{i] is a UFD. Theorem 12.23 The units in Zli] are 1,—1,%, Proof. Observe that a € Z[i] is a unit if and only if N(a) = N(1) = 1 according to Theorem 12.17. So, if a = a+ ib, where a,b € Z, then a is a unit if and only if a? 4B? = 1. We get a=+1,b=0 or a= 0, = +1, and so the only units in Z{i] are 1,1, i a 134 ‘The concept of norm that we have introduced for the ring of Gaussian integers ‘can be given for an arbitrary integral domain. This may be of help in determining, the arithmetic structure of an integral domain as we will see. Definition 12.24 Let D be an integral domain. A multiplicative norm on D is a function N : D + Z such that the following conditions are satisfie (i) N(a) =0 if and only if a =0; (ii) (08) = N(a)N(8) for all «, 8 € D. Theorem 12.25 If D is an integral domain with a multiplicative norm N, then N(1) = 1 and for every unit u € D we have |N(u)| =1. If, also, every a such that |N(a}| =1 is a unit in D, then an element in x € D with |N(x)| =p, where pis a prime in Z, is an irreducible of D. Proof. Observe that N(1) = N(1-1) = N(I)N(1), so N(1) = 1. ue Disa unit, then 1) = N(ww) = NWN), and since N(u) € Z, it follows that |N(u)| = 1. Now, suppose that the units of D axe exactly the elements of norm #1. Let x € D be such that |N(x)| = p. If a8, then p = |N(n)] = |N(a).N(8)| = |N(a)||N(3)}, 50 either |N(a)| = 1 or (8)| So, this means that either o or is a unit in D, which means that 7 irreducible in D. a Example 385. Is 5 irreducible in Z[i|? Solution. The answer is no, We know that if a+ ib € Zfi), then N(a + ib) = a? +? is a multiplicative norm in Z[i]. Moreover, N(a) for nonzero a € Z[i] is a Euclidean function on Z{i], so the units are precisely the elements a € Z[i] such that V(a) = N(1) =1. Now, since 5 = (1+ 211-21) and N(1+2i) = N(1~2é) = 1? +2? =5 and 5 is a prime in Z, then 1 + 24 and 1 ~ 23 are both irreducibles in Zi). < Asan application of multiplicative norms, we provide the example of an integral domain which is not a UFD. Example 386. Prove that the integral domain Z[V—5] = {a + bV=5 | a,b € Z} is not a UFD. Solution. It’s easy to see that Z[\V/=] is an integral domain. Define N on Z[V=5] by N(a+ by=5) =a? +507. A Glimpse of Abstract Algebra 135 ly, N(a) = 0 if and only if a = 0. Also, it’s easy to see that N(a3) = N(a)N (3) for all a, 3 € Z[V=5]. For every unit a € Z[y/=3] it must be N(a) = 1 So, if a = a-+by-5 is a unit, it must be a? +56? = 1. The only integer solutions to this equation are a = +1,b=0. So, +1 are the only possible units and it’s easy to see that they are indeed units in Z[V—5]. Now, in Z[y—5] we have = (1+2V—5)(1 — 2V-5). If we can prove that 3,7, 14+ 2V=5, 1 ~2y=5 are al irreducibles in Z[y/—5], then we will conclude that Z[y=5] cannot be a UFD, since neither 3 nor 7 is (142V=5). Now, suppose that 3 = a. Then, a= (8) Then, N(a) € {1,3,9}. If.V(a) = 1, then @ is a unit. If N(a) = 9, then N(3) =1 and so 8 is a unit. If N(a) = 3, then by setting a = a+ bV=B, where a,b € Z, we get a? +56? = 3, which has no integer solutions. Therefore, from 3 = a8, we conchide that @ or 3 is a unit, and so 3 is irreducible in Z[V—5]. Similarly, we can prove that 7 is irreducible in Z[/—5]. Now, if 1+ 2/—5 = 6, then 21 = N(1 + 2V—5) = N(7)N(6), 50 N() € {1,3,7,21}. We have seen that there is no element in Z[/—3] of norm 3 or 7. So, either N(y) = 1 and 7 is a unit or N(7) = 21 and 6 is a unit. Therefore, 142-5 is irreducible in Z[y¥—5] and in the same way, 1 — 2/5 is irreducible in Zly—B]. So, we have proved that Z[y/—5] is an integral domain, but not a UFD.< PROPOSED PROBLEMS Problem 387. Let d be a square-free integer. Prove that Z[Va] is a commutative ring with unity. Is ita field? Problem 388. Prove that a? —b if R is commutative. (a= ))(a-+6) for all a and b in a ring R if and only Problem 389. Prove that every field F is an integral domain. Problem 390. Prove that Zj, = {{a]n | «€ Z.ged(a,n) = 1}. Problem 391. Prove that Z», is a field if and only if n is prime. Problem 392. Determine if the following elements are irreducibles for each of the indli- cated integral domains. (a) -5in 2; (b) 35 in 2; 136 Proposed Problems (c) 2r+8 in 2x}; (a) 22 +8 in Ql} (e) 2x48 in Zola} Problem 893. Prove that ifp isa prime in an integral domain D, then p isan irreducible, Problem 394. Prove that if p is an irreducible in a UFD, then p is a prime, Problem 395. Determine if the following functions are Euclidean functions for each of the indicated integral domains (a) The function » for Z defined by v(n) = n? for n € Z\ {0} (b) The funetion v for Z{x] defined by v(f(x)) = deg f(x) for f(x) € Za \ {0} (c) The function v for Q defined by v(a) = a? for a € Q\ {0}. Problem 396, Prove that every field is a Euclidean domain. ae 397. Factor the following Gaussian integers into @ product of ireducibles in (a) 7: (b) 443%; (©) 6-7 Problem 398. Prove that 6 does not factor uniquely (up to associates) into irreducibles in 2[v=3) Problem 899. Consider a = 6 + and = 2~3i in Z[i). Find o,p € Zi] such that a=Botp, Np)

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