Sensor and Measurement Techniques

Course Review Questions

2.2. Explain what is meant by
(a) active instruments
(b) passive instruments
Give examples of each and discuss the relative merits of these two classes of instruments.
2.3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of null and deflection types of measuring instruments.
What are null types of instruments mainly used for and why?
2.4. What are the differences between analogue and digital instruments? What advantages do digital
instruments have over analogue ones?
2.5. Explain the difference between static and dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments.
2.6. Briefly define and explain all the static characteristics of measuring instruments.
2.7. How is the accuracy of an instrument usually defined? What is the difference between accuracy
and precision?
2.8. Draw sketches to illustrate the dynamic characteristics of the following:
(a) zero-order instrument
(b) first-order instrument
(c) second-order instrument
In the case of a second-order instrument, indicate the effect of different degrees of damping on the
time response.
2.9. State briefly how the dynamic characteristics of an instrument affect its usage.
2.10. A tungsten resistance thermometer with a range of –270 to þ1100 C has a quoted inaccuracy of
1.5% of full-scale reading. What is the likely measurement error when it is reading a temperature of
950 C?
2.11. A batch of steel rods is manufactured to a nominal length of 5 meters with a quoted tolerance of
2%. What is the longest and shortest length of rod to be expected in the batch?
2.12. What is the measurement range for a micrometer designed to measure diameters between 5.0
and 7.5 cm?
2.13. A tungsten/5% rhenium–tungsten/26% rhenium thermocouple has an output e.m.f. as shown in
the following table when its hot (measuring) junction is at the temperatures shown. Determine the
sensitivity of measurement for the thermocouple in mV/ C.
mV 4.37 8.74 13.11 17.48
o
C 250 500 750 1000

2.14. Define sensitivity drift and zero drift. What factors can cause sensitivity drift and zero drift in
instrument characteristics?
2.15. (a) An instrument is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20 OC and the following
output readings y are obtained for various input values x:
y 13.1 26.2 39.3 52.4 65.5 78.6
x 5 10 15 20 25 30

Determine the measurement sensitivity, expressed as the ratio y/x.

(b) When the instrument is subsequently used in an environment at a temperature of 50 OC, the
input/output characteristic changes to the following:
 y 14.7 29.4 44.1 58.8 73.5 88.2
x 5 10 15 20 25 30

Determine the new measurement sensitivity. Hence determine the sensitivity drift due to the change
in ambient temperature of 30 C.
2.17. A load cell is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 21 OC and has the following
deflection/load characteristic:

Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200

Deflection 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
(mm)

When used in an environment at 35 C, its characteristic changes to the following:

Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200
Deflection 0.2 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.6
(mm)

(a) Determine the sensitivity at 21 and 35 C.

(b) Calculate the total zero drift and sensitivity drift at 35 C.
(c) Hence determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift coefficients (in units of mm/ C and (mm per
kg)/(OC).
2.18. An unmanned submarine is equipped with temperature- and depth-measuring instruments and
has radio equipment that can transmit the output readings of these instruments back to the surface. The
submarine is initially floating on the surface of the sea with the instrument output readings in steady
state. The depth-measuring instrument is approximately zero order and the temperature transducer first
order with a time constant of 50 seconds. The water temperature on the sea surface, T0, is 20 C and
the temperature Tx at a depth of x meters is given by the relation:

Tx  T0  0.01x
(a) If the submarine starts diving at time zero, and thereafter goes down at a velocity of 0.5
meters/second, draw a table showing the temperature and depth measurements reported at intervals of
100 seconds over the first 500 seconds of travel. Show also in the table the error in each temperature
reading.
(b) What temperature does the submarine report at a depth of 1000 meters?
9.1. Explain what a d.c. bridge circuit is and why it is so useful in measurement systems. List a few
measurement sensors for which you would commonly use a d.c. bridge circuit to convert the sensor
output into a change in output voltage of the bridge.

