Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155

www.elsevier.com/locate/mine

Overview of flotation as a wastewater treatment technique

a,*
J. Rubio , M.L. Souza a, R.W. Smith b

a
Departamento de Engenharia de Minas-PPGEM, Laborat
orio de Tecnologia Mineral e Ambiental, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul,
Av. Osvaldo Aranha 99/512, 90035-190, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
b
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada-Reno, USA
Received 7 October 2001; accepted 12 December 2001

Abstract
The treatment of aqueous or oily effluents is one of the most serious environmental issues faced by the minerals and metallurgy
industries. Main pollutants are residual reagents, powders, chemicals, metal ions, oils, organic and some may be valuable (Au, Pt,
Ag). The use of flotation is showing a great potential due to the high throughput of modern equipment, low sludge generation and
the high efficiency of the separation schemes already available. It is concluded that this process will be soon incorporated as a
technology in the minerals industry to treat these wastewaters and, when possible, to recycle process water and materials. In this
paper, the use of flotation in environmental applications is fully discussed. Examples of promising emerging techniques and devices
are reported and some recent advances in the treatment of heavy metal containing waters and emulsified oil wastes are dis-
cussed.
2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Flotation machines; Pollution; Flocculation; Flotation bubbles; Environmental; Wasteprocessing

1. Introduction the oil/water separation becomes difficult especially

1.1. Background
Process waters exiting from mining, petroleum and
metallurgical operations are widespread throughout the
world and can become contaminated by various pollu-
tants. These substances include powders, chemicals,
metal ions, oils, organic and others, sometimes render-
ing the water useless for recycling as process water, often
dangerous for the environment, and sometimes causing
losses of valuable materials (Galvin et al., 1994). Sources
of water contamination may be found at mines, mills, off
shore platforms, processing plants, tailing ponds, etc.
(Smith, 1996; Villas B^ oas and Barreto, 1996; Warhurst
and Bridge, 1996).
Sometimes, due to their chemical complexity and/or
volume, these process waters cannot be treated eco-
nomically even in cases where they contain valuable
materials. Further, when organic fluids are discharged,
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55-51-3316-3540; fax: +55-51-3316-
3530.
E-mail addresses: jrubio@vortex.ufrgs.br; http://www.lapes.ufrgs.
br/Laboratorios/ltm/ltm.html (J. Rubio), smithrw@scs.unr.edu (R.W.
Smith).
0892-6875/02/$ - see front matter
2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 2 - 6 8 7 5 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 1 6 - 3
when the oil is emulsified, and worse when the mean
droplet size is small or if the emulsions are chemically
stabilized (Beeby and Nicol, 1993).
Smith (1996) showed in detail characteristics of liquid
and solid wastes from mineral processing plants. Vari-
ous techniques and technologies available were dis-
cussed and the quality and quantity of typical pollutants
were listed.
Thus, current and future technologies will eventually
have to deal with areas such as:
• process water treatment and recycling (reuse);
• removal and/or recovery of ions: heavy and/or pre-
cious metals, anions, residual organic chemicals,
complexes or chelates;
• cyanide and arsenic emission control, recovery or de-
struction;
• oil spills separation (including recovery of solvent ex-
traction liquors);
• acid mine waters containing considerable amounts of
harmful base metals such as nickel, copper, zinc, lead
in addition to ferrous iron and sulfate;
• control and removal of residual chemical reagents
such as frothers, flotation collectors and modifiers
(activators or depressing agents, pH regulators);
• separation of various wasted plastics;
• radioactive control in aqueous effluents and soils.
140 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
1.2. Conventional treatment processes
The conventional process for treating liquid efflu-
ents containing metals ions is precipitation–aggrega-
tion (coagulation/flocculation)-settling as hydroxides
or insoluble salts. However, this method, from a
technical point of view, presents certain limitations,
namely:
• the formation of metal hydroxide is ineffective in di-
lute metal bearing effluents;
• the hydroxo precipitate tends to re-dissolve, depend-
þm
ing on the metal, via the reaction MðOHÞn OHðÞ ¼
m
MðOHÞðnþmÞ ;
• the pH of minimum solubility of hydroxides is differ-
ent for the various metals present. For example, the
minimum solubility for cupric hydroxide occurs at a
pH value around 9.5 while for cadmium hydroxide
it occurs at pH around 11;
• precipitation of metals becomes incomplete when
complexing or chelating agents are present;
• volumes of sludge formed are too large and with a
high water content;
• filtration may be difficult as a result of the precipitates
fineness, and;
• due to kinetic and scale problems, the treatment by
coagulation and settling of effluent flow-rates of
about 2–4 m3 s1 is very difficult and costly. This
constitutes a great challenge for the modern mining
industry.
1.3. Flotation processes
The use of flotation has shown to have a great
potential owing to the high throughput and efficiency
of modern equipment now available (Zabel, 1992;
Matis, 1995; Rubio et al., 1996; Rubio, 1998a,b;
Voronin and Dibrov, 1999; Parekh and Miller, 1999).
Other advantages of flotation are the selective recovery
of valuable ions such as gold, palladium, silver (which
are also pollutants), the new separation schemes now
available and the low sludge generation in this pro-
cess.
This paper summarizes general features of flotation in
environmental applications and is aimed to:
• show the potential of flotation as a wastewater treat-
ment technique and present some advances;
• present novel separation concepts and flotation de-
vices;
• serve as a ‘‘bridge’’ providing information on flota-
tion activities being conducted in various engineer-
ing fields as well as in the mining and
metallurgical industry. It is believed that a cross ex-
change of flotation experience in mineral flotation
and in water and effluent treatment should lead to
new and improved procedures for industry waste
treatment.
1.4. Flotation process in wastewater treatment
Flotation had its beginning in mineral (ore) process-
ing and as such has been used for a long time in solid/
solid separation applications using stable froths to se-
lectively separate different minerals from each other
(Kitchener, 1985). Regarding applications of flotation in
wastewater and domestic sewage treatment, civil and
chemical engineers have used dissolved air flotation
(DAF) for a number of years (Hooper, 1945). Main
applications have been in the removal of the solids, ions,
macromolecules and fibers, and other materials from
water (Matis, 1995; Mavros and Matis, 1992; Lemlich,
1972; Clarke and Wilson, 1983; Zabel, 1992).
More, flotation is also practiced in other fields
(Kitchener, 1985; Roe, 1983; Cundeva and Stafilov,
1997; Kim et al., 1999; Sch€ ugerl, 2000), such as:
• analytical chemistry;
• protein separation;
• treatment of spent photography liquors;
• odor removal;
• plastics separation and recycling;
• harvesting or removal of algae;
• deinking of printed paper;
• separation or harvesting of micro-organisms;
• removal of sulfur dyes, seed hulls, serum, resins and
rubber, impurities in cane sugar; and
• clarification of fruit juices.
The main differences between ‘‘conventional’’ flota-
tion of ores and flotation applied to water treatment are
the following:
• The method of producing the gas bubbles in order to
generate micro, medium or macro-bubbles. It is now
widely accepted that medium size and large bubble
diameters (300–1500 lm) are optimal for flotation
of minerals (fines and coarse particles). Yet, conven-
tional flotation devices do not generate a sufficient
number of bubbles smaller than 600 lm. Main uses
of micro-bubbles (<100 lm) is in applications of flo-
tation to solid/liquid or liquid/liquid separation.
Thus, the distinguishing feature between conven-
tional mineral flotation and flotation in waste treat-
ment is that, where extremely small (or even
colloidal) particles have to be floated, micro-bubbles
are required.
• Because the species floating are usually aggregated
colloids rather than dispersed ones, high shear rates
must be avoided to obviate destruction of the fragile
aggregates. This is important in the clarification of ef-
fluents and introduces distinct problems not previ-
ously encountered in mineral flotation.
• The solids content present in the pulp system,
whether diluted or not. A limiting feature of bubbles
is the lifting power or carrying capacity. Micro-bub-
bles do not float dense and big particles, especially
at high solids content (4–5%, w/w).
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
• The type of separation: solid/solid/liquid in mineral
processing and solid/liquid, solid/liquid1/liquid2 or
liquid/liquid in water treatment.
• In mineral flotation it is necessary to produce a stable
froth at the free surface of the flotation cell. In appli-
cations to wastewater treatment an stable foam is not
required.
• In mineral flotation, the overall process is economi-
cally attractive. In environmental application, usually
flotation means an extra cost.
Other differences are summarized in Table 1 com-
paring, among others, bubbles characteristics in differ-
ent flotation devices.
Flotation technology can be incorporated in mining
and industrial wastewater-treatment schemes in the
following ways:
• as a unit process (ancillary or main process) to re-
move contaminants which are not separated by other
means. Depending on performance (water quality),
process water can be adequately treated and recycled;
• as a treatment unit on floating solids in thickeners
(concentrates or tailings);
• as an auxiliary process to bio-oxidation lagoons or
sludge thickening in water reuse;
• as a process for removing various organics, residuals
chemicals, including petroleum, from water;
• as a solid/liquid separation process in acid mine
drainage neutralization with lime;
• as a primary treatment unit ahead of secondary treat-
ment units, such as bio-oxidation lagoons for reduc-
ing the cost of aerobic digestion;
• as a unit process for sludge thickening.
Why flotation? Many advantages have been reported
illustrating the technical and economical potential of
this process:
• high selectivity to recover valuables (Au, Pt, Pd, etc);
• high efficiency to remove contaminants: high over-
flow rates, low detention periods (meaning smaller
Table 1
Differences between flotation in mineral processing and in wastewater treatment
Parameter Froth flotation of minerals
Feed solids content (weight/weight basis) (%) 25–40
Particle size to float (lm) 10–150
Bubble size distribution (lm) 600–2000
Bubbles rising velocity (m h1 ) 250–800 (approximate values)
Number of bubbles (cm3 ) 9  103 –2  102
Bubbles surface area (cm2 cm3 ) 100–30
Air hold up (%) 15–25
a
Aerated flocs.
141
tank sizes, less space needs, savings in construction
costs); thicker scums and sludge than in gravity set-
tling or skimming and;
• low operating costs with the use of upcoming flota-
tion devices (Da Rosa et al., 1999; Rubio, 1998a,b,
2001);
• thicker flotation concentrates (6–12% w/w).
Table 2 shows a partial list of current commercially
available flotation devices for wastewater treatment and
drinking water treatment units.
Voronin and Dibrov (1999) have recently published a
classification of flotation processes in wastewater de-
contamination. They grouped different flotation tech-
niques based on physicochemical and technological
points and divided them in adsorptive or adhesive. A
number of applications are reported without mention
neither the type of equipment employed nor the bubble
size distribution.
2. Conventional flotation techniques, devices and pro-
cesses
Here some recognized techniques are summarized to
show their main features.
2.1. Electro-flotation (EF)
The basis for the micro-bubbles generation is the
electrolysis of diluted aqueous, conducting solutions
with the production of gas bubbles at both electrodes.
Applications, to date, at an industrial scale, have been
in the area of removal of light colloidal systems such as
emulsified oil from water, ions, pigments, ink and
fibers from water (Zabel, 1992; Zouboulis et al.,
1992a,b).
Advantages claimed are the clarity of the treated
wastewater and disadvantages are the low throughput,
Water and wastewater treatment
< 4 (DAF)
10–30 (jet/columns)
1–50 (not flocculated) and
1–5 mm flocs (with polymers)a
30–100 (DAF)
100–600 (jet/columns)
0.7–30 (DAF)
30–1000 (jet/columns)
6  108 –2  106 (DAF)
2  106 –9  103 (jet/columns)
4000–600 (DAF)
600–100 (jet/columns)
8–14 (DAF)
20–40 (jet/columns)
142 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155

