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    All About History Book of The Ottoman Empire 2nd Edition-November 2020

    Uploaded by

    Perte Calin

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 134
    (ey NEW] NE’ OTTOMAN PAVED continents LS AOS AOS OS AIS AIS AES ONAL ADS AS ALS ASAIN Woo ooo N ON ONO Oo NON ON AONA LOS GON AOS AOS OS ONS AON AOS AON AISA ASAIN AON Nooo NON ON ON ON Oo ON ON AONAN LOANS OSA OSA OS AOS AOS AON AOS AOS AOS AOS AON WA ON OW X00 0X0 OX 0S OX 0X 0S > Le o oe oe ev ©“) oe oe “ oe oe v oe v “ oe LOS FOS AON AON A OSA ONS AOS FOS AOS AOS AOS AOS AOS AOS GON LL LSLSE WHosZorw NF NHN LOS LOSE NAN Z STIR SSeS LOSLON LE. Sor fon Hoo ? ONKONHoON LOLOL LOS LIN LE NHN ONY OW LoZoN os foe NHN Zo c-> LX LoL NCIS OIE Horio SH NHoS , Aor? Zor 6 e oe NY ‘Ze NY Ze STS SUSI ON ONE LOSS L WKoowy) ‘Welcome To THE NH NH aX YYZ NS Ze oN. Ze customs, costume and culture permeated throughout the ‘world, and what we can still be thankful to the Ottomans for today. Pour over the pages of this book to discover one of the greatest empires history has ever known. ov OO OTTOMAN SANTOS D> Awe fe EMPIRE ssn NHS] wont ester seams steer EL NOZ NZ 0 forAesefe seca a eb et i He NA NY NWZNAS ore seg SHOTS] Saisie EIN ZONT ON LoOrKorrZo Pag ere cel soo genaliomn ioe onan He Ne WI c oe He AO i oN He Ho NH we He we He oN PON C2 C2 Zs s This bookoine sprinted on recycled paper. Itsimportant that we care obaut our planet and make a difference where we can, Tor usand every generation that fellows. OTTOMAN EMPIRE Timeline Start hereon out exacly what Iuppened in ovr 600 yeas of (tems istry Who are the Ottomans? ‘he bith of he Ottomans was rooted in another Turkic dynasty, the Sejuls Osman I ‘This ruler founded the Otoman dynasty through a combination of brains and brawn Rise of the Ottoman Empire ‘The Otomans conquered land sn thee continents ering 3m ermpite hat asked 600 yeas, Mehmed II ‘This sultan formed siperpomer by rules campaigning against an ara of powerful enemies Suleiman the ent How he marched on Buopes Pearland rule benevolently and cated an Ottoman gekden age Battle of ‘Why did the Ottoman let isnegate inthis naval bate for the sland ofCyprs? Sultanate of Women ow the sultans harem became ‘the focal point of politcal power ‘nthe Ottoman Empire Inside the Topkapi Palace Take a tour ofthe sultans pale incuding government buns sadens, and even is harem the ow the Ottomans radon high =a kept the peace dese Seep seated vides A Diverse Realm Wy the Oman Empite Wak 3 calural meng ot -andt wasnt ust or Tks Art Pour over some ofthe nest cxamples of arts and crafts from the Ottoman era Inside Haghia Sophia Take 3 ok nto this Byzantine masterpiece, which the Ottomans converied int a mighty mosque Gta Mosques of architecture in the Muslin word 1683: Battle of Vienna Wy did the Ottomans fi to capture the apple of thet eye, afterso many attempts Nationalism ow Greek independence sowed the seeds of discontent in the est ofthe Empte Mast men ane! women who le het people in ev agains the Empire The Tanzimat Era Could the scale ik man of urope save tel from collapse? ‘Was thee any truth in the Tsar of ‘Russi claim that the Ottoman “Empite was the sick man’ of Europe? Ye Turks Break Free How a group of younger brought the stan to his knees Ottomans in World War One amine the oe of the Otoman “Empire during the Great War The Gallipoli Campaign Learn wy tis famous campaign ontandand es was such darter What If... as Ottomans side with the ‘allice? Could the Fst Word Wat have gone Aitferenty had the Ottomans ined the ales? Mustafa Kemal Atatiirk ‘The man wo ult his nation frm {he ins of the Otoman Empice Creating Turkey How modern Tukey arose fom ts predecessors ashes Interview: Alev Scott ‘The autor talks us though her Journey around the Ottoman Empir’s former realms | SE Se OTILULM LRS OR ae MLL a CY Positioned at the PON ae ono oe ea GALLIPOLI iS : potters oe ts 9: Cor ie eter eee ein : Crear el EMR (a Sm ara 7 cae pee as “) es sama [ERS a, he une man o ; eet ’ cree eee ela ee LD hy enero espera perry cee ners Heraieentiraay Ht sera peteciaees cian steadily loses en coy DCN ead ed td Sd eee) ar the Ottoman org Coe aod pee fee Rc aT AED peceneene roy Perera He g eas Rebeling against Ottoman Beene Cee oe thanks to intervention from European nations. LONDON STRAITS CONVENTION ee ee fee ese ens ents Peed Cet ey Te eres tty ey Peer eee) ese een tere SPOT ST at} TET eee ts coe ts SELIM | TAKES LTS MSy iid Se ea eect eons ee ee ee heen ee cue etd rd at See) eee ers ‘WHO AReTHE OTTOMANS”, The birth of the Ottomans was rooted in the abrupt tise and fall of yet another Turkic dynasty: the Seljuks he eles beginnings ofthe Ottoman empire canbe traced back to the ‘Seluks,a dynasty of nomadic Oghuz ‘Turks fiom Cental Asia and Outer Mongolia Inthe th century, Turkle ‘mercenaries began to cross paths with the Arab ‘Muslim dynasties fom further west sparking mass ‘conversions to the Islamic faith. In the ith century. starved of land and opportunity, thousands ‘of Oghusz horsemen descended upon eastern Anatolia, plundering ll the way to Byzantium, before returning to Khorasan laden with spoils. ‘ate, under Seljuk leadership, they swooped into Persia, which had long seceded from the formerly pre-eminent Abbasid Empire subjugating the GGhazavids and establishing contrl ove the Abbasid caliphs, who bestowed the Seljuk leader the tite of sultan, When the sultan, Tug ied in. 1063, his nephew, Alp Arslan, defeated his rival claimants to seize the positon. After completing the conquest of Persia, he expanded {nto Azerbaijan and Armenia, before descending ‘on the Byzantine lands of Anatolia - modern Asiatic Tukey. ‘This esourcetch region with seven natural hharbouts, vas the heartland ofthe Byzantine Empire - ts fertile land sprouting countless villages towns an cities all connected to key ‘Midale Bast trade routes. It was, by far, the ‘wealthiest pat ofthe Empire ~and to Mustims it ‘was synonymous with Rome, They named it ALRum, Te was also where at the Battle of Manzikert, Alp Arslan scored a magnificent victory over a larger Byzantine any, even capturing ‘Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes and enforcing ‘demands on im. As the Byzantines recoiled inshock, fighting amongst themseves, the floodgates were ‘opened and Turkic nomads poured into Anatolia, sparking a social and cultural transformation of the region. As tesfied Byzantine villagers abandoned thelt land, the Turks moved in. seting up a