Master in Quality Control

Seminar 2021

By-products utilization to answer climate changes and food

security: The case of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)

Ana Lúcia Benites Fernandes

202002444

Supervision: Professor Dr. Maria Beatriz Prior Pinto Oliveira

i
INDEX

Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... iii

Index of Figures .................................................................................................... v
Index of Tables .................................................................................................... vii
Abstract ................................................................................................................ ix
The (non-)adaptiveness of human populations .................................................. 1
Global Goals for Sustainability ............................................................................. 1
The need to change ............................................................................................. 4
About climate change and land abuse ................................................................. 9
The cost of a comfort lifestyle: land degradation and food shortage .................. 14
Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) ........................................................................ 18
Origin and market .............................................................................................. 18
Leaves ............................................................................................................... 23
Life cycle of plant and applied treatments for leaves ......................................... 37
Development of products from sweet potato leaves .......................................... 41
Timeline ............................................................................................................... 43
Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 44
Webgraphy........................................................................................................... 52

ii
Abbreviations

Ala – Alanine;
Arg – Arginine;
Asp – Aspartic Acid;
BECCS – Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage;
CGAE – Chlorogenic Acid Equivalents;
CSPI – Centre for the Science in the Public Interest;
Cys – Cysteine;
DPPH – 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl;
ETBE – Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether;
EU – European Union;
GAE – Galic Ecid Equivalents;
Glu – Glutamic Acid;
Gly – Glycine;
His – Histidine;
Ile – Isoleucine;
LAM – Latin America;
Leu – Leucine;
Lys – Lysine;
MEAST – Middle East;
Met – Methionine;
NDC – Nationally Determined Contributions;
OASIA – Region that comprehends Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei,
Darussalam, Cambodia, Dem. People's Rep. of Korea, East Timor, Fiji, French
Polynesia, Indonesia, Lao People's Dem. Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar,
New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon
Islands, Thailand, Vanuatu, and Vietnam (Estrada et al., 2021);
OHI – Region that comprehends Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Republic of
Korea, and Taiwan (Estrada et al., 2021);
ONG – Organization Non-Governmental;
Phe – Phenylalanine;
Pro – Proline;

iii
RuBisCO – Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase;
SDG – Sustainable Development Goals;
Ser – Serine;
Thr – Threonine;
Tyr – Tyrosine;
UN – United Nations;
USA – United States of America;
Val – Tyrosine;
VAT – Value Added Tax.

iv
Index of Figures

Figure 1 The 17 Global Goals for Sustainable Development, “The content of this
publication has not been approved by the United Nations and does not reflect the
views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States”, adapted from United
Nations. ................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 Illustration by Phill Disley with justice wearing a lab coat, during a storm,
and humanity trying to be helped by the scale plates and by the sword blade,
adapted from Nature (2015). ................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 The increasing tendency of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion
and industrial processes from 1830 to 2019, adapted from Tiseo (2021). .............. 6
Figure 4 Data collected from 2010 to 2018 by Gatti et al. (2021), regarding the
four geographic regions of Amazon rainforest carbon balance. Fire comprehends
carbon emissions by fire, NBE translates net biome exchange (balance between
carbon uptake by photosynthesis and release of carbon by vegetable
deterioration, only negative NBE correspond to carbon sink) and Total
contemplates the combining of both phenomes. As visible, Southeast part of
Amazon represents a source of carbon emission and not a sink, as expected,
adapted from Nature (2021). ................................................................................... 7
Figure 5 The “poverty-land nexus” and all the external factors that need to be
taking into consideration to plan an adaptive management strategy, adapted from
Barbier & Hochard (2018). .................................................................................... 11
Figure 6 World Ecological Footprint by Land Type, the increasing accumulation of
CO2 in the atmosphere in global hectares that result from the many different
activities of human communities: animal feed (Grazing Lands), products from
forest transformation (Forest Products), infrastructures (Built-up Land), cultivation
land (Cropland), fishing (Fishing Grounds), and fossil fuel extraction and
consumption (Carbon). The global hectares translate the amount of land hectares
that are needed to capture the released amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere,
adapted from Global Footprint Network (2021). .................................................... 13
Figure 7 Compilation of the factors that can impact on plants phisiology,
addapted from Marqués-Gálvez et al. (2020). ....................................................... 15

v
Figure 8 Dynamics to apply in the study of environmental problem solutions
viability, according to data collected by Harnesk & Isgren (2021). ........................ 16
Figure 9 The 10 biggest producers of Sweet Potato in the world in 2019, adapted
from Shahbandeh, 2021a. ..................................................................................... 19
Figure 10 Worldwide production of sweet potato from 2010 to 2019, adapted from
Shahbandeh, 2021b. ............................................................................................. 20
Figure 11 .............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 12 Different varieties of sweet potato stetted by flesh colour: (from left to
right) purple, orange and yellow, adapted from Wicked food Earth Country
Cooking School. .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 13 HPLC analysis of polyphenolic compounds in raw and cooked sweet
potato leaves: 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (1), 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid (2), 4-O-
caffeoylquinic acid (3), caffeic acid (4), 4,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5), 3,5-di-O-
caffeoylquinic acid (6), 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (7), and 3,4,5-tri-O-
caffeoylquinic acid (8), adapted from Sun, Mu, Xi & Song (2014). ........................ 41

vi
Index of Tables

Table 1 Economic losses from the various parts of the world and the whole world.
The values were presented in billions of euros and, given the variation among
conversion rates (at the moment $1 equals to €0.84, also in billions of dollars ($),
as in the original data. The mathematical models used RICE-U and RICE-P-U
diverged about the persisting of climate shocks, only included in RICE-P-U. This
data was based on Estrada et al. (2021), adapted from Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences. ............................................................................................. 8
Table 2 Nutritional value of sweet potato roots based on Mohanraj & Sivasankar
(2014). ................................................................................................................... 22
Table 3 Composition of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation) from 40
different cultivars, adapted from Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014). ............................ 24
Table 4 Macro mineral content of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard
deviation) from 40 different cultivars (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014). ..................... 28
Table 5 Micro mineral content of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation)
from 40 different cultivars (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014). ...................................... 29
Table 6 Vitamins and minerals levels from Sweet Potato leaves. This data was
compiled by Nguyen et al. (2021), based on the data collected by Sun, Mu, Xi, &
Zhang (2014) and Ishida et al. (2000). .................................................................. 30
Table 7 Phenolic content of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation)
from 40 different cultivars (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014). ...................................... 32
Table 8 Compounds found in Sweet Potato leaves and the respective functions
reported in literature (Nguyen et al., 2021). ........................................................... 34
Table 9 Amino acids found in Sweet Potato leaves from different moments of
harvesting, identified in first column (Suárez et al., 2020). .................................... 36
Table 10 Antinutrients from sweet potato leaves reported by Antia et al. (2006). 36
Table 11 Main composition of raw and cooked Sweet Potato leaves (Sun, Mu, Xi
& Song, 2014). ...................................................................................................... 39
Table 12 Polyphenolic composition of raw and cooked Sweet Potato leaves (Sun,
Mu, Xi & Song, 2014). ........................................................................................... 40
Table 13 Timeline for the present project in development. .................................. 43

vii
 “The chemist finds proportions and intelligible method throughout matter; and
science is nothing but the finding of analogy, identity, in the most remote parts.
The ambitious soul sits down before each refractory fact; one after another
reduces all strange constitutions, all new powers, to their class and their law, and
goes on forever to animate the last fiber of organization, the outskirt of nature, by
insight” (Emerson, 2017).

viii
Abstract:

As human population grows, the impact of human lifestyle increases. At the rise of

21st century, the uncertainties about the conditions to survive of future generations

concerned science and technology experts. It is emergent to find purposes to add

value to by-products from agro-industries. It is in this context that the present study

emerges.

This review aims to compile information about climate change, land degradation,

and how to proceed to allow food security. To exemplify the requisites to add value

to by-products, a proposal review on the nutritional content of sweet potato leaves

(Ipomoea batatas), among other residues from its production, is presented.

Additionally, it is expected, after its characterization, to propose possible

applications in food industry as ingredients or source of bioactive compounds.

Keys words: Sustainability, Ipomoea batatas, by-products, food security, sweet

potato, sweet potato leaves

ix
The (non-)adaptiveness of human populations

Global Goals for Sustainability

In 2015, leaders from the 193 members of United Nations defined the 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as part of the 2030 Agenda (Figure 1).
These goals were selected based on a ‘policy coherence’ and the conscience that
many ideas that influence economic, environmental and social decisions are
outdated, among those, the belief that inequalities favour economic growth, and
that fighting climate change decreases productivity (Nilsson et al., 2016; United
Nations, 2015).