Table 2
Examples of some commercially available flotation devices for wastewater treatment
Supplier company Type of cell characteristics
Sionex DAF
Canadian Process Technologies Vertical oil separation cell VOSCellR – using
natural gas as a separating medium.
Canadian Process Technologies IAF column
WesTech Dissolved Air and Nitrogen (DNF) flotation
systems
OR-Tec HF IAF – uses a baffled, aeration system that
produces very fine bubbles
Hydroxyl Industrial Systems Positive Flotation Mechanism (PFM); dissolved
air flotation processes – ‘‘Electrostatically’’
charged micro-bubbles
Aeromax Systems ZEPHYRe IAF – using very fine bubbles
Thermodyne Corporation Ultra-Float ADAF – plug flow DAF device
PURAC Engineering High capacity DAF-filter system
Baker–Hughes Process ISF – hydraulically operated gas flotation, deg-
assing, and optional skim storage components
ZPM BAF – air-sparged BAF, induced-air BAF,
vacuum BAF, electroflotation BAF
Engineering Specialties Flotation piles (underwater oil/water separator)
– combines secondary treatment of produced
water with disposal in one vessel
Hydrocal CAF
Aquaflot FF – flotation of aerated flocs
Application details
Wastewater treatment to remove suspended
organic solids, dissolved oils, algae, 5–7 lm
oocysts, volatile organic compounds, humic acid,
clarification
Developed to remove oil and grease from
produced water using natural gas as a separating
medium
Organic recovery flotation columns for reducing
organic reagent and kerosene from rich
electrolytes prior to electrowinning
Wastewater treatment
Flotation of fat, grease, suspended solids from
food, municipal and industrial waste streams
Dissolved air flotation processes for solids, air
and grease
For fat, grease, floatable solids
It is a plug flow DAF device. For food or
industrial processing wastes
Drinking water, sludge thickener, ice-cream
effluents, paper mill
For oil/water separations. System in a
completely enclosed flotation process
For treatment of petroleum, heavy metal,
laundry, food processing, screen printing, animal
feed contaminated waters
For offshore operation the treated water
discharges directly into the sea
For treatment of laundry, food processing waters
Vehicle washing effluents, removal of oil, solids,
surfactants

the emission of H2 bubbles, electrode costs and main-
tenance and the voluminous sludge produced.
An electrolytic coagulation/flotation (ECF) system
has been also reported using reversible polarity alumi-
num electrodes. Herein, aluminum ions are released
from the anodes, inducing coagulation, and hydrogen
bubbles are generated at the aluminum cathodes, en-
abling flotation of the flocs. Bulk water passes through
the reactor and is treated by the coupled coagulation/
flocculation process. Laboratory scale tests have shown
that the ECF reactor performs better than conventional
aluminum sulfate coagulation when treating a model
colored water, with 20% more dissolved organic carbon
(DOC) removed by electro-coagulation for the same Al
doses (Andre et al., 2000).
2.2. Dispersed (induced) air flotation (IAF)
Bubbles are mechanically formed by a combination of
a high-speed mechanical agitator and an air injection
system. The technology makes use of the centrifugal
force developed. The gas, introduced at the top, and the
liquid become fully intermingled and, after passing
through a disperser outside the impeller, form a multi-
tude of bubbles sizing from 700–1500 lm diameter. This
method, well known in mineral processing, is utilized also
in the petrochemical industry, for oil–water separation
(oily sewage) (Zheng and Zhao, 1993; Bennett, 1988).
2.3. Dissolved air (pressure) flotation (DAF)
Bubbles are formed by a reduction in pressure of
water pre-saturated with air at pressures higher than
atmospheric. The supersaturated water is forced trough
needle-valves or special orifices, and clouds of bubbles,
30–100 lm in diameter, are produced just down-stream
of the constriction (Bratby and Marais, 1977; Lazaridis
et al., 1992).
DAF was recognized as a method of separating
particles in the early 20th century and since then has
found many applications including:
• clarification of refinery wastewater, wastewater recla-
mation,
• separation of solids and other in drinking water treat-
ment plants;
• sludge thickening and separation of biological flocs;
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155 143

Fig. 1. The conventional DAF unit, with water recycle to the

saturator.