strong, base in Nicaea. BY 1096, with Jerusalem itself in Sek hands, ‘the panicked Pope Urban I announced a crusade, calling on Chistian Burope to liberate the hoy lands. ‘The Seljuks were repelled from Nicaea, moving {instead to Konya in central Anatlia. One-by-one, they annexed their Anatolian Turkic neighbours the powerful Danishmendid emirate towards the north the Saltukids and Mengucheks in the northeast and the Artulids in the southeast absorbing a cosmopolitan aay of Kurdish, Ara, (Greek, Armenian and Jewish residents, The ‘Armenians happily lied with thelr new overlords and Kurdish tribal chiefs entered their am. ‘Severed from the Byzantine cultura institutions and seeing no better option, many Greeks Converted to Islam and assinilated themselves, Ruling from Konya, the Anatolian Sefuks would late break away from their Iranian counterparts, ‘becoming the Seljuks of Rum, assigning ‘themselves the legacy of Rome, When Sultan Kil Arslan It defeated the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus's army {in southwest Anatolia in 1176, he not only squashed the Byzantines’ hopes of reconguesing the region, but gave the Turks a path through to the Anatolian coast, and a bevy of new trade routes. Two years late, it seems he unified ll of ‘entra Anatolia forthe fs tie, crating realm the Geeks apparently dubbed ‘Tuc By the 13th century, the Sefuks of Rum established peace with their Byzantine neighbours, ‘but this was the calm before the storm, Having defeated the Khwarazmian ruler of Central Asia and Ian, the armies of Genghis Khan steamrelled across the region azing settlements to the ground and massacring everyone. Those who survived ‘were thrown into the chains of slavery. In their ‘wake, scholars, merchants, poets, mystics, artisans and nomads fled westwards, Peete sen es eee a teat eee eM Despite the looming threat, the Seliuks kept building mosques, colleges, hospitals and gardens. Architecture art and literature blossomed, 35. Arabic seripts adored buildings, coinage and deeds, while Persian became the literary court language. This cultural exchange extended tothe Byzantines, who had begun to embrace Muslim calture, and. in some cases, were converted to the faith by wandering dervishes, However, in 1243, after avicous los tothe Mongols in northern Anatolia, che Sejuks agreed to become a vassal state, A decade late, the “Mongol Empire itself would fracture, withthe [khanate taking the southwest regions. As both the Sefuks and the Mongols became consumed by infighting the Mamluks began making their vay into the south, By the lath century, the Seluk dynasty was onthe brink of collapse, and the Mongols would soon abandon westem Anatolia in favour of hcratve trade routs in the northeast, In their place, they let a netwotk of emboldened ‘Turki pincpalts, or byl MusLIM WoRLD roan g rural rEres mers Veen orc became a complicated place ‘With the regions former overlords crumbling from within, the Tus sensed that was time fora new order. Soon, Byzantium itself would fll and a Turk would deliver its death knell - but fis, ‘ne of Anatlats own Turkic bey would have to emerge supreme, Of the many contenders, up in the northwest, with his eyes fixed firmly towards Constantinople, was a leader who understood better than most what It would ake; Osman, chiet ofthe Osmanlia tbe who would later become the Ottomans, I Osman I pretest aay visionary diplomat’and warrior, Osman I founded the Ottoman. a dynasty through a combination of brains and brawn, sowing * sinteRm se Mey ena yoi como weeny A ON GAh nd D ove ‘ lo : rn ; WON eee : “at: Sten te anita a ee _— i. — a 1n 1071 BCE the Seljuk Turks overwhelmed the Byzantine Empire tthe Battle of “Manzikert. opening up Anatolia for Turkic setters from Iran and Cental Asi, desperate fr new land and pasturage. "Nomadic chiefs placed tentative oots. paying ‘uibute to their Slik overiords wile subjugating the local Christan populace beneath Musim rule However, bythe Ith eentury the entte region ‘was in a state of chaos. The Byzantine Empire, the torch bearer ofthe mighty Eastern Roman Empire, Inad een reduced toa shadow ofits former sel contained to Constantinople Thrace, Macedon, parts of Greece and afew coastal portsin westem ‘Anatolia. Meanwhile, though the Seljuks had been decisively routed by the Mongols after the facture ‘ofthe Mongol Empire, both could fee the region slipping from their hands. In the absence of strong central leadership the Turkic beysor chiefs, of Anatolia began to gow increasingly independent. Their bei, “NONE COULD STAND IN THE WAY OF OSMAN’S FEARSOME ARMY ‘or principalities, competed for contol over the land between the Black Sea the Mediterranean and the Aegean, Stl ostensibly ted to a nomadic ast they were accustomed to life on the move. (Constant warfare, raiding and inunting had always ‘been crucial to their survival However, further ‘west they were beginning to see the benefits of settling down, building monuments and mosques to project prestige and pet. To the far northwest tucked along the border of Byzantium, vas the ‘emirate of Osman ~ chief of the Osman, better known as the Ottomans. According to legend the Ottomans trae their lneage back to Suleyman Shah, an Oghuz Turk ‘who drowned in the Euphrates. His son, Ertugrul, was a tribal chief who leing the Mongols in Central Asia, was awarded the northwestern teritores around the minor settlement of S6gUt by the Saljuks- along with the right to graze his flocks inthe nearby highlands. The true founder ofthe Ottoman dynasty, however, was his son (Osman -3 frontier commander who fashioned himself ghaz. or holy warrior through his campaigns against the infidels, waged from his base of Sagat “Amidst the changing order many such wartirs hha founded their vm principalities, paying ff the Sejuks or Mongols for the rit to relative sel determination. However, with the Turks yet to fully immerse themselves in the Sunni Deterodoxy, those who were not sufficiently roused by Osman religious zeal were lured to his ranks by the promis of pnder robbing, enslaving and terrorising non-Muslims Nestled auspiciouly between the fledgling ‘Byzantine Empire the Sljuks and the Ikhanate = the southwestern fragment ofthe former Mongol Empire - Osman's province naturally drew a diverse crowd His followers were aragtag collection of nomads, soldiers, slaves, wandering ervishes, monks, clergymen, displaced peasants, ‘Muslim scholars and merchants who, like his father, had all been driven west in seatch of