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GARIS PANDUAN
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JMG.GP.20
U nsur nadir bumi (Rare Earth Element, REE) mempunyai kegunaan yang
pelbagai dan meluas dalam industri termaju seperti elektronik, teknologi hijau,
pertahanan, automotif, petroleum dan sebagainya yang menyebabkan peningkatan
permintaan terhadap REE dunia.
Daya usaha kumpulan kerja dalam menyediakan garis panduan ini amat disanjung
tinggi. Ini adalah sumbangan yang amat berharga dan bermakna kepada JMG,
khususnya dalam melaksanakan tugas teras eksplorasi sumber mineral.
Julai 2015
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KANDUNGAN
Muka Surat
PRAKATA iii
SENARAI LAMPIRAN vi
SENARAI RAJAH vii
SENARAI JADUAL vii
SENARAI FOTO vii
SENARAI SINGKATAN viii
1.0 PENGENALAN 1
2.0 OBJEKTIF 3
3.0 SKOP KAJIAN 3
5.0 PENGELASAN CIRI-CIRI KIMIA REE 12
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Muka Surat
BIBLIOGRAFI 31
DAFTAR ISTILAH 64
PENGHARGAAN 69
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KANDUNGAN
Muka Surat
Senarai Lampiran
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Muka Surat
Senarai Rajah
Senarai Jadual
SENARAI FOTO
vii
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SENARAI SINGKATAN
Sg. Sungai
Mt. Gunung
viii
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1.0 PENGENALAN
Unsur Nadir Bumi (Rare Earth Element, REE) merupakan satu kumpulan
unsur dalam Jadual Berkala yang terdiri daripada 15 unsur dalam Kumpulan
Lanthanid, dengan nombor atom 57 hingga 71 dan dua unsur dalam
Kumpulan 3 iaitu skandium (21) dan ytrium (39). REE dibahagikan kepada
dua kategori iaitu Unsur Nadir Bumi Ringan (Light Rare Earth Element,
LREE) dan Unsur Nadir Bumi Berat (Heavy Rare Earth Element, HREE).
LREE terdiri daripada tujuh unsur dengan nombor atom berjulat dari 57
hingga 63 iaitu lantanum (La), serium (Ce), praseodimium (Pr), neodimium
(Nd), prometium (Pm), samarium (Sm) dan europium (Eu) manakala; HREE
terdiri daripada lapan unsur dengan nombor atom berjulat dari 64 hingga 71
iaitu gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), disprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium
(Er), tulium (Tm), yterbium (Yb) dan lutertium (Lu). Ytrium dan skandium pula
masing-masing dirujuk sebagai REE kerana sifat kimianya dan kewujudannya
biasa ditemui bersama dengan HREE (Lampiran 1).
LREE juga dikenali sebagai Kumpulan Serium dan HREE pula dikenali
sebagai Kumpulan Ytrium. LREE lebih banyak terdapat di dalam kerak bumi
berbanding dengan HREE. Bagi unsur promethium ianya tidak dijumpai
secara semulajadi dalam kerak bumi kerana separuh hayatnya yang pendek
iaitu 20 tahun (Lampiran 2).
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Di Malaysia, belum ada kajian intensif REE dilakukan. Kajian terdahulu terhad
kepada kajian penyelidikan seperti yang dilakukan oleh Khadijeh et al. (2009),
Sultan & Shazili (2009), Nor Antonina et al. (2013), Zainuddin et al. (2013) dan
Academy of Science, Malaysia (2013). Manakala kajian yang pernah dilakukan
oleh Jabatan Penyiasatan Kajibumi Malaysia terhad ke atas sumber REE
daripada amang (monazit dan xenotim) dari kawasan bekas lombong bijih timah
di Selangor dan Perak.
Sumber: wikipedia.org
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2.0 OBJEKTIF
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c. deposit sisa yang tinggi kandungan besi dan kaolin yang terbentuk
daripada peluluhawaan batuan perumah igneus dan sedimen,
d. batuan berkarbon termasuk arang batu, syal minyak dan batuan metapelit.
4
Lovozero and Khibiny, RU; Mountain Pass, USA;
UNROOFING OF BASEMENT ROCKS RIFTING Moonluping, CH (REE) OROGENY
Nimaussaq, GR; Necholocho, CA
Australia, India, Bastnas, SW; Steenkampskroal, SA; Tomtor, RU (REE ± Zr ± U ± Nb ± Ta) Kutessay, KR Longnan
Malaysia, Brazil Haidas Lake, CA; Nolens Bore, (REE + Nb + Sc) Strange Lake, CA
(REE) Xunwu,ete
(Ti + Zr + REE) Au (REE ± Th) (REE ± Zr)
Mt. Weld, AU; CH (REE)
Araxo, BR (REE ± Rib) WEATHERING
? ? fuids
Mangyshlak, KZ Kipawa, CA
(U + minor REE) (Zr + REE) Elliot Lake, CA
fuids (U + minor REE)
5
ION
gabbroic rocks
T
UC
BD
breccias ks
oc
SU
? cr
postorogenic granites bloclastic sediments roi
bb
LITHOSPHERIC ga
carbonatites (paleo) placers
MANTLE UPWELLING + DELAMINATION
anorogenic granites laterites
METASOMATISM MANTLE METASOMATISM
peralkaline foid rocks hydrothermal-metasomatic deposits
Kebanyakan REE dalam granit dan lain-lain batuan igneus tertumpu dalam fasa
pembentukan mineral aksesori seperti alanit, monazit dan zirkon serta mineral
aksesori minor terdiri daripada apatit, thorit dan ilmenit dengan sedikit magnetit.
(Bao dan Zhao, 2008; Sanematsu dan Kon, 2013; Sanematsu et al., 2013).
Pengayaan Total Rare Earth Element (TREE) dalam fasa lewat magma yang
membentuk batuan leukogranit dikawal terutamanya oleh sebahagian atau
keseluruhan pelarutan mineral aksesori seperti monazit, apatit dan zirkon
semasa fasa pengayaan REE, di mana ia melepaskan REE ke dalam magma
semasa proses anateksis (Ayres & Vance, 1997). HREE biasanya dikawal
oleh mineral apatit yang mana mengalami pelarutan lebih ekstensif daripada
zirkon. Manakala, muskovit menunjukkan pengayaan LREE dan anomali
positif europium (Eu). Di samping itu, biotit juga menunjukkan pengayaan
LREE dan bukti dari kajian lain menunjukkan bahawa biotit yang telah
mengalami proses metamorf mengandungi anomali positif Eu (Bea et al.,
1994). Garnet pula menunjukkan pengayaan HREE dan sedikit anomali
negatif Eu.