• removal/separation of ions;
• treatment of ultra-fine minerals (Gochin and Solari,
1983);
• removal of organic solids, dissolved oils and VOCs
(dissolved toxic organic chemicals);
• removal of algae, 5–7 lm Giardia oocysts, 4–5 lm
cryptosporidium oocysts, humic water treatment, al-
gae from heavily algae laden waters, etc.
The DAF process (see Fig. 1) is by far the most
widely used flotation method for the treatment of in-
dustrial effluents. It is believed that applications will
rapidly expand in the waste treatment in the metallur-
gical and mining field (Rubio and Tessele, 1997; Tessele
et al., 1998; Rubio et al., 1996; Rubio, 1998a,b; Sant-
ander et al., 1999; Da Rosa et al., 1999). DAF devel-
opment has been very rapid in the last decade and many
of its earlier limitations are being solved. Table 3 reviews
recent important developments in DAF.
3. Emerging flotation techniques and processes
3.1. Nozzle flotation (NF)
This process uses a gas aspiration nozzle (an eductor
or an exhauster) to draw air into recycled water, which
Fig. 2. Continuous nozzle flotation unit.
in turn is discharged into a flotation vessel (similar to the
dispersed-air conventional machines), to develop a two-
phase mixture of air and water (Fig. 2). Bubbles are of
the size 400–800 lm in diameter (Bennett, 1988;
Gopalratnam et al., 1988). Advantages claimed for the
nozzle units, over induced air flotation (IAF) systems,
are the following:
• lower initial costs and energy use because a single
pump provides the mixing and air supply;
• lower maintenance and longer equipment life be-
cause the unit has no high-speed moving parts to
wear out.
Applications reported have been exclusively in the
petrochemical industry for the separation of o/w emul-
sions and treatment of oily metal-laden wastewater
(Gopalratnam et al., 1988).
3.2. Column flotation
Column flotation is still a subject of great interest in
mineral processing with a steadily growing number of
research studies and industrial applications (Finch,

Table 3
Main developments in dissolved air flotation (modified from Kiuru, 2001)
Year Development
1924 First generation: Pedersen cells. The separation tank is shallow and very low throughput, 2 m h1 . The ‘‘capture’’ of
particles by bubbles occurs in an inclined zone aside of the froth (floated product) separation tank
1960 Second generation (‘‘conventional’’): cells less shallow with higher loading capacity, 5–7 m h1
1970 DAF deeper with filters for the treated water. Higher throughput 10–15 m h1
1990 Third generation: ‘‘Turbulent’’ DAF deep units, high capacity cell > 40 m h1 . The ‘‘capture’’ zone is now deep and
horizontal
1995 Fourth generation: co-current type of cell with the capture occurring in the same tank (Cocco-DAF). They resemble
more the high capacity cells used in mineral processing, but with micro-bubbles (Eades and Brignall, 1995)
144 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Fig. 3. The Microcel flotation column.
1995; Rubinstein, 1994; Finch and Dobby, 1990). In the
columns used in the mineral processing area, feed slurry
enters about one-third the way down from the top and
descends against a rising swarm of bubbles generated
by a sparger. In wastewater treatment, feed enters by
the column top in the middle of the ‘‘concentrate’’
product.
New developments in column technology include
external gas spargers operating with and without addi-
tion of surfactant or frothers, columns with internal
baffles and coalescers for oil recovery (Gu and Chiang,
1999). In the presence of the surface-active reagents
micro-bubbles can be obtained as in the Microcel col-
umn (Yoon et al., 1992; Yoon and Luttrell, 1994). Ap-
plications of column flotation in the field of oil removal
in production waters (Gebhardt et al., 1994) and in the
recovery of heavy metals precipitates (Filippov et al.,
2000) have been reported (Fig. 3).
3.3. Centrifugal flotation (CF)
The separator and contactor can be an hydrocyclone
or a simple cylinder. Thus, a centrifugal field is devel-
oped. Aeration occurs by either injecting air (or by
suction), through flow constrictions, such as static
mixers or nozzles According to Jordan and Susko
(1992), medium size bubbles having 100–1000 lm di-
ameters are generated.
The air-sparged hydrocyclone (ASH), can be classi-
fied as a centrifugal flotation unit (Ye et al., 1988). It
consists of an aeration system whereby air is sparged
through a jacketed porous tube wall and is sheared into
numerous small bubbles by the high-velocity swirl flow
of the aqueous phase. Environmental applications of
ASH flotation have been recently reported (Beeby and
Nicol, 1993).
Fig. 4. The BAF, bubble accelerated flotation or BC, ‘‘bubble cham-
ber’’ flotation device.
An advanced ASH type of flotation has been reported
in applications to remove oil, grease, BOD, etc. BAF or
bubble accelerated flotation (Fig. 4) system uses the
contactor–separation concept with very low detention
times in the contactor (Colic et al., 2001). Depending on
the bubble generation system the authors report devices
named as Induced Air BAF, Vacuum BAF, Electroflo-
tation BAF.
3.4. Jet flotation
This cell appears to have a great potential for solid/
liquid separations and for liquid/liquid separations as
well as in mineral processing (Jameson and Manlapig,
1991). Its main advantage is its high throughput, high
efficiency and moderate equipment cost (Clayton et al.,
1991; Harbort et al., 1994). More, with no moving parts,
the jet cell has low power consumption and low main-
tenance costs. The cell consists of an aeration/contact
zone (the downcomer), a bubble-particle or aggregate
disengagement zone (the tank proper pulp area) and a
cleaning or froth forming zone (the tank proper zone).
The bubbles (medium size) formed in this cell may have
100–600 lm in diameter (Jameson and Manlapig, 1991;
Clayton et al., 1991). Problems with process accuracy
have been recently solved and its use has been extended
to wastewater treatment and recovery of solvent ex-
traction liquors (Wyslouzil, 1994) and municipal waters
(Yan and Jameson, 2001).
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Fig. 5. CAF unit.
3.5. Cavitation air flotation (CAF)
Cavitation air flotation utilizes an aerator (rotating
disc), which draws ambient air down a shaft and injects
‘‘micro-bubbles’’ directly into the wastewater (Fig. 5).
However, there is no knowledge of any fundamental
work with this flotation technique. CAF is utilized in the
food industry, especially in the milk industry, paint and
tanneries to remove suspended solids, fats, oils, greases,
BOD (biological oxygen demand) and COD (chemical
oxygen demand).
4. Applications and advances
Main industrial applications of flotation in mining
and metallurgy are the recovery of solvent extraction
liquors losses by DAF, column and jet flotation
(Jameson cell), the separation of molybdenum ions
(Marinkovic’, 2001) and manganese ions by DAF
(Krofta, 1991). Yet, it is believed that there may be
other, not reported examples, similar to those encoun-
tered in other industrial fields.
A number of papers have recently been published il-
lustrating techniques employed and flotation devices.
These can be summarized as following:
4.1. Removal of ions
The removal of ions from water, one of the most