fresh tart - and Osman planned to give them precisely that. However, setling down would De crucial ‘there was any disent inthe ranks, Osman was quick to deal with it After his father’ death Tee Mee B Osman I te led his own uncle, crushed local opposition from the Germiyanids and batted a neighbouring ‘Tatar tribe to secure his positon. However, rather ‘than building hs realm upon the domains of his fellow Turks and Muslims to the south and eas, he looked to the northwest to Constantinople. ‘Though the Byzantines were a shadow of their former selves their capital remained an ‘unparalleled symbol of prestige and might - the legacy of Rome was not lst on the Turks ‘On a mere practical level the ty offered its rulers control over the Bosporus. Between Osman and Constantinople la fertile lowlands, and. ‘beyond, all of Christendom - ripe forthe taking, Like Anatolia, southeast Burope was ina state of fragmented chaos, divided and weak. Meanwhile ‘the rural residents of Bithynia had long tired of paying extortionate taxes to thei Byzantine lords, ‘only to fl prey to Turkish raids. Softening the region for conquest, Osman made overtures tothe ‘people of Sakaryain the north, and found them extremely obliging, "These frontier lads had tadtonally been protected bythe Akita. group of Byzantine Soldiers who enjoyed tax exemptions and the it told upland tnbes However after recapturing ‘Constantinople frm the Latin Empire, empercr Michael Palaiologo sipped the Ata oftheir land and wealth In the subsequent revit they were incoporated int the mainsteam army. but the ddamage had already ben done, and the east was left virtually defonceless As Osman advanced upon ‘hei terior, many of these iter soldiers were ‘more than happy o jump sip and ight against thelr former masters etching from hisearland of Eskigcir, the ‘ld City, Osman made his way north - subjugating local Byzantine vasals through dilomacy. of wa. ‘Nave could standin the way of his fearsome army, fashioned inthe Central Asta military tradition and ‘ented around lightly armoured mounted archers who used trickery and strategy to frustate and ence their enemies, Emboldened, Osman decided a perenne ere Poorest Freerrri re ee tetera Prenat a ear ees AN SPovi koe mie ood to cast off the Sefuk yoke his father had been so happy to serve, proclaiming independence and ‘casting his t withthe dynasty of his own creation From Eskigchir he seized Karacahisr Cast, ‘where sources say he granted homes to str from (Germiyan and other provines. Here the historian Askpasazae says Friday prayer was read in Osman's ‘name for the fist time, establishing his sovereignty. From Karacahisar he tok the town of Yenigehit or the ‘New Gy bllding more bomes for ls men and ‘making this capital -an event many mark as the startof the Ottoman dynasty. Though he alle ‘ake Nicaea he entered the history books atthe tart ‘ofthe lth century with a stunning victory over the ‘Byzantines 2 the bate of Bapheus on ‘the shore of the Sea of Marmara ete he demonstrated ‘nomadic steppe warfare studying the tran, picking his batlfild and Using his mounted archers to deadly eect “To counter the that the ‘Byzantine general Mouzolon recruited Alan mercenary mounted archers tained in Tatar methods ‘He even attempted tous the element of surprise ‘against the Turks. deploying ships to move his ‘oops quickly, but Osman saw it coming. Leadingan may of nomads and volunteers he tured the tables, hiding behind bushes and slopes and ambushing the ‘Byzantines just as the Alan reinforcements shipped off-routing both forces before encircling and decimating the Alans. ‘The victory marked Osman a aeader of special stock, sending Tks and Christian sympathisers ‘locking to his cause, and chifs humbling themselves before him. He advanced closer towards the cnt, seizing crucial Byzantine tows, forts and villages ane severing cemmunications between [Nicaea and Nicomedi. With his newfound recruits herded the countryside and conquered all of Bithynia exept for its major ces, which he instead ‘ato strangling ther economies Inthe aftermath the Byzantine empere Androntios I Paailogs dd the unthinkable, offering royal princes in mariage to Osman's supposed overlord the lkhantd khan based in northwest ran However, when the Mongal fled to deliver any support be turned tothe Spanish ‘cusading mercenary band the Catalan Grand Company, wio instead invited the Turks to join ‘them in raiding the Balkans Ittook an aliance with the Kingsom of Serbia to tae the raider off, but by this time mos ofthe local peasants had been swayed to Osmans cause. Despiteits sucess the Ottoman domain was sul just one of many minor beys, However Osman ‘continued to push west ofthe Sakarya iver, reaching the pot of Mudanya-In doing soe isolated Constantinople fom the poweeful Byzantine city of Bursa, which In Batwa would later describes "great and important cty with fine bazars and ‘ide tees, surounded onal sides by gardens and running springs”. Though unable to selze the major tes of Bursa and Nicaea, the swrounding plains ‘made Osman wealthy ifnot in oi, in agriculture ~ reaping the fui of settling and expanding without adopting urban mannerisms or culrure ‘coin minted in 1324 bears Osman likeness, ‘entifyng him as an independent leader. Though be would remain obsessed with capturing Bursa ts fall etuded him, He died in sound 123 four years into a seg ofthe cy. In 136 the city finally buckled surrendering to ‘Osman son Oran, who made it is new capital While Osman’ origins are Cloaked in mystery his legacy is concrete He cast ase is nomaicpast olay roots at the heart of the wer, the flowers blooming just one generation Inter as Orhan issued independent coinage, st up an ‘ffi administration, adopted sedentary methods ‘of warfare, crested a precursory sanding amy. entered the Balkans and established an architectural tradition, manifested through organised religion ‘Duet a distinct lack of sources, later Ottomans were keen to mythologs thei founding ciel One [Suh-century story aimed a Seljuk sukan presented Osman ‘him with an insignia of office -a drum, axobe of Donour and horsetal standard ~ recognising him, a3 the rightful heir tthe Seluks. An Ottoman Chancellor even went to the trouble of forging cures fo this effec in 1575, Another claim resented him asa descendent ofthe Byzantine CComneni dynasty, perhaps retroactively justifying ‘the Otioman conquest of Constantinople Desperate olen more legitimacy othe Oiomans than ther Timid and Turkmen ‘neighbours, Osman