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    Transport Engineering PDF

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    Daisy Ogolla

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    = Land vs. Transportation Transportation and Land Use, Urban and Regional Planning ene ptrtn andtandusc intercon’; Moet iol perspectives: rel demands location ther. Tecnolgy by trang efteansportation. Centralized verses decentralized systems. The shaping of patterns of settlements economy nsperatonimovalon Transport and econ crc Land-use, transport and accessibility impacts Sever! indicators can be used to describe the functioning of the land-use/transport system, and these can be categorised in several ways, Land-use and transport indicators can be grouped according to the rate at which they change. Four rates of change: (1) very slow changes, referring to transport networks and land use, the most permanent ‘elements of the physical land-use structures; (2) slow changes, referring to residences and non-residential buildings, which may have a life- span up to 100 years and take several years to construct, from planning to completion; (3) fast changes, referring to the distribution of activities, which can change wil years and jin one or more (4) immediate changes, referring to transport volumes (e.g. in terms of passenger and vehicle Kilometres), and their composition (i.e. mode and vehicle choice) and distribution in time and space. Accessibility measures can be used to describe the functioning of the transport system or the combined land-use/transport system, In general, four types of accessibility measures can be distinguished for a review of accessibility measures): (1) infrastructure-based accessibility measures, describing the level of service in transport infrastructure (e.g. ‘level of congestion’ and ‘average travelling speed in the road network’); (2) location-based accessibility measures, describing the level of accessibility to spatially distributed activities, such as ‘the number of jobs within 30 minutes travel time from origin locations’, (3) person-based accessibility measures, describing accessibility at the individual level, e ‘activities in which an individual can participate at a given time, and (4) Utilitybased accessibility measures analysing the (economic) benefits people derive from access to the spatially distributed activities. Infrastrueture-based accessibility measures, describe the functioning of the transport system only, as this type of measure is only sensitive to transport changes, whereas the other types are sensitive to changes in both the land-use and transport systems. In other words, a change of accessibility may be the result of land-use changes, travel time or cost changes, or both. Several methodologies and models are used in the literature to estimate the intermediate indicators described above. Since the 1960s, many land-use and transport models from different scientific fields have been developed to model and evaluate land-use or transport patterns and changes. responses, even with the state-of-the-art modeling NS By Eng. Dr. J.N. Kuta Page 1 Land vs. Transportation 2 Economic impacts i be . ic impacts can Economic impacts of transport system changes are potentially diverse. Economic imps categorised in many ways. Here, a first grouping is made between: ji lated toa (@) direct economic benefits-referring to the economic costs and benefits directly rel Project and (b) the wider economic benefits ~referring to the economic effects not directly peel is Lf - Project but causally linked tothe dreet impacts. Direct economie benefits ean be fu yes into (i) benefits of use, with travel cost savings typically being the most important category f infiastructure projects, and (i passve-use benefits, a category covering a number o lpr {nctuding option value, indirect benefits and existence values. A second grouping can be ae by distinguishing: (a) economic effects for which “market” Prices are available, e.g. profits, fuel ost reductions, and (b) effects for which no market prices are available, expressed in such ‘monetary terms as travel time gains and ecological impacts, 3. Environmental impacts The environmental impacts of the land-use/transport system are diverse and can be grouped into four categories: (1) environmental pressures, (2) environmental quality, (3) ecosystem and landscape impacts, and (4) conservation of natural resources, These are shortly described below. Em: ‘Sreenhouse gases, other air: Pollutants and noise emissions from ‘transpor concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is the main ‘tansport is a significant source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, Pap de (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatite organic compounds (VOC), and da particles (PM) are directly emitted in large amounts in exhaust gases. Exposure high levels of noise emissions from transport (road traffic, rail and aircraft) has an important impact on human health and ecosystems. Environmental q and noise levels, which are the terms of loss of virgin land, green 5 other locational values. Finally, the conservation of natural re rome active landscapes, wildlife habitat, biodiversity and i 3 n "sources refers, firstly, to the consumption of mineral oil, which is a finite resource with many other wea’ Secondly, land can also be seen asa natural resource, which can not be used for other purposes ifr taken for buildings, infrastructure or vehicles. 