important issues in environmental problems today, is
technically possible through various flotation techniques
(Zabel, 1992; Lazaridis et al., 1992; Rubio, 1998a,b;
Matis, 1995). Principal removal methods are:
• precipitate flotation (Silva et al., 1993; Stalidis et al.,
1989a,b; Lemlich, 1972; Pinfold, 1972; Mummallah
and Wilson, 1981);
• gas aphrons flotation or colloidal gas aphrons
(CGA);
145
• foam flotation (Clarke and Wilson, 1983); ion flota-
tion (Nicol et al., 1992; Walkowiak, 1992; Sch€ ugerl,
2000);
• adsorbing particulate (colloids or aggregate) flotation
(Zabel, 1992; Matis, 1995; Rubio and Tessele, 1997;
Zouboulis et al., 1992a,b, 1993, 1997, 2001; McIntyre
et al., 1982).
• ionic flotation (Scorzelli et al., 1999).
4.2. Precipitate flotation
This process is based on the formation of a precipi-
tate of the ionic species, using a suitable reagent, and its
subsequent removal by attachment to air bubbles to
form a flotation ‘‘concentrate’’ (Huang and Liu, 1999;
Lemlich, 1972). Depending on the metal solution con-
centration, the precipitation may proceed via metal hy-
droxide formation or as a salt with a suitable anion
(sulfide, carbonate, etc.). In the case of anion removal,
precipitation should proceed through addition of a
metal cation.
4.3. Gas aphrons flotation or colloidal gas aphrons
(CGA)
Sebba, who established ionic flotation in 1959, pro-
posed the use of colloidal gas aphrons or micro-foams
or simply micro-gas dispersions. They are dispersions of
gases in liquids formed with the use of a venturi gener-
ator which introduces a gas to a circulating surfactant
solution in a region of high velocity and low pressure
(Sebba, 1962; Ciriello et al., 1982).
This produces very small bubbles, which range in size
from 10 to 50 lm and provide a large amount of surface
area. Despite the potential, no industrial applications
are known and studies are mainly related to laboratory
and pilot scale (Kommlapati et al., 1996; Save and
Pangarkar, 1994).
146 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
4.4. Foam separation or foam flotation
This method is similar to ion flotation but uses an
excess of a surfactant or a proper frother to produce a
stable foam. Here the substances removed may be ionic
or molecular, colloidal, crystalline, or cellular in nature,
but, in all cases, they must selectively attach to the air–
liquid interfaces (of foams or of bubbles) (Clarke and
Wilson, 1983). Some authors denote the separation as
foam fractionation since this term accurately describes
the removal of the surface active carrier compounds in
solution in a foam column. Hundreds of parpers have
been reported on foam/flotation or fractionation at
laboratory and pilot scale and some industrial applica-
tions are believed to exist.
4.5. Adsorbing colloid flotation
This method involves the removal of the metal ion by
adsorption on a precipitate (coagula) acting as a carrier.
The loaded carrier is then floated, usually assisted with a
suitable ‘‘collector’’ surfactant. The main carriers used
have been ferric or aluminum hydroxides collected with
the help of sodium oleate or lauryl sulphate (Stalidis
et al., 1989a,b).
A recent DAF process to remove molybdenum ions
in Chile employs this principle with the FeðOHÞ3 as the
molybdenum carrier and sodium oleate as collector has
been reported. This method has been successful in sep-
arating the molybdenum ions from Cu–Mo concentrate
filtrates and meeting Chilean emission standards. The
interesting feature is that this plant uses a ‘‘rougher’’
stage to remove first the suspended solids and calcium
ions (as calcium oleate) and then the Mo ions in a
‘‘cleaner’’ stage at pH about 5. Sodium oleate is also
added to enhance hydrophobicity and process kinetics.
4.6. Ion flotation
This method involves the removal of ions (colligend
or surface inactive species) by transport to froth as a
counter-ion to a surfactant species of opposite charge.
Here the surfactants perform the dual role of frother
and collector, facilitating the adsorption of the colligend
species onto the surface of an air bubble. In some cases,
a ligand-activator for the flotation of the metal ion
followed by a suitable surfactant has been necessary
(Walkowiak, 1992; Nicol et al., 1992; Galvin et al.,
1994). Despite many studies performed at laboratory
and pilot scale, only during the last few years have ap-
plications of this method in industrial scale been re-
ported (Zouboulis et al., 1992a,b; Nicol et al., 1992).
A novel gold recovery scheme based on ion flotation
has been developed. Heap leach liquor, containing gold
cyanide is reacted with a suitable surfactant and sparged
using compressed air (Galvin et al., 1994). The surfac-
tant adsorbs at the surface of the rising air bubbles,
thereby providing an interface for ion pairing to selec-
tively collect the gold complex. Scorzelli et al. (1999),
studied the removal of Cd ions using sodium dodecyl-
sulfate as collector and the effect of ionic strength (NaCl
and Na2 SO4 ), frothers and surface tension was evalu-
ated. Main finding are the high removal obtained for a
metal collector ratio of 1:2 (98% with 0.1% v/v isopro-
panol frother) and the negative effect of the high
strength (>103 M).
5. Up coming techniques and advances
5.1. Aggregation-DAF
Precipitation, coagulation and flocculation have been
utilized in stages first to destabilize highly soluble ions to
form colloidal particles or precipitates. Then, coagula-
tion is used to enhance particle size and finally, with the
polymer to form stable, big and hydrophobic flocs. This
technique has been reported to remove Hg, As and Se
ions from processing streams of gold cyanidation cir-
cuits (Tessele et al., 1998) using DAF. Here NaDTC,
sodium dithiocarbamate, was employed as precipitant,
LaCl3 or FeCl3 were the coagulants and Bufloc (Buck-
man), the flocculant. Almost complete removal (> 98%)
of the metal ions from solution was reported using
DAF.
Process efficiency depended on the system solution
and interfacial chemistry, aggregation phenomena and
DAF operating parameters. Main stages are the fol-
lowing:
1. ions + precipitant ¼ colloidal precipitate (3–10 lm),
2. colloidal precipitate + flocculant ¼ flocs (1–3 mm),
3. flocs + micro (5–150 lm) and mid-sized bubbles (200–
600 lm) ¼ flotation by DAF and/or columns (non-
turbulent regimes).
5.2. Adsorbing (or sorbing) particulate flotation-APF or
simply carrier flotation-CF
The basis of the adsorptive (or sorbing) particulate (or
carrier) flotation is the uptake of cation, anion or organic
by readily floatable particles. This resembles oxide flo-
tation activation by metal ions, sulfide depression by
anions or adsorption of collectors or frothers. Essen-
tially, APF is a variant of the adsorbing colloid flotation
process, employing particles as carrier-sorbing (absorb-
ing and/or adsorbing) material for the metal ion. The key
to the process is the selection of a good sorbing carrier
having a high surface area and a high reactivity with the
pollutant to be removed and it should float readily.
The carrier can be a mineral particle, a polymeric
resin, activated coal or a by-product. The use of micro-
organisms as sorbing materials (biosorption or bio-
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155 147