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Model pengayaan REE terbaik diperolehi pada suhu 620°C dan 680°C bagi
leukogranit berturmalin dan leukogranit berbiotit ianya seragam dengan bukti
jelas untuk suhu pemejalan (solidus) batuan tersebut (Scaillet et al., 1995).
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_________________________________________________________________
1
variasi corak batuan pukal - seperti lapisan bauksit, lapisan laterit dan kaolinit
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Bagi pengelasan mineral, LREE kaya dalam batuan karbonat dan fosfat,
manakala HREE adalah kaya dalam bentuk oksida seperti titanit, niobit,
tantalit dan sebahagian dari fosfat. Silikat mengandungi kedua-dua jenis REE
(Kanazawa & Kamitani, 2005). Walau bagaimanapun proses pengekstrakan
REE dari mineral memerlukan kos yang tinggi kerana ikatan kimia yang kuat
di dalam strukturnya.
Pengelasan dan ciri-ciri kimia bagi REE, secara umumnya adalah seperti
di Jadual 2 dan Lampiran 3.
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Carbonates
With fluoride Bastnaesite, (Ce,La)(CO3)F
Without fluoride Ancylite, (Ce,Sr,Ca)(CO3)(OH.H2O)
Apatite, (Ca,RE,Sr,Na,K)3Ca2(PO4)3(F,OH)
Phosphates, arsenates and
Monazite, (Ce,La)PO4
vanadates
Xenotime, YPO4
Silicates (The following groups are
based on the linkage manner of
tetrahedral anionic group)
Cerite, (Ce,La,Ca)9(Fe3+,Mg (SiO4)6[SiO3(OH)](OH)3
Isolated group Garnet,(Ca,Fe,Mg,Mn,Y)3(Al,Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V,Zr2(Si,A)3O12
Sphene, CaTiSiO4
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REE mempunyai kegunaan yang pelbagai dan meluas dalam industri termaju
seperti industri kereta (Rajah 2), elektronik (Rajah 3), minyak dan gas,
teknologi hijau, pertahanan dan sebagainya (Jadual 3 dan 4). Maklumat
tambahan penggunaan REE seperti di Lampiran 4.
Secara amnya proses pengekstrakan REE dari sumber bahan mentah telah
melalui beberapa proses yang kompleks seperti di Lampiran 5 dan 6.
UV CUT GLASS
-Cerium GLASS AND MIRRORS
DIESAL FUEL ADDITIVE POLISHING POWDER
LCD SCREEN
-Cerium -Cerium
-Europium
-Lanthanum
-Yitrium
-Cerium
COMPONENT SENSORS
-Yitrium
hybrid nimh battery
-Lanthanum
-Cerium
HYBRID ELECTRIC
MOTOR AND GENERATOR
-Neodymium
CATALYTIC CO -Praseodymium
-Cerium / Zirconium -Dysprosium
-Lanthanum 25 + ELECTRIC MOTORS HEADLIGHT GLASS -Terbium
THROUGHOUT VEHICLE -Neodymium
-Nd Magnets
14
39 Colour Screen
Ytrium
Y Lanthanium
Praseodymium
57 Europium
Gadolinium
La Terbium
58 Dysprosium
Ce Glass Polishing
Lanthanium
Cerium
59 Praseodymium
Pr Phone Circuitry
60 Lanthanium
Praseodymium
15
Nd Neodymium
Gadolinium
63 Dysprosium
Eu Speakers
Praseodymium
64 Neodymium
Gadolinium
Gd Terbium
65 Dysprosium
Tb Vibration Unit
Neodymium
66 Terbium
GARIS PANDUAN
Dysprosium
Tb
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
67 Holmium Lasers
70 Ytterbium IR lasers
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GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Cars
- Light weight magnets
in motors for windows,
windscreen wipers, stater
motors, alternators, etc
Electronics
Nd, Pr, Sm, Dy, Tb Light Weight Magnets - Magnets in disc drivers
for computers, data
storage, portable music
players(e.g. iPods), video
recorders, consoles,
video cameras, Speakers
and Wind turbine
Automotive catalyst, Clean
La, Ce, Nd, Pr, Sc Catalyst
diesel and Oil refining
Electrics motors and
Nd, Pr, Dy, Tb, La, Nd, Ce Hybrids vehicles generators
Hybrid batteries
Compact fluorescent lights, Lighting lasers, UV radiation
Eu, Tb, Y, Sc
energy saving lamps and fluorescent lamp
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EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
ii) Meneliti dan memahami maklumat geologi sedia ada seperti formasi
geologi dan unit litologi kawasan.
ii) Foto udara dan imej satelit dikaji bagi mendapat gambaran
secara menyeluruh dan membuat interpretasi awal terhadap
fitur-fitur geologi yang boleh membantu dalam perlaksanaan kajian
di lapangan.
ii) Peta dasar yang biasa digunakan adalah berskala 1:50,000 dan
tandakan jalan perhubungan yang terkini ke kawasan kajian.
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Media Kaedah
Bil. Jenis deposit Kuantiti
pensampelan pensampelan
1 Sekunder: Tanih Alur 1.0 kg
Luluhawa granit sisa (batuan luluhawa
(lempung jerapan ion) terurai - horizon B)
Bagi sampel batuan luluhawa terurai pula, ujian makmal yang perlu
dijalankan ialah:
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GARIS PANDUAN
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Rajah 4 : Pensampelan dan taburan mineral lempung dalam horizon granit terluluhawa
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b) Sedimen plaser
c) Batuan
i) Kajian Geofizik
ii) Penggerudian
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GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Berat
Bil. Jenis sampel Ciri sampel Jenis Ujian
sampel (g)
Petrografi untuk kajian
Pecahan batuan
1 Batuan 500 - 1000 keratan nipis, XRF,
(>5cm)
ICP-MS.
XRF, XRD, ICP-MS,
Batuan luluhawa Sampel tanih
2 300 SEM. (saiz analisis
terurai (horizon B) (<180 µm / 80#)
<75 µm / 200#)
Konsentrat Mineral Berat QME, XRF, XRD,
3 10 - 30
(3-5 dulang piawai) (bersih) ICP-MS, SEM
i) Analisis XRF bagi kandungan SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2, CaO, MgO,
K2O, Na2O dan P2O5.
ii) Analisis ICP-MS bagi 17 unsur : La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy,
Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Y, Sc, Th.
v) Analisis QME
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Data yang diperolehi dari makmal perlu dilakukan analisis mudah seperti
corak anomali normal menggunakan nilai Chondrite normalizing factor
mengikut kaedah-kaedah dan rujukan yang diperkenalkan oleh Sun & Mc
Donough (1989) (Lampiran 13). Contoh persembahan data seperti yang
ditunjukkan dalam Lampiran 14 dan 15.