lineage was traced back to the ropbet Noah, and some side descended from the ‘Arabs ofthe Hej In truth he was pebably bor 2 peasant Bu that nly made his accomplishments ‘more remarkable ashe single-handedly lay the foundations of one of the wold’ greatest empires a realm that would shake Christendom tits core. 6 THE RIS€ OF THE OTTOMAN SMPIRE From humble beginnings, the Ottomans went on to conquer lands in three continents, forging an empire that lasted for 600 years ‘twas an empire founded onthe promise of a dream, which visited the Turkish tribal chief Osman as he slept soundly one night ‘outside the home ofa holy man, During hie slumber, Osman saw a moon tse from the holy man’s breast and sink sowly into his ‘own. Then a tre sprouted from his own navel, spreading its branches and encompassing the entire world, The holy man interpreted this night- vislon as God giving Osman impertalofie. The ‘dream became reality Tn truth this vision was actually fst ‘communicated inthe 15th century 100 years after ‘Osmaris death, but nevertheless it stands as one ‘ofthe empire's key founding myths and provided ‘temporal and divine authority forthe Ottomans’ remarkable success For the Ottoman Empire was indeed an almighty achievement. Launched from the plains of the smallest Turkish emizate in western ‘Anatolia a the height ofits power it encompassed vast domain, suetching from Hungary to the Persian Gulf and from North Africa tothe Caucasus before beginning a slow decine through ‘the 7th century tots final demise in the 1920s “The Ottomans fist made their mark atthe tum ofthe 1th century, when they were just one among many Turkish tial groups from cenzal ‘Asia vying fr prominence in Anatolia, the swathe of land nestled between the Black Seo, the Aegean and the Mediteranean. ‘This land had once formed part of the Eastern Roman Empire and then, afte the founding of Constantinople the Byzantine Empire. Following the conquest ofthis great ty by the Europeans of ‘the Fourth Crusade during the previous century, however the Byzantine Empire had diminished. and by 1300 its Asian holdings comprised only a fev ports on the Anatolian coast. ‘The Ottomans’ first step toward toppling the ‘Byzantines and establishing a regional authority ‘came under the leadership of Osman. and atthe expense of their fellow Turkish tribes in Anatolia, ‘The region flexed is autonomous muscles during “TT WAS AN EMPIRE FOUNDED ON THE PROMISE OF H DREAM, WHICH VISITED TURKISH TRIBAL CHI€F OSMAN the 1291 succession dispute among their Mongol ‘overlords in Persia. But as the other Turkish tribes ‘sratally gave up the fight. Osman continued fighting and by 1299, his Ottomans were besieging the city of Nicaea. The Ottomane rest petiod of, ‘conquest was about to begin 1 1302, the Byzantine emperor Andronicus 1, who was alarmed at Osmaris quickly growing influence and his perennial raiding ofthe Byzantine bordelands, mustered his army to ‘pr the Turkish tibesmen in ther place, The Byzantine force met the Ottomans not fr fom, Constantinople, on the southem shore of the Sea ‘of Marmara, where they were ambushed and ‘outed from the field ‘This was the Ottomans first sret victory over ‘the Byzantines and luckily for him. it greatly ‘enhanced Osman’ reputation as did his fellow: ‘up campaign, which severed communications between the cities of Brusa and Nicaea, Thousands (of immigrant Turkish households rallied to his banner. As Osman's power grew, Andronicus sought alliances, though these ulimately came: to nought, and Ottoman raiding continued unt ‘Osmanis death around 1323/24, Leadership passed to Osman’ son, Orhan, who went on to capture ‘Brusa, establishing the very fist Ottoman capital ‘This was in 1326, a date that is often cited a the birth ofthe empire itself = The Rise of the Ottoman Empire MUCK TN a OTTOMAN LEADERS Neo a eRe cat Cerrone nbon evo to be reckoned with Wey ee tre 1B eis Cetera read teed Between the 14th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire flowered, threatening the very heart of Europe 1 the 1340s, cll war erupted within the Byzantine Empire and the Ottomans were Invited to step into imperial affairs leading to the capture of Galipl in 1354, thelr first foothold in Burope. They extended their influence into the continent when, in 1361 “Murad I captured the ty of Adrianople, which was renamed Baie before emerging a the new Ottoman capital in 1365. The Ottomans’ freshly acquired territories now encircled Constantinople and the emperor, John V, signed a treaty that saw his once mighty city become litle more than an Ottoman vassal With a European base at Edime, the Ottomans struck out against the Balkans. The Serbian Empire was aso burgeoning during ths perio. but the decisive battle of Kosovo in 1389, though claiming the if of Murad, saw the Ottomans emerge victorious once again. Murads son Bayezid succeeded his father and eared the name ‘the Thunderbolt, such was his military prowess, Claiming he would wate his hose atthe altar of St Peter's in Rome, he quelled rebelion within the empire before taking Bosnia and ‘Bulgaria, and then finaly coming fae o face with ‘Westen Burope, winning his fst engagement agalnst European heavy cavalty at the bate of ‘Nicopolis in 1396, The Ottomans didnot escape ithout setbacks, and the rise ofthe fabled leader ‘Tameane, the successor othe Mongols inthe ‘ast, checked their power when defeating and capturing Bayerd a Anakara in M02. I seemed as though the empire would disintegrate amid the over struggle that followed Bayezc's death, Ottoman fortunes began to revive, however, picking up pace when Sultan Murad It led the first, albeit unsuccessful, siege of Constantinople in 1122 He launched a Hungarian offensive in 1439, that culminated in one ofthe greatest Ottoman victories at Varna in 1444, where the Hungarians and Westen crusading forces, which included the ‘mighty Teutonic Knights, were heavily defeated was Murads successor, Mehmet I, who was to cement Ottoman power inthe European sphere Known to history as Mehmet the Conqueror. he finaly toppled Constantinople in 1453 and ravaged ‘The civil service ‘serch smongthe ‘The holy’ Wiehe saan was als ‘escent he Ponte tum eg the Balkan states In Greece, the Duchy of Athens surrendered in 1456 and the Ottomans soon, ‘conquered the Peloponnese, ‘The infamous Viad Tepes (the impale) caused problems forthe Ottomans in Wallachia and the Knights Hospitaller successfully defended ‘Rhodes, though Mehmet remained unperturbed He launched his