Table 4
Main reported studies of APF
Adsorbing material Contaminants Author(s)
Coal jigging tailings Ni, Cu, Zn F
eris (2001)
Zeolites Ni, Cu, Zn Rubio and Tessele (1997)
Zeolites Hg, As, Se Tessele et al. (1998)
Pyrite Cu, As Zouboulis et al. (1992a,b, 1993)
Red mud Cu Zouboulis et al. (1993)
Dolomite Pb Zouboulis et al. (1993)
Fly ash Ni Zouboulis et al. (1993)
Exchange resin Cu Duyvesteyn and Doyle (1995)
Hydroxyapatite Cd Zouboulis et al. (1997)
Activated coal Dye (Rodamine B) F
eris et al. (1999)
Coal jigging tailings Oil Santander and Rubio (1998)
Barite Emulsified oil Santander and Rubio (1998)
Clay (hydrotalcite) Chromate, Crþ6 ions Lazaridis et al. (2001)

sorptive flotation) has been proposed and may be an-
other alternative (Zouboulis et al., 2001).
The removal of Cu, Zn and Ni from diluted solutions
by APF was studied at laboratory and pilot scale (F
eris,
2001). The sorbing used was a coal washing tailing
material from a coal industry from south of Brazil and
the flotation process applied was DAF. Best results
(> 95% removal) showed that the residual ions concen-
tration is below the standards limits dictated by the local
legislation. Table 4 summarizes main reported studies in
this subject.
5.3. Column flotation to remove ions
A modified Microcel column (Yoon et al., 1992) with
feed entering by the cell top (to improved solid/liquid
separation) was studied to float loaded (with metal ions)
FeðOHÞ3 precipitates as a function of pH (Souza and
Rubio, unpublished results). The column employs water
treated recycling procedure to generate bubbles. Thus,
by pumping the flow fluid through a venturi or needle
valve, air is drawn into the pipe and bubbles are pro-
duced. The size of the bubbles can be modulated with
addition of a surfactant.
Results showed that best separation was obtained
when optimizing medium pH, addition of sodium oleate
(as ‘‘collector’’) and operating parameters, among oth-
ers conditioning, flow rates, etc.
Recently, Filippov et al. (2000) studied the interac-
tions between superficial feed and gas velocities and
recycling pulp flow rate on bubble size distribution and
its effect on Mo-precipitate flotation. They conclude that
the precipitate flotation effectiveness in columns is re-
lated to floc stability under turbulence created by the
swarming of rising bubbles.
5.4. Dissolved air flotation
DAF of iron hydroxide precipitates at working
pressures lower than 3 atm, using modified flotation
units to improve the collection of fragile coagula, was
studied at the Laborat
orio de Tecnologia Mineral e
Ambiental (F
eris and Rubio, 1999). Conventional DAF
flotation was studied as a function of saturation pressure
in the absence and presence of surfactants in the satu-
rator. Without surfactants, the minimum saturation
pressure required for DAF to occur was found to be 3
atm. But, by lowering the air/water surface tension in
the saturator, DAF was possible at a saturation pressure
of 2 atm.
This behavior was found to occur in both batch and
pilot DAF operation tests and almost complete re-
covery of the precipitates was attained. Results are
explained in terms of the minimum ‘‘energy’’ which
has to be transferred to the liquid phase to form
bubbles by a cavity phenomenon. Since the saturation
stage accounts for about 50% of the total operating
energy costs and considering the low cost involved in
the surfactant, this option appears to have a great
potential.
A very important feature only reported for DAF,
concerns with the mechanisms of bubble/particle (ag-
gregates) interactions other than the common adhesion
through hydrophobic forces (Fig. 6). Thus, apart from
particles/bubbles collisions and adhesion, in DAF, part
of the dissolved air in water, which does not convert into
bubbles in the nozzle, remains in solution and ‘‘nucle-
ate’’ at the particle surface (Solari and Gochin, 1992).
This mechanism is independent on surface hydrophob-
icity and allows flotation of hydrophilic particles. More,
bubble entrapment into flocs or coagula and aggregate
entrainment by the rising bubbles are mechanisms,
which make separation easier. This explains the fact that
in DAF, no collector or froth is required but a thick and
stable float layer is formed. Results show high clarifi-
cation effluents are obtained in DAF. However, a major
disadvantage is that rapid air bubble levitation speed is
not attainable and hydraulic loadings are low (this is
dictated by the Henry’s law) reducing and limiting
process capacity.
148 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Fig. 6. Bubble-particle mechanisms in DAF: (a) particle–bubble collision and adhesion; (b) bubble formation at particle surface; (c) micro-bubble
entrapment in aggregates; (d) bubbles entrainment by aggregates.
5.5. Separation of oils and organic compounds by flotation
The flotation of organic bearing waters such as oil
spills on water, oily sewage or oil-in-water emulsions has
been used in various fields for a number of decades but
is not commonly used in the mining and/or metallurgy
industries. Most of the research studies on the separa-
tion of oil from water have addressed the effect of oil
concentration, type and concentration of destabilizing
agents for o/w emulsions and the type of flotation
technique to be employed (Bennett, 1988).
In the mining–metallurgical industry, residual oily
wastewaters commonly discharged are waters contain-
ing flotation chemicals and solvent extraction reagents,
surface waters contaminated with free wasted oil and
process waters containing oil spills (Pushkarev et al.,
1983). Oil in water may be dispersed, emulsified or in
solution in water in concentrations up to 1000 ppm. In
particular, the presence of emulsified oil in water drop-
lets around 50 lm in size causes problems in phase
separation by conventional techniques (oil/water gravity
separation, DAF).
The flotation separation of very fine oil droplets
(2–30 lm) is even more complicated and usually re-
quires fine bubbles, quiescent hydrodynamic conditions
in the cell separation zone or emulsion breakers prior to
flotation (Gopalratnam et al., 1988). This is due to
collection and adhesion factors, which makes the pro-
cess very slow, especially when, treating high flow-rates.
IAF and DAF, have been used extensively in the re-
moval of stable oily emulsions (Bennett, 1988; Strick-
land, 1980; Belhateche, 1995). IAF utilizes bubbles
between 40–1000 lm in size and turbulent hydrody-
namic conditions. The process has low retention times,
normally <5 min. Conversely, DAF employs micro-
bubbles (30–100 lm), and quiescent regimes. However,
because retention times are higher (20–60 min), this
process is inefficient when treating high volume effluents
and high flow-rates.
The Jameson cell, column flotation with CGA (pre-
reagentized gas bubbles) and conventional columns
are now being utilized in solvent extraction plants
(Readett and Clayton, 1993). Here the flotation
devices are used in the discharge aqueous streams
from the solvent extraction–electrowinning (SX–EW)
plant to recover the organic liquor lost by entrain-
ment into the aqueous phase. Thus, flotation can
reduce organic losses and reduce potential environ-
mental problems.
5.6. Modified jet flotation cell
A modified jet flotation cell has been studied in our
laboratory (Fig. 7), to account for a better oil droplet
coalescence and for the decrease in the amount of short
circuit observed in the conventional (Jameson type cell).
Thus, the slurry abandoning the downcomer, enters a
cylinder obligating the coalesced or flocculated oil-
bubbles aggregates units to leave the separation tank by
the froth layer. Results show that this cell is more ac-
curate than the conventional cell yielding high oil re-
moval values and treated water with low oil levels. Thus,
with highly emulsified feeds having up to 603 mg l1 of
oil, the removal was almost constant at or greater than
80% regardless of the initial oil content. It is believed
that this type of flotation cell has a great potential for oil
or organic solvent removal at high throughput values
(>600 m d1 ).
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Fig. 7. Modified jet flotation pilot unit (Santander and Rubio, 1997,
1998).
5.7. Centrifugal flotation cell
The separation of flocculated (coalesced) oil emul-
sions in a centrifugal flotation machine (Fig. 8) has been
recently performed on a pilot scale in the Laborat

orio de
Tecnologia Mineral e Ambiental (LTM), Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The device will be
Fig. 8. The LTM-centrifugal flotation device.
149
Fig. 9. Effect of flocculant concentration on oil centrifugal flotation
performance ð33:3 l min1 Þ. Feed oil concentration ¼ 152 mg l1 .
in the very near future placed on offshore platforms in
Brazil. Main characteristics are the very low residence
time (high throughput), high separation efficiency and
low water split. However, the flotation efficiency (Fig. 9)
depends mainly on the degree of flocculation and on the
vortex finder clearance.
5.8. The FF-flocculation-flotation process
A new turbulent on-line flocculation system assisted
with air bubbles has been developed at LTM yielding
aerated flocs (flocs with entrained and entrapped
bubbles). These flocs, which rapidly ‘‘float’’, are
150 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Fig. 10. FF-flocculation-flotation device.
formed only in the presence of high molecular weight
polymers and bubbles and under high shearing in the
flocculator (Fig. 10). The air excess air leaves the
flotation tank (a centrifuge) by the top and the flocs
float after very short residence times (within seconds).
The aerated flocs are large units (some millimeters in
diameter) having an extremely low density (Rubio,
2001).
5.9. The ‘‘multibubble’’ flotation column
Recently, F
eris et al. (2001) reported data on the
removal of colloidal ferric hydroxide by flotation in a
column with bubbles generated in an static mixer
(medium-sized bubbles) and micro-bubbles generated as
in DAF. These authors named this column flotation
device a ‘‘multibubble column’’. Using this modified
microbubble column they reported better results as
compared to DAF alone. Gains reported were a better
air-to-solids ratio (higher bubble surface flux),
improved process kinetics and improved process
throughput. Fig. 11 shows some details of this flotation
device.
6. Miscellaneous separations
6.1. Micro-organisms
It has been demonstrated, for many years, that bac-
teria can be readily concentrated by froth or foam
flotation and since that time a number of investigators
have confirmed not only the flotation of bacteria, but of
algae and other micro-organisms (Smith, 1989;
Sch€ugerl, 2000). Alga removal by flotation is becoming a
good alternative to other treatment methods in tropical
countries. In such environments, the algae grow at a
great rate causing problems in all water reservoirs.
Furthermore, proliferation of algae in maturation ponds
often results in values exceeding EPA license limits for
suspended solids and elevated pH values. Also, dis-
charge of algae (especially blue-green algae) laden ef-
fluents can also cause possible release of their associated
toxins to surface and ground waters.
The jet flotation process for alga removal reported by
Yan and Jameson (2001) appears to be an interesting
application of flotation for the treatment of algae
bearing municipal waters. Alga cells such as Microcystis
sp. that occur commonly in wastewater maturation
ponds are usually very small in size (3–7 lm) and to
induce efficient alga cell–air bubble contact, aggregates
of greater than 10 lm in size are required. Cationic
polymer flocculants are found to be effective, while
nonionic or anionic polymers are not. Different types of
algae appear to share common surface characteristics.
The same flocculant was found to be effective in
flocculating very different types and forms of alga cells
(e.g., Microcystis, Anabaena). Jameson Cell technology
was shown to be capable of simultaneously removing
algae and phosphorus enabling the continued use of
maturation ponds and provides an alternative to costly
upgrades of existing wastewater treatment plants.
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Fig. 11. The ‘‘multibubble’’ flotation column.
6.2. Proteins
Various other non-fatty organic materials, such as
soluble proteins derived from soybean processing, can
be removed from water by DAF flotation after precip-
itation and flocculation (Schneider et al., 1995). Soluble
protein removed by this process from aqueous waste
streams from soybean plants can potentially be used as
supplemental animal feed. The basis for protein sepa-
ration by flotation is the aggregation of the macromol-
ecules with inorganic salts and/or polymers and flotation
with micro-bubbles. Problems arise when proteins con-
tain associated de-foaming agents or short dispersing
molecules that modify the surface properties of protein
aggregates enhancing their hydrophilic character and
reducing bubble-particle adhesion.
6.3. Plastics
Modern industrial and home use of plastics has cre-
ated an environmental need to recycle waste plastics of a
number of different types. Most of the commonly used
plastics, such as polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates,
polyacetal, and polypropylene ether are naturally hy-
drophobic and are readily floated without addition of a
flotation collector. Thus, process selectivity is a difficult
task. However, plastics vary in their hydrophobicities
and their critical surface tensions have been explored
using surface-active reagents. Thus, their floatabilities
can be modulated by use of suitable depressants, which
151
include sodium lignin sulfonate, tannic acid, and Aero-
sol OT (Shibata et al., 1996).
6.4. Deinking
Flotation has been used, for a number of years, in
paper deinking for paper recycling. Most of the studies
are based on ink removal using surfactants and calcium
bearing salts. Finch and Hardie (1999) have reviewed
the main flotation machines and techniques employed in
this area, showing and discussing a variety of ap-
proaches used to optimize the characteristics of such
flotation systems.
6.5. Soil washing
Flotation is being studied for removal of toxic and
relatively non-volatile hydrophobic compounds such as
heavy oil, PAH, or PCB from contaminated soils. The
effects of the basic parameters of the process have been
investigated and compared with soil washing, and the
advantages of flotation demonstrated (Ososkov and
Kebbekus, 1997).
Some limited reports in the literature point out that a
significant fraction of toxic hydrophobic organics may
be removed from contaminated soil by flotation. How-
ever, no systematic investigations on removal of these
substances from soil by flotation have been reported.
Hydrophobic non-volatile organic compounds are
poorly adsorbed by soil particles, which are primarily
152 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155