4, Social impacts The social impacts of land-use/transport changes can ticularly difficult to estimate with any precision, P vorent sorts of social impacts may also vary widel: {ake on many forms, some of which are "receptions as to the relative importance of Land vs. Transportation In general, relatively little work seems to have been di techniques to rigorously estimate probable social e impact assessments typically focus on accessibility Visual impacts and severance. jone to develop methods, tools and ets of transport changes. To date, social yy impacts, traffic safety, noise and air quality, Social impacts ean be categorised in several ways. Here, according to their interference with different levels of in needs typically distinguis metaphysical needs (e. these four levels. a first grouping of impacts is made \dividual’s needs. Theories of social sh four levels of social needs, i.e. biological, social, intellectual and Maslow, 1998). Table 1 shows a categorisation of impacts according to Table 1: Social impacts grouped according to four levels of human needs Level Hierarchy Tmpacts Biological Physiological needs, safety Trafliexelated health impacts: — physical exercise: traffic safety: psychosocial impacts: aceess fo essential sources of hmm existence soci Love. belonging ‘Comantnity cohesion; social exclusion: nouymity: severmce: access 10 socal ‘oppornuities by private & public transport and non-moterised modes Tutellecual/psychological Self-esteem. trust intelligence, Access to education. jobs & cultural facilities: selfulfiment ‘wavel opportunities. transportation choice: option vales Metaphysical ‘Cognitive, self-flfilment, Visti quality: aesthetics ofthe built privacy ‘environment: liveability: availability of public spaces. quiet areas of food and water, etc, Social impacts at this level include, firstly, ‘tansport-related human health impacts, expressed, for example, as mortality or morbidity effects. Health impacts may be diverse. These include long-term exposure to local air poilution (¢-8. CO, NO2, ozone and PM10 emissions) and noise, traffic accidents, health-improvement impacts (walking and cycling) and psychosocial effects (e.g, stress, fear, aggression) due, for instance, to busy traffic or accidents. The assessment of health impacts of transport projects is often limited to traffic accidents, while other impacts receive litle attention, environment, availabi 5 Aggregation of impacts: CBA and MCA ‘Two approaches widely used for weighing impacts in policy appraisal are social cost-benefit analysis (SCBA) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA). These can, in principle, be used to summarise the sustainability impacts of transportation system changes. From an economic point of view, SCBA is generally the preferred and accepted method for evaluating all possible (economic, environmental and social) imy including the Netherlands, ipacts of infrastructure investments in many countries, Although SCBA is a well-established methodology, it has been subject to severe criticism. This ranges from its ethical and philosophical underpinnings, the lack of treatment of equity impacts, to its heavy reliance on monetary valuations, and the alleged omission of factors for which money valuations are difficult or impossible, such as nature and landscape intrusion, severance and social cohesion. Alternatively, MCA can be used to weight crite MCA requires weighting of criteria that appropriately represent the relative importance given to the criteria by decision makers to the criteria, MCA is therefore capable of handling equity and en By Eng. Dr. JN. Kuta Page 3 Land vs. Transportation 3. Characterisation of Land-use/Transport Interaction models 3.1 Introduction Since the 1960s, many land-usetransport interaction (LUT!) models from different scientific fields have been developed to model and evaluate land-use and transport pattems, and changes, ture reviews on operational I ort interaction models focus on weories and the type of policies that can be Several existent litera land-use/trans; 8 techniques, along with the underlying th ti intermediate, economic, environmental a wicators estimated. The models are included described below: The Lowry Model ') The Lowry Model incorporated within th The activity is need for mor activities corresponds to a Ie re than the fines at residential, service an Structure of generations and allocation of activities, Dae pulation, service employment and thes dustrial uses, i) Some of the salient features of the Lowry model are; Land vs. Transportation © Ifyou assume that the location of the zinc industry is independent of the location of residential areas and Service Centers. + The population is allocated in proportion to the population potential of each zone and service employment in proportion to market potential each zone ‘© The more they'll ensures the population located in any zone does not violate a maximum density or holding capacity is constant is ofthe test on each category of service employment. * Lowry model relates population and employment after one particular time horizon. Evaluation of Faci ies AA) The major characteristics normally used when evaluating the attractiveness of the residential location are the following; i, Physical characteristics of the neighborhood such as housing structure ii, Socio-economic artery six such as the character neighborhood. s of people ing in the iii, Public services such as quality of school, roads and local recreation iv. Environmental qualities such as topography: features, landscape and weather. Accessibility to the neighborhood in terms of the sites to which the household, commonly travels, B. i) A location ordering the filed by Von Thiinen stress of the distance coast relationship assigned to the land values. According to Von Thiinen, if land in close proximity to the markets (CBD) would be in great demanded the cause of low transport cost. The