most audacious campaign in 1480 with the invasion of aly, eausing panic in ‘Westem Burope. Italy was saved not by Europe's ‘military might but by Mehme¢’s death in 481, In 1520, the man widely perceived asthe Ottomans’ greatest sultan, Suleiman the ‘Magnificent, came to power, capturing Belgrade a year after his accession, taking the Hospitaller island of Rhodes the yer after that and then ‘winning his greatest victory in 1526 hen he brought about the collapse of Medieval Hungary. From now on the Ottomans would hammer away at the great empire ofthe Hapsburg dynasty asthe est of Europe trembled. They expanded {nto North Africa and fought many more famous battles ~ the Great Siege of Malta 1565), the ‘capture of Cyprus, the great naval conflict at ‘Lepanto 0571) andthe slaughter at Kerestes (1596) ‘The enemy was tthe gates and wa forthe -Buropean heartland was not fr behind, “he Rise of the Ottoman Empire ‘The sultan ‘Theta a aeoite pow hag e Dian Alivs were made in Nsom -— Ottoman conquests 1481-1683 — ‘The millets sired indopenence ad relious kates ands ‘The military elite The military eit Se ee, ‘MOvoenénpien sl mEConpestsf Sen 15220 ngs Suna, 20-8 Canes SEED Dest i) The Rise of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman army was a fearsome machine, unlike anything else that Medieval Europe had ever seen, and their elite troops were the mighty Janissaries 8 Medieval Burope, the Ottoman army vas were the Ianissaie, the Ottoman elite infantry, _ The boys surtendered litle when they et Unique the entie empire lived for war and who lived solely for war. Even mariage and family their homes. Recruited mostly fom the Balkan ‘one conquest fuelled the next. Even late in were forbidden to them. states, they left behind poverty in a rural ife that the empire’ lif, during the siege of Baghdad Their only love was combat: the only person offered litle hope of professional advancement. in 1683 when the Persians demanded the to who they owed loyalty was the sultan They Once converted to Islam, educated and trained, Contest be setled by single combat, the sultan, _ were his men forming is personal bodyguard. they became important players in an empie that Mehmet IV, stepped forward and cut dovin the They were recruited from Christian slave boys ~ to admired martial ability and, as time develope, Persian champion himself enslave fellow Muslims was contaty to religious like the Praetorian Guard in ancient Rome they Unlike the European armies they 0 regulatly law ~though to describe the Janissaries as aslave- even became kingmakets, famously rebelling routed, the Ottoman forces were fullxime army fils to recognise the honour and prestige against Osman I! in 1622 and restoring Mustapha ‘professionals. Chief among thei myriad units _they enjoyed within the Ottoman Empire. to the Sukanate ‘RECRUITMENT My neslG ea eae ny buy Christian children) PORTH eB Ceo tuccrg The Rise of the Ottoman Empire ‘RIS€ OF THE SS dace ttngl r r tached othe oe a dg wedconsadhp TRAINING ‘nee machadalhe wy tte Ooms cpa Cstrtnople=a test nse “te boys wee Thebasetoope wore ve ‘wel ies oficers Nock mae Wa ‘Wide breeches ‘er ey di marching. al The Rise of the Ottoman Empire Masters of the surrounding landscape, the dramatic toppling of Constantinople proved a symbolic victory for the Ottomans "twas Mehmed the Conqueror who launched the final assault on Constantinople and Drought the last vestige ofa once mighty ‘empire into the Ottoman fold. Though the ty had Tong prove litle more than a vassal state, he coveted the glory its fll would bring ‘Succeeding tothe Suitanate in 151, he swiftly ‘mobilised his armies and picked off remaining ‘Byzantine possessions along the Black Seacoast. 1n M452, he erected a castle on the European shore (ofthe Bosphorus, cppeste a Turkish castle on the Asiatic shoe, taking strategic command ofthis. ‘ital waterway ‘The Turks now contoled all shipping in and ‘ut ofthe Black Sea and Mehmed’ artery were ‘Quick to sink a Venetian ship that defied his ‘order to halt. Mehmed beheaded the crew and. ‘impaled the captain, Antonio Riz. “As Rizas body mouldered in the rain writes one historian, “the Byzantines made thei at desperate appeals to the West” With the great trading sates of ‘Genoa, Venice and Ragusa deeply involved in ‘mercantile activity with the Ottomans, and at odds among themselves, they offered hte inthe way ‘of support tothe Byzantines. The Holy Roman [Emperor issued stem warning to Mehmed, but stfell on deat ears. The sultan had a warning of his own: the Byzantines should leave the city by 5 ‘March 1453, or suffer his frightening wrath. Iehas been said that Metimed rallied the whole ‘of hls empire forthe assault on Christendom's ‘most easterly outcrop. But even if figures of 300,000 men seem exaggerated, the forces assembled outside Constantinople’ walls still certainly dwarfed those inside, who may have numbered as few as 12000, 2 As the vast Turkish fleet alld into the Sea ‘of Marmara, a frightening weapon of war was uncovered before the citys outermost walls a 28-0ot cannon with the bronze of its bare said to be eight inches thick. thad tobe dragged into Position by 700 men and 60 oxen, Constantinople stone defences were almost 25. formidable, comprising two sets of mighty walls dotted with towers. The emperor also ordered a mighty chain tobe stung along the entrance tothe Golden Hor, preventing any Turkish ships from launching an assault onthe inner sea walls. ‘The Tusks found the opening days difficult ‘heir atilery proving less effective than they hoped against the citys lofty walls, while their ‘siege towers were set ablaze and mining efforts repulsed, To add further inst, n Apel a small, fila of supply ships successfully ran the Turkish ‘lockade and safely entered the Golden Horn, “Mehmed upped his game and soon pled of an extraordinary feat of engineering bailing ‘2 wooden roadway from the Bosphorus tothe Springs — over wich he hauled 70 ships that took to the Golden Horn. He could now mount sea ‘borne assaits from mach closer quarters. (n 29 May 1453, Mehmed launched his most intense assault, smataneous attack from land and sea his Janissares achieving the final Victory as they pressed through a breached wall Itis presumed the brave Byzantine Emperor, ‘Constantine, died while allying his men. With the ety atthe Ottomans' mercy, Mehmed allowed three days of looting and thousands of ‘Gilans were dragged of into slavery before the sultan took ownership ofthis rnowned city and ‘began is