9.2. If elements in the d.c. bridge circuit shown in Figure 9.2 have the following values: Ru =110Ω,
R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 1000 Ω, R3 = 1000 Ω, Vi = 10V
calculate output voltage Vo if the impedance of the voltage-measuring instrument is assumed to be
infinite.
9.3. Suppose that the resistive components in the d.c. bridge shown in Figure 9.2 have the following
nominal values: Ru =3 kΩ, R1 =6 kΩ, R2 = 8 kΩ, R3 = 4 kΩ
The actual value of each resistance is related to the nominal value according to
Ractual = Rnomial + 𝜕R, where 𝜕R has the following values: 𝜕Ru = 30Ω, 𝜕R1= -20Ω; 𝜕R2= 40Ω; 𝜕R3
= -50Ω
Calculate the open circuit bridge output voltage if bridge supply voltage Vi is 50 V.
9.5. Four strain gauges of resistance 120 Ω each are arranged into a d.c. bridge configuration such that
each of the four arms in the bridge has one strain gauge in it. The maximum permissible current in
each strain gauge is 100 mA. What is the maximum bridge supply voltage allowable, and what power
is dissipated in each strain gauge with that supply voltage?
9.6. (a) Suppose that the variables shown in Figure 9.2 have the following values:
R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 100 Ω, R3 = 100 Ω, Vi = 12V. Ru is a resistance thermometer with a resistance of
100 Ω
at 100oC and a temperature coefficient of 0.3 Ω / C over the temperature range from 50 to 150 C (i.e.,
the resistance increases as the temperature goes up). Draw a graph of bridge output voltage Vo for 10-
degree steps in temperature between 100 and 150 oC
(b) Discuss briefly whether you expect the graph that you have just drawn to be a straight line.
(c) Draw a graph of Vo for similar temperature values if R2 =R3 =1000 O and all other components
have the same values as given in part (a). Note that the line through the data points is straighter than
that drawn in part (a) but the output voltage is much less at each temperature point.
(d) Discuss briefly the change in linearity of the graph drawn for part (c) and the change in
measurement sensitivity compared with the graph drawn for part (a).
13.1. Describe the general working principles of capacitive sensors and discuss some applications of
them.
13.2. Discuss some applications of resistive sensors.
13.3. What types of magnetic sensors exist and what are they mainly used for? Describe the mode of
operation of each.
13.4. What are Hall-effect sensors? How do they work and what are they used for?
13.5. How does a piezoelectric transducer work and what materials are typically used in their
construction? Discuss some common applications of this type of device.
13.6. What is a strain gauge and how does it work? What are the problems in making nd using a
traditional metal-wire strain gauge and how have these problems been overcome in new types of strain
gauges?
13.7. Discuss some applications of strain gauges.
13.8. What are piezoresistive sensors and what are they typically used for?
13.9. What is the principal advantage of an optical sensor? Discuss the mode of operation of the two
main types of optical sensors.
13.12. Explain the basic principles of operation of ultrasonic sensors and discuss what they are
typically used for.
13.13. What factors govern the transmission speed and directionality of ultrasonic waves? How do
these factors affect the application of ultrasonic sensors?
13.14. Discuss the use of ultrasonic sensors in range-measuring systems, mentioning the effect of
attenuation of the wave as it travels. How can measurement resolution and accuracy be optimized?
This example also illustrates the large errors that can arise if thermocouples are used incorrectly. An
iron–constantan thermocouple measuring the temperature of a fluid is connected by mistake with
copper–constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires are connected together and the
copper extension wire is connected to the iron thermocouple wire). If the fluid temperature was
actually 200OC and the junction between the thermocouple and extension wires was at 50 OC, what
e.m.f. would be measured at the open ends of the extension wires if the reference junction is maintained
at 0OC? What fluid temperature would be deduced from this (assuming that the connection mistake
was not known)?
14.1. Discuss briefly the different physical principles used in temperature-measuring instruments and
give examples of instruments that use each of these principles.
14.2. (a) How are thermocouples manufactured? (b) What are the main differences between base metal
and noble metal thermocouples? (c) Give six examples of the materials used to make base metal and
noble metal thermocouples. (d) Specify the international code letter used to designate thermocouples
made from each pair of materials that you give in your answer to part (c).
14.3. Explain what each of the following are in relation to thermocouples: (a) extension leads, (b)
compensating leads, (c) law of intermediate metals, and (d) law of intermediate temperature.
14.6. The temperature of a fluid is measured by immersing an iron–constantan thermocouple in it. The
reference junction of the thermocouple is maintained at 0 OC in an ice bath and an output e.m.f. of
5.812 mV is measured. What is the indicated fluid temperature?
14.7. The temperature of a fluid is measured by immersing a type K thermocouple in it. The reference
junction of the thermocouple is maintained at 0 C in an ice bath and an output e.m.f. of 6.435 mV is
measured. What is the indicated fluid temperature?
14.8. The output e.m.f. from a chromel–alumel thermocouple (type K), with its reference junction
maintained at 0 C, is 12.207 mV. What is the measured temperature?
14.9. The output e.m.f. from a nicrosil–nisil thermocouple (type N), with its reference junction
maintained at 0 C, is 4.21 mV. What is the measured temperature?
14.10. The output e.m.f. from a chromel–constantan thermocouple whose hot junction is immersed in
a fluid is measured as 18.25 mV. The reference junction of the thermocouple is maintained at 0 C.
What is the temperature of the fluid?
14.11. A copper–constantan thermocouple is connected to copper–constantan extension wires and the
reference junction is exposed to a room temperature of 20 C. If the output voltage measured is 6.537
mV, what is the indicated temperature at the hot junction of the thermocouple?
14.12. A platinum/10% rhodium–platinum (type S) thermocouple is used to measure the temperature
of a furnace. Output e.m.f., with the reference junction maintained at 50 C, is 5.975 mV. What is the
temperature of the furnace?

