Diophantine Equations ~ Part IT 137 DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS - PART II We continue our study of nonlinear diophantine equations. ELEMENTARY EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS. The basic tools we will use to solve exponential diophantine equations are the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic and all the material we have learned about modular arithmetic. We will also using the following results. Theorem 13.1 If r,y,k are integers with x+y #0, ged(r,y) = 1 and k > 1 odd, then ak yh wey sot (x+y, FE) = gee ab). attyk In particular, if k =p is prime, then ged (=+0 = ) € {Lp}. fot zy Proof. Let d= ged (« +h ahtyt , whence y = —r (mod d). Observe that ged(d,:r) = 1 (otherwise ) and 6 = ged(x +y,k). We have d | (x+y) and d| zty ged(r,y) > 1, contradiction) and bk yk ahty a zy Since — 0 (mod d), then kar! (mod d). As ged(d,x) = 1, then 0 (mod d), ic. d| k, which gives d | 6. Now, 6 | («+ y) and 6 | k, so tty ja Fl = kek a tye ty ka 0 (mod 8), s0 4 | d, which gives d= 6. a Lemma 13.2 Let p be a prime and let a,b be integers. Then, p | (a” — 6") if and only if p | (a — 4), where d = ged(p—1,n).138 Proof. If d = ged(p ~ 1,n), then d | n and clearly p | (a — ¥*) implies that P| (a" ~6"). Now, assnme that p | (a — b"). If pa or p| 6, then p| a,b and we are done. So, assume that p {a and p{ b. By Fermat’s Little Theorem, a?~ (mod n) and #1 = 1 (mod n). By Bezout Lemma there exists integers x and y such that d = x(p — 1) + yn. So, ofa om lm (mod p) So, p | (a! — 64). a Let's see some examples. Example 402. Find all pairs (r,y) of positive integers such that Austrian-Polish Mathematical Competition 1999 Solution. The given equation can be written as 22° = ey So, x | y, ie. y = 72 for some 2 € N*. By substituting into the equation, we get = (22), whence 2? = 2°! and then y? = 2**!. Since a power is a perfect square if the base is a perfect square or the exponent is even, we have two cases. If z = # for some t € N*, then x = t”—, y = t!'+!, which satisfy the equation for all t > 1. If 21 = 2a for some a € N*, then x = (2a + 1)* and y = (2a +1)", which satisfy the equation for all a > 1 < (ts) = Example 403. Let 2 y,p.n be postive integers such that eytaet Prove that if n > 1 is an odd mumber and p is an odd prime, then n is a power of P. All Russian Mathematical Olympiad 1996 Solution. Let d some a € N. So, x ged(x,y). Then, d | (2" + y") = p*, which gives d = p* for pw and y = pte, where a, u,v € N and ged(u,v) = 1. Then, (ul 40%) = ph Sp uh but phn This equation can be written as wo" ne wry SeDiophantine Equations ~ Part IT 139 By Theorem 13.1, it follows that ged (« +0, “*) = ged(u + v.n). Now, since u+v > land u" +0" > w+, then there exists a € N* such that ged (ure ) = ged(u + 0,7), ure So, p® | n. If = p®m, where 8 > a and m > 1 such that ged(m,p) = 1, then we ‘can write the equation as (or? ym + (wry = DF and in the same way we get that p | m, contradiction. So, n for some gen. < Example 404. Let n > 1 be an integer. Prove that the equation (c+ 1)"-2"=ny has no integer solutions. Jon Cucurezeanu Solution. Let p > 1 be the smallest divisor that divides n. Then, p | ((a-+1)"~«") and by Lemma 13.2, we have p | ((a-+1)*~2*), where d = ged(p—1,n). But d because every divisor of p~1 is less than every divisor of n. So, p | ((x—1)—x) contradiction. FERMAT’S METHOD OF INFINITE DESCENT ‘The method of infinite descent was discovered by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). Fermat used the method of infinite descent in order to prove some statements in number theory. He proved for example that the equation 24 + y! = 2 has no solutions in the set of positive integers. Fermat assumed that the equation had an hypothetical solution (1, yn,2n) and he proved that if we assume the existence of this solution, then there exist other solutions smaller than this one. In this way it can be constructed an infinite sequence of positive integer solutions smaller than the hypothetical one, Since there exist only a finite number of natural numbers smaller than a given natural number, it follows that our hypothesis was false and the equation has no positive integer solutions. Example 405. Prove that the only integer solution to the equation aby te? = QeyeMoscow Mathematical Olympiad 1949 First solution. Assume that there exist integer solutions different from a = y = = =0. Let (zo, yo, 2) be a non trivial solution, From 23 +y3 + <3 = 2royoz we deduce that at least one integer among zr, yo,20 is even. Assume that x9 = 2a. If i = 2+ 1, 2 =2c+1, we obtain 2a? +6? +? +b +0) +1 = 2a(2d + 1)(2e + 1), contradiction. So, «9, yo, zo are all even numbers, i. Qa. So, ry = wr yo = 2yay 2 4a} + dyt + def = Leryn => af + yf +22 = derma. ‘Then, 21,11,21 are all even, otherwise we obtain a contradiction as before. Then, 2 = 2e2, 1 = 2ya, 21 = 222, whence Beds Going on in this way, we get w+yet "ntnzn WnEN. ‘Then, for any n € N, we have that tq = Hy, = Bio, = # are integers, impossible. < Second solution, We could also have solved the problem by using p-adic val- uation, If one of 2,y,2 is 0, we get 22 +42 +2? = 0,502 =y 0. Hence, assume that ,y,z £ 0. Let v(x) = m, vx(y) =n, m2(z) = ke As sume without loss of generality that m 2m and w(2ryz) = m+n+k+1. If m 2n+1>n, contradiction. So, m=n. fn 1, then 9 = dri.y) = dyn; 29 = day and (21,y1.21) is a solution in coprime integers). Assume by contradiction that the equation has a solution (7r9,40,20) with :r9, 0,20 coprime. Then, from w+ Quit + 423 — Groyo20 = 0 it follows that zo must be even, i.e. ty = 2x1, where «ris integer. Substituting this value into the equation and simplifying, we get, da} + y§ + 223 — Griynz0 = 0. From this equation, we get yo = 2yn, where yy is an integer. Substituting this value into the last equation and simplifying, we get 2x} + dyf + 2) — 6rignz = 0. It follows that 29 = 221, where 2 is integer. Then, to, yo, are not coprime, contradiction. < Divisors of CERTAIN FORMS We consider expressions of the form a? + 6? and a? + 262, where a,b € Z and we consider their possible divisors in order to solve diophantine equations. Divisors of « ‘Theorem 13.3 (i) Let a and b be integers such that ged(a,b) = 1 and let p be an odd prime such that p| (a2 +0?) Then, p = 1 (mod 4). (ii) Ip is a prime, p| (a2 +02) and p=3 (mod 4), then p| a and p| b. Proof. We have already proved this fact in Problem 297 by using Quadratic Reciprocity. However, we will see a different. proof here. (i) Assume by contradiction that p = 3 (mod 4). Then, p = 4k-+3 for some k € N. Since p | (a?-+6?), then a2 = —b? (mod p), which gives (a?)?