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GARIS PANDUAN
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Anggaran jumlah sumber tanih yang berpotensi REE dalam metrik tan pada
peratus kepekatan Total Rare Earth Element (TREE) adalah seperti formula
berikut:
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GARIS PANDUAN
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i) Bahasa
Laporan boleh ditulis dalam Bahasa Melayu atau Bahasa Inggeris.
ii) Teks
Laporan perlu ditaip menggunakan komputer dan perisian pemprosesan
perkataan (word processor) yang dipersetujui oleh Jabatan. Contohnya
MS Word untuk teks dan perisian lain yang sesuai.
iii) Kertas
Warna putih, saiz A4.
v) Jenis font
Jenis font adalah Arial.
vi) Birai
Birai yang digunakan adalah seperti berikut dan full justification.
Birai Kiri : 30mm
Birai Kanan : 25mm
Birai Atas : 25mm
Birai Bawah : 25mm
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EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
x) Header / Footer
Semua muka surat laporan, bermula daripada muka surat “Kandungan”.
“Tajuk laporan” perlu diletakkan di bahagian atas sebelah kanan di
atas garisan sebagai header dan nama Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains
Malaysia di bahagian bawah sebelah kiri di bawah garisan sebagai
footer. Jenis font yang digunakan ialah Arial dengan saiz 8-point. Tema
warnanya adalah White, Background 1, Darker 50%.
xi) Jadual
Setiap jadual mestilah mengandungi nombor rujukan dan keterangan
yang dicetak pada sebelah atas di bahagian tengah jadual tersebut
dan ditulis sebagai Jadual No. Bil. Jadual: Keterangan.
xii) Rajah
Setiap rajah (termasuk peta) mestilah mengandungi nombor rujukan dan
keterangan yang dicetak pada sebelah bawah di bahagian tengah rajah
tersebut dan ditulis sebagai Rajah No. Bil. Rajah: Keterangan. Khas
untuk peta, di dalamnya mesti dimasukan logo Jabatan, rujukan peta,
tarikh disediakan dan nama pegawai yang menyediakan selain daripada
petunjuk, skala dan arah mata angin.
xiii) Foto
Setiap foto / gambar mestilah mengandungi nombor rujukan dan
keterangan yang dicetak pada sebelah bawah di bahagian tengah foto
tersebut dan ditulis sebagai Foto No. Bil. Foto: Keterangan.
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xvi) Penghargaan:
Penghargaan merupakan satu kenyataan ringkas bagi menyampaikan
ucapan terima kasih / penghargaan kepada mereka yang banyak memberi
sumbangan dan terlibat dalam menjayakan projek yang dilaporkan. Ianya
dicetak selepas tajuk Kesimpulan.
xvii) Rujukan:
Senarai penerbitan yang dirujuk hendaklah mengikut Sistem Harvard.
Setiap rujukan di dalam teks perlu dinyatakan nama pengarang, tahun
penerbitan dan tajuk buku / laporan. Jika menggunakan maklumat dari
laman web, nyatakan keseluruhan alamat URL serta tarikh laman web
tersebut dirujuk.
xviii) Bibliografi:
Meliputi bahan-bahan penerbitan yang berkaitan dengan projek tetapi
tiada rujukan secara langsung dalam teks, juga perlu disenaraikan
mengikut Sistem Harvard.
xix) Apendiks:
Apendiks merupakan lampiran bagi jadual, ilustrasi dan sebagainya yang
tidak sesuai dimuatkan ke dalam teks kerana ianya boleh mengganggu
kesinambungan teks. Apendiks boleh dibahagikan kepada beberapa
apendiks yang berasingan iaitu Apendiks A, B, C dan sebagainya. Tiap-
tiap apendiks serta tajuknya hendaklah disenaraikan secara berasingan
di dalam Senarai Isi Kandungan.
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BIBLIOGRAFI
Academy of Science Malaysia, 2013. Revitalising the Rare Earth Mineral Programme
in Peninsular Malaysia as a Strategic Industry. ASM Study Report 1/2013. Pp 107
Aubert, D., Stille, P., & Probst, A., 2000. REE Fractionation During Granite Weathering
and Removal by Waters and Suspended Loads: Sr and Nd Isotopic Evidence.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Vol. 65, N0. 3. Elsevier Science Ltd. 387-406
Ayres, M., & Vance, D., 1997. A Comparative study of diffusion profiles in Himalayan
and Dalradian Garnets; Constraint on Diffusion Data and the Relative Duration of the
Metamorphic events. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. In Press
Banfield, J.F., & Eggleton, R.A., 1989. Apatite replacement and Rare Earth Mobilization,
Fractionation and Fixation during weathering. Clay and Clay Minerals 37, 113-127
Bao, Z., & Zhao, Z., 2008. Geochemistry of Mineralization With Exghangeable REY
in the Weathering Crusts of Granitic Rocks in South China. Ore Geology Reviews 33,
519-535
Bea, F., Pereira, M.D., & Stroh, A., 1994. Mineral / Leucosome Trace-Element
partitioning in a peraluminous migmatite (a laser ablation-ICP-MS study). Chemical
Geology 117, 291-312
Compton, J.S., White, R.A., & Smith, M., 2003. Rare earth element Behaviour in Soil
and Salt Pan Sediments of a Semi-arid Granitic Terrain in the Western Cape, South
Africa. Chemical Geology 201, 239-255.
Dambrine, E., Pollier, B., Poszwa, A., Ranger, J., Probst, A., Viville, D., Biron, P.,
& Granier, A., 1998. Evidence oc Current Soil Acidification in Spruce (Strengbach
Catchment, Vosges Mountains, North-Eastern France). Water Air Soil Pollution 105,
43-52
Dill, H.G., Hansen, B.T., & Weber, B., 2011. REE Contents, REE Minerals and
Sm / Nd Isotopes of Granite and Unconformity Related Fluoride Mineralization at
the Western Edge of the Bohemian Massif: With special Reference to the Nabburg-
Wolsendorf District, SE Germany
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GARIS PANDUAN
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Eby, G.N., 1990. The A-Type Granitoids, a Review of Their Occurrence and Chemical
Characteristics and Speculations on Their Petrogenesis. Lithos 26, 115-134
Imai, A, Senematsu, K, Ishida, S, Watanabe, K., and Boosayasak, J., 2008. Rare
Earth Elements in Weathered Crust in Sn-bearing Granitic Rocks in Southern
Thailand. Proceeding of the International Symposia on Geoscience Resources
and Environments of Asian Terranes (GREAT 2008), 4th IGCP 516 and 5th APSEG;
November 24-26, 2008, Bangkok, Thailand
Kanazawa, T.& Kamitani, M, 2006. Rare Earth Minerals and Resources in the World.