reconstruction as a Mustim metropolis. The Rise of the Ottoman Empire it begins 6 April The tomas ign alge Theodoran and ral ap epoy hey alert tater the Sege tomes hat oom higher Man they walls 2 amet desy the ences A flotilla arrives 20 April nn win acy and eer ‘open ontap ond winder ‘sow: Atal pe ofc anne ens ntaeaie omeockCnatiope Ships sail overland 22 April tnt siete cen f) Suyineswathtey nated tobe | Finalbattle 28 May ry "ie weakened ls in north west safer thctruntean lal ck ough Ment CAE ees, ail Anal naty ste eaten bck hte nis ally tus the ie Commander Commander, ‘The city falls 29 May iehmet constantine PES ees mere 5. of soldiers: io. : aerate and the emperor fa 80,000-300,000 7,000-12,000 Tackto the ner ale Many Comments an Ships: 90-125 that be sea ate whe ing the a No. of casualties: Heavy, No. of casual ¢tomedcoumer tac butunknown ‘About 4,000 23 ne MeéeHMeED THE CONQUEROR Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II forged a superpower in the 15th century by ruthlessly campaigning against an array of powerful enemies a“ vance my friends and children!” Sultan Mehmed shouted 0 ‘the Ottoman troops preparing toattack helandward walls .fConstantinoplein the early ‘morning hoursof29 May 1453. "Now isthe ‘moment toprove yourself worthy men!” ‘With parade ground precision, the provincial troops streamed forwards towards ther target. shouting Allah" as they went. When they toed to sealea makeshift barricade plugging ‘breach nthe wallsmade by the sultan's siege uns, they recoiled fiom thebarrage ofrocks, asbucketsofbuminghot pitch and molten streams of Greek fire were hurled at them by the Byzantine defenders, Mehmed red forward to check the progress ofthe assault He steamed, shouted and swore ‘nan effort to willhis army into thecity. He ‘waved ford fresh units to maintain heavy pressureon the Christian defenders. Aftera superhuman effort, the Anatlians withdrew, having filed to overwhelm the enemy. Mehmed ad one last chance for victory on 29May 453. in what he ha decided several ‘ays eater would behisfinalattackonthe city after 253-daysege.Ifhe combined hiselite palace regiments with his janssary brigade, be ‘would have enough men for another assault Demonstrating the quik thinking that was the ‘markofa great commander, Mehmed personaly Jedthem totheirjump-off point. They were eager a yin forbatleand veloomed an opportunity to prove themselvesin front oftheirsltan. ‘Asthey fought at the stockade, Mehmed rode back and forth behind them yelling encouragement. Despitethe auspicious startto ‘ther attack itfatered lke the one before Then pair fortunateincidentsgavethe Ottomans theadvantage they needed to overwhelm the exhausted defenders, Although Mehmed had twohalbrothers ahead ofhim in line forthe succession tothe Imperial throne, both othem died prematurely. roman early age Mehmed hadanextremely volatile personality, which frequently manifested ‘tselfthroughout hisralein bouts of age ‘After two fase startin the 440s inwhich is father Murad Hlabdicatedinfvourof Mehmed only tobe recalled bythe grand vier when his son proved tooinexperienced to establish stability, Mehmed at last becamesutan on3 February M51, upon his fathers death. Mehmed ‘quickly ratified existing treaties and traces with the Byzantines, Hungarians Sebiansand ‘Venetians, The Christians saw himasa bumbling, \weaksultan because of his eal false starts, but ‘Mehmed was consciously deceiving them. ‘Mehmed’ pledge of peaceful intentions to ‘Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus hhad been entirely false. Constantinople nad Jongbeen.a thor intheside of the Ottomans, ‘The Byzantine Empit'sexistence interrupted theroutine movement ofthe Porte'smilary forces backand forth between Anatoliaand Rumelia. Moreover, tals sparked Christian crusades ~in 1396, i444 and 1448 -designed to niberate’ Constantinople from the catches ofthe surrounding Ottoman sultanate. The strength of the sultanate was evident in its having defeated thecrusaderseach time. Toremedythesituation, Mehmed decided he would not only begin a rapid ship building program inthe northern Aegean but also construct fortes onthe Buropean side opposite Anadolu Hisar- Mehmed named the fortes, which he intended toserveasaforward ase for siege operations against Constantinople, Bogazkesen Hisar, meaning strait cute fortress as ltwasintended in partto ensure the Ottomans controlled maritime trade inthe Black Sea region, ‘The site where the Ottomans would build the castle was Byzantine estoy. and therefore the project would show that Mehmed had no qualms shout violating Byzantine sovereignty. ‘Construction began n April L452 and was completed in the record time of fourmonths. ‘When Emperor Constantine XI set emissariesto ‘Mehmed in June 1452 bearing gifts and imploring him to desist hehad them beheaded. twas ‘antamountto. declaration of war ‘While he was overseeing the construction of Bogazkesen, alsoknownas Ruel Hisar a ‘Hungarian engineer named Urban approached “Mehmed with the offerto custom bull large ‘bombard capable of knocking down thick wals. aN be spent trying to suppress the only thing Mustafa did in his second je Antrgue in his own cour, Osman was reign that were is own ida. He was his 2 finally outmanoewvted, The Janissariesselzed the — mothe's puppet, and behind the scenes, Hallme sultan and imprisoned him. A short time laterhe Sultan was vying for power with Kosem Sultan. was tangled and, after the assassination ofthe _Ttremained to be seen just which of the harem, rightful ruler, Mad Mustafa was brought back tobe mothers would come out ontop. the Agubeed te rulng ce loo Suan rouge nsaty cre Gn Inmrerngy Mora diet le te news the sort em) whens won tx bt power ei ea a ee ete ‘ cee ates cea oe eee ere TS aa Soueyeliie new ofhonephews det Masai ted pala whe Reon Sula na - ‘ea chat sug mec nent eecy one became hte ems oats se si press asi cea enaey eee 5 (and Vser and ie head the nse was” Inte fur Murad 1 woud ee ee in a a ed ‘ dichotomies fn Ottoman history but, in the ‘meantime, Kosem Sultan was regent to her sultan son, She wasall to awa that as he matured, ‘ature would take its cours, and she would be superseded by her son's wife, just as she had ‘herself had usurped her motherinaw's power So it ems that Késem Sullan came up with a ‘cunning plan - she would ensure Murad IV was ‘ay. While this s speculation there can be almost no other reason to have attractive male teenagers regularly paraded in front of her son. To say that her ploy affeced Maras