highest French would be gained from this advantage, The outer bands there would be little and demanded for land the causes of low transport coast, rents would be lower and the corresponding value of extensive production would be low. ‘The filtering down theory by Burgers explains how different socio - economic groups come to occupy particular neighborhoods. Burgers observed in Chicago that higher ineome households moved farther from the city center and slightly lower income groups of occupied the vacated housing. The durability of a housing units are inereases the probability that several household will oceupy it during its lifetime. ‘The filtering model is one in which housing is constructed for high income households and over its lifetime is a passed on to even lower income households. As incomes among the high income group rise, demands of housing increases. Some individuals will be able to satisfy the increased demand for housing by buying newly constructed houses. ‘The newly constructed house will probably be located farther away from the city center where vacant land is available, 3.2 Land-use, transport and accessibility indicators anne By Eng. Dr. J.N. Kuta Page $ Land vs. Transportat 7 Although all models included inthis paper simulate landeuse; transport and acces: Hee Pe revatucators ofthe function of the land-use/transport systems, the comprehensivenes an level of detail differ. Table 2 overviews the intermediate indicators used in the different mi The. hile the categories used are taken from the conceptual framework described in Section adn table shows PROPOLIS, LOIS-LASER and DELTA-START to be the most comprehensive in the evaluation of land-use and transport indicators, estimating all components of the land-use and ‘transport systems, on focus explicitly on the mod and the modelling of activit icro-economi hon-residential buildings, ‘companies is based on mic ‘ousing prices and market clearings in clling of physical stock for housing and ics. Behaviour of houscholders and theories, simulating endogenous land, floor space or each period. In contrast the Environment Explorer and Performance Measures ‘What are performance measures? Guality, ete.) is ge ting better or worse related or linked to stated goals and specific origin-destinat mode split); time lost t performance, + Economic development: Jobs transportation facilities; unemployed who ci Source consul : ee ate consumption per vehicle mile traveled; decrease in WBtion tons of pollution generated; fuel ‘wetlands; changes in air quality, land vee, ete Formal and functional land use ‘ormal land Land vs. Transportation pattern and an, ebresentation ‘are concemed by quantitative atributes of space such as its form, representtie e ethical aspects and are descriptive in nature, Functional and use. production. confirmed by the level of spatial accumulation of economic activi 2s such as Space. Consumption, residence and transport are mainly a socio-economic description of Factors affecting transport and to use relationship ares i. Urban land development Dominance of private vehicle ownership iii. Context of land use and transportation decision-making iv. Different time context for response Land Elasticity 4) Land use elasticity with respect to transportation supply is the percentage change in some land use performance measure with respect fo a unit percentage change in transportation supply for example the increase in area of commercial activities for every mile of new road or increase in residential density after building new transit line. b) Land use elasticity with respect to transportation demand is the percentage change in some land use performance measure with respect to a unit of a percentage change in transportation demand, Example, increase in area of commercial activities for every 1% increase in VAT increase in the number of businesses in the area for every 1% inerease in passenger trips. c) The influential factors of land use elasticity's are; ‘Type & scale of the transportation system interventions. Maturity level of development of existing transportation system before intervention. © Maturity of existing land use system before the intervention The land use performance measure of interest. Impacts of a proposed transportation project on land use can be established by; identifying scope ete, of the transportation intervention, defining desired time and spatial scopes of impacts, defining performance measures of interest establishing existing transportation and land use conditions (base conditions) and establishing posts intervention land use conditions. ‘A summary of past studies on transportation land use relationship; i. 1826 Johan Henrich Von Thiisen He studied the relationship between price of land and accessibility to activities centers ii, 1960- Alonse He studied relationship between rent and transportation availability. 