Figure 1 The 17 Global Goals for Sustainable Development, “The content of this publication has
not been approved by the United Nations and does not reflect the views of the United Nations or
its officials or Member States”, adapted from United Nations.

Specifically, Europe Nordic region contradict the belief that food and bioenergy
constantly compete, since the development of the bioenergy market strengthened
agricultural and forest productions, amplifying market opportunities for food
industry, bioenergy industry, and forest development (Nilsson et al., 2016).
Also, Leistritz, and Hodur (2008) concluded that the development of a cellulosic
ethanol industry could present an interesting opportunity for economic growth in
many agricultural dependent areas, since it would contradict the absence of major

1
non-farm employers that led to substantial out-migration and population losses in
those areas, contributing to social economy development.
Moreover, all goals are inherently connected, as Nilssen et al. (2016) promptly
exemplify in three different cases: the use of coal as an energy source (goal 7) by
Asian countries intensifies climate change (decline of goal 13), acidifies oceans
(decline of goal 14), and increases health damage from air pollution (decline of
goal 3); the reinforcement of education for girls (goal 4) in southern Africa was
proposedly done to directly, and locally increase maternal health (goal 3), diminish
poverty (goal 1), enhance gender equality (goal 5), and enhance economic growth
(goal 8); the development of industry and infrastructures (goal 9) allows the
development of economies and agricultural productivity (goal 2) without detriment
of local livelihoods (goal 11), neither creating inequalities (goal 10).
Regarding agricultural activities, as an answer to hunger (goal 2) or to industrial
development (goal 9), there are some requirements concerning the presence, and
absence of water (goal 6), as irrigation, water resource-management, and
development of drought-resistant seeds. Agricultural activities also require soil
management, livestock, and forestry management (goal 15), since the
enhancement of food production may lead to depletion of fisheries and forests
(goal 15) (Dzebo et al., 2018; Nilsson et al., 2016).
Furthermore, a study from 2018 explains that the desired community is farther
than expected and that some of the presented goals are not easy to achieve. The
referred study explains that “it would cost some €6 billion annually over the course
of 15 years to decarbonize the world economy and limit the global temperature
rise to around 2 °C”, goal 7, and 13, respectively (Lagoarde-Segot, & Paranque,
2018).
Additionally, the difficulty to achieve the 17 SDGs increased with the arise of an
economic crisis defined by Claudio Boro (Bank for International Settlements,
Basel, Switzerland) as: exogenous, once it was provoked by the pandemic and not
by previous financial imbalances, a situation only compared to the recession from
1980; uncertain, since the outcome depends only on “unpredictable non-economic
factors” (management of infection rate and its consequences); global, even if the
portrait of the crisis from 2007-2009 was also defined as global, it did not affected

2
Asia, unlike this time, now all continents are subjected to the same non-economic
trigger (Boro, 2020).
Furthermore, Claudio Boro indicates that two challenges began with COVID-19
crisis: first, the need to deal with increasing debts in the private and public sectors;
second, the need to deal with possible modifications in future patterns of
commercial demand. As it was explained, the gravity of the economic crisis is
mainly affected by the duration of the health emergency event. Moreover, higher
debts, and higher changes in demand patterns are linked to slower progress
(Boro, 2020).
Besides, another study from 2018 stated that in Neo-Schumpeterian (a division of
economic studies that focus on the dynamic changes in socio-economic
communities and the consequent impact as qualitative transformations) every
economic crisis is inherently connected to moments of change in communities
(Vlados et al., 2018; Hanusch, & Pyka, 2007).
The link between crises and changes begins, from an organizational and macro-
economic point of view, in a combination of cooperation and competition that tend
to raise the need for re-examination of the basic economic mechanisms. This need
tends to reproduce itself around the world, destroying the mechanistic structures
and relations of any kind and dimension that prospered until then, even if
considered profitable and effective until that moment (Vlados et al., 2018).
In that order, another study agreed that for social and ecological reasons, “an
economic crisis should be taken as an opportunity for redirecting the means of
basic social provisioning away from stock markets, financiers, bankers, corporate
interests and profiteering, while reconsidering what is provided, to whom and for
what” (Splash, 2020).
The same study also warned about how powerful lobbies, organisations, and
institutions that succeed with the current social structures and mechanisms act in
order to avoid any functional change and cover the social and ecological failures
(Splash, 2020).
The same alert was previously done in 2015, when researchers criticized the lack
of scientific evidence, and the fluctuation of the statements from UN leaders. The
referred researcher group advised about how important it is to create, and
implement monitoring programmes for collecting specific data with the aim to

3
elucidate about how near or far is each nation, and the world as a whole from
achieving the SDGs defined. According to them, not only a monitoring program is
needed, but also an “independent government-backed organization” to mediate
the interpretation of the collected data between scientists and governments (Lu et
al., 2015).
According to Newell, & Dale (2020), the impact that ecological, social, economic,
and health factors have in the development of a sustainable community, specially
how these factors are intrinsically bonded, should also be monitored, so it can be
better understood and easily applied.

Figure 2 Illustration by Phill Disley with justice wearing a lab coat, during a storm, and
humanity trying to be helped by the scale plates and by the sword blade, adapted from Nature
(2015).

The need to change

Even before the pandemic crisis, it was not strange the idea that a profound
transformation in the social structure and social mechanisms was required,
because of the Global Climate Emergency (Vlados et al., 2018).
Also, some intellectuals predicted that with the evolution of globalization, the
global trade could at certain point to decrease due to the arise of a tendency for

4
nationalistic policies, and the increasing presence of protective forces on the
cross-borders (Gills, & Morgan, 2020; Newell, & Dale, 2020; Vlados et al., 2018).
The explosion of COVID-19 pandemic only increased the awareness of the need
for a global change, as it revealed susceptibilities in community systems and
engendered the need to focus on the enhancement of local resilience and
sustainability. First of all, because the pandemic itself spread widely due to the
broadmindedness of global transportation facilities (non-sustainable communities
– dwindling of goal 11) (Newell, & Dale, 2020).
As explained by Newell, & Dale (2020), the commercial trade of medical protective
equipment, and food supplies failed in many regions at the beginning of the
pandemic. This happened because the centralized mass system of production for
both industries was inefficient when coping with insufficient staffing, late inventory
organizations, and breaks in the transportation web.
In order to enhance local and national proficiency and resilience, the paramount is
to optimize local production-consumption, and to look for a balance between local
and global production. Local production should be capable to supply critical
services (goal 11), avoiding the emerging of food security problems when faced an
exogenous break (in this case a disease – goal 3) (Newell, & Dale, 2020).
Consequently, local and regional economy can growth based on empowerment of
urban-rural connections, urban land-use, innovation in food industry, and
exploration of crops diversity (goal 9). Moreover, the costs from goods
transportation decrease along with Greenhouse Gas emissions as long as policies
ensure that local production creates less emissions than importation of the same
goods (goal 13) (Newell, & Dale, 2020).
One recent example of an attempt to enhance sustainable communities (goal 11)
is the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/965 on 1st of July 2021,
which aim was the application of conditions that could economically level the EU to
the non-EU supply manufacturers that do not charge VAT, by the reduction of
cross-border VAT compliance costs for businesses, and an annual increase in
VAT revenues of 7 billion euros for Member States (Commission Implementing
Regulation (EU) 2021/965; European Commission).
In order to create a cleaner world, it is essential to transform cleaner activities in
interesting economical sources, and to contradict the tendency in increasing

5
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (Figure 3). For example, it was stated that high
levels of air pollution indirectly increase stock prices of new energy companies,
and directly decrease stock prices of polluting companies (Liu et al., 2021; Geden,
2015).
However, most models designed to deal with climate change focus on bioenergy
with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), aiming to create negative emission
values to contradict the increasing tendency (Figure 3). Nevertheless, this
approach requires a great amount of land, estimated around 500 million hectares,
corresponding to 1.5 times the size of India. Apart from production of bioenergy,
great amounts of land are also needed for forest, livelihood, and residential
purposes (Lu et al., 2020; Geden, 2015).

40

35
Emissions (billion metric tons)

30

25

20

15

10

Year

Figure 3 The increasing tendency of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and
industrial processes from 1830 to 2019, adapted from Tiseo (2021).