hydrophilic. These contaminants are mainly trapped in capacity and the techniques to be employed. Some of
the soil pore space. Trapped compounds can be trans- these factors are the following:
ported to the surface of soil/water slurry by bubbles • The wastewater flow-rate (m3 h1 , m3 s1 or
during flotation. Soil organic matter or hydrophobic m3 day1 ) and the equipment throughput. Table 5
impurities in soil matrix adsorb some of hydrophobic shows examples of some reported values for flotation
pollutants. However, flotation may remove only part of hydraulic loading Theses values are related to the
the adsorbed pollutants. bubble size distribution generated in the different flo-
tation devices (see Figs. 12 and 13).
6.6. Removal of radioactive nuclides from soils • The nature of pollutants, whether free, complexed,
volatile, inorganic-organic or mixtures. Their concen-
Flotation of radioactive nuclides from contaminated tration in effluents and in standard emissions.
soils and coral sand by both conventional-induced air • The nature of aggregates to be removed. Experimen-
flotation and column flotation has been studied and tal studies will define the best way to remove the pol-
evaluated (Misra et al., 1995; Misra et al., 1996). In such lutants, whether in the form of coagula, precipitates,
separations it is desired to produce a very clean material flocs, sublate (metal-collector complexes), or ad-
(non-float) and a concentrate that contains most of the
radionuclides, but is still a low-level radioactive mate-
Table 5
rial. The goal is high recover, but a low-grade concen- Averaged hydraulic loading values reported for some flotation devices
trate. Thus, the bulk of material to dispose of in a waste operating in mineral processing () and wastewater treatment
repository is much reduced. Equipment Hydraulic loading (m h1 )
DAF 7–40
IAF (induced air) 36–430
7. Final remarks Column cell 50–360
Jameson (jet) cell 70–350
Since the flotation depends on multiple intercon- ASH (Miller cyclone) 500–720
nected factors, many considerations should be taken FF-flocculation flotation 140–2160 (oil removal)
BAC 1.5–500
into account when selecting a flotation device and its

Fig. 12. Flotation techniques/devices operating with ‘‘micro-bubbles’’. EF ¼ Electroflotation; GA ¼ Gas aphrons; CAF ¼ Cavitation air flotation;
DAF ¼ Dissolved air flotation.