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 408-412 (2006), 1339-1343
Khadijeh, R.E.S., Saion, B.E., Abdul Khalik, W., & Reza, A. M., 2009. Rare Earth
Elements Distribution in Marine Sediments of Malaysia Coasts. Journal of Rare Earths
27, 1066-1071
Laveuf, C., &Cornu, S., 2009. A Review on the Potentialityof Rare Earth Elements to
Trace Pedogenetic Processes. Geoderma154, 1-12
Loiselle, M.C., & Wones, D.R., 1979. Characteristics and Origin of Anorogenic Granites.
Abstract with Programs, 11. Geological Society of America, 468
Nor Antonina, A., Shazili, N.A.M., Kamaruzzaman, B.Y., Ong, M.C., Rosnan,
Y., & Sharifah, F.N., 2013. Geochemistry of the Rare Earth Elements (REE)
Distribution in Terengganu Coastal Waters: A Study Case from Redang Island
Marine Sediment. Open Journal of Marine Science, 2013, 3, 154-159
Probst, A., El Gh’mari A., Aubert, D., Fritz, B., & McNutt, R., 2000. Strontium as a
Tracer of Weathering Processes in a Silicate Catchment Polluted by Acid Atmospheric
Inputs, Strengbach, France. Chemical Geology.
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GARIS PANDUAN
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Sanematsu, K., Kon, Y., Imai, A., Watanabe, K., & Watanabe, Y., 2013. Geochemical
and Mineralogical Characteristics of Ion-Adsorption Type REE Mineralization in
Phuket, Thailand. Miner Deposita 48, 437-451
Scaillet, B., Pitchavant, M., & Roux, J., 1995. Experimental crystallization of
Leucogranite Magmas. Journal of Petrology 36(3), 663-705
Stille, P., Gautier-Lafaye, F., & Louvat, D., 1999. REE Migration in Groundwaters
Close to the Natural Fission Reactor of Bagombe (Gabon); Sm-Nd Isotope
Evidence. In Proceedings of the Oklo Phase II Workshop, Brussels. EUR Report
Series n° 19137, 263-272
Sultan, K.& Shazili, N.A., 2009. Rare Earth Elements in Tropical Surface Water, Soil
and Sediments of the Terengganu River Basin, Malaysia. Journal of Rare Earths,
Vol. 27, No. 6, 2009, 1072-1078
Wang, Q., Deng, J., Liu, X., Zhang, Q., Sun, S., Jiang, C., & Zhou, F., 2010. Discovery
of the REE Minerals and its Geological Significance in the Quyang Bauxite
Deposit, West Guangxi, China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 39, 701-712
Wei, X., Ji, H., Li, D., Zhang, F., & Wang, S., 2013. Material source Analysis and
Element Geochemical Research about two Types of Representative Bauxite
Deposits and Terra Rossa in Western Guangxi, Southern China. Journal of Chemical
Exploration 133, 68-87
Wu, C.Y., Huang, D.H., & Gou, Z.X., 1990. REE Geochemistry in the Weathered
Crust of Granites, Longnan Area, Jiangxi province. Acta Geologica Sinica, 3, 193-210
Zainuddin, M.Y., Bryne, T.N., & Parsons, I., 2013. Mobility and Fractionation of
REE During Deep Weathering of Geochemically Contrasting Granites in a Tropical
Setting, Malaysia. Chemical Geology 239-350 (2013), 71-86.
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Jadual Berkala Menunjukkan Ree
Lanthanum (La)
GARIS PANDUAN
Cerium (Ce)
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
34
Lanthanides Gadolinium (Gd)
Terbium (Tb)
H He Dysprosium (Dy)
Li Be B C N O F Ne Holmium (Ho)
Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar Erbium (Er)
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Thulium (Th)
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Ytterbium (Yb)
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Lutetium (Lu)
Fr Ra An Lr Yttrium (Y)
LAMPIRAN 1
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 2
Lanthanum La 57 *Promethium
Cerium Ce 58 does not occur
Praseodymium Pr 59 Light Rare Earth naturally as a
Samarium Sm 62 be artificially
Europium Eu 63 manufactured
Gadolinium Gd 64
Terbium Tb 65 1
Yttrium is
Dysprosium Dy 66 considered a
Heavy Rare Earth
Holmium Ho 67 REE because it
Elements
Erbium Er 68 shares chemical
Thulium Tm 69
HREE similarities and
Lutetium Lu 71 HREE
Yttrium1 Y 39
35
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 3
Oxides
Aeschynite (Y,Ca,Fe)(Ti,Nb)2(O,OH)6 25
Euxenite (Y,Ca,Ce)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6 24
Fergusonite YNbO4 46
Loparite (Ce,Na,Ca)2(Ti,Nb)2O6 30
Samarskite (Y,Fe3+,U)(Nb,Ta)5O4 24
Carbonates
Ancylite SrCe(CO3)2(OH)•(H2O) 43
Bastnasite Ce(CO3)F 75
Parisite Ca(Ce,La)2(CO3)3F2 61
Synchysite CaCe(CO3)2F 51
Tengerite Y2(CO3)3•2-3(H2O) 56
Phosphates
Britholite (Ce,Ca,Th,La,Nd)5(SiO4,PO4)3(OH,F) 32
Florencite CeAl3(PO4)2(OH)6 32
Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl) 20
Monazite (Ce,La,NdTh)PO4 65
Xenotime YPO4 61
Silicates
Allanite (Ce,Ca,Y)2(Al,Fe3+)3(SiO4)3(OH) 38
Gadolinite Y2Fe2+Be2Si2O10 48
Kainosite Ca2(Y,Ce)2Si4012(CO3)•(H20) 38
Eudialyte Na4(ca,Ce)2(Fe2+,Mn,Y)ZrSi8O22(OH,Cl)2 10
Thalenite Y3Si3O10(OH) 64
*Source: webmineral.com, Retrieved on 15 August 2012
36
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 4
La Lanthanum 57
Uses: Lanthanum is strategically important due to its use as a catalyst to create fuel
for vehicles and aircraft. It is also used in alloys needed as part of fuel cell sand
batteries. Lanthanum is the key to modifying glass crystal structure and their fractive
index, which makes it easier for optical lens designers to create their lenses.