A way to approach BECCs is through the enhancement of forests. Once forests

present critical functions in environment and ecology, during the last years, a
global movement for reforestation arose. The movement got attention from
academic communities, governments, and various organizations because it has
been linked to socio-economic development (Lu et al., 2020).
However, the aforementioned movement has not been successful enough, once
recent research point to the fact that deforestation, intensive farming, uncontrolled

6
expansion of agriculture, infrastructure development, and mining, as well as the
exploitation of wild species have initiated a “perfect storm” for the propagation of
diseases. Apart from COVID-19, cases of human infection by avian influenza were
reported during 2021 (Freitas, 2021; Newell, & Dale, 2020).
Also, during 2021, unforeseen news spread regarding the loss of carbon sink
capacity of Amazon Brazilian rainforest. As it was explained, the measurements of
CO2, and CO atmospheric levels, combined with photosynthesis ranges (based on
a method of vegetation solar-induced fluorescence) allowed to conclude that
Amazonia carbon balance is extremely dependent to the occurrence of droughts
and fires. According to researchers, deforestation and climate warming reversed
the uptake of carbon by Amazon Forest (Figure 4) (Denning, 2021; Gatti et al.,
2021).

Figure 4 Data collected from 2010 to 2018 by Gatti et al. (2021), regarding the
four geographic regions of Amazon rainforest carbon balance. Fire
comprehends carbon emissions by fire, NBE translates net biome exchange
(balance between carbon uptake by photosynthesis and release of carbon by
vegetable deterioration, only negative NBE correspond to carbon sink), and
Total contemplates the combining of both phenomena. As visible, Southeast
part of Amazon represents a source of carbon emission and not a sink, as
expected, adapted from Nature (2021).

For the purpose of understanding the link between economy and climate change,
groups of researchers worked with simulation models, and concluded that the
augmentation of climate change will decrease the economy in the whole world
(Table 1) (Estrada et al., 2021).
The models named RICE-U, and RICE-P-U resulted from a proxy built with the
combination of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of each region, and population
scenarios. This proxy was used for estimation of urban heat islands warming, and
7
urban damages. The difference between both models was that RICE-U does not
include the persistence climate shocks, and RICE-P-U does, resulting in higher
impact values when compared with the first one (Table 1) (Estrada et al., 2021).

Table 1 Economic losses from the various parts of the world and the whole world. The values
were presented in billions of euros and, given the variation among conversion rates (at the moment
$1 equals to €0.84), also in billions of dollars ($), as in the original data. The mathematical models
used, RICE-U and RICE-P-U, diverged about the persisting of climate shocks, only included in
RICE-P-U. This data was based on Estrada et al. (2021), adapted from Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences.

Region RICE-U RICE-P-U

-19,2€ -121,981€
Africa -830% -5275%
(-$22,857) (-$145,215)
-17,299€ -73,242€
China -218% -923%
(-$20,594) (-$87,193)
-12,738€ -24,172€
EU -102% -193%
(-$15,164) (-$28,776)
-977,7an -2919,84€
Eurasia -80% -238%
(-$1164) (-$3476)
-21,724€ -89,589€
India -708% -2920%
(-$25,862) (-$106,653)
-2508,24€ -5834,64€
Japan -77% -178%
(-$2986) (-$6946)
-5245,44€ -13,707€
Latin America -141% -369%
(-$6241) (-$16,318)
-6049,68€ -25,002€
Middle East -279% -1151%
(-$7202) (-$29,764)
-1623,72€ -4243,68€
México -137% -358%
(-$1933) (-$5052)
-12,293€ -50,395€
OASIA -399% -1637%
(-$14,634) (-$59,994)
-3571,68€ -8258,04€
OHI -124% -287%
(-$4252) (-$9831)
-1512€ -6315,96€
Russia -89% -373%
(-$1800) (-$7519)
-9,949€ -23,006€
USA -90% -208%
(-$11,844) (-$27,388)
114,688€ -448,665€
World -204% -799%
(-$136,533) (-$534,125)
OASIA: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Darussalam, Cambodia, Dem. People's Rep. of Korea, East Timor, Fiji,
French Polynesia, Indonesia, Lao People's Dem. Republic, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, New Caledonia, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Vanuatu, and Vietnam (Estrada et al., 2021);
OHI: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, and Taiwan (Estrada et al., 2021);

Furthermore, Estrada et al. (2021) stated that even if Paris Agreement target is
achieved (to hold warming well below 2 °C in global mean temperature (GMT),
relatively to pre-industrial levels), negative economic impact will exist but if all
8
countries work together for the same purpose (goal 17), the impacts will be
smaller.
To explain how weather changes affect economy it is appropriate to explain how
insurance companies help to stabilize the economy, specially through moments of
financial crisis, once they accelerate the recovery of claimants and beneficiaries
promoting economic expansion (Batten, 2018; Weisbart, 2018).
In detail, by the acquisition of municipal bonds, insurers support lower borrowing
costs for greater investments, smaller tax rates for residents, and support for job
creation and economic growth (Weisbart, 2018).
As Sandra Batten (2018) explains, weather changes such as droughts, floods,
storms, and sea level rises will cause a decay in goods supply system, what will
lead to inflationary pressures. Apart from non-insured suppliers damage values of
physical resources, insured supply goods companies would damage insurance
companies, what would hold back economic growth (Batten, 2018)
Weisbart (2018) also emphases on how insurance companies need to adapt to
new climate policies to prevent economic losses, and on how this kind of
companies were so important to the technological and scientific improvement
through offering of risks transfer and risk analysis services that gave innovative
companies the financial safety needed to start or to expand.

About climate change and land abuse

As it can be contemplated above, economy, environment, and human heath are

intrinsically bonded. The disturb of the balance of one leads to the unbalance of
the others, and because of that, climate change needs to be stopped, or the
losses will madly impact on economy, and on life quality (Batten, 2018; Weisbart,
2018; Nilsson et al., 2016).
As reminded by Barbier & Hochard (2018), the link between social-economic
poverty and environmental degradation can be traced back to the 1987 World
Commission on Environment and Development, when it was stated the existence
of a “vicious cycle” between both. As described, poor communities see themselves
obliged to abuse available environmental resources in order to survive, while the

9
poverty in their environment increases their impoverishment, continually hinder
their quality of life and survival (Barbier & Hochard, 2018).
Conversely, it was evoked by many researchers that the link between poverty and
environmental degradation is not so simple. Poverty also depends on markets,
natural resource use, and conservation, technologies, relative goods prices,
infrastructures, institutions, population growth, and, last but not least, distribution
of population growth (Barbier & Hochard, 2018).
Additionally, it was stated that one of the best strategies to reduce poverty, and
concurrently increase the availability of resources is to identify the variables with
more impact on poverty, and simultaneously what conditions drive the behaviour
of the community (Barbier & Hochard, 2018).
The term land degradation seemed to present some ambivalence, but during the
1994 UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) it was defined as an
assessable loss of the “biological or economic productivity and complexity of
rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands…
arising from human activities and habitation patterns” (Barbier, & Hochard, 2018).
According to Barbier & Hochard (2018), the most effective investments for land
productivity enhancement, and expansion in rural impoverished regions seems to
lay on agricultural research, creation, and maintenance of rural roads, and
education of the community.
As the analysis of data from some regions of Africa and Asia suggests,
investments in agricultural poorer regions may produce higher returns than similar
investments in well-developed areas. Since the first ones “suffer from chronic
underinvestment”, the investments of technology, rural education,
communications, transportation, and electrification can attract rural business
development (even the non-related to farm activities), and short-term migration
strategies. Both, business and migration, increase non-agricultural incomes, and
investments, directly translated into economic rural local growth (Barbier &
Hochard, 2018).
However, climate change is known to negatively impact on agricultural yields and
to induce land degradation. In its turn, land degradation tends to influence, in
intensity and direction, the impact of climate change, and also the success of

10
management options that aim to reduce climate change, and land degradation
(Barbier & Hochard, 2018; Webb et al., 2017).
A study from 2017 focused on the relation between land degradation and climate
change (Figure 5). The main difficulty when dealing with these questions bases on
the vicious cycles these questions present (Webb et al., 2017).
According to the referred study, climate-resilient agriculture should be adaptive,
once the triggers for land degradation are not the same for all regions. The
processes of land degradation presented should be studied, along with the
linkages and the adaptive capacity from land users (Webb et al., 2017).

Figure 5 The “poverty-land nexus” and all the external factors that need to be taking into
consideration to plan an adaptive management strategy, adapted from Barbier & Hochard
(2018).

