RIVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies that bear

implication on the study. This chapter also includes original researches, legal

documents, result of experiments, statistical data, interviews, and surveys.

Risk Assessment and Management

In terms of risk assessment and management, just two prison facilities and no

detention centers had extensive records on inmates entering and exiting the building.

Once more, only one jail institution and none of the detention centers conducted risk

assessments of visitors. Additionally, the facilities asserted that assessments are being

done as jail officials enter the facility at each access.The COVID-19 prevention tactics

cannot be restricted, as they are in many states, to a visitation ban, suspension of

prisoner transfers, and stoppage of group activities including sports, work, classes, and

religious gatherings. For prisons to adapt and carry out the recommendations for the

general population, a backup plan is necessary. However, unlike other states, Rio de

Janeiro's state and municipal contingency plans do not mention the prison population.

Instead, they focus on the various levels and agencies' roles in terms of prevention,

detection, and confirmation of suspected COVID-19 cases, clinical care, and

epidemiological surveillance. This omission highlights the de facto exclusion of the

prison population from public policies created for the general populace, in violation of

the universal health system's guiding principles. This has an adverse impact on

healthcare and access to the resources needed to combat the pandemic in the prisons,
 7

such as diagnostic tests and personal protective equipment (PPE), as well as

epidemiological surveillance strategies. All of these elements work in COVID-19's favor

to make it invisible inside prison walls (Mekonnen, Hailemarians, Ejigu, Shifera, and

Sime, 2021).

Referral System and Clinical Management

Prison health when asked if they had immediate access to laboratory tests in the

event that they encountered a suspected case, the jail and detention centers all stated

that they did not. Only two of the prisons reported that instances with test confirmation

were subject to management and quarantine. The quarantines were insufficient and did

not follow national policy. All of the staff members working in prisons and detention

facilities said that medical personnel collecting biological risk assessments. Only two of

the jail institutions had thorough records of individuals entering and leaving the facility in

terms of risk assessment and management. Prisons personnel immediate access to

laboratory tests in the event that they encountered a suspected case, the health staff in

prisons and detention centers all stated that they did not. Only two of the prisons

reported that instances with test confirmation were subject to management and

quarantine. However, the quarantines were insufficient and did not follow national

policy. The whole personnel of the prison and detention facility stated that the medical

teams collecting biological samples did not have access to the necessary protective

gear as outlined in the WHO prison standard (Sime, Ejigu, and Shifera, 2021).

To prevent the infection from spreading widely in congested prisons, strict

surveillance is necessary to quickly detect the introduction of COVID-19 in the jail units

and to quickly stop transmission. Therefore, the 14-day quarantine imposed in Rio de
 8

Janeiro for all new inmates before they were allocated to the various prison units is

crucial for preventing transmission, provided that arriving inmates who are

asymptomatic are kept apart from those who are symptomatic. Cohort isolation—

wherein inmates with similar characteristics (suspected/confirmed illnesses) should be

isolated by groups in different areas—is advised because Brazilian prisons lack the

equipment to provide isolation in individual cells. All prisoners exhibiting even minor

symptoms consistent with COVID-19 must be tested as soon as possible with RT-PCR,

and if they test positive, they must be isolated. This applies to both new and seasoned

convicts. In order to lower the prevalence of influenza and, consequently, the number of

symptomatic individuals who must be tested for COVID-19, influenza vaccination is a

top goal. In order to combat the pandemic in the jails, testing prison inmates, prison

guards, and medical staff for flu symptoms should come first. Prisoners are not now

prioritized for testing suspected cases, and even those who have died with COVID-19

suspicion have not had their post-mortem samples analyzed. Therefore, given the

systematic failure to conduct diagnostic tests, the claimed absence of suspected or

confirmed cases and deaths from COVID-19 in prisons in the state of Rio de Janeiro, as

declared on April 14 by the prison system's administration, should be called into

question. Another delicate issue is the lack of clarity on the clinical care of suspected

patients. According to recommendations from the Brazilian Ministry of Health, any

patient with symptoms of the common cold or flu syndrome should be treated as if they

could have SARS-CoV-2. Serious cases should be reported to the emergency

regulation system, while moderate cases should stay isolated for 14 days commencing

at the commencement of symptoms. Despite a working laboratory, clinical

 9

management, and referra l system being specified by national protocol, the facility

lacks all three (Sime, Ejigu, Shifera, Mekonnen, and Hailemarians, 2021).