Lanthanum is used in night vision instruments. Lanthanum is also used as a compound
in carbon arc lamps, color television sets, cigarette lighter flints, and optical fibers.
It’s phosphors are used in X-ray films and certain lasers to help reduce the dose
of radiation to patients by up to 75%. There is current interest in hydrogen sponge
alloys containing lanthanum. These alloys take up to 400 times their own volume
of hydrogen gas, and the process is reversible. Each time they take up gas, heat energy
is released. Hence, these alloys have possibilities in an energy conservation system.
Ce Cerium 58
Uses: Cerium has many uses. It is used for catalytic converters in automobiles to
reduce emissions. It is used as a catalyst in petroleum refining and in metallurgical
and nuclear applications. As an oxide, it is used in glass polishing agents. Along
with other rare earths, cerium is used in carbon-arc lighting, especially in the motion
picture industry. It is also used in self cleaning ovens. As part of a Mischmetal,
it is used to manufacture pyrophoric alloys for cigarette lighters. A cerium based
conversion coating is non corrosive and may have significant military applications.
37
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Pr Praseodymium 59
Sources: Monazite and bastnaesite are the two primary commercial sources of
Praseodymium.
Nd Neodymium 60
Uses: Modern day technology, such as cell phones, portable CD players, computers
and sound systems would be vastly different without the use of strong permanent
magnets made from neodymium. The Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) permanent
magnets are so strong that they are ideal for the miniaturization of a variety
of technologies. Neodymium based permanent magnets are also at the heart of
anti-lock brakes, air bags, anti-glare automobile light glass and mirrors. Neodymium
oxide can be added to CRT glass to enhance picture brightness by absorbing yellow
light waves. The oxide also has a sky-blue color and is used to produce various
coloring pigments for ceramic tile, artistic glass, and others. Neodymium compounds
help stabilize electrical properties in ceramic capacitors. Many solid state lasers
use neodymium due to its optimal selection of absorption and emitting wavelengths.
Neodymium lasers are used in material processing, drilling spot welding / marking
and medicine, where the neodymium light laser is used for non-evasive surgical
procedures. MRIs also use the neodymium magnet. Neodymium is also used in
Mischmetal (18%) for the flint in lighters.
38
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Pm Promethium 61
Sm Samarium 62
Uses: Samarium is combined with cobalt to create a permanent magnet with the
highest resistance to demagnetization of any material know. Because of its ability to
take continuous temperatures above 250 degrees, it is essential in both aerospace
and military applications. Precision guided munitions use samarium-cobalt permanent
magnet motors to direct the flight control surfaces (fins). Samarium-cobalt can be
used as part of stealth technology in helicopters to create white noise to cancel or
hide the sound of the rotor blades. These permanent magnets are also used as part
of the aircraft electrical systems. They also are used to move the flight control surfaces
of aircraft, including flaps, rudder, and ailerons. Samarium is used in both missile
and radar systems’ traveling wave tube (TWT). Samarium-cobalt magnets are used
in defense radar systems as well as in several types of electronic counter measure
equipment, such as the Tail Warning Function. Samarium is also used as carbon
arc lighting for the motion picture industry. Samarium oxide has been used in optical
glass to absorb the infrared. It is used in infrared absorbing glass and as a neutron
absorber in nuclear reactors.
Sources: Found in minerals such as monazite (2.8%) and bastnaesite, which are
commercial sources.
39
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Eu Europium 63
Uses: There are no commercial uses for europium metal. However, europium has
been used to dope some types of plastics to make lasers. Europium is the most
reactive of the rare earth elements. It is being studied for possible use in nuclear
reactors. Europium oxide is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and
as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors. Europium-doped plastic has been used
as a laser material.
Sources: Identified spectroscopically in the sun and certain stars. 17 isotopes are
now recognized.
Gd Gadolinium 64
Uses: Gadolinium has unique magnetic behavior, which allows it to form the heart
of magneto-optic recording technology used for handling computer data. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) systems use materials that contain Gadolinium to enhance
the images created. Gadolinium is also the most efficient element used to detect
power plant radiation leaks. Gadolinium is used with yttrium to form garnets that
have microwave applications. Gadolinium can be alloyed with certain metals, such
as iron and chromium, to improve their workability and resistance to high
temperatures and oxidation. Gadolinium compounds are also used to make phosphors
for color televisions.
Sources: Found in several other minerals such as monazite and bastnaesite, both of
which are commercially important.
40
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Er Terbium 65
Uses: Terbium with zirconium dioxide can be used as a crystal stabilizer in fuel cells
that operate at high temperatures. It is used in energy efficient fluorescent lamps
and metal alloys that provide suitable metallic films for magneto-optic recording of data.
Sources: Found in cerite, gadolinite and other minerals along with other rare earths.
Dy Dysprosium 66
Uses: Dysprosium, which is critical to improve the coercive force of high efficiency,
high performance motors used in next-generation vehicles, energy conserving home
electronics, and wind power generation, is difficult to find a substitute. The metal,
which has natural high oxidizing properties, is also difficult to store. Dysprosium is
essential for Japanese technology, making electronic components smaller and faster.
At this point, Japan is wholly dependent on China for a stable supply of this REE.
It can be an additive to enhance the coercivity in neodymium-iron-boron magnets.
It has been used to make laser materials.
41
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Ho Holmium 67
Uses: Holmium is one of the least abundant rare earth elements. It has no commercial
uses. However, it possesses unusual magnetic properties that could be exploited in
the future.
Er Erbium 68
Uses: Erbium is used as an amplifier for fiber optic data transmission. Erbium has
also been introduced in lasers for medical and dental uses because they are suited
to energy delivery without thermal build up in human tissue. Erbium is used to color
glass. It is the only pink colorant truly stable in glass melts. It is used in sunglasses
and decorative crystal glassware. Erbium has also been finding uses in nuclear
and metallurgy. For example, adding erbium to vanadium lowers the hardness and
improves workability.
Tm Thulium 69
Uses: Thulium is the rarest of the rare earths. Its chemistry is similar to yttrium. It can
be used in sensitive X-ray phosphors to reduce X-ray exposure. However, it is very
expensive and therefore has few practical applications.
Sources: Tm occurs in small quantities along with other rare earths in a number of
minerals. It is obtained commercially from monazite, which contains about 0.007%
of the element. Tm is the least abundant of the REEs. New sources, however, have
been discovered and now it is considered as rare as silver, gold or cadmium.