11
First, the main vulnerabilities should be studied in order to prioritize the accessible
adaptation responses. Second, the exchange of knowledge should be stimulated
at local, and global levels, offering the possibility for all producers to adapt to
current situation and market opportunities. Third and final, management policies
should focus on “multi-wins”, focus in land degradation decrease, together with
benefitting climate, and biodiversity. As here explained, only working towards the
most crucial problems and focusing on “multi-wins” can humanity achieve global
development and food security (Webb et al., 2017).
Furthermore, also Barbier & Hochard (2018) defend the creation of international
assistance, in other words, a way to propagate global knowledge, for development
and integration of land-use strategies and tools necessary to interrupt the land
degradation and improve regional livelihoods, with the intention of breaking vicious
cycles (Figure 5).
According to the mentioned study, it is mandatory to create a global land
degradation observational system to identify baseline degradation rates and to
refine monitorization capacities, alongside with more precise indicators that could
be picked to undergo different regions to comparisons (Barbier & Hochard, 2018).
On the 29 of July of 2021, the Earth Overshoot Day (EOD) took place, almost one
month earlier when compared to the year of 2020, at 22nd of August. The EOD
marks the statistical point when all-natural resources consumed by human
population go beyond the regeneration capacity of planet Earth, after which
everything that human communities consume is on credit (Snaith, 2021; Lusa,
2021).
The referred date has been calculated by the ONG Global Footprint Network since
the creation of the referred organization, and results from statistical scientific
model built on data UN provides. Through the years, the calculation model has
suffered improvements in order to get more reliable results (Shirinov, 2021; Our
Past & Our Future; n.d.).
The data required for the calculation consist in measurements of productive land
and sea areas, to which are subtracted all habitants needs such as urban
infrastructure areas, plant-based food spaces, plant based fiber products spaces,
livestock and animal feed spaces, fish products zones, timber land, and forest

12
extension to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels (Shirinov,
2021).
As explained, the problem in exceeding planet Earth regeneration capacity is in
fact a question of abuse of space by human communities. This abuse of space
translates into a continuous increasing phenomenon of CO2 atmospheric
accumulation (Figure 6) (Shirinov, 2021; Data and Methodology, n.d.).

Figure 6 World Ecological Footprint by Land Type, the increasing accumulation of CO2 in the
atmosphere in global hectares that result from the many different activities of human communities:
animal feed (Grazing Lands), products from forest transformation (Forest Products), infrastructures
(Built-up Land), cultivation land (Cropland), fishing (Fishing Grounds), and fossil fuel extraction and
consumption (Carbon). The global hectares translate the amount of land hectares that are needed
to capture the released amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere, adapted from Global Footprint
Network (2021).

Regarding CO2 emissions from fossil fuels extraction, identified as Carbon (Figure
6), it is important to have in mind that these gas emissions result not only from
roads traffic but also from air, rail and water transports. These four sources are
said to be partially accountable for acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion,
and climate change (Colvile et al., 2001).
A study from 2001 (Colvile et al.) focused on the many transportation options
available and the impact these have as sources of pollution. First, the study

13
concluded that the attention given to road transportation was justified since it was
the main responsible not only for local quality of air but also for noise and ozone
depletion. Second, the advances in technologic knowledge, like cars with three-
way catalysts and alternative renewable energy machines, allied with the right
policies that started to be apply, like those that resulted in local traffic reduction
and high taxation for more polluted cars, presented a plausible way to greatly
reduce the polluting impact of road transports (later confirmed by a study
published in 2014). Third, the pollutive impact that results from air transportation
was poorly understood, and the potential growth of airplanes use could represent
a bigger concern for pollution and climate change (Hilton et al, 2014; Richardson,
2013; Colvile et al., 2001).
Another study from 2014 (Ashok et al.) concludes that airports contribute to CO2
emissions that impact climate and human health. Commonly, the parameters used
to express the impact of airplanes and airports in human health and in life quality
are expressed as fine particulate matter under 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5) that is
directly proportional to CO2 exposure. However, as the mentioned study refers,
little research was done in order to identify the impacts of CO2 emissions from the
amounts of fossil fuel used by airplane flights (Ashok et al., 2014).

The cost of a comfort lifestyle: land degradation and food shortage

The atmospheric accumulation of CO2 was stated to be bonded to higher average

global temperatures, short and less precipitation and dry land enlargement. In
resume, less land available to cultivate food (Marqués-Gálvez et al., 2020).
Moreover, it was stated that the previous changes will impact on the physiology of
plants. A study from 2020 expressed the lack of knowledge when it comes to
understand plant metabolic changes to higher temperatures and higher
concentration of CO2 in simultaneous (Marqués-Gálvez et al., 2020).
Separately, higher temperatures were linked to smaller carbon assimilation rates
through promotion of photorespiration (smaller rates of photosynthesis), given the
loss of the affinity from RuBisCO to CO2 (Figure 7). Additionally, higher
temperatures also affect mesophyll conductance, and disrupt the proper
functioning of Calvin-cycle (Marqués-Gálvez et al., 2020).
14
Alternatively, depending on the plant species, higher CO2 levels tend to increase
stomatal conductance, mesophyll conductance, carbon assimilation rates, in order
to optimize water use efficiency. In past studies, great concentrations of CO2
improved nitrogen metabolism, photosynthesis and reduced water-stress.
(Marqués-Gálvez et al., 2020).

𝐶𝑂2
High 𝑂2 Low
𝐶𝑂2

CO2 O2 𝑂2

RuBisCO

Low temperature High temperature

RuBP

Calvin Cycle Photorespiration

Figure 7 Compilation of the factors that can impact on plants phisiology, addapted from
Marqués-Gálvez et al. (2020).

For example, in sweet potato, higher atmospheric CO2 levels was stated to be
related to bigger roots, tubers, and leaves. The increasing accumulation of sugars
resulted in higher yields and rapid growth of sweet potato. Even the leaves
showed higher concentration of sugars (Bhattacharya et al., 1985).
Opposing to normal potatoes, sweet potato did not show any trace of chloroplast
damage when submitted to high atmospheric CO2 rates. Nevertheless, the study
was done in 1985 and the temperature range used was 28 ± I °C for the daytime
(14h) and 20 ± 0.5 °C for the nigh time (10h), and new studies should be done to
test the consequences of higher temperatures (Bhattacharya et al., 1985).
Additionally, Nilsson et al. (2016) referred that enhancement of food production
may lead to depletion of fisheries and forests, further increasing atmospheric CO2
concentration.
What none of the previously mentioned studies referred is that a development of
new products from agricultural industry by-products may contribute to economic
growth, once it creates a need for more workers. It also avoids the need to
increase cultivational land (doesn’t compromises forest range), because from the
same crop more edible products are available. Even more, optimizes the use of
water and other resources, since the same cultivation field can produce more

15
products of interest. For example, as a study from 2019 (Nyathi et al.) referred that
the consumption of sweet potato leaves can reduce the use of water for food
production, and reduce food shortage (Nyathi et al., 2019; Unger, 1994).
European Union, moving towards a carbon-neutral future, is gradually
implementing circular economy concepts to food business. According to a recent
study, the exploitation of by-products by food industry should ensure that the
resolutions are “safe, sustainable, and nutritionally valuable at the same time”
(Rao et al., 2021).
The concept of circular economy, as stated by Hans Wiesmeth (2021), was
defined in 1989 by Pearce and Turne, but the idea was present since the late 70s.
The referred concept embraces manufacture with product-life extension, what
comprises long-life goods, activities for reconditioning, and prevention of waste. By
Wiesmeth words: “its focus on selling services, rather than products, in view of a
sharing economy” (Wiesmeth, 2021).
Conferring Rao et al. (2021), the extraction of valuable compounds from residues
to produce new edible food has some difficulties regarding safety legislation.
Nevertheless, the production of functional foods from by-products can be a
pathway to enter the market and to gain consumer acceptance (Rao et al., 2021).
For such purpose, the model developed by David Harnesk and Ellinor Isgren that
focus on the study of the diverse factors that interact with environmental problems
can be applied. The referred model defines four dynamics to apply to
environmental problems, and respective solutions (Figure 8), what will be explored
for the main purpose of the current study (Harnesk & Isgren, 2021).

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

• Identification of • Identification of • Viability • Study of the

social factors evaluation for achievings of
the impacts of
causing every alternative every alternative
environmental
environmental to address through collective
problems.
problems. environmental strategies and
problems. struggles.

Figure 8 Dynamics to apply in the study of environmental problem solutions viability, according to
data collected by Harnesk & Isgren (2021).