Preventative Measures

There is no set standard for preventative practices. Officers who fall under the

description of suspect or verified case in all jails and detention facilities centers. There

are procedures and amenities at every facility. Allow drying after washing with water

and soap utilizing towels with single-use. But there isn't a wall-mounted model. Facilities

with liquid soap, paper towels, and other amenities enabling suitable physical

separation. Also, one of them provided the following description of the issue. There are

posted notices across the prison complex in various materials urging people to wash

their hands with soap and Water is available, but we lack the other materials, such as a

face mask and a paper towel. A company's chief executive (Participant in a jail study).

RISK COMMUNICATION

The key messages were delivered in a concise, a way that is true and pertinent

to those housed in jail facilities about precautions, particularly hand washing and

respiratory politeness in practically all jails and correctional facilities centers. However,

instruments and methods for accessing information on COVID-19 were unavailable. by

reliable mediators/influencers in all facilities (Mekonnen, et. al, 2021).

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SAR-CoV-2) that caused

the coronavirus illness 2019 (COVID-19) made Wuhan, a city in China's Hubei

Province, its epicenter in December 2019. (Tadesse, Alemu, Amogne, Endazenaw, and

Mamo, 2020).; Adane, Yeshaneh, Wassihun, and Gasheneit, 2021). It is the third
 10

pandemic within the 21st century (Stanley, 2020). The coronavirus sickness 2019 is

reported to have started in late December 2019 at a wholesale seafood market, and

since then, the number of cases has drastically expanded both within and outside of

Wuhan, widely disseminating throughout the world (Cucinotta and Vanelli, 2020; WHO

Director-General, 2020).

A coronavirus-based infectious illness is COVID-19. The vast virus family known

as coronaviruses (CoV) can cause everything from the common cold to serious

disorders. They include diarrhea, a sore throat, a runny nose, a fever, a dry cough,

shortness of breath, pain in the chest, aches and pains, and fatigue (Ministry of Health

of Mexico, 2021)

Due to the widespread and disruptive effects of COVID-19, many nations around

the world have implemented strict disease control and prevention measures, including

isolating their populations for a period of time to prevent the spread of the virus, shutting

down and suspending transportation, avoiding public gatherings, and even holding

various public service events for business and industry. Worldwide, more than 3 billion

people were abruptly compelled to remain in their homes and deal with significant

changes to their everyday lives, including job, their children's schooling, and a variety of

other things (Angelo, Alemayehu, and Dacho, 2020).

Other nations also put in place a multitude of controls to stop the spread of the

disease and contain the epidemic, such as travel restrictions both domestically and

internationally, restrictions on big religious gatherings, suspension of public transit, and

closure of school (Choi, Hui,and Wan, 2020).

 11

COVID-19 and Prison

The scientific community does not seem to have conducted adequate research

into how susceptible the prison population is to the COVID-19 pandemic (Hewson et al.,

2020). Additionally, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, these inmates have had less social

interaction with other prisoners and outside visitors, particularly their families, and jury

trials have been suspended. Additionally, court hearings and occupational prison

programs have been delayed. It should not be disregarded that vulnerable populations,

such as those in asylum and detention facilities like jails, must also receive

psychological care in addition to impacted individuals in the general population

(Liebrenz, Bhugra, Buadze, and Scleifer, 2020).

According to the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural

Rights (2000), the right to health is a universally acknowledged human right. It has

emphasized that the right to health is an inclusive right that includes not only timely and

appropriate health care but also underlying health determinants such as access to

adequate sanitation, healthy occupational and environmental conditions, and access to

health-related education and information.