**1 = —(2)>#+1 (mod p), ie. a?! = —¥- (mod p). On the other hand, ged(a,b) = 1 implies that p { a and p { 6, and by Fermat’s Little Theorem we obtain a?! = 1 (mod p) and #1 = 1 (mod p), s0 1 = —1 (mod p), contradiction. (ii) Let p = 4k +3 for some k € N. If ged(a,p) = 1, then ged(b,p) = 1 and by Fermat’s Little Theorem, a?! = 1 (mod p) and *-! = 1 (mod p). From p | (a2 +82), we get a? = —b? (mod p), s0 (a2)*+" = —(6?)%**1 (mod p), ie. a?! = —¥-! (mod p). But then 1 = —1 (mod p), contradiction.In the study of certain Diophantine equations we use this result as follows: if one side of the equation can be written as x? + a? with ged(x,a) = 1, while the other side has a divisor of the form 4k + 3, then the equation is not solvable in integers. Example 407. Prove that the equation PET has no integer solutions. Vietor-Amédée Lebesgue Solution. Assume that the equation has integer solutions. Then, must be odd, otherwise y? = 3 (mod 4), contradiction. So, x = 2n +1, where n € Z. Now, observe that the given equation can be written as ytl=25+8 1)? +3) +(e Then, ( — 1)? +3 = dn? +3 | (y? +1). The number 4n? +3 has a prime factor of the form p= 4k +3, so p| y and p| 1, contradiction. < Divisors of a? + 20? Lemma 13.4 (Thue, 1902) [f'n > 1 is an integer and a és an integer such that gcd(a,n) = 1, then there exist positive integers x,y with x.y < ym such that n| (ax y) for a suitable choice of signs + and ~. Proof. Let t= |y7i] +1. Consider all the ¢? numbers of the form ax + y, where x,y € {0,1,...,t~1}. Since tn, by the Pigeonhole Principle there exist two distinct numbers ay +1 and az + yp such that ax, + y1 = ara + ye (mod n), ie. alr ~ 2) = y— mi (modn). Clearly, 2 # x2 and in # yy because otherwise ari + y1 = ar + yp, contradiction, Assume without loss of generality that 2 > ry. Taking « = x ~ a2 and y = |y; ~ y2|, we get 0 < 2,y < ym and ax = ty (mod n). a Theorem 13.5 An odd prime number p can be written as p =a? +26? for some integers a and b if and only if p = 1 (mod 8) or p = 3 (mod 8). Proof. If p = a? + 2b’, then a? = —2¥? (mod p). Let b! be an integer such that bY! = 1 (mod p). Then (ab’)? = —2 (mod p) and so (2)Diophantine Equations ~ Part IT Grae" (p= Vp+5) and Kk, ie. p= 1 (mod 8) or 1 (mod 8) or p = 3 (mod 8). Then, 2 (mod p). By Thue’s for some k € N. This is equivalent to 3 (mod 8). Conversely, assume that p (2) Land so there exists an integer @ such that a? P Lemma, there exist integers «, y with 0 < «,y < / such that p | (a2x? — y?). So, P| (a? + 2)x — (2x? + y*) and since p | (a + 2), it follows that p | (2x? + y*), ie, 2x? + y? = kp for some k € N. Since 0 < 2x? + y? < 3p, then k € {1,2}. If 1, then p= 2r? + y?, If k= 2, then 2p = 2x? + y?, so 2| y, Le. y = 2yn and so p=a? +29}. a ES The result in the theorem above shows that each prime p that is congruent to | or 3 modulo 8 is not irreducible in the ring Z|V—) ‘Theorem 13.6 If p is a prime such that p = —1 (mod 8) or p = —3 (mod 8) and p | (a? + 282), then p | a and p | b. Proof. If p | a, then p { b and there exists an integer Wf such that bb! = 1 (mod p). Since a? = —2b? (mod p), it follows that (ab’)? = —2 (mod p). Since ged(ab’,p) = 1, then (2) = 1, which implies that p = 1 (mod 8) or p = 3 (mod 8), contradiction. o We can use the above result in the study of certain Diophantine equations as follows: if one side of an equation can be written as «? + 2y? with ged(cr,y) = 1, while the other side has a prime divisor congruent to —1 or ~3 modulo 8, then the equation is not solvable in integers. Example 408. Prove that the equation wa 3527 has no integer solutions. Jon Cucurezeanu Solution. Clearly, x must be odd. Write the equation in the equivalent forms: (i) 2-1 = 2(y? +1); (ii) 29 +1-=2(y? +2).id The right-hand side of both equations can be divisible by 4, but not by 8. If 1 (mod 8), the left-hand side of equation (i) is divisible by 8, contradiction. If = —1 (mod 8), the left-hand side of equation (ii) is divisible by 8, contradiction. So, x = £3 (mod 8). From equation (ii), we have (22 — x +1) | (y? +2). Now, z?