As an exercise, the application of the presented model to the discussed subject

would look like what the following sentences refers: (1st) accumulation of CO2 from
depletion of fisheries and forests that cause climate change (higher average global
16
temperatures, short and less precipitation) provoking dry land enlargement that
lead to food shortage; (2nd) importation of food from long distance producers and
amplification of the land regions for food cultivation in order to prevent food
shortage; (3rd) exploitation of food production by-products as new food sources,
(4th) study of market strategies to stimulate the purchase of new products
developed from by-products and its impact on the mitigation on the need for
expansion of food production lands (Harnesk & Isgren, 2021; Marqués-Gálvez et
al., 2020; Nilsson et al., 2016).
According to Torres-León et al. (2018) the reduction of waste, and the
management of by-products are the most required subjects to work with. In order
to develop a maintainable lifestyle, the solutions that are accepted have the
prerequisite to take full advantage from the potential of the by-product, and it has
also to bring benefits for economy, society and environment.
In general, the recognized value of by-products, and consequently the expansion
of productive chains, tend to generate job opportunities. The increment of job
opportunities leads to economic growth as it was already mentioned (Torres-León
et al., 2018; Weisbart, 2018)
As an example of the practical application of the concepts that were developed in
the present document until here, is the idea of Kevin Kung and Vidyut Mohan.
They developed a small, low-cost and portable apparatus that is patented and
named Takachar. The generated equipment aims for the conversion of biomass
residues, from crops and forests, into fertilizer (Cisco Systems INC., 2021).
Also, the well-known Crocs footwear brand stated that by the year of 2022 it will
use Ecolibrium as the main raw material, a biobased plastic that incorporates
wastes of palm oil and pulp paper (Elan, 2021).
According to the Journal of Petroleum Technology, the French company
TotalEnergies was mentioned to work in a different fuel for motorsport competition,
made from wine residues, and from ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) (Feder, 2021).
Another kind of renewable energy was stated to be developed by Eni and BASF, a
oil company and a chemical company, respectively. Both companies said to have
signed an agreement to use glycerine from biodiesel production (10% glycerine
from 1 ton of biodiesel production). The news mentioned that a mechanism to

17
convert glycerine into propanol by high-pressure hydrogenation reaction was
under study (Feder, 2021).
Also, Shell was stated to be working in a renewable fuel for aviation made of used
cooking oil, waste animal fat, and other industrial and agricultural residual products
(Feder, 2021).
On a different field, Jaboticaba (Myrciaria jaboticaba (Vell.) Berg) is a Brazilian
berry from which only the fruit is consumed after submitted to manufacture
processes, generating large quantities of residues. A study from 2020
(Albuquerque et al.) stated that a researcher team succeed in the obtention of an
edible extract with pharmaceutical potential (Albuquerque et al., 2020).
Likewise in food industry, the application of phenolic compounds extracted from
olive mill wates has shown value to improve milk sensory quality and antioxidant
capacity in fatty matrices (Araújo et al., 2015).

Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)

Origin and market

Sweet potato is the seventh most cultivated crop in the planet, but its origin is still
unclear. For many years it was believed it came to Europe, possibly by Polynesian
explorers, from South America where it is been domesticated for over 5000 years.
Nevertheless, a report from 2018, taking into account the analysis of fossils leaf in
India suggested two hypotheses: Convolvulaceae (sweet potato family) and
Solanaceae (common potato family) diverged before the Eocene epoch;
Convolvulaceae had origin in a region that comprised India, Sri Lanka,
Madagascar, Antarctica, and Australia (Lebot, 2020; Garcia, 2018, Srivastava et
al., 2018; Meert, 2011).
Nowadays, 90% of sweet potato production comes from Asia and South Pacific
Islands, mostly from China (Figure 9). It was introduced in China along with other
American crops such as corn and dragon fruit, by the Spanish, in the last period of
18
Ming dynasty (early XVII century). China is nowadays the biggest producer, mainly
for animal feed but also, in a smaller scale, to be consumed as boiled roots or in
the processed form of noodles (Lebot, 2020; Mu & Li, 2019; Garcia, 2018; Roullier
et al., 2013).

51.79
5.91
4.14
3.92 5.915
3.334.145 1.79
.91
2.434
2.75
.14
1.763
2.43
2.2.92
3.923
.33
3.332
1.95
.75
2.752
1.76
.43
1.952
.2
Figure 9 The 10 biggest producers
Figu of Sweet Potato in the world in 2019, adapted from
Shahbandeh, 2021a.
re 9
2.21.
The
76
Sweet potato is a crop tolerant to drought and to several negative edaphoclimatic
10
climatic conditions. It is thebigg
tropical plant that grows at less warm climates (optimal
temperature from 20 to 25est ºC) and it can grow at higher altitudes such as 2500 m
prod
(Lebot, 2020).
ucer
In poor soils, sweet potato s of leaves develop vastly, allowing the continuous
Swe
harvesting of leaves until the roots are picked (Lebot, 2020).
et
Once this crop grows in diverse kinds of soil, it became the principal food source
Pota
for many people in the highlands
to in of East Africa and Papua New Guinea. However,
African yields are lower, indicating
the the possibility to increase in the future (Lebot,
2020). worl
d in
A study from 2006 refers that the leaves of a sweet potato crop sometimes can
201
grow enough to weigh 9, as much as the stems from the same crop field.
Nevertheless, Lebot (2020) adarefers that the proportion in dried weight of leaf to stem
pted
is specific to each cultivar, and that it is constant during the period of harvesting
from
(Malavanh & Preston 2006). Sha
hba
During 2011 the global amount of waste resulting from sweet potato cultivation
nde
was only 7% of the entire crops, which counts for 6.92 million metric tons of waste,
h,
202
19
1a.1.
95
based on the information collected by Shahbandeh (2021b) (Figure 10) (Akoetey
et al., 2017).

Figure 10 Worldwide production of sweet potato from 2010 to 2019, adapted from Shahbandeh,
2021b.

Euroseeds, a group for European Member States associations related to research,

breeding, production and marketing of seeds for agricultural, horticultural and
ornamental purposes, explains that, in Europe, sweet potato becomes a trend as
an exotic and ethnic food. This trend increased European demand for this
foodstuff (Bruins, & Zienkiewicz, 2018).
Among European countries, the biggest producers are Portugal and Spain, and
this last one can be seen among worldwide top exporters (Figure 11A). The two
referred countries give not response to all European demand and thereby,
importation of sweet potato has increased (Bruins, & Zienkiewicz, 2018).
Among the five greatest importers, there are three European countries (Figure
11B). The growing demand and the characteristics of the crop reported above lead
to the conclusion that sweet potato is an interesting crop for less industrialized
countries to invest, since it can be an important economic pillar as it already is in
some countries of America and of Africa (Lebot, 2020; Bruins & Zienkiewicz,
2018).
Specifically, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (LPDR) is a country that in 2019
presented a Human Development Index (HDI) value of 0.613, with the position 137
in the HDI Rank from United Nations. They understood this opportunity and, if in
2015 was a country living more from importations than exportations, thanks to a
lack of policies to promote industry and trade, in 2019 LPDR occupied the second
place for greatest sweet potato exporters (Figure 11A). This change occurred due

20
to “Belt and Road Initiative”, a project with the aim to connect all countries in
Southeast Asia to China, and therefore to promote agricultural production and
commercial trade among them (United Nations Human Development Reports,
2020; Napasirth & Napasirth, 2018; Chong-Sup, 2017).

Figure 11
A. Top exporters of sweet potato in 2019 in thousands of tonnes, adapted from FAO, 2021.
B. Top importers of sweet potato in 2019 in thousands of tonnes, adapted from FAO, 2021.

There are over 6 500 varieties of sweet potato around the planet that are
commonly classified based on three parameters such as storage roots shape, skin
colour and flesh colour. Less commonly, they can be grouped by geographic
origin. Commercially, the most common sorting understands three sets based on
flesh colour that can be orange, purple or yellow (Figure 12), with the orange flesh
the most commercialized varieties on the planet (Hayati et al., 2020).

Figure 12 Different varieties of sweet potato stetted by flesh colour:

(from left to right) purple, orange and yellow, adapted from Wicked
food Earth Country Cooking School.

The interest in orange flesh sweet potato is concerned to β-carotene levels (Table
2). Nevertheless, not all orange flesh cultivars have the same content of this
bioactive compound. A study from 2008 concluded that the more intense the
21
orange flesh of sweet potato cultivar is, the higher the content in the precursor of
vitamin A. This is especially important for Sub-Saharan regions and poor rural
areas of China, for example, where there are reported cases of children and
expecting mothers with blindness due to lack of vitamin A. In Europe, knowledge
about the nutritional value of orange flesh sweet potato and the appealing of the
strong orange colour made this group of varieties the most commercialized ones
(Clifton & Keogh, 2016; Mohanraj & Sivasankar, 2014; Laurie et al. 2013;
Leksrisompong et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2008).