Fig. 13. Flotation techniques/devices operating with ‘‘medium sized’’ (200–800 lm) and ‘‘macrobubbles’’ (IAF > 800 lm).
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
sorbed on a carrier. Flocs and particulate carriers and
not coagula withstand shear and may be separated in
flotation devices operating with high turbulence (cen-
trifugal, jet). DAF is more amenable for separation of
coagula or precipitates. Nevertheless, DAF of aer-
ated flocs is also a good and fast alternative.
• The need for collectors, optimal pH, redox condi-
tions, residence time, air-to-solids ratio, air hold up,
bubble surface flux, lifting power of bubbles, effect
of temperature, density, viscosity, surface tension
(frothability), interfacial properties of aggregates
(charge, hydrophobicity).
• Flow-sheet design. Whether a ‘‘rougher-cleaner’’
scheme is needed: destiny of the floated product
and the process water (possible reuse?), filtration
characteristics, drying, economics of the process.
Figs. 12 and 13 show approximate bubble size ranges,
which have been reported in various flotation devices
and techniques.
8. Conclusions
Flotation is ever increasingly used in waste treatment,
especially in the mining and metallurgical industry.
Furthermore, the introduction of new, superior, flota-
tion devices should lead to new and better applications
for remediation of mineral industry contaminated wa-
ters and solids. A cross fertilization of flotation experi-
ence in mineral flotation and in wastewater treatment
should lead to new and improved procedures in
the mineral and metallurgical industry, the chemical
and petroleum industries and domestic wastewater
treatment.
Acknowledgements
Authors thank all the students and colleagues re-
sponsible for the friendly atmosphere at the LTM-Uni-
versidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul and to all
institutions supporting research in Brazil.
References
Andre, C., Graham, N., Brandon, N., Kelsall, G.H., 2000. Devel-
opment and evaluation of a novel electrolytic coagulation/
flotation system for water treatment. EPSRC, 2000. Web
communication.
Beeby, J.P., Nicol, S.K., 1993. Concentration of oil with the air-
sparged hydrocyclone. Filtration and Separation 30 (2), 141–
145.
Belhateche, D., 1995. Choose appropriate wastewater treatment
technologies. Chemical Engineering Progress 91 (8), 32–51.
Bennett, G.F., 1988. The removal of oil from wastewater by air
flotation: A review. CRC Critical Review in Environmental
Control 18 (3), 189–253.
153
Bratby, J., Marais, G.V.R., 1977. Flotation. In: Purchas, D.B. (Ed.),
Solid/Liquid Separation Equipment Scale-Up. Upland Press,
pp. 155–168.
Ciriello, S., Barnett, S., Deluise, F.J., 1982. Removal of heavy metals
from aqueous solutions using microlgae dispersions. Separation
Science and Technology 17, 512–519.
Clarke, A.N., Wilson, D.J. (Eds.), 1983. Foam Flotation: Theory and
Applications (Ed.), Chemical Industries, vol. 11. Marcel Dekker,
New York, 432 pp.
Clayton, R., Jameson, G.J., Manlapig, E.V., 1991. The development
and application of the Jameson cell. Minerals Engineering 4, 925–
933.
Colic, M., Morse, D.E., Morse, W.O., Matherly, T.G, Carty, S.,
Miller, J.D., 2001. From air-sparged hydrocyclone to bubble
accelerated flotation: mineral industry technology sets stage for
development of new wastewater treatment flotation. In: Proceed-
ings of the Froth Flotation/Dissolved Air Flotation: Bridging The
Gap, UEF Conference, Tahoe City, in press.
Cundeva, K., Stafilov, T., 1997. Precipitate flotation of lead and zinc
and their determination by atomic absorption spectrometry.
Journal of Serbian Chemical Society 62 (6), 523–530.
Da Rosa, J., Dias de Souza, M.L., Rodrigues, R.T., Rubio, J., 1999.
Wastewater treatment by non-conventional flotation. In: Gaballah,
L., Hager, J., Solozabal, R. (Eds.), Proceedings of Global Sympo-
sium on Recycling, Waste Treatment and Clean Technology –
REWAS ’99, TMS – Inasmet, San Sebastian/Spain, pp. 2123–2132.
Duyvesteyn, S., Doyle, F., 1995. Load and froth flotation of a
chelating ion-exchange resin. In: Misra, M. (Ed.), Separation
Processes: Heavy Metals, Ions and Minerals. TMS, pp. 123–129.
Eades, A., Brignall, W.J., 1995. Counter-current dissolved air flota-
tion/filtration. Water Science and Technology 31, 173–178.
F
eris, L.A., 2001. Aproveitamento de subprodutos do beneficiamento
de carv~ao mineral na remocß~ao de poluentes por sorcß~ao-flotacß~ao
FAD. Ph.D. Thesis, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil (in portuguese).
F
eris, L.A., Rubio, J., 1999. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) perfor-
mance at low saturation pressures. Filtration and Separation 36
(9), 61–65.
F
eris, L.A., Rubio, J., Schneider, I.H., 1999. Remocß~ao de corantes em
efluentes do tingimento de
agatas por flotacß~ao de part
ıculas
adsorventes. In: Proceeding of 19th Congresso Brasileiro de
Engenharia Sanit
aria e Ambiental, Rio de Janeiro, pp. 1079–1086.
F
eris, L.A., Gallina, C.W., Rodrigues, R.T., Rubio, J., 2001.
Optimizing dissolved air flotation design and saturation. Water
Science and Technology 8, 145–152.
Filippov, L.O., Joussemet, R., Houot, R., 2000. Bubble spargers in
column flotation. Minerals Engineering 13 (1), 37–51.
Finch, J.A., Dobby, G.S., 1990. Column Flotation, first ed Pergamon
Press, Oxford.
Finch, J.A., Hardie, C.A., 1999. An example of innovation from the
waste management industry: deinking flotation cells. Minerals
Engineering 12 (5), 467–475.
Finch, J.A., 1995. Column flotation: a selected review-part IV: novel
flotation devices. Minerals Engineering 8 (6), 587–602.
Galvin, K.P., Engel, M.D., Nicol, S.K., 1994. The potential for reagent
recycle in the ion flotation of gold cyanide-a pilot scale field trial.
International Journal of Mineral Processing 42, 75–98.
Gebhardt, J.E., Mankosa, M.J., Hubred, G.L., 1994. Removal of oil
produced water by Microcele column flotation. In: Proceedings of
the 1994 Summer National Meeting, AIChE, Denver, CO, 14–17
August, paper No. 29b.
Gochin, R.J., Solari, J.A., 1983. Dissolved air flotation for recovery of
fine cassiterite. Transactions of the Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Sect. C 92, C52–58.
Gopalratnam, C., Bennett, G.F., Peters, R.W., 1988. The simultaneous
removal of oil and heavy metals from industrial wastewaters by
joint precipitation and air flotation. Environmental Progress 7,
84–92.
154 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Gu, X., Chiang, S.H., 1999. A novel flotation column for oily water
cleanup. Separation and Purification Technology 16, 193–203.
Harbort, G.J., Jackson, B.R., Manlapig, E.V., 1994. Recent advances
in Jameson flotation cell technology. Minerals Engineering 7 (2/3),
319–332.
Hooper, S.H., 1945. Water purification by flotation. Journal of the
American Water Works Association 37, 302–305.
Huang, C.J., Liu, J.C., 1999. Precipitate flotation of fluoride-contain-
ing wastewater from a semiconductor manufacturer. Water
Research 33 (16), 3403–3412.
Jameson, G.J., Manlapig, E.V., 1991. Applications of the Jameson
flotation cell. In: Agar, G.E., Huls, B.J., Hyma, D.B. (Eds.),
Column ’91, vol. 2, pp. 675–687.
Jordan, C.E., Susko, F.J., 1992. Rapid flotation using a modified
bubble-injected hydrocyclone and a shallow-depth froth separator
for improved flotation kinetics. Minerals Engineering 5, 1239–
1245.
Kim, Y.S., Kim, K.C., Lee, C.W., 1999. Preconcentration and
determination of trace Cd(II) and Pb(II) in a water sample by
organic precipitate flotation with 8-hydroxyquinoline. Bulletin of
the Korean Chemical Society 20 (4), 431–435.
Kitchener, J.A., 1985. The froth flotation process: Past, present and
future-in brief. In: The Scientific Basis of Flotation, Part 1. NATO
Advances Study Institute, pp. 1–26.
Kiuru, H.J., 2001. Development of dissolved air flotation technology
from the 1st generation to the newest or 3rd one (very thick micro-
bubbles) with high flow-rates (DAF in turbulent flow conditions).
Water Science and Technology 8, 1–8.
Kommlapati, R.R., Roy, D., Valsaraj, K.T., Constant, W.D., 1996.
Characterization of colloidal gas aphron suspensions generated
from plant-based natural surfactants. Separation Science and
Technology 31 (17), 2317–2333.
Krofta, J., 1991. Personal communication.
Lazaridis, N.K., Matis, K.A., Webb, M., 2001. Flotation of metal-
loaded clay anion exchangers; part 1: The case of chromates.
Chemosphere 42, 373–378.
Lazaridis, N.K., Matis, K.A., Stalidis, G.A., Mavros, P., 1992.
Dissolved air flotation of metal ions. Separation Science and
Technology 27, 1743–1758.
Lemlich, R. (Ed.), 1972. Bubble Separation Techniques. Academic
Press, New York.
Marinkovic’, E., 2001. Project Punta Chungo on removal of Mo ions,
personal communication.
Matis, K.A. (Ed.), 1995. Flotation Science and Engineering. Marcel
Dekker, New York, 558 pp.
Mavros, P., Matis, K.A. (Eds.), 1992. Innovations in Flotation