42
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Yb Ytterbium 70
Uses: When subject to very high stresses, ytterbium increases its electrical resistance
by an order of magnitude and is used in stress gauges to monitor ground deformations
caused, for example, by nuclear explosions. Ytterbium might have some use in improving
the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of stainless steel.
Sources: Occurs with other rare earths in a number of rare minerals. Commercially
recovered mostly from monazite sand (0.03%).
Lu Lutetium 71
Uses: Stable lutetium nuclides emit pure beta radiation after thermal neutron
activation. Therefore, it can be used as catalysts in cracking, alkylation, hydrogenation,
and polymerization. Cerium-doped lutetium oxy-orthosilicate (LSO) is currently used
in detectors in positron emission tomography (PET).
Sources: Lu occurs in very small amounts in nearly all minerals that contain yttrium.
In Monazite, it is present about 0.003% of the time (commercial source). The pure
metal has been isolated only in recent years. It is one of the most difficult to prepare.
Handling: Lu is radioactive
43
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Y Yttrium 39
Uses: Yttrium oxide is the most frequently used oxide. Every vehicle uses yttrium
based materials to help improve the efficiency of fuels and eliminate pollution.
Yttrium is also used in microwave communication devices for the defense and
satellite industries. Yttrium iron garnets are used as resonators for use infrequency
meters, magnetic field measurement devices, tunable transistor s and Gunn
oscillators. Yttrium with garnets are used in cellular communications devices. Yttrium
and other lanthanides have many high-tech and defense uses, such as stabilizers
for exotic light-weight jet engine turbines and other parts and as a stabilizer material
in rocket nose cones. They can also be formed into laser crystals specific to
spectral characteristics for military communications. Yttrium ceramics can be used
as crucibles for melting reactive metals and as nozzles for jet casting molten alloys.
Cars contain oxygen sensors composed of yttrium based ceramic materials. Yttrium is
also widely used to give the red color in color television tubes.
Sources: Y occurs in nearly all of the rare-earth minerals. There has been found high
Y content on lunar rocks. Y is recovered commercially from monazite sand (3%)
and from bastnaesite (0.2%).
Sc Scandium 21
Uses: There are two primary uses for scandium. First, due to its luminescence and
electrical conductivity properties, scandium is used in lighting, lasers and consumer
electronics. Second, it is used as an alloy in aluminum to produce high-performance
materials in the aerospace and sporting goods industries. There are currently no
substitutes for scandium in its applications to lasers and the illumination industry.
However, titanium / aluminum alloys and carbon fiber can be used to replace
scandium / aluminum alloys in some cases, especially in the sports equipment industry.
Sources: More abundant in the sun and certain stars than on earth. It is widely
distributed on earth. It occurs in very minute quantities in over 800 mineral species.
Found in Scandinavia and Malagasy. Most Sc today is recovered from thortveitite
or is extracted as a by-product from uranium mill tailings.
44
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 5
REE Process
Ore Crusher
Mill Floatation
Gravel Process
is milled Mineral containing
into silt REE is extracted i.e.:
Bastnaesite Monazite
Ore is crushed xenotime
into gravel size
(Lampiran 6)
45
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 6
Pre-Leach Filtrate
11% Na2CO3
H 2O
10% H2SO4
H 2O
H 2O
Column 2
Fe stripping column H2SO4
46
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
REECI3 Separation of
REE chlorides
0.35% HCI
10% Na2CO3
Ce purification column
Chelating column
Chelating column
Pr+Nd+Eu+Dy+TbCI3
Water PrCI3 Dy + TbCI3
raffinate
47
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
REECI3 Separation of
(cont’d)
Pr Chelating column
48
CONTOH BORANG CERAPAN SAMPEL KAJIAN REE DI LAPANGAN
Borang JMG/01/REE
Pecahan
Jarak
Saiz Catatan/
Syit Nama Ketinggian Jenis dari
Bil No Sampel Easting Northing Kawasan Litologi Warna Butiran/ Turus
Topo Syit Topografi Sampel Permukaan
Mineral Stratigrafi
(m)
(%)
1 REE1111A 566716 522598 4263 Kuala Kg. Kuala Granit Tanih Perang 1 Pecahan ion adsorption
Jengai Jengai Batuan/ clay, granit
pasir_% kijal struktur?
Sesar, kekar,
lapisan
49
(FG,MG,CG,
equigranular,
porfiritik,
pegmatitik)
Chart)
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
4 REE1111D 4
LAMPIRAN 7
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 8
KONSENTRAT
MAGNETIC SEPARATION -
to separate the magnetic from the non-magnetic minerals
MAGNETIC SEPARATION -
to separate the more magnetic from the less-magnetic minerals
Material Process
50
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 9
51
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 10
52
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 11
53
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 12
Reaction
Extraction Dominantly reacting
Reagent pH time
step # materials
(hrs)
Reaction
Extraction Dominantly reacting
Reagent pH time
step # materials
(hrs)
0.5M ammonium
1 5.7 24 Ion-exchangeable materials
sulphate
54
NILAI CHONDRITE NORMALIZING FACTOR
55
Pearce, J.A. and Parkinson, I.J., 1993. Trace element models for mantle melting: application to volcanic arc patrogenesis;
in Prichard, H.M., Alabaster, T., Harris, N.B.W., and Neary, C.R.
0.56 6.3 0.12 0.05 0.13 2.33 0.13 2.5 7.5 0.3 1.32 90 0.07 7.3 74 2.05 2.63 1.02 3.68 1.27 0.67 4.55 4.3 28 1.01 3.05
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 13
RESULT OF SIX STEP EXTRACTION EXPERIMENT
Ce/ Eu/ La N/
Sample Fraction
Ce* Eu* Yb N
(ppm) % (ppm) % (ppm) % (ppm) % (ppm) % (ppm) % (ppm) %
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Ion-exchangeable
76.7 41.2 12.8 35.4 89 40.3 20.3 31.3 110 38.2 3.3 6.7 0.85 15.7 0.35 0.16 15.7
(Na acetate)
Organic matter 107 57.3 2.3 6.4 109 49.0 2.8 4.3 112 38.9 22.3 44.7 0.7 12.9 13.3 0.13 10.4
Amorphous Fe-Ox & Mn-Ox 8.9 4.8 0.34 0.94 9.2 4.2 0.49 0.7 9.7 3.4 0.14 0.3 0.05 0.9 6.6 0.16 12.7
S0 Fe and Mn oxides 20.5 11.0 0.19 0.52 20.7 9.3 0.16 0.2 20.9 7.3 0.11 0.2 0.07 1.3 15.2 0.14 13.8
Clays and sulfides 4.8 2.6 1.2 3.4 6.0 2.7 2.0 3.1 8.0 2.8 11.5 23.0 0.7 12.9 1.8 n.d. 2.9
56
Silicates 4.4 2.3 3.4 9.4 7.8 3.5 4.3 6.6 12.1 4.2 2.8 5.6 1.2 22.2 1.2 0.62 0.81
Weathered granite
Estimated residual -36 -19 16 44 -20 -9.0 35 54 15 5.2 9.7 19 1.8 34 n.d. n.d. n.d.