Table 2 Nutritional value of sweet potato roots based on Mohanraj & Sivasankar (2014).

Nutritional value per 100 g DDR

Energy 360 kJ (86 kcal) -

Carbohydrates 20.1 g -
Starch 12.7 g -
Sugars 4.2 g -
Dietary fiber 3.0 g -
Fat 0.1 g -
Protein 1.6 g -
Vitamin A equivalent 709 µg 89%
- beta-carotene 8509 µg 79%
- lutein and zeaxanthin 0 µg 0%
Thiamine (vitamin B1) 0.1 mg 9%
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) 0.1 mg 8%
Niacin (vitamin B3) 0.61 mg 4%
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) 0.8 mg 16%
Vitamin B6 0.2 mg 15%
Folate (vitamin B9) 11 lg 3%
Vitamin C 2.4 mg 3%
Vitamin E 0.26 mg 2%
Calcium 30.0 mg 3%
Iron 0.6 mg 5%
Magnesium 25.0 mg 7%
Phosphorus 47.0 mg 7%
Potassium 337 mg 7%
Sodium 55 mg 4%
Zinc 0.3 mg 3%

22
Resuming, the visual difference in skin and flesh colours is linked to changes in
nutritional and physicochemical properties of sweet potato that ensures different
levels of acceptance from consumers. Furthermore, the Centre for the Science in
the Public Interest (CSPI) created a list of the 10 best foods around the world,
selected by nutritional value and tastiness. Sweet potato roots headed the
obtained rank due to their nutritional content (Table 1). It is considered the more
nutritious food, given its high nutritional content per kilojoule of energy (Clifton &
Keogh, 2016; Mohanraj & Sivasankar, 2014; Laurie et al. 2013; Leksrisompong et
al., 2012; Center for the Science in the Public Interest).

Leaves

As previously mentioned, sweet potato roots are an interesting staple crop and
trending given its high nutritional profile for vitamin A, proteins and complex
carbohydrates, apart from its delicious taste. On one hand, sweet Potato has a
high yield rate in what concerns edible energy, per hectare, per day, comparatively
to wheat, rice or cassava, and allows the obtention of alcohol, natural sweeteners,
flour and natural colorants. On the other hand, leaves and stems are edible, can
be harvested several times per year before the picking of the roots, and according
to reported data have more nutritional value than the roots itself (Table 3 resumes
the nutritional content of 40 different cultivars) (Lebot, 2020; Islam, 2014; Mohanraj
& Sivasankar, 2014).
Within some regions, the population already consumes sweet potato leaves. The
leaves are an interesting source of proteins (20-30 g/100 g), fats (2,4-5,3 g/100 g)
and carbohydrates (± 50 g/100 g), with small but significant amounts of fibre (> 9
g/100 g). According to literature, the leaves present higher nutrient values than the
tube itself (Table 2). Sweet potato leaves and stems together can be considered a
high source of edible energy, what makes sweet potato greens as a food source of
economic and sustainable interest (Lebot, 2020; Mu & Li, 2019; Islam, 2014;
Mohanraj & Sivasankar, 2014; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

23
 Table 3 Composition of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation) from 40 different
cultivars, adapted from Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014).

C u lt iv a r M o is t u re As h C ru d e p ro t e in C ru d e f a t C a rb o h yd ra t e C ru d e fibe r G ro s s e n e rg y

B e ijin g N o . 5 5 3 86.75 ± 0.87 7.83 ± 1.30 22.03 ± 0.01 5.17 ± 0.10 55.26 ± 2.34 9.71 ± 1.50 422.01 ± 0.01

C hua ns hu N o . 2 9 4 87.76 ± 0.14 11.06 ± 0.76 28.57 ± 0.04 2.53 ± 0.01 45.52 ± 1.30 12.32 ± 0.74 409.81 ± 0.36

F us hu N o . 2 88.53 ± 2.36 7.79 ± 0.86 24.59 ± 0.33 3.81 ± 0.08 51.72 ± 0.71 12.10 ± 1.02 438.48 ± 0.09

H o n g xin wa n g 87.52 ± 0.31 9.31 ± 0.46 24.72 ± 0.17 3.71 ± 0.08 51.71 ± 0.93 10.55 ± 0.54 413.09 ± 0.58

J in g s h u N o . 6 87.24 ± 2.64 8.68 ± 0.68 23.76 ± 0.07 3.27 ± 0.06 51.59 ± 0.09 12.70 ± 0.49 428.50 ± 0.74

J in o n g N o . 2 6 9 4 86.20 ± 1.44 7.81 ± 0.97 25.26 ± 0.26 3.31 ± 0.08 52.80 ± 1.84 10.82 ± 1.28 434.71 ± 0.45

J in yu N o . 1 88.10 ± 2.03 10.72 ± 0.01 27.53 ± 0.33 3.43 ± 0.06 47.05 ± 0.27 11.28 ± 0.02 398.64 ± 0.88

J is h u 87.60 ± 0.23a 13.46 ± 0.08 29.27 ± 0.02 3.99 ± 0.11 42.03 ± 0.03 11.26 ± 0.06 404.68 ± 1.05

J is h u N o . 2 2 87.57 ± 0.58 10.43 ± 0.03 27.15 ± 0.13 4.90 ± 0.04 44.55 ± 0.02 12.98 ± 0.07 412.51 ± 0.13

J is h u N o . 6 5 87.58 ± 1.53 7.39 ± 0.86 21.80 ± 0.56 3.30 ± 0.00 55.70 ± 1.50 11.81 ± 1.29 434.20 ± 0.14

J is h u N o .0 4 15 0 87.82 ± 1.16 8.79 ± 1.38 23.18 ± 0.13 4.22 ± 0.04 53.57 ± 0.41 10.24 ± 0.69 424.97 ± 0.35

La n g s h u N o . 7 - 12 88.42 ± 1.90 7.43 ± 0.19 22.25 ± 0.01 3.89 ± 0.02 54.04 ± 0.72 12.40 ± 0.58 428.40 ± 0.67

Lo n g s h u N o . 9 86.25 ± 0.69 10.67 ± 0.03 25.71 ± 0.04 4.90 ± 0.12 45.73 ± 0.10 13.00 ± 0.02 401.49 ± 0.64

M iyu a n N o . 6 88.59 ± 0.53 8.98 ± 0.79 23.49 ± 0.43 3.97 ± 0.04 54.32 ± 0.47 9.25 ± 0.38 423.37 ± 2.16

N in g z i N o . 1 87.53 ± 2.55 8.97 ± 0.61 22.45 ± 0.26 3.37 ± 0.07 51.63 ± 1.30 13.59 ± 1.00 429.65 ± 0.90

N in g z i N o . 2 3 - 1 88.45 ± 2.19 8.28 ± 0.53 22.76 ± 0.35 3.54 ± 0.01 52.43 ± 1.15 13.00 ± 1.02 414.54 ± 2.77

N o ng da N o . 6 -2 88.84 ± 1.02 9.09 ± 0.64 24.21 ± 0.17 3.84 ± 0.16 53.00 ± 0.57 9.86 ± 0.35 416.46 ± 2.06

P u s h u N o . 17 88.89 ± 1.69 7.92 ± 0.95 18.62 ± 0.11 3.16 ± 0.01 56.04 ± 0.99 14.26 ± 0.38 417.98 ± 0.31

P u s h u N o .5 3 88.28 ± 1.02 8.41 ± 1.68 24.04 ± 0.11 4.39 ± 0.16 51.84 ± 1.61 11.33 ± 0.46 418.30 ± 0.19

S ha nc hua nzi 88.76 ± 1.44 8.45 ± 0.64 21.46 ± 0.13 3.25 ± 0.06 55.59 ± 0.79 11.26 ± 1.19 425.88 ± 0.10
S h a n g s h u N o . 19
88.56 ± 0.14 9.01 ± 2.33 16.69 ± 0.09 2.94 ± 0.10 61.36 ± 0.90 10.01 ± 0.75 405.34 ± 0.14
( s p rin g )
S h a n g s h u N o . 19
87.85 ± 0.65 12.07 ± 0.89 17.92 ± 0.11 2.85 ± 0.16 58.02 ± 1.30 9.15 ± 0.49 398.28 ± 1.01
( s u m m e r)
S hi N o . 5 87.95 ± 1.85 9.59 ± 0.01 31.08 ± 0.09 5.13 ± 0.09 43.16 ± 0.08 11.06 ± 0.07 418.80 ± 0.81

S u s h u N o . 14 87.63 ± 0.16 14.66 ± 0.00 26.75 ± 0.16 4.47 ± 0.15 43.10 ± 0.12 11.03 ± 0.10 375.40 ± 1.16