The COVID-19 outbreak is particularly dangerous for those who work in

correctional facilities. The prison population is vulnerable to several things during a

pandemic, including a high prevalence of mental illnesses (Hawks, Woohandler and

Mccormick, 2020). According to evidence, these illnesses may make people more

susceptible to mental health challenges including worry, depression, and stress as well

as physical symptoms like headaches and sore throats (Chew, Lee, Tan, Jing, and

Ngiam, 2020).
 12

In a community of three people, an infected person can infect an additional two

or three people, but due to the confinement, an infected person can infect as many as

ten others. This estimate states that a cell with 150 inmates would have 67 percent of its

residents poisoned after 14 days, putting these people at risk. According to the media,

the Chinese government responded to the outbreak among convicts by closing

impacted jails, restricting commodities transit, testing inmates who had contact with

diagnosed wardens, and establishing a committee to investigate the virus's spread

among detained individuals (Caixing, 2019). However, it has been documented that

imprisonment raises vulnerabilities to chronic medical disorders (Wilper, Woohandler,

Boyd, Lasser, McCormick, and Bor, 2009), erodes living and cognitive skills (Wolff et al.,

2011), and worsens mental ill health (Fazel and Danesh, 2002), which may be

compounded further by the stress of imprisonment (Beynon and Drew, 2011).

On March 24, 2020, the chairs of ten United Nations human rights treaty bodies

urged world leaders to ensure that human rights are respected when governments plan

measures to counter the public health threat posed by the epidemic and ensure access

to healthcare for all who need it, without discrimination and with special attention paid to

the vulnerable, including the elderly, people with disabilities, and minorities.

According to Cahapay (2020), the population that has become more vulnerable,

particularly in nations with overburdened criminal justice systems like the Philippines, is

the group of people who are imprisoned (PDLs). According to the Revised Implementing

Rules and Regulations' official definition, according to Section 23 of Republic Act

No.10575, otherwise known as the “The Bureau of Corrections Act of 2013,” persons
 13

deprived of liberty refer to “detainee, inmate, or prisoner, or other person under

confinement or custody in any other manner.”

McCarthy (2020) claims that the Philippine penal system is one of the most

overcrowded in the entire world. Data from the World Prison Brief (2020) indicate a rise

in the nation's prison population. In 2012, there were 106,323 inmates altogether,

representing a prison population rate of 111; by 2016, this number had increased to

142,168, representing a jail population rate of 140; and by 2019, the total number of

inmates had increased to 215,000, representing a prison population rate of 200

(Cabrera and Nonato, 2020).

Visits had been limited because to the COVID-19 pandemic as the virus spread.

Thermal temperature guns have previously been used to examine people entering the

facility. Before entering the jail, all visitors were compelled to wash their hands before

entering the jail, and sanitizers were available at the entrance to each subsequent

facility on the grounds. Mobility within the prison had already been restricted, and a

complete track of all moves was already kept (Ayyaz, Butt, Umar, Khan and Farooka

2020).

As of June 2020, more than 700 convicts had tested positive, and given the

“locked away nature of their illness, with a lack of resources and non-allegiance to

minimum health standards,” the inmates are hidden victims of the COVID-19 epidemic.

The causes of concealed health concerns can frequently lead to complex mental

difficulties (Kahambing, 2020).

 14

Prison personnel have been highlighted as crucial employees needed to keep

fighting the COVID-19 outbreak on the front lines (Government of Canada, 2021;

Haynes, May, Lambert and Keena, 2020). While companies from many spheres of

society have been able to permit their employees to work from home to shield them

from potential infection, essential personnel in the field of prison have been regularly

exposed to the myriad risks connected to COVID19, such as increased virus exposure

(Gaitens, Condon, Fernandes and McDiarmid, 2021).

Health experts and public health departments around the world have

acknowledged the seriousness of the COVID-19 pandemic within state prisons because

to the effects that outbreaks in detention settings can have on detainees, the general

public, and correctional employees (Government of Canada, 2021; Kinner, Young,

Snow, Southalan, Lopez-Acuna, Ferreira-Borges and O'Moore, 2020). Despite

recommendations like the WHO's prison-specific guidance for response efforts to the

COVID-19 pandemic and the Interim Guidance on Management of Coronavirus Disease

2019 (COVID-19) in Correctional and Detention Facilities (Center for Disease Control

and Prevention, 2021), (World Health Organization, 2020).