14.13. In a particular industrial situation, a nicrosil–nisil thermocouple with nicrosil–nisil extension

wires is used to measure the temperature of a fluid. In connecting up this measurement system, the
instrumentation engineer responsible has inadvertently interchanged the extension wires from the
thermocouple. The ends of the extension wires are held at a reference temperature of 0 C and the
output e.m.f. measured is 21.0 mV. If the junction between the thermocouple and extension wires is
at a temperature of 50 C, what temperature of fluid is indicated and what is the true fluid temperature?

14.14. A copper–constantan thermocouple measuring the temperature of a hot fluid is connected by

mistake with chromel–constantan extension wires (such that the two constantan wires are connected
together and the chromel extension wire is connected to the copper thermocouple wire). If the actual
fluid temperature was 150 C, the junction between the thermocouple and extension wires was at 80 C,
and the reference junction was at 0 C, calculate the e.m.f. measured at the open ends of the extension
wires. What fluid temperature would be deduced from this measured e.m.f. (assuming that the error
of using the wrong extension wires was not known)? (Hint: Apply the law of intermediate metals for
the thermocouple-extension lead junction.)

14.16. While installing a chromel–constantan thermocouple to measure the temperature of a fluid, it

is connected by mistake with copper–constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires
are connected together and the copper extension wire is connected to the chromel thermocouple wire).
If the fluid temperature was actually 250 C and the junction between the thermocouple and extension
wires was at 80 C,
what e.m.f. would be measured at the open ends of the extension wires if the reference junction is
maintained at 0 C? What fluid temperature would be deduced from this (assuming that the connection
mistake was not known)?
14.17. In connecting extension leads to a chromel–alumel thermocouple, which is measuring the
temperature of a fluid, a technician connects the leads the wrong way round (such that the chromel
extension lead is connected to the alumel thermocouple lead and vice versa). The junction between
the thermocouple and extension leads is at a temperature of 100 C and the reference junction is
maintained at 0 C in an ice bath. The technician measures an output e.m.f. of 12.212 mV at the open
ends of the extension leads.
(a) What fluid temperature would be deduced from this measured e.m.f.?
(b) What is the true fluid temperature?
14.18. A chromel–constantan thermocouple measuring the temperature of a fluid is connected by
mistake with copper–constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires are connected
together and the copper extension lead wire is connected to the chromel thermocouple wire). If the
fluid temperature was actually 250 C and the junction between the thermocouple and extension leads
was at 90 C, what e.m.f. would be measured at the open ends of the extension leads if the reference
junction is maintained at 0 C? What fluid temperature would be deduced from this (assuming that the
connection error was not known)?
14.16. While installing a chromel–constantan thermocouple to measure the temperature of a fluid, it
is connected by mistake with copper–constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires
are connected together and the copper extension wire is connected to the chromel thermocouple wire).
If the fluid temperature was actually 250 C and the junction between the thermocouple and extension
wires was at 80 C, what e.m.f. would be measured at the open ends of the extension wires if the
reference junction is maintained at 0 C? What fluid temperature would be deduced from this (assuming
that the connection mistake was not known)?