S u s h u N o . 16 84.09 ± 0.81 10.42 ± 1.38 27.55 ± 0.35 2.37 ± 0.08 46.97 ± 0.82 12.70 ± 0.35 409.15 ± 0.99

Wa n s h u N o . 5 86.79 ± 0.19 10.63 ± 0.07 27.20 ± 0.12 5.23 ± 0.18 44.51 ± 0.43 12.45 ± 0.17 404.61 ± 1.37

Xim e n g N o . 1 88.70 ± 1.81 12.11 ± 0.04 25.66 ± 0.63 3.06 ± 0.15 46.43 ± 0.53 12.76 ± 0.05 386.84 ± 0.42

Xin o n g N o .1 87.78 ± 0.62 8.50 ± 1.45 18.35 ± 0.01 5.28 ± 0.15 57.69 ± 1.99 10.19 ± 0.85 417.56 ± 0.75

Xin xia n g N o . 1 86.33 ± 0.90 11.51 ± 0.69 28.62 ± 0.08 2.42 ± 0.03 44.34 ± 0.31 13.11 ± 0.72 398.58 ± 1.81

Xu s h u N o . 0 3 8 0 0 8 86.75 ± 3.31 9.22 ± 1.41 25.94 ± 0.06 3.17 ± 0.04 50.13 ± 1.60 11.54 ± 0.68 428.31 ± 1.33

Xu s h u N o . 0 5 3 6 0 1 88.92 ± 0.34 8.10 ± 1.20 23.43 ± 0.11 3.75 ± 0.01 54.69 ± 1.27 10.04 ± 0.50 426.51 ± 3.28
Xu s h u N o . 2 2
87.68 ± 1.39 9.59 ± 1.01 17.53 ± 0.29 3.04 ± 0.01 57.23 ± 0.73 12.62 ± 0.23 412.99 ± 0.18
( s p rin g )
Xu s h u N o . 2 2 - 1 86.81 ± 0.22 9.11 ± 1.13 22.96 ± 0.25 2.08 ± 0.06 53.97 ± 0.01 11.88 ± 0.93 415.56 ± 0.74

Xu s h u N o . 2 3 84.54 ± 0.66 10.35 ± 0.05 30.53 ± 0.32 4.95 ± 0.06 42.82 ± 0.22 11.36 ± 0.00 407.08 ± 0.60

Xu s h u N o . 2 6 88.15 ± 2.14 8.15 ± 0.78 22.63 ± 0.07 2.93 ± 0.16 54.10 ± 1.32 12.20 ± 1.80 435.16 ± 0.41

Xu s h u N o . 5 5 - 2 87.85 ± 0.12 11.42 ± 0.00 29.08 ± 0.35 4.88 ± 0.12 44.01 ± 0.21 10.62 ± 0.05 400.71 ± 1.38

Ya n s h u N o . 2 5 87.33 ± 0.93 13.72 ± 0.02 23.46 ± 0.21 4.08 ± 0.06 47.50 ± 0.16 11.26 ± 0.05 390.20 ± 0.41

Ya n z i N o . 3 3 7 88.65 ± 2.56 8.05 ± 1.33 23.77 ± 0.19 3.57 ± 0.12 54.28 ± 0.20 10.33 ± 0.79 437.86 ± 0.92

Yu z i N o . 2 6 3 87.93 ± 0.37 8.72 ± 0.81 22.76 ± 0.01 3.22 ± 0.02 52.18 ± 1.24 13.13 ± 0.67 419.32 ± 0.56

Yu z i N o . 7 87.52 ± 0.20 8.67 ± 0.59 21.12 ± 0.25 2.24 ± 0.08 57.30 ± 1.34 10.68 ± 1.15 427.66 ± 1.53

Values expressed in g/100g of dry weight, with the exception of Gross energy in kcal/100g of dry weight (Sun, Mu, Xi, &
Zhang, 2014).

24
The methodology for moisture determination, used by Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang
(2014), was based on the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) from
1983. The referred methodology, used also by Nguyen et al. (2021), is considered
outmoded. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) International,
since 2000, published the Official Methods of Analysis – OMA, that can be applied
to sweet potato analysis as it was applied to many plants in recent studies
(Morshed et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2021; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
Regarding ash and crude fat, Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014) referred already the
use of AOAC (2000) methodology. For crude fiber the methodology employed by
Morshed et al. (2021) and Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014) was the ISO method
5498:1981, reviewed and confirmed in 2021, with a small difference. Morshed et
al. (2021) started from natural sample and Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014) started
from leaf powder (Morshed et al., 2021; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014; ISO
5498:1981).
About protein content estimation, both studies stated the Kjeldahl method. This
method comprises the digestion of the sample with sulfuric acid that turned all
nitrogen into ammonium sulphate. After alkalization, the concentration was
measured by titration and converted to protein with a conversion factor of 6.25
(Morshed et al., 2021; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
In terms of energy, the method used by Morshed et al. (2021) and Hong et al.
(2020) was the application of a mathematical formula named by the last one as
European Universal Energy Coefficient built by fat, protein and carbohydrate
values determined in the first steps of their studies. A small difference stands in
both formulas, once Morshed et al. (2021) also counted crude fiber with a
conversion factor of 0.5 and Hong et al. (2020) ignored it because their study only
focused on the metabolized energy of food (Morshed et al., 2021; Hong et al.;
2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014;).
Concerning mineral content, depending on the variety and growing conditions,
when compared to other commercial vegetables, the leaves presented higher
minerals content. Some researchers compared sweet potato leaves to spinach
leaves, due to the high levels of calcium (visible on Table 4), iron and zinc (visible
on Table 5) (Li et al., 2017; Islam, 2014; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

25
As referred in Harvard Health Publishing, the recommended intake for Calcium
(Ca) is 1000 - 1200 mg depending on age and gender, taking into account the low
levels of absorption for the human body. Since data from Table 4 present values
from 229.7 ± 0.4 mg to 1958.1 ± 24.1 mg, some varieties of Sweet Potato have a
very rich content of Ca (Harvard Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang,
2014).
Regarding Potassium (K) the recommendation is 4700 mg for both genders and all
ages, and Table 4 presents values from 580.2 ± 2.2 mg to 4280.6 ± 37.0 mg.
Again, some varieties of Sweet Potato cultivars have considerable content of this
mineral (Harvard Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
Magnesium (Mg) daily doses recommended is 420 mg for adult males and 320 mg
for adult females. From the data of Table 4, the minimum value is 220.2 ± 2.4 mg
maximum value is 910.5 ± 1.3 mg, thereby, Sweet Potato leaves are a good
source of Magnesium (Harvard Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang,
2014).
Concerning the daily doses recommended for Sodium (Na), 2300 mg for males
and females of all ages, data from Table 4 varies from 8.06 ± 0.55 mg to 832.31 ±
68.84 mg, what means that Sweet Potato leaves are poor in Sodium (Harvard
Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
In relation to Phosphorus (P), the recommended daily doses is 700 mg for both
genders and all ages. The values visible on Table 4 vary from 131.1 ± 3.3 mg to
2639.8 ± 1.3 mg, what translates into a very rich source of this mineral, for some
varieties. Since the maximum daily doses recommended by Harvard is 4000 mg
for individuals between 31 to 70 years old and 3000 mg to individuals with more
than 71 years old, this mineral should be highly controlled in diets that include
Sweet Potato leaves (Harvard Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang,
2014).
Returning to Harvard Health Publishing, the daily recommended doses of Copper
(Cu) is 0.9 mg, and Table 5 presents values from 0.67 ± 0.00 mg to 1.86 ± 0.25
mg. Regarding Iron (Fe), the recommend daily doses for males from 19 and 50
years old is 8 mg, as for females of the same range of age is 18 mg. For
individuals from both genders over 51 years old is 8 mg. The collected data by
Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014) presents values from 1.92 ± 0.00 mg to 21.77 ± 0.33