—2+1=—1,—3 (mod 8), so it must have a prime divisor p = —1,—3 (mod 8). Therefore, p | y and p | 1, contradiction. < Divisors of «? Theorem 13.7 An odd prime number p can be written as p =a? — 267 for some integers a and b if and only if p = 1 (mod 8) or p = —1 (mod 8), Proof. If p = a? — 26”, then a? by tH? (mod p). Let b! be an integer such that {mod p). Then (ab/)? = 2 (mod p) and so () = 1, ie. if and only if 1 (mod 8) or p = ~-1 (mod 8). Then, (?) = Land co there exists an integer a such that o? = =1 (mod 8). Conversely, assume that 1 (mod 8) or (mod p). By Thne’s Lemma, there exist integers x.y with 0 < x,y < yp such that p | (a2? — y?). So, p | (a? —2)x? + (2x? —y2) and since p | (a? —2), it follows that p | (22? — y?), i.e. 22” — y? = kp for some k EN. Since 0 < 2x? — y? < 2p, then p = 22? — y? a ‘Theorem 13.8 If p is a prime such that p =3 (mod 8) or p p| (a — 20°), then p | a and p |. 3 (mod 8) and Proof. If p { a, then p { b and there exists an integer Wf such that bb! = 1 (mod p). Since a? = 26? (mod p), it follows that (ab’)? = 2 (mod p). Since ged(al/,p) = 1, then () = 1, which implies that p = 1 (mod 8) or p = —1 (mod 8), contradiction. a We can use this result as follows: if one side of an equation can be written as 2? — 2y?, with ged(x,y) = 1, while the other side has a prime divisor congruent to +3 (mod 8), then the equation is not solvable in integers. Example 409. Prove that the equation has no integer solutions. Solution. Clearly, « is odd. If « = +3 (mod 8) or « = 1 (mod 8), the equation is impossible modulo 8. If = —1 (mod 8), we write the equation as —8=-2.Diophantine Equations ~ Part IT 45 Now, (w — 2) | (y? — 2) and x — 2 = —3 (mod 8). So, x — 2 has a prime factor =-3 or p=3 (mod 8). Then, p | y and p| 1, contradiction. < UNIQUENESS OF FACTORIZATION IN RINGS Example 410 (V.A. Lebesgue, 1850). Let 1 > 1 be an integer. Solve in gers the equation 2 Solution. For n even, the equation has solutions (0,1) and (0,1) only. For n odd, we may assume without loss of generality that n is a prime p > 3. Indeed, if n= gk, where q is an odd prime, we get an equation of the same type 4? + 1 = (y*)9. We will use the uniqueness of prime factorization in the Gaussian ring Zi]. Clearly, xr is even and y is odd. We have (1+ ix)(1~ ix) = y?. Moreover, the Ganssian integers 1+ ir and 1 ~ éx are relatively prime in Z[i). Indeed, let 2 = ged(1 +ir,1— ir), z= a+ ib, abe Z. We have 2| (1+ ix) + (I~ ér) =2. Hence % | 2. It follows that 2-2 | 4, ie. (a +62) | 4. On the other hand, 2 | (L+ ix) implies that = | (1 ~ ix), so (a? +82) | (1 +22). But 2 is even, so a? +6? is odd. Thus, a? +6? = 1, which implies that 2 is a unit in Z[ij. Since ged(1-+ix, 1—ix) = 1, from (1+éx)(1—éx) = y? it follows that 1+éx = a(u+iv)?, where a is a unit and u,v have different parities because y = u? + v?. Since p is. odd, every unit is a p-th power and therefore we can drop the unit heres hence we can assume that 1+éx = (u+ iv)”. Using the binomial expansion and identifying the real parts, we get r= (eal Gta Hence u | 1, implying w = +1 and so v is even. So, u? = 1 (mod 4) and since p is odd, it follows that w= 1. Dividing by v? 4 0, we get @-Qe G2) This is a contradiction because (2) "= () (0-2) ener and so, » (Qe) -»(@)) +» (Gaya) 9 (0) for all k = 2,...,25* because u2(v?