14.17. In connecting extension leads to a chromel–alumel thermocouple, which is measuring the

temperature of a fluid, a technician connects the leads the wrong way round (such that the chromel
extension lead is connected to the alumel thermocouple lead and vice versa). The junction between
the thermocouple and extension leads is at a temperature of 100 C and the reference junction is
maintained at 0 C in an ice bath. The technician measures an output e.m.f. of 12.212 mV at the open
ends of the extension leads.
(a) What fluid temperature would be deduced from this measured e.m.f.?
(b) What is the true fluid temperature?

14.18. A chromel–constantan thermocouple measuring the temperature of a fluid is connected by

mistake with copper–constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires are connected
together and the copper extension lead wire is connected to the chromel thermocouple wire). If the
fluid temperature was actually 250 C and the junction between the thermocouple and extension leads
was at 90 C, what e.m.f. would be measured at the open ends of the extension leads if the reference
junction is maintained at 0 C? What fluid temperature would be deduced from this (assuming that the
connection error was not known)?

14.22. A copper–constantan thermocouple measuring the temperature of a hot fluid is connected by

mistake with iron–constantan extension wires (such that the two constantan wires are connected
together and the iron extension wire is connected to the copper thermocouple wire). If the actual fluid
temperature was 200 C, the junction between the thermocouple and extension wires was at 160 C, and
the reference junction was at 0 C, calculate the e.m.f. measured at the open ends of the extension wires.
What fluid temperature would be deduced from this measured e.m.f. (assuming that the error of using
the wrong extension wires was not known)?
14.23. In a particular industrial situation, a nicrosil–nisil thermocouple with nicrosil–nisil extension
wires is used to measure the temperature of a fluid. In connecting up this measurement system, the
instrumentation engineer responsible has inadvertantly interchanged the extension wires from the
thermocouple (such that the nicrosil thermocouple wire is connected to the nisil extension lead wire,
etc.). The open ends of the extension leads are held at a reference temperature of 0 C and are connected
to a voltmeter, which measures an e.m.f. of 17.51 mV. If the junction between the thermocouple and
extension wires is at a temperature of 140 C:
(a) What temperature of fluid is indicated?
(b) What is the true fluid temperature?
15.1. Explain the difference among absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and differential pressure. When
pressure readings are being written down, what is the mechanism for defining whether the value is a
gauge, absolute, or differential pressure?
15.2. Give examples of situations where pressure measurements are normally given as (a) absolute
pressure, (b) gauge pressure, and (c) differential pressure.
15.3. Summarize the main classes of devices used for measuring absolute pressure.
15.4. Summarize the main classes of devices used for measuring gauge pressure.
15.5. Summarize the main classes of devices used for measuring differential pressure.
15.6. Explain what a diaphragm pressure sensor is. What are the different materials used in
construction of a diaphragm pressure sensor and what are their relative merits?
15.7. Strain gauges are used commonly to measure displacement in a diaphragm pressure sensor. What
are the difficulties in bonding a standard strain gauge to the diaphragm and how are these difficulties
usually solved?
15.8. What are the advantages in using a monolithic piezoresistive displacement transducer with
diaphragm pressure sensors?
15.9. What other types of devices apart from strain gauges are used to measure displacement in a
diaphragm strain gauge? Summarize the main features of each of these alternative types of
displacement sensors.
15.12. How does a Bourdon tube work? What are the three common shapes of Bourdon tubes and
what is the typical measurement range of each type?
15.14. What is a resonant wire pressure-measuring device and what is it typically used for?