26
mg. Since the recommended limit for Fe is 45 mg, a diet that combines sweet
potato leaves with red meat, poultry, eggs, fortified bread, grain products, and
other great sources of Iron should be monitored. Concerning Manganese (Mn),
Harvard records suggest a daily dose of 2.3 mg for males, and 1.8 mg for females.
As data from Table 5 comprehend values from 1.71 ± 0.00 mg to 10.92 ± 0.18 mg,
and the maximum daily limit of consumption is 11 mg, diets that incorporate lots of
sweet potato greens should be highly controlled. Finally, for Zinc (Zn) the
recommended daily doses is between 8 to 11 mg, and Table 5 presents values
from 1.20 ± 0.00 mg to 3.23 ± 0.04 mg (Harvard Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu,
Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
Regarding the methodology used to determine mineral content in sweet potato
leaves, a combination of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) in a ratio
1:3 was the most efficient digestion method for herbal product samples, since it
provided more recovery for every analyte determined. Along the digestion, the
wash of beakers walls with water was advised to limit loss of sample (Uddin et al.,
2021; Morshed et al., 2021; Hong et al., 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
Furthermore, it is important to highlight that sweet potato greens can also present
high levels of vitamin B, vitamin C, β-carotene, and lutein. Literature refers that the
leaves have more vitamin B2, vitamin C, vitamin E, biotin, and β-carotene than the
stems and stalks, with its total content similar to spinach leaves. The registries
marked values from: 0.856 to 1.498 mg/100g of vitamin B3, when the
recommended daily doses are 16 mg for males and 14 mg for females; 0.120 to
0.329 mg/100g of vitamin B6, for a daily recommendation of 1.3 mg for individuals
of both genders with ages that understand 31 to 50 years old, and 1.7 mg for
males older than 51 years old and 1.5 mg for females of the same range of age;
248 to 254 µg/100g of vitamin B2, when males should take 1.3 mg and females
1.1 mg; 53 to 128 µg/100g of vitamin B1, when the recommendation is 1.2 mg for
men and 1.1 mg for women; 62.7 to 81 mg/ 100g of vitamin C for which the
recommendation is 90 mg for males and 75 mg for females, adding 35 mg for
smokers of each gender; and, 3 to 8 µg/100g of biotin, with a recommended daily
doses of 30 µg (Nguyen et al., 2021; Harvard Health Publishing, 2020; Sun, Mu,
Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

27
Table 4 Macro mineral content of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation)
from 40 different cultivars (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

Cultivar Ca K Mg Na P

Beijing No. 553 976.4 ± 1.3 479.3 ± 1.0 692.0 ± 0.9 243.65 ± 0.05 763.7 ± 0.4

Chuanshu No. 294 1043.6 ± 1.3 1042.4 ± 0.4 598.3 ± 0.3 56.40 ± 0.00 1704.0 ± 2.2

Fushu No. 2 517.9 ± 4.1 820.6 ± 0.8 314.1 ± 4.1 34.20 ± 0.80 1573.7 ± 4.6

Hongxinwang 284.5 ± 0.6 913.3 ± 2.0 438.3 ± 2.9 391.30 ± 1.10 975.3 ± 0.3

Jingshu No. 6 423.3 ± 0.6 1060.0 ± 1.2 290.2 ± 1.3 154.06 ± 2.44 2292.7 ± 5.2
Jinong No. 2694 598.9 ± 0.8 790.0 ± 1.5 303.6 ± 2.6 115.26 ± 3.16 1494.3 ± 4.8
Jinyu No. 1 1110.1 ± 5.6 3423.0 ± 24.0 336.7 ± 2.3 50.97 ± 2.04 131.1 ± 3.3

Jishu 1520.1 ± 175.5 4280.6 ± 37.0 299.3 ± 4.3 832.31 ± 68.84 296.0 ± 72.1

Jishu No. 04150 258.5 ± 0.5 1059.8 ± 1.3 471.7 ± 1.6 76.75 ± 0.05 1580.4 ± 2.5

Jishu No. 22 972.7 ± 24.4 3506.2 ± 112.1 271.0 ± 6.2 101.79 ± 0.58 728.9 ± 9.9

Jishu No. 65 508.0 ± 4.6 789.9 ± 4.3 279.8 ± 0.3 20.99 ± 0.22 2169.7 ± 3.9

Langshu No. 7-12 408.8 ± 2.3 772.0 ± 2.1 273.7 ± 2.6 16.04 ± 0.14 1759.4 ± 2.8

Longshu No. 9 945.9 ± 28.9 3514.4 ± 18.9 311.7 ± 10.4 43.25 ± 0.29 993.9 ± 49.4

Miyuan No. 6 319.8 ± 0.1 1043.0 ± 0.2 457.7 ± 1.9 51.95 ± 0.05 1296.5 ± 2.2

Ningzi No. 1 429.7 ± 6.6 720.3 ± 1.7 321.6 ± 1.9 548.05 ± 4.55 2206.3 ± 3.9

Ningzi No. 23-1 505.0 ± 1.7 810.2 ± 1.1 277.1 ± 2.7 213.65 ± 7.55 1853.8 ± 6.9

Nongda No. 6-2 573.8 ± 1.4 914.4 ± 0.8 675.3 ± 4.0 14.00 ± 0.00 906.4 ± 0.9

Pushu No. 17 503.1 ± 3.6 768.9 ± 0.4 299.5 ± 0.9 322.79 ± 4.29 1273.8 ± 0.7

Pushu No. 53 491.2 ± 0.8 929.5 ± 2.5 234.6 ± 0.1 156.05 ± 0.05 1142.3 ± 1.1

Shanchuanzi 588.4 ± 4.1 709.6 ± 2.1 298.2 ± 2.9 396.25 ± 3.75 1169.9 ± 0.3
Shangshu No. 19 (spring) 881.5 ± 1.9 794.9 ± 0.4 712.0 ± 0.8 47.20 ± 0.00 927.4 ± 0.3
Shangshu No. 19 (summer) 736.6 ± 4.1 1395.5 ± 4.8 608.6 ± 0.6 39.45 ± 0.05 990.9 ± 1.0

Shi No. 5 892.7 ± 46.2 3065.7 ± 86.7 329.8 ± 6.1 56.10 ± 2.58 450.2 ± 11.4

Sushu No. 14 1958.1 ± 24.1 3970.5 ± 76.2 361.2 ± 2.2 82.96 ± 1.51 736.5 ± 24.0

Sushu No. 16 510.0 ± 0.9 1292.9 ± 1.8 518.8 ± 0.0 37.60 ± 0.10 1808.7 ± 0.2

Wanshu No. 5 921.1 ± 8.3 3466.9 ± 15.3 220.2 ± 2.4 137.53 ± 0.11 1007.8 ± 27.2

Ximeng No. 1 1135.5 ± 43.8 4195.5 ± 100.5 258.5 ± 8.6 8.06 ± 0.55 688.0 ± 67.8

Xinong No. 1 1071.0 ± 5.6 639.2 ± 0.2 716.0 ± 1.1 164.65 ± 0.35 880.9 ± 0.6

Xinxiang No. 1 807.3 ± 1.5 978.7 ± 2.8 910.5 ± 1.3 420.35 ± 1.95 1693.9 ± 1.5

Xushu No. 038008 404.7 ± 3.4 962.5 ± 3.4 280.8 ± 0.8 19.30 ± 0.40 1072.7 ± 0.6

Xushu No. 053601 364.7 ± 0.4 1077.9 ± 0.3 468.4 ± 0.3 91.60 ± 0.10 1150.2 ± 1.7

Xushu No. 22 (spring) 1509.0 ± 3.1 580.2 ± 2.2 676.8 ± 5.4 96.13 ± 0.33 1493.4 ± 4.7

Xushu No. 22-1 229.7 ± 0.4 978.7 ± 0.8 418.6 ± 0.1 308.20 ± 0.50 1666.6 ± 1.2

Xushu No. 23 922.0 ± 1.3 3071.1 ± 10.2 303.2 ± 0.6 16.19 ± 0.24 888.4 ± 28.2

Xushu No. 26 379.0 ± 2.0 859.1 ± 3.0 267.5 ± 2.4 83.74 ± 0.64 2639.8 ± 1.3

Xushu No. 55-2 1389.7 ± 7.6 2881.8 ± 71.6 426.6 ± 1.8 54.66 ± 1.18 538.3 ± 26.6

Yanshu No. 25 1468.2 ± 7.0 3863.3 ± 3.0 295.3 ± 0.7 197.17 ± 0.27 598.5 ± 18.9

Yanzi No. 337 456.4 ± 2.8 760.3 ± 1.5 293.3 ± 4.6 140.37 ± 1.67 1060.7 ± 1.1

Yuzi No. 263 483.8 ± 5.3 839.3 ± 3.9 276.7 ± 2.2 317.54 ± 0.54 2186.8 ± 5.5

Yuzi No. 7 294.3 ± 0.4 983.6 ± 1.4 422.2 ± 1.0 240.80 ± 0.50 1137.0 ± 0.7

Values expressed in mg/100 g of dry weight (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

28
Table 5 Micro mineral content of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation)
from 40 different cultivars (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

Cultivar Cu Fe Mn Zn
Beijing