attude to women is something of an understatement. I seems Murad actively hated the female gender. On one ‘occasion he ordered tv personal guard on his barge to attack washer women onthe shoreline. ‘Ther crime? Singing. On another occasion, he ‘ordered all the concubines into the swimming ‘pol where they had to tread water to stay afloat, while he fired a slingshot at any woman ‘who tied to get out. Some of them drowned ‘Murad IV died of cithosis ofthe ler in 1640, aged just 28 All of is hard work to bring stability was undone. Murad 1V had come to power after a mad predecessor and ‘now once again, power was back in the hands ofa madman. Murad IVs brother and the son of Kosem Sukan, Ibrahim, The Sultanate of Women Decrees zt Poorest ost Brttractsy bad ive his enti ie in the cage. Such a strict confinement was likly to drive anyone mad, but mad or not, Ibcahim had the strongest claim tothe thane (It was vial to the (Ottomans thatthe empire was always ruled by an heir tothe first Osman) Unfortunately, he thought the ceremony of his accession was an elaborate hoax on the pat of his dead bother, and he resisted being girded with Osmanis sword and bek. ‘Tobe fart Fahim, Murad IV had killed men for farless, but brahim couldnt believe he was sultan "nti he was allowed to see Murad IVs body. ‘Késem Sultan was i a bind, While she had always struggled to put her own power before the healt ofthe empire, there was no doubt that heirs to the throne were becoming thin on the ground. Wii she didnot want to lose out toa younger woman, she had to make sure that Ibrahim had chilren. ironically, tbrahim sired three sultan, a record number. This is probably unsurprising ‘ven that he spent most of his time in the harem hich was the only ome he had ever known, 11647 Kosem Sultan, as well asthe grand Valet, began ploting Ibrahim’ overthrow. Unfortunately fr them, he got wind of the palace coup and acted fist. The grand vizier was executed and Keser Sultan was banished 300 Ceca Ve aod ere eget poe ek Peete eid ne oes eterias| Pieris tecud from the capital, but these moves only slowed the wheels of revolt. Once agin the Janissaries rose up, and ths time they were supported by the general population. “Everyone had had enough, While Ibrahim was ling lavishly, the price of food and other goods ‘was constant rising fr the public ‘With turmoil atthe top once more, Kosem Sultan was brought back to work out what to 4o,Iahim’s reign was now untenable, but a ‘secessor had tobe chosen before an uprising ‘umed into a revolution - or even civil war, The new grand Vier and Késem Sultan agreed that the best plan of action was to have brahim ‘executed and install his six-year-old son Mehmed asthe new sultan, ‘Mehmed 1's reign brought an end to Késem Sultan's power She was nota blood relative and hs mother Tuthan feared the scheming woman, ‘might well make a move against the boy sultan. ‘While its thought that this was unlikely ‘didnt prevent her execution in 1651 (here fs no root, but it was believed to have been ordered by Tushar, when tis sid that she was strangled with her own hair, Her execution was a bold ‘move and het death brought to a close the many {ecaces of influence she and her predecessors had ‘Wield both in the harem and the sultans court. t ‘ a The Topkapi Palace Harem “The harem was where, rationaly female members ofthe sultans family Wed. Wives, concubines lus his wn mother and chlren ined with ts impenetrable sll Mere than 300 teem, ps3 host of ater buildings, made up the arer inthe Ith cetuy, the sutan hrs (Murad i) moved into the harem, prefering its security and closer proximity to his fay. Te harem was 2 fa ry from the ext brothels portrayed by Western at - it was place of worship, sual dealines, cout iguana Me well 9 ex Tower of Justice ‘The tales par ofthe Topkapi Palece it watches over the Bosphorus as visble from mies around, eis one ofthe newer eatons to the palace ast was constructed oly after a fre in 1665 had destroyed a sifieat part of Mehmed Is gal bulangs. was adacee tothe Divan the place where the Imperial Counal had mestngs, so the Sutan had agate insted Sore coud sit and listen to procedings frm the ext room. Mosque of the Agas Buta agonal angles att could face Mecca the Mosque ofthe Ags isthe oldest mesa nthe Topkapi complex, et wes but inthe time fof Mehmed Iwas reserved fr the tte ont the Stan, white euruchs Seasons ofthe nner Palace School ere slowed to use it Nowadays, hos the manuscripts ogy hel in Ated i ibrary Divan Blt from stunning white marble and Adorned with geen and go. the Dian waste place where the Imperi Counc would mest four times a week This was undoubtedly one ofthe most important paces the entire place. Outer’ (Once mactings were ovr on some This red brick bling now 3 ays vers coud preset petitions to weapons museum, contarng Abbasid the Grand Vise =the man who wae and Uayjd arms 35 wells vast ny one step below te Sultan. range of Ottoman ones However, Irsed tobe the ofl treasury of ‘the Ottoman Empce, contains vast quanies of god and ser used to Heep the altars cofes well stacked, The money inside was used to pay the Sultans persona solders 25 well 2s sending funds to the holy ies of Mecca and Medina Gate of Salutation ‘Ths gate now forms the man entvance to the Tepkap Palace museum, and was one af Mehmed is orgral features. However, he ‘two onic urets ether side of the gate were aided by Suleman the Magnifier in the Teh contury It ides the Fst Courtyard where more ores anyone coud roam feey = from the palace rope The nsrption above the Kon gate reade the Qurne pase “there sno ge but God, Muharamed isthe prophet of Got y 3S The Topkapi Palace Inthe Fourth Courtyard, youl fn number of paions ae sal buldings Caled osk, constucted ina range of drcstectul ses. Some were bul commemorate farcus itary vitor, such sat Yerevan and Baghd, and others were bult pur forthe Sutars pleasure. The newest oe, the ‘Medici Kiosk, was but 1859 bythe same architect wo designed the Dlmadahce Place. | THE TOPKAPI aozanee.. | ‘PALACE library once contained masterpiece Scien rense'mectemn | Istanbul, Turkey, 1460-1478 fEmpre. including Grek ad Save manuscripts. Members ofthe Ottoman n almost 400 years of its history, Istanbul's court were free tose the iar, ‘conic Topkapi Palace grew so important that though remouing ay ofthe books fom feeriacnaly Creemad sts ke ANS ST ite shelves meant harsh punishment. eee just the Sultans opulent residence it was the heat of Ottoman society, acting as its high security