*-?) M-2>k> wk). <6 Example 411 (Fermat). Solve in integers the equation P+day. Solution. We have two cases. (i) Assume that 2 is odd. In the ring of Gaussian integers, we have (2+ ix)(2— ix) = We first prove that 2-+ iar and 2~ ix are relatively prime in Z[iJ. Indeed, let 2 = ged(2+ix,2~ir), 2 =e+id, where c,d € Z. Then, = | (2+ir)+(2-in) = 4and so =| 4. So, z-7| 16, ic. (ct+d2) | 16, On the other hand, = | (2+ér) implies 2 | (2 — ix), hence (c? + d*) | (4+ 2”). But x is odd, so c? + d* = 1, implying that = is a unit in Z[j]. So, ged(2 + ir,2~ ir) = 1 and from (2 + ix)(2— iz) =», it follows that Q+ir=(a+ib)’, a,beZ. Identifying the real and imaginary parts, we get a(a? — 3b?) = 2 and 3a7b — x. The first equation gives a = +1,+2 and an easy check gives (a,b) € {(-1, 41), (2,£1)}. Since 2 is odd, we get x = +11 and y = 5. (ii) Assume that x is even. ‘Then, y is even. Let 2 = 2u and y = 2v u,v € Z. The equation becomes u2 +1 = 2v4, ie. (w+ i)(u—i) since ged(u + é,u— i) = Land 2 = (1 +4)(1—3), using again the uniqueness of prime factorization in Z{j], we obtain (ut+i)=(1+if(at+ib)’, abe Zv=a? +h. Identifying the real and imaginary parts, we get a — 30°) — 3ab? +0" a? + 30%) — 3ab? — B= 1 ‘The last relation can be written as (a —b)(a? + 4ab + b) L. Since a? + dab-+b? = (a+2b)?—3 and we get =0,1 (mod 3), then a? + dab-+0? # —1 a-b=1 a +dab+? = 1 Solving the system of equations, we get (a,b) € {(1,0),(0,—1)}, yielding. (ey) = (42,2). In conclusion (2,y) € {(+11,5), (£2,2)} <Diophantine Equations ~ Part IT PROPOSED PROBLEMS Problem 412. Prove that the equation 3° + 4 = 5* has a unique solution in positive integers. Problem 413 (Schinzel), Solve in natural mumbers the equation Pav 5% Problem 414. Solve in natural numbers the equation BF DY = 19" MOST 1998 Problem 415. Solve in positive integers the equation 3.7m —5a0" Ton Cucurezeann Problem 416. Find all integer solutions of the equation 2 —2y — Moscow Mathematical Olympiad 1955 Problem 417. Prove that the equation hhas no positive integer solutions. Problem 418. Find all integer solutions of the equation hey? Problem 419, Determine the integer solutions to the equation ay(z? + y?) = 224 Titu Andreescu, Problem 2813, Revista Matematica din Timisoara 1/1977 Problem 420, Prove that the equation G(a? + 30? + 6% has no solutions in integers except a =b=e=n=0. Asian Pacific Mathematical Olympiad 1989 Problem 421 (Fermat). Prove that there don’t exist four perfect squares in arithmetic progression,us. Proposed Problems Problem 422 (Buler). Prove that the equation Arya y has no positive integer solutions, but it has infinitely many negative integer solutions. Problem 423. Prove that the equation hhas no integer solutions. Problem 424, Solve in integers the equation P+16= Problem 425. Prove that the equation has no integer solutions. Problem 426. Solve in integers the equation Balkan Mathematical Olympiad 1998 Problem 427. Let p be an odd prime. Solve in integers the equation integers the equation