In light of this, prison personnel have been recognized as a vulnerable group

during the COVID-19 pandemic who need assistance and resources from public health

to handle the problems the virus causes (Montoya-Barthelemy, Lee and Cundiff.,

2020) prison personnel have been crucial employees caring for extremely fragile

prisoners throughout the epidemic despite regularly being exposed to viruses both

inside and outside the prison (Montoya-Barthelemy, Lee and Cundiff, 2020). Infection

rates with COVID-19 among prison personnel have been reported to be five times
 15

greater than those of the general population worldwide. This population has also seen

numerous verified deaths (Gaitens, Condon, Fernandes and McDiarmid., 2021).

The Canadian government has specifically recognized Canadian correctional

facilities as a setting where the COVID-19 virus is more easily transmitted and in which

people, such prison personnel, have a higher risk of infection (Government of Canada,

2021; Kinner, Young, Snow, Southalan, Lopez-Acuna, Ferreira-Borges and O’Moore,

2020). 1,241 cases of COVID-19 had been documented in federal facilities as of

February 2021, accounting for 10% of those confined in federal facilities (Office of the

Correctional Investigator, 2021). The juxtaposition between this and the fact that just 2%

of Canadians had COVID-19 during this time shows how vulnerable the prison

environment is to disease spread once the virus has entered the building (Office of the

Correctional Investigator, 2021).

This demographic is at risk for a range of mental health issues because of high

levels of job stress and the inherently dangerous nature of custodial employment, in

addition to the physical threats prison personnel o have experienced with the

introduction of COVID-19 (Carleton, Ricciarddelli, Taillieu, Mitchell, Andres, and Afifi.,

2020).

As a result, prison personnel are responsible for high-risk patients while also

having many vulnerabilities (Montoya-Barthelemy, 2020).  Prison personnel constantly

encounter potentially traumatic physical health and safety risks at work, which have

been related to higher rates of work stress and poorer mental health. Furthermore, a

sizable majority of prison personnel recruiters indicate infectious diseases as their top

worry before starting employment in a correctional facility, demonstrating that this fear is
 16

not specific to the COVID-19. These worries could have a deleterious effect on prison

personnel by raising stress connected to work and infection, which may be amplified by

the impending danger of COVID-19 infection (Ricciardelli, Bucerius, Tetrault, Crewe and

Pyrooz., 2021).

The Bureau of Jail Management and Penology

The Bureau of Jail Management and Penology was founded on January 2, 1991,

by Republic Act 6975, to replace the defunct Philippine Constabulary Integrated

National Police's Jail Management and Penology Service. BJMP envisions itself as a

flourishing institution known for its long-term compassionate care and development of

inmates. It is a division of the Interior and Local Government Department (DILG). Each

and every district, city, and municipal jail is under the control of the BJMP. As a result, it

must ensure the construction of safe, sanitary, and well-equipped facilities as well as

the delivery of high-quality services for the custody, safekeeping, rehabilitation, and

development of inmates, anyone wanted for questioning or who is being held while a

case is being investigated or tried, or who has been transferred to the national

penitentiary as confirmed by the appropriate medical or health authority. The Bureau

works to carry out the following duties in accordance with its mission: (a) regularly

improve organizational capability, keeping all BJMP personnel informed of all

developments in law enforcement, leading to greater crime solution effectiveness and a

lower inmate population; (b) implement stringent security measures to keep prisoners

under control; (c) provide for inmates' basic needs; and (d) carry out rehabilitative

activities. The Bureau's overarching goals are to: (a) enhance the living conditions of

offenders in accordance with recognized United Nations standards; (b) enhance the
 17

safekeeping, development, and rehabilitation of offenders in order to facilitate their

eventual reintegration into society after release; and (c) professionalize jail services. a

person accused of breaking or disregarding the law and ordinances enacted by

competent authorities in the Philippines is referred to as an offender (Gubia-on and

Cagatao, 2020).