Whole-rock content 186 100 36 100 222 100 65 100 287 100 50 100 5.4 100 1.4 0.19 5.0
Ion-exchangeable (Na acetate) 268 66.3 37.0 84 305 68.0 43.4 70.0 349 68.3 3.0 8.7 0.90 23.9 0.24 0.46 22.0
Organic matter 113 27.9 4.0 9.1 117 26.0 4.9 7.8 122 23.8 16.1 47.1 0.6 15.9 5.1 0.46 15.3
Amorphous Fe-Ox & Mn-Ox 14.3 3.5 0.66 1.5 14.9 3.3 0.74 1.2 15.7 3.1 0.23 0.7 0.05 1.4 4.1 0.41 15.1
Fe and Mn oxides 21.4 5.3 0.30 0.68 21.7 4.8 0.25 0.4 21.9 4.3 0.07 0.2 0.08 2.2 8.2 0.37 14.8
S6
Clays and sulfides 12.3 3.0 1.0 2.3 13.3 3.0 1.4 2.2 14.7 2.9 8.2 24.0 0.5 13.2 1.3 n.d. 9.3
Silicates 8.4 2.1 2.0 4.5 10.4 2.3 2.8 4.5 13.2 2.6 2.1 6.1 0.8 21.2 1.0 1.8 2.6
Ion-adsorption ore
Estimated residual -33 -8 -0.8 -1.7 -34 -7.5 8.6 14 -25 -4.9 4.5 13 0.8 22 n.d. n.d. n.d
Whole-rock content 404 100 44 100 449 100 62.0 100 511 100 34.2 100 3.8 100 0.91 0.54 13.5
LAMPIRAN 14
RESULT OF SINGLE STEP EXTRACTION EXPERIMENT
S0 Ion-exchangeable
73.3 39.4 11.6 32.1 84.8 38.2 18.4 28.3 103 36.0 0.23 0.45 0.55 10.1 0.38 0.16 17.2
(ammonium sulfate)
Ion-exchangeable
S1 160 41.2 19.3 46.2 179 41.7 28.7 40.4 208 41.5 0.17 0.33 0.64 12.5 0.35 0.15 26.9
(ammonium sulfate)
granite
Weathered
Ion-exchangeable
S2 187 52.5 18.3 52.9 205 52.5 26.0 43.6 231 51.4 0.34 0.67 0.83 17.4 0.58 0.15 28.8
(ammonium sulfate)
57
Ion-exchangeable
S3 119 37.6 22.1 60.8 141 40.0 28.5 57.3 170 42.1 0.25 0.68 0.37 7.9 0.70 0.48 9.4
(ammonium sulfate)
Ion-exchangeable
S4 220 51.6 30.9 64.4 251 52.9 35.6 63.5 286 54.0 0.03 0.10 0.25 7.7 0.06 0.48 26.5
(ammonium sulfate)
Ion-exchangeable
S5 163 47.7 18.3 58.6 182 48.6 23.5 51.2 205 48.9 0.31 0.84 0.71 17.1 0.63 0.45 21.5
(ammonium sulfate)
Ion-exchangeable
S6 256 63.3 34.4 77.8 290 64.7 35.1 56.6 325 63.7 0.20 0.57 0.66 17.5 0.26. 0.45 22.0
Ion-adsorption ore
(ammonium sulfate)
Ion-exchangeable
S7 270 49.4 36.6 85.7 306 52.1 39.5 63.4 346 53.1 0.12 0.41 0.35 12.4 0.12 0.44 29.6
(ammonium sulfate)
GARIS PANDUAN
Ce/Ce* = Ce N/(La NxPr N) ½, Eu/Eu* = Eu N/(Sm NxGd N) ½, where subscript N represents normalization by C1-chondrite (Sun and McDonough, 1989)
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 15
CONTOH KEPUTUSAN ANALISIS DATA TREE
LREE HREE
2014-0391-031 ASM31 7 24 89 5 16 3 0.2 3 0.4 2 0.3 1 0.2 1 0.2 152.3 15.1 137.2 8.12 0.07 24.00
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
2014-0391-032 ASM32 58 80 140 18 65 12 2 12 2 10 2 6 0.8 5 0.7 413.5 96.5 317 3.69 0.17 16.00
2014-0391-033 ASM33 70 180 270 41 150 23 2 18 2 13 3 8 1 7 1 789 123 666 3.14 0.10 25.71
2014-0391-034 ASM34 63 100 210 26 97 18 3 16 2 12 2 7 0.9 6 0.8 563.7 109.7 454 4.12 0.18 16.67
2014-0391-035 ASM35 19 51 240 12 39 8 1 7 0.9 5 0.9 2 0.3 2 0.3 388.4 37.4 351 9.70 0.13 25.50
58
2014-0391-036 ASM36 5 27 230 4 14 3 0.3 3 0.3 2 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.8 0.1 290.7 12.4 278.3 22.13 0.10 33.75
2014-0391-037 ASM37 36 63 210 16 58 10 1 9 1 7 1 4 0.6 4 0.5 421.1 63.1 358 6.61 0.11 15.75
2014-0391-038 ASM38 33 75 260 19 67 12 1 10 1 7 1 4 0.5 4 0.5 495 61 434 6.89 0.09 18.75
Min 5 24 89 4 14 3 0.2 3 0.3 2 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.8 0.1 152.3 12.4 137.2
Average 36.38 75.00 206.13 17.63 63.25 11.13 1.31 9.75 1.2 7.25 1.31 4.10 0.55 3.73 0.51 439.21 64.78 374.44
HREE Elemen Nadir Bumi Berat THREE Elemen Nadir Bumi Berat Total
LREE Elemen Nadir Bumi Ringan TLREE Elemen Nadir Bumi Ringan Total
LAMPIRAN 16
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 17
SENARAI JADUAL ii
SENARAI RAJAH iii
SENARAI GAMBAR iv
RINGKASAN EKSEKUTIF / EXECUTIVE SUMMARY v
1.0 PENDAHULUAN 1
4.0 GEOLOGI AM 4
59
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
9.0 PENGHARGAAN 25
LAMPIRAN / APENDIKS 27
60
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 18
61
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 19
atau
Harga : RM50.00
62
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
LAMPIRAN 20
Oleh
63
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
DAFTAR ISTILAH
Alloy – A compound that consists of two or more metals, or metals with a nonmetal.