Technology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, MA.
McIntyre, G., Wilson, D.J., Rodriguez, J.J., Thackston, E.L., 1982.
Copper removal by an adsorbing colloid flotation pilot plant.
Separation Science and Technology 17, 359–367.
Misra, M., Mehta, R., Garcia, H, Chai, C.D., Smith, R.W., Mathur,
S.P., 1995. Application of physical beneficiation techniques for
separation of radionuclides from contaminated soils. In: Proceed-
ings of the 124 National SME Meeting, pp. 95–165 (preprint).
Misra, M., Mehta, R.K., Chen, S., Kimbrell, J., 1996. Selective
flotation of ultrafine radionuclides from Johnson Atoll coral sand.
In: Proceedings of the 125 National SME Meeting, pp. 96–137
(preprint).
Mummallah, N.A., Wilson, D.J., 1981. Precipitate flotation studies
with monolauryl phosphate and monolauryldithiocarbamate. Sep-
aration Science and Technology 16, 213–228.
Nicol, S.K., Galvin, K.P., Engel, M.D., 1992. Ion flotation: potential
applications to mineral processing. Minerals Engineering 5, 1259–
1275.
Ososkov, V., Kebbekus, B., 1997. Development of a method for
removal of nonvolatile organic materials from soil using flotation.
Project R-61 Description, New Jersey Institute of Technology.
Parekh, B.K., Miller, J.D. (Eds.), 1999. Advances in Flotation
Technology. SME.
Pinfold, T.A., 1972. Precipitate flotation. In: Lemlich, R. (Ed.),
Adsorptive Bubble Separation Techniques. Academic Press,
New York, pp. 74–90.
Pushkarev, V.V., Yuzhaninov, A.G., Men, S.K., 1983. Treatment of
Oil Containing Wastewater. Allerton Press, New York.
Readett, D., Clayton, B., 1993. Cleaning hydrometallurgical liquor
using Jameson cells. In: Malhotra, D. (Ed.), Flotation Plants: Are
They Optimized?. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration,
Littleton, pp. 165–170 (Chapter 23).
Roe, L.A., 1983. In: Industrial Waste Flotation. Roeco, Nadsa,
p. 228.
Rubinstein, J.B., 1994. Column Flotation, Processes, Designs and
Practices. Gordon and Breach, London, 296 pp.
Rubio, J., 1998a. Environmental applications of the flotation process.
In: Castro, S.H., Vergara, F., Sanchez, M. (Eds.), Effluent
Treatment in the Mining Industry. University of Concepci
on,
Chile, pp. 335–364.
Rubio, J., 1998b. Flotation applied to effluent treatment. In: Castro,
S.H., Vergara, F., Sanchez, M. (Eds.), Environment and Innova-
tion in Mineral Technology. IV International Conference on Clean
Technologies for the Mining Industry, vol. 1. University of
Concepci
on, Chile, pp. 353–366.
Rubio, J., 2001. Flocculation-flotation process for wastewater treat-
ment and reuse. Patent submitted (in progress) in Brazil.
Rubio, J., Tessele, F., 1997. Removal of heavy metal ions by
adsorptive particulate flotation. Minerals Engineering 10 (7),
671–679.
Rubio, J., Schneider, I.A.H., Aliaga, W., 1996. New processes for
heavy metals separations from wastewater streams in the mining
industry. In: Proceedings of Clean Technologies for the Mining
Industry, pp. 85–98.
Santander, M., Rubio, J., 1997. Oil/water emulsions separation by
induced air carrier flotation. In: Proceedings of 5th Southern
Hemisphere Meeting on Mineral Technology, Buenos Aires,
pp. 125–128.
Santander, M., Rubio, J., 1998. Remoci
on de aceites emulsificados por
flotaci
on jet. In: Proceedings of X CONAMET – Congresso
Nacional de Metalurgia, Copiap
o-Chile, pp. 396–406.
Santander, M., Da Rosa, J.J., Rubio, J., 1999. Advances in flotation in
waste streams treatment. In: Proceedings of International Mining
and Environment Congress: Clean Technology. Third Millenium
Challenge-Lima-Peru, pp. 591–602.
Save, S.V., Pangarkar, V.G., 1994. A model for harvesting of
microorganisms using colloidal gas aphrons. Journal of Chemical
Technology and Biotechnology 61, 367–373.
Schneider, I.A.H., Smith, R.W., Rubio, J., 1995. The separation of
soybean protein suspensions by dissolved air flotation. Journal of
Resource Environmental Biotechnology 1, 47–64.
Sch€ugerl, K., 2000. Recovery of proteins and microorganisms from
cultivation media by foam flotation. Advances in Biochemical
Engineering/Biotechnology 68, 191–233.
Scorzelli, I.B, Fragomeni, A.L., Torem, M.L., 1999. Removal of
cadmium from a liquid effluent by ion flotation. Minerals
Engineering 12 (8), 905–917.
Sebba, F., 1962. Ion Flotation. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Shibata, J., Matsumoto, S., Yamamoto, H., Kusaka, E., Pradip, 1996.
Flotation separation of plastics using selective depressants. Inter-
national Journal of Mineral Processing 48, 127–134.
Silva, M.E.M C., Gazzi Salum, M.J., Araujo, A.C., 1993. Precipitate
flotation for the removal of heavy metals and cyanide from
metallurgical effluents. In: Proceedings of XVIII International
Mineral Processing Congress, Sydney, pp. 1429–1434.
Smith, R.W., 1996. Liquid and solid wastes from mineral processing
plants. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 16,
1–22.
 J. Rubio et al. / Minerals Engineering 15 (2002) 139–155
Smith, R.W., 1989. Flotation of algae. Mineral Processing and
Extractive Metallurgy Review 4, 277–299.
Solari, J.A., Gochin, R.J., 1992. Fundamental aspects of microbubbles
flotation. In: Ralston, J., Laskowski, J.S. (Eds.), Colloid Chemistry
in Mineral Processing. Development in Mineral Processing, vol. 12.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 395–418.
Stalidis, G.A., Lazaridis, N.K., Matis, K.A., 1989a. Continuous
precipitate flotation of CuS/ZnS. Separation Science and Technol-
ogy 24, 1033–1046.
Stalidis, G.A., Lazaridis, N.K., Matis, K.A., 1989b. Selective separa-
tion of Cu, Zn and As from solution by flotation techniques.
Separation Science and Technology 24, 97–109.
Strickland, W.T., 1980. Laboratory results of cleaning produced water
by gas flotation. Society of Petroleum Engineering Journal 20, 175–
190.
Tessele, F., Rubio, J., Misra, M., 1998. Removal of Hg, As and Se ions
from gold cyanide leach solutions by dissolved air flotation.
Minerals Engineering 11 (6), 535–543.
Villas B^oas, R.C., Barreto, M.L., 1996. Clean technologies for the
mineral industries: the need of P2 solutions. In: Sanchez, M.,
Vergara, F., Castro, S. (Eds.), Clean Technologies for the Mining
Industry, Santiago-Chile, pp. 43–57.
Voronin, N.N., Dibrov, I.A., 1999. Classification of flotation processes
in wastewater decontamination. Journal of Environmental Engi-
neering, 469–472.
Walkowiak, W.L., 1992. Mechanism of selective ion flotation. In:
Mavros, P., Matis, K.A. (Eds.), Innovations in Flotation Tech-
nology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, MA.
Warhurst, A., Bridge, G., 1996. Improving environmental perfor-
mance through innovation: recent trends in the mining industry.
Minerals Engineering 9, 907–921.
Wyslouzil, H.E., 1994. The use of column flotation to reduce residual
organic levels from electrolyte solutions. In: Proceedings of the
Expomin 1994, Santiago, Chile.
Yan, Y., Jameson, G., 2001. Application of the Jameson cell
technology for algae and phosphorus removal from maturation
155
ponds. In: Proceedings of the Froth Flotation/Dissolved Air
Flotation: Bridging The Gap, UEF Conference, Tahoe City,
in press.
Ye, Y., Gopalakrishnan, S., Miller, J.D., 1988. Developments of the
air-sparged hydrocyclone: a swirl-flow flotation column. In: Col-
umn Flotation ’88, pp. 305–312.
Yoon, R.H., Luttrell, G.H., 1994. Microcele column flotation scale-
up and plant practice, In: Proceedings of The 26th Annual Meeting
Canadian Mineral Processing, CIM, paper 12.
Yoon, R.H., Luttrell, G.H., Adel, G.T., Mankosa, M.J., 1992. The
application of Microcele column flotation to fine coal cleaning.
Coal Preparation 10, 177–188.
Zabel, T., 1992. Flotation in water treatment. In: Mavros, P., Matis,
K.A. (Eds.), Innovations in Flotation Technology. Kluwer Aca-
demic Publishers, Dordrecht, MA.
Zheng, Y.Y., Zhao, C.C., 1993. A Study of kinetics on induced-air
flotation for oil-water separation. Separation Science and Tech-
nology 28 (5), 1233–1240.
Zouboulis, A.I., Kydros, K.A., Stalidis, G.A., 1992a. Flotation
techniques in water treatment. In: Mavros, P., Matis, K.A.
(Eds.), Innovations in Flotation Technology. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, MA.
Zouboulis, A.I., Kydros, K.A., Matis, K.A., 1992b. Adsorbing
flotation of copper hydroxo-precipitates by pyrite fines. Separation
Science and Technology 27, 2143–2155.
Zouboulis, A.I., Kydros, K.A., Matis, K.A., 1993. Removal of toxic
metal ions from solutions using industrial solid byproducts. Water
Science and Technology 27, 83–95.
Zouboulis, A.I., Matis, K.A, Lanara, B.G., Loos-Neskovic, C., 1997.
Removal of cadmium from diluted solutions by hydroxyapatite: II-
flotation studies. Separation Science and Technology 32, 1755–
1767.
Zouboulis, A.I., Matis, K.A, Rousou, E.G., Kiriakidis, D.A., 2001.
Biosorptive flotation for metal ions recovery. Water Science and
Technology – Dissolved Air Flotation in Water and Wastewater
Treatment 43 (5), 123–129.