15.15. What is an electronic pressure gauge? Discuss the different types of electronic gauges that exist.
15.16. Discuss the range of instruments available for measuring very low pressures (pressures below
atmospheric pressure).
15.17. How are high pressures (pressures above 7000 bar) normally measured?
15.18. What advantages do intelligent pressure transducers have over their nonintelligent
counterparts?
16.1. Name and discuss three different kinds of instruments used for measuring the mass flow rate of
substances (mass flowing in unit time).
16.2. Instruments used to measure the volume flow rate of fluids (volume flowing in unit time) can be
divided into a number of different types. Explain what these different types are and discuss briefly
how instruments in each class work, using sketches of instruments as appropriate.
16.3. What is a Coriolis meter? What is it used for and how does it work?
16.4. Name four different kinds of differential pressure meters. Discuss briefly how each one
works and explain the main advantages and disadvantages of each type.
16.7. Discuss the mode of operation and applications of each of the following: turbine meter and
vortex-shedding flowmeter.
16.8. What are the two main types of ultrasonic flowmeters? Discuss the mode of operation of each.
20.1. Using simple sketches to support your explanation, explain the mode of operation and
characteristics of the following devices: circular potentiometer, helical potentiometer, and rotary
differential transformer.
20.2. Sketch an incremental shaft encoder. Explain what it measures and how it works. What special
design features can be implemented to increase the measurement resolution of a disc of a given
diameter?
20.3. What is a coded disc shaft encoder? How does its output differ from that of an incremental shaft
encoder? What are the main types of coded disc shaft encoders?
20.4. Discuss the mode of operation of an optical coded disc shaft encoder, illustrating your discussion
by means of a sketch.
20.9. Explain the mode of construction and characteristics of each of the following: digital tachometer,
optical tachometer, induction tachometer, and Hall-effect tachometer.
Prove that the Gain of INA128 and 129 as shown in figure
Electric equivalence circuit for this type of loadcell
Find the output of loadcell
Develop a conditioning circuit for this loadcell
A loadcell has specifications as:
- Load capacity: 20kg
- Sensitivity: 2mV/V
Assume that the loadcell is supplied with voltage 12V
- Find the output voltage at maximum load
- Find the output voltage at load 5kg
- Design the conditioning circuit to reach the output range 0-5V for the loadcell.
Give Opamp circuit

1. Find and prove the value of VOUT

2. Advantages and applications of this circuit
3. Assume that VIN =10mV; Find VOUT;
4. Assume that 10mV is the maximum input of the sensor; the readout device needs full range
input from 0 to 5V; please modify above circuit to meet that requirement.
4.1 Assume you have signal with 5V amplitude. Assume you AD convert the signal, using a 5V
reference and 10 bit resolution.
(a) How many millivolts (mV) per bit do we get?
(b) What is the largest conversion error (in mV)?
4.2 Given the following signal, v(t) = 5 sin (15/11 πt), at time t = 2, what is the AD converted value (0
- 1023) with 10 bit resolution?
Exercise 1: Silicon resistive detector The transfer function of a specific silicon-based temperature
sensors for the range -60◦C till +150◦C is equal to:

with T the temperature in ◦C.

(a) What is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of this sensor at 25◦C?
(b) The silicon-based temperature sensor has a non-linear response (in terms of the resistance RT ). A
resistor is connected in parallel to the sensor to linearise the response (see Figure 1). Assume that R25
= 1000 Ω holds for the sensor. What value should R1 have to ensure that the transfer function of the
circuit does not show any error at both ends of the range of the sensor?

Figure 1: Linearisation of a silicon resistive detector.

(c) What is the sensitivity of the sensor circuit (dR/dT) shown in Figure 1 at a temperature of 25◦C?
Draw ADC circuit to read sensor signal
Assume that the ADC has 12bit Resolution.
Find the ADC values in cases of sensor output values are: 0.5V, 2V, 4V.
Determine the sensor outputs that obtained from ADC values.