Anatexis (loss of texture) is partial melting of rock under extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Anatexis more often results from tectonism (regional metamorphism) than from
magmatism (contact metamorphism) because magmas typically carry too little
excess heat to melt significant quantities of surrounding rock while themselves
continuing to remain molten.
Applied research – Scientific study and research directed toward trying to solve
practical problems.
CEC – Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total capacity of a soil to hold
exchangeable cations. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of the soil’s
ability to hold positively charged ions. It is a very important soil property influencing
soil structure stability, nutrient availability, soil pH and the soil’s reaction to fertilisers
and other ameliorants (Hazleton and Murphy 2007).
64
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
*Cerium – The most abundant of the rare earth elements. Cerium is critical in
the manufacture of environmental protection and pollution-control systems, from
automobiles to oil refineries. Cerium oxides, and other cerium compounds, go into
catalytic converters and larger-scale equipment to reduce the sulfur oxide emissions.
Cerium is a diesel fuel additive for micro-filtration of pollutants, and promotes
more complete fuel combustion for more energy efficiency.
*Dysprosium – A widely used rare earth element that helps to make electronic
components smaller and faster.
*Erbium – A rare earth element with remarkable optical properties that make it
essential for use in long-range fiber optic data transmission.
*Gadolinium – A rare earth element with unique magnetic behavior. Thus this
element is at the heart of magneto-optic recording technology, and other technology
used in handling computer data.
*Holmium – An exceedingly rare and expensive rare earth element. Hence it has few
commercial uses.
Incandescence – light from heat energy (i.e.: when a stove heats up, it turns red.
This is incandescent light).
65
GARIS PANDUAN
EKSPLORASI UNSUR NADIR BUMI
Isotope – One of two or more atoms with the same atomic number that contain
different numbers of neutrons.
Lanthanides – Also known as rare earth elements. The lanthanide series is the
group of elements in which the 4f sublevel is being filled. No other element in the
periodic table has these properties.
*Lanthanum – A rare earth element that comes from the mineral bastnaesite, and
is extracted via a method called “solvent extraction.” Lanthanum is a strategically
important rare earth element due to its activity in catalysts that are critical in petroleum
refining. By one estimate, lanthanum “cracking-agents” increase refinery yield by as
much as 10%, while reducing overall refinery power consumption.
Luminescence – “cold light” that can be emitted at normal and lower temperatures.
In luminescence there is an energy source that kicks an electron of an atom out of its
lowest energy “ground” state into a higher energy “excited” state. The electron then
returns the energy in the form of light so that it can fallback to its “ground” state.
*Lutetium – The last member of the Lanthanide series is, along with thulium, the
least abundant rare earth element. It is recovered, by ion-exchange routines, in
small quantities from yttrium-concentrates and is available as a high-purity oxide.
Cerium-doped lutetium oxy-orthosilicate (LSO) is currently used in detectors in
positron emission tomography (PET).
Metallurgy – The science of extracting metals from their ores, purifying and
alloying metals and creating useful objects from metals. The study of metals in bulk
and at the atomic level.
Mischmetal – A complex alloy of rare earth metals, often used as flint in lighters.
Minerals – The building blocks of rocks. Geologists define a mineral as a naturally
occurring, inorganic, solid, crystalline substance, which has a fixed structure and a
chemical composition that is either fixed or that may vary within certain defined limits.
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Ore – A mineral / rock that contains metal that is valuable enough to be mined.
Pyrophoric alloy – An alloy that emits sparks when struck or scratched with steel;
used in lighter flints.
Rapidly Solidified magnets – NdFeB magnet materials, which when in the molten
state, the liquid alloy is dropped on a rapidly spinning Cu wheel and the alloy
solidifies very rapidly in the form of fine (thin) ribbons. These ribbons are broken up
into small pieces and held together with a molten plastic binder which then is cooled
to room temperature - these are called the “bonded magnets”. About half (dollar wise)
of the rare earth magnets sold are bonded magnets; volume wise these amount to
approximately 2/3 of the market.
*Samarium – A rare earth element that has properties of spectral absorption, making
it useful in filtering glasses that surround neodymium laser rods.
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Tail Warning Function – A defensive system that uses a pulsed Doppler radar to
detect missiles approaching the aircraft from behind and dispenses defensive
counter measures to defeat the attack by jamming them with electronic counter
measures (ECM).
Tailings – The materials left over after the process of separating the valuable
fraction from the worthless fraction of an ore.
*Terbium – A rare earth element used in energy efficient fluorescent lamps. There
are various terbium metal alloys that provide metallic films for magneto optic data
recording.
*Thulium – the rarest of the rare earth elements. Its chemistry is similar to that of
Yttrium. Due to its unique photographic properties, Thulium is used in sensitive X-ray
phosphors to reduce X-ray exposure.
Ytterbia - A colorless compound (Yb2O3) that is used in certain alloys and ceramics.
*Ytterbium – A rare earth element that resembles Yttrium in broad chemical behavior.
When subject to high stresses, the electrical resistance of the metal increases by
an order of magnitude. Therefore, ytterbium is used in stress gauges to monitor
ground deformations caused, for example, by earthquakes or underground explosions.
*Yttrium – A rare earth element. Almost every vehicle on the road contains yttrium
based materials that improve the fuel efficiency of the engine. Another important use
of yttrium is in microwave communication devices. Yttrium- Iron-Garnets (YIG)
are used as resonators in frequency meters, magnetic field measurement devices,
tunable transistors and Gunn oscillators. Yttrium goes into laser crystals specific
to spectral characteristics for high-performance communication systems.
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PENGHARGAAN
Zainol Hussin
Mohd. Zukeri Ab. Ghani
Abdul Hadi Abdul Rahman
Azemi bin Eki
Mohammad Sari bin Hasan
Hamdan bin Ariffin
Mohammad bin Kassim
Ismail bin Ibrahim
Khairulzaman bin Ibrahim
John Joseph Jinap
PENYUNTING
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ISBN 978-967-0159-29-4
9 789670 159294