In the Philippines, the terms "jail" and "prison" have different meanings; a jail is a

place where people are held while they are being investigated, tried, or serving short-

term sentences. Provincial jails are overseen and monitored by the Provincial

Government and the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology, while district, city, and

municipal jails are under the bureau's management. The national jails or penitentiaries

managed and overseen by the Bureau of Corrections, a division of the Department of

Justice, are referred to as "prisons" in this context. A prisoner or detainee is referred to

as a "inmate" in general. An inmate who has been found guilty in a court of law is a

prisoner. An inmate who is under investigation, being tried, or who is awaiting a decision

is referred to as a detainee. A district jail, led by a district warden, may be built in big

cities or grouped communities. A jail warden is a person in charge of the overall

operational and administrative administration of the institution. A district jail is a facility

or site of detention for inmates from a city or group of municipalities who are awaiting or

serving a sentence of one (1) day to three (3) years (Ramones, Gubia-on and Cagatao,

2020).

The BJMP operates and maintains city and municipal jails, which are each led by

a city or municipal warden, depending on the situation. A city jail is a facility of

incarceration for inmates who have been sentenced to a term of imprisonment ranging
 18

from one (1) day to three (3) years. A municipal jail is a facility or a place of

incarceration for persons sentenced to a period of imprisonment of no more than six (6)

months (Sections 1-17 of the BJMP Manual, 2015).

Prison officers and workplace safety.

The risks of working in a correctional facility include, but are not limited to,

inmates' disruptive behavior, an increased chance of getting diseases like HIV,

exposure to opioid contaminants like fentanyl, injuries incurred at work, and work-

related. When compared to other correctional staff members like administration or

programming personnel, prison personnel are more prone to experience traumatic

incidents and workplace hazards because of the frontline nature of their work (Fusco,

Ricciardelli, Jamshidi, Carlerton, Barnim, Hilton and Groll., 2021).

As a result, prison personnel may frequently worry that workplace hazards or

ongoing violence will endanger their safety. This is due to prison personnel experience

high rates of violence and physical injury on the job as well as one of the highest rates

of nonfatal injuries sustained at work (such as falls, overexertion, or violent

victimization), work-related illnesses, and levels of work-related mental injury (Haynes,

May, Lambert and Keena, 2020).

Considering that it is inherently challenging to adhere to the advised COVID-19

safety precautions within correctional facilities, workplace safety concerns for COs have

increased as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The inability of those residing in these

facilities to reduce social proximity, the restricted use of sanitization and personal

hygiene by those who are imprisoned, and the dearth of personal protective equipment
 19

(PPE) available to frontline staff are just a few of these challenges (Gaitens, Condon,

Fernandes and McDiarmid., 2021). Public health professionals in Canada have

emphasized the use of PPE as a crucial and required step in containing the spread of

COVID-19; however, numerous occupations have expressed worry about the

accessibility of PPE and other crucial supplies (Adisesh, Durand-Moreau, Patry, and

Strauble, 2020). PPE in particular, a resource that is particularly problematic inside

penal facilities, as it is intrinsically difficult to enforce other safety precautions like "social

distance" and sanitization procedures (Lofgren, Lum, Horowitz, Madubuonwu, Myers

and Fefferman., 2020).

Additionally, as prison personnel make up the majority of correctional personnel

and have the most regular contact with prisoners, there is a higher risk of infection

transmission because the virus has the ability to spread after it has been spread within

the facility (Haynes, May, Lambert and Keena, 2020). Numerous COVID-19 outbreaks

have occurred in Canadian correctional facilities, highlighting both the dangers to the

people working there as well as the sensitivity of the setting to virus transmission (Office

of the Correctional Investigator, 2021).

However, it has been established that prison personnel are at an elevated risk

during the pandemic as correctional work significantly impacts their risk level for

contracting the COVID-19 virus. Few studies have directly examined

personnel’s perceptions of workplace safety, and there have been few examinations of

personnel’s perceptions of workplace safety during the COVID-19 pandemic (Haynes et

al., 2020). The WHO has acknowledged and promoted the importance of safe working
 20

conditions in determining the health and safety of employees (Gaitens, Condon,

Fernandes and McDiarmi, 2021).