1996 - 2003 Cervero inn DadN. Kate — 7 By Eng, Dr. JN. Kuta yor Land vs, Transportation portation land use Summarized land use impact on highways and transit investments Walking - Horse, car Bra (1800 - 1890) Electric Street car Era (1890 - 1920) Recreational Automobile Era (1920 - 1945) Freeways Era (1945 - present) ion is a group of geographic cor complimentary characteristics or which ous areas Which have certain common or are tied by extensive inter - area activity or flows. The three types of regions are; . tual Tribal This type of region is based on the ides s create stht they exhibit certain uniform charactristies. Such characetietice we Silat produetion structures homogeneous patterns of consumption and a distribution ofthe labor force they might reflect geographies eters ek dominant and natural resource on similar topo Hon - economie variables such as uniform social attit Political outlook eg Kisumu dogo, kaa chonjo, tial nits can linked together on the elude ipational ubiquity of hy or climate; or again, they’ m tudes, a regional identity oF Nodal or polarized regions emphasize the interdependence of different components withi region rather than into a regional relationships between homozencous regions. Since the fnetional links between spatial units are limited by space, male ions usually take explicit Account of the distance factor. The nodal re ‘on focuses attention on the controlling center of the region rather than on drawing the boundaries, Programming or planning regions Formal This is defined in terms of the coherence and unity of economic decision established political and administrative boundaries. A customized rexion c smaller area units for which data are available king and reflects be assembled from ‘Transportation Infrastructure a) The role of transportation i frastructure to regional development would be; i. To improve the global competitiveness of regions for example by impeovi enabling the available poo! of skilled labor to expand ‘By Eng. = - Land vs. Transportation "To stimulate intemational trade by improving srategie inks inthe freight transport Retworks, including port and cargo handling Airports as well as road and rail infrastructure. To redistribute economic activity between spatial areas, countries or sectors in order to Reduce income disparities and promote social cohesion. ) The theory is that explore the relationship between infrastructure and development are: i. Development through a surplus infrastructure ii, Development through a deficit of infrastructure iii, Balanced development Technologies Smart infrastructure Smart infrastructure such as signals on motorways on ramps or variable speed limits ean significantly improve traffic flow was at relatively low cost. Emerging systems can remotely ‘monitor assets and predict the need for maintenance, helping to reduce costs and prevent disruption to travelers. Better communications on railways for example can safely allow shorter following distances between trains. Real ne informal 0 ‘These can have travelers plan an efficient journey, including facilitating optional route selection, efficient connections between public and transport and access to transport related services like parking. Real-time information can also enabled transport system operators to better to respond to incidents and manage demand. A related area is on-demand transport, where smart phones can be used to provide more convenient access to transport and mobility services. 1) Intelligent transport systems (ITS) are those systems in which information, Data Processing, communication and sensor technologies are applied to vehicle's, infrastructures, operating and ‘management systems, to provide benefits for transport service users. ii) The THREE broad areas of ITS technologies are: ‘Those provided and controlled by central and local governments such as air traffic control systems, variable message signs one more tool ways, traffic management systems and operations centers. Those provided by private sectors and which the government has limited direct control over, such as vehicle safety and navigation systems, and advanced to vehicle control systems. User innovative ITS, based on trout sourcing of information, open data and user generated data. of bi ©) As cities evolve, they continue to be shared by the lasting herit 1s. inffastructures, transport networks and land use patterns constructed years earlier. The nature and distribution of transportation and housing are primary influences of urban structure and urban form. Dene DOIN al Page 9 By Eng. Dr. J.N. Kuta Land vs. Transportation Rivers for many caues teoth cvuastal ana inland perm aded carte wamepuort arterier anal sefharrwnd land we and land tenure coerce, with lanier needing w access a part ot the bie ~~ order to trade gout and verviges This rewullet in number of Biacks of land. ts sires accens the reverse sytem. If'& geography alse influmced the construction of nailiway> aed Rombs which in tum guided the location of comers of comumeros Freight and public Wanepont infrastructures wan @ strong force in shaping citars hes dhevehogwment on ce aloes ane train linc The advent of more to come as treed honnetohd fhe thee ddeperdierss on flac tramepeet tafrastructures and fothowed hewnes to he Belt anal pode Ne creates! at the tng OTN hee et ~~" ‘Technical University of Mombasa FORECASTING TRAVEL DEMAND “Travel demand is expressed as the number of persons oF vehicles Per unit time that ean be expected fo travel ona given segment ‘over a transportation system under a set of given land use, octal, economic and environmental condition, Forecast of travel demand are used to establish the vehicular volume on future or modified system alternatives. The methods of forecasting travel demand can range from a simple extrapolation of ‘observed trends to sophisticated computerized process involving extensive data gathering and mathe! atical modelling. uch as a science, Judgements are e the fas much an art as mi population, car ownership, ete that pro ting demand will depend on the bility of funds ‘The travel demand forecasting process. required concerning the various parameters te. basis fora travel forecast, The methods used in for ailability ofthe data and on the specific constraints on the project such as avail and project schemes. Demand Forecasting Approaches There are two basic demand forecasting situations. The first involv urban areas. And the second deals with intercity travel demand. res travel demand studies for be st when first developed required that