administatlve centre, royal court and. Here, tha Sultan woud recive important guess, uch 3¢ {even an entertainment venue, Sami scolar, foreign ambassadors, and state offi "The Topkapi Place sits pride of place atthe top Inthe room, he woul be informed ofthe deciions made of ahi voting the Bosphorus Golden Hom. ‘bythe Imperl Counc should he be absent fom tek Paid Saved Masia Tis tis Sa sooo ‘meetings. ovrseing the goverance of the entire Ere. fond Bes of Mumia Tia fe ae anon ts stunning interior was designe to reflect the might of the me pear Empire, an impress al those who stepped within ts wal <5 Constantinople's very own Acropolis. When the —___ ‘Ottoman Turks conquered the city in 1453 they destroyed much oft -but new ruler Mehmed I recognised the site's potential, He designed and constructed the Topkapi Palace according to his unique vision. The place featured four courtyards each serving a different function. However, Mehmed I himself only lived there for three years ashe died in 1481. His successors ‘made their own tweaks, resulting ina vast range ‘of architectural tyes within its walls ‘Any unarmed Ottoman citizen was permitted toenter the First Courtyard. allowing a thriving ‘tade to spring up within the palace grounds, "The Second Courtyard was where governmental ‘business took place. The Third and Fourth ‘courtyards were the most secretive. and ‘encompassed the Suitanis private quarters Inside the complex, youd find moeques, government ‘uldngs, libraries, ving space and vast collections ‘of amour, weapons, jewellery and pottery. ‘But while the teeming Topkapi remained crucial to the Ottoman capital for hundreds of years, the “Empire's needs eventually outgrew the Topkapi ‘capacity In 1856, the Sultan moved himself and hs government tothe newer Dolmabahge palace. Jeaving the Topkapl with only afew functions. However, after the collapse ofthe Ottoman [Empire it has found a new lease ofife asa ‘museum, receiving over 3 milion vistors per year. Gate of ‘he Gate of Fly served asthe main entryway tothe Suns private residence, ere ne wed retest oat {he er of along ae hare ays work As wo 3 ering this purpose, tao had a ceremoril oe and could be used asa place to pay homage othe Sutan- During emtvenement corer, the Ottoman tone would be symbolically put front ofthe gate. The throne would aso be placed there when ‘content inthe Empire was brewing, 25 the Sutan would receive his loyal Janssares ‘whi the confines ofthe Second Courtyard Ottoman Government 2 1300, Anatolia was on fire. After the ‘Mongols had Inid waste tothe Seliuq Sultanate of Rum, its vassal states were a shattered patchwork of independent eylks seatered across Anatolia In its northwest comer, bordering the withering ‘Byzantine Empire, the House of Uthman (Osman) arose Suleyman Shah came to Anatlia with an ‘estimated force of 5000 men, but eventually the ‘Ottomans would subeie all their vas, surpass their boundaries and lay the framework for an ‘empire that would last for centuries. twas from the experience of the Seljugs and thelr experience {inthis chaotic Anatolia thatthe Ottomans Jeamed statecraft and would come to model thelt ‘government. Over ime, they adapted. grew and ‘evolved their structure to fit their time. and this. flexibility gave them great staying power. "The Ottomans often let local authority structures intact, bat made them vassals ofthe sultan, Asa reaul, 3 sort of federate’ Eyelet adminstrative system arose. The Eyalet was then further subdivided into Sanjaks and diecty appointed Mutasarifate, then into a Kaza oF ‘Kaaluk, then into Naiya, then into municipalities. For example in 1516, when the Ottomans defeated the Mamluk forces at the Bate of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo ~ eventually finishing them off by 117, they inherited the Mamluk subdivisions ofthe Neat East and Egypt. The ‘mamlakat were ‘eventually combined together into yale, and former Mamluk administrators who switched allegiances even became the new Ottoman ‘Beyletbey, such asthe Cireassian Jandbird ‘A¥-Ghazali who would become the Damascus yale frst governor. ‘This power structure was sometimes a double- edged sword. Elsewhere, such a in the Eyalts| ‘of North Africa orn places like the Khanate of Crimea, vasa states could be essentially {independent but under the suzerainty of the ‘Sublime Porte, The Barbary Slates, whose pirates preyed upon European ships inthe Mediterranean and Atlanti, were only nominally ‘under Ottoman contol and often acted Independent of centralised power. In Egypt, following the withdrawal of Napoleon's forces ‘rom Egypt for example, Muhammad Ali Pasha ‘was able fo seize power fr himself, eventually challenging the sitans army itself and taking the Levant. But, despite rebellion at periods, the structure alo allowed for more breathing room, to absorb losses and make concessions while still ‘maintaining control 4s the Empire expanded, it needed to account How the Ottomans ruled on high over an Se a at aay eT coa ie caeato empire of millions - and kept the peace ea ana Gee eae Ts EE despite deep-seated divides Sa Se ‘Mosaic, anonic or Sharia, weve al ove inte Otoman Ege ‘ultimately emanated from the sultan. radiating ‘outwards through his imperil household, then to the Divan Homayan Gmpeial council, then {nto owersanking authorities. ‘The House of Osman consisted ofthe sultan, the Imperial Harem and the Enderdn (palace schools) Led by the Grand Vizier, whose function ‘was similar to that of a modem Prime Minister, ‘the Divan discussed politics. Their power was, ‘mostly consultative, as the Grand Vizier and then the sultan had theultimate say. As they discussed, ‘though, the sultan coud stil quite itealy, ‘The Vizirs were a great example of socal ‘mobility. They often began thelr caeers in the rnlitary and then werked their way up the ranks, elevated gradually by the nobles and the sultan ‘The majority were of non-Turkish origin, and they often began their careers as mercenaries slave soldiers in the nissaries - 30 of them were ‘Albanian alone. And, ike Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, ‘who served as Grand Vizier for years under thee sultans they could even become the most Powerful person. ‘oversee ~ albeit out of sight. He could, if he wished, There were Viziers of all sorts and they ‘atch and listen in carefully fom a golden grille {nthe chambers wall. The Grand Viiers power ‘was second only to the sultans and he reported

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