extensive data basic jews or roadside interview service. The information gathered ofthe trip maker such as age, ineome and Urban travel demand fore prepared using home intervi provided useful insight concerning the characteris auto-ownership, ete, “The land use a each ofthe trip and mode of travel data could then be aggregated by Zone fo ables and also to calibrate models that will eventually be formulate relationship between val used. Inthe intercity case, data are generally aggregated to greater extent than for urban travelling forecasting e.g, city population, average city income, and travel time/travel cost between city pairs, The data bases that were established in many urban transportation studies had been used for the calibration and testing of the models for trp generation, distribution, modal choice and traffic assignment 865 TUNE is 180 9001:2015 Certified To accomplish the objectives and tasks of the urban transportation planning process a technical effort referred to as urban transportation forecasting project is carried out to analyse the travel demand, There are four basic elements and related tasks in the process: i) Data collection ii) Analysis of existing conditions and calibration of forecasting conditions iif) Forecast of future travel demand iv) Analysis of the result Prior to collecting and summarizing the data itis usually necessary to delineate the study arca boundaries and to further subdivide the area into traffic analysis zones for data tabulation Travel surveys are conducted to establish a complete understanding ofthe travel pattems within the study area. For single projects such as a highway project it may be sufficient to use traffic counts on the existing roads or counts of passengers riding the present system, However, to understand why people travel and where they wish to go, origin destination (O-D) survey data can be useful. The (O-D) survey asks questions about each trip that is made on a specific day, such as where the trip begins and ends, the purpose of the trip, the time of day and vehicles involved and about the person making the trip e.g. age, income, vehicle ownership, etc. The (O-D) survey may be completed as home interview or people may be asked questions while riding the bus or stopped at a road side interview station, ‘Sometimes the information is requested by telephone or by return postcard. (O-D) data are compared with other sources to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the results. Among other comparisons are: Cross-checks between the number of dwelling units or the trips dwelling units observed in the survey with published data, Following the O-D checking procedure, a set of trip table is prepared that shows the number of trips between each zone in the study area, The travel forecasting process can be summarized in a simplified way by indicating the task that each step in the process is intended to perform, These tasks are as follows: Step 1: population and economic analysis which determines the magnitude and extent of the activities in the urban areas, Step 2: land use analysis. This determines where the activities which will be located © S65 UM 2 0 9001:2015 Certified Step 3: trip generation. This determines which trip originating in or destined for a particular traffic analysis zone. Step 4: trip distribution. This determines the origin or destination of trips that are generated at a given activity. Step 5: Modal split (modal choice). This determines which mode of transportation will be used to make the trip. Step 6: traffic assignment: this determines which route on the transportation network will be used when making the trip where each user seeks to minimize their travel time on the network. Trip generation This is a process of determining the number of trips that will begin or end in each traffic analysis zone within the study area, since the trips are determined without regard to destination. They are referred to as trip end. Bach trip has 2 ends and these are described in terms of trip purpose or whether the trips are either produced by a traffic zone or attracted to a traffic zone. For example: a home work trip will be considered to have a trip end produced on the home zone and attracted to the work zone, Trip generation analysis has two functions: * To develop a relationship between trip production or attraction and land use. + To use the relationship to estimate the number of trips generated at some future date under a new set of land use condition. ‘rip distribution Lis a process by which the trips generated in one zone are allocated to other zones in the study area, These trips may be within area (internal-internal) or it may be between the study area and areas outside study area (internal-extemal), Several basic methods are used, among these are: + The gravity model © The growth factor model + Intervening opportunities. The gravity model is preferred because it uses the attributes of the transportation system and land use characteristies and has been calibrated extensively for many urban areas, The model has achieved virtually universal use because of its simpl ity and accuracy. Modal choice TUM ic 180 9001:2018 Certified e number oF tion of one ines th mines ‘ that dete ice is that aspect of the demand br transit. The selec he e s income, itomobile | income, 1 e that are made by aut the travel i Eola earn eee that depends on factors such as tages ofeach mode i ‘ode to another is a complex al vantas availabilty of wanait service ov ato ownership and eo os ‘erms of travel time, cost, comfort, convenience, and safety. . raveler, Modal choice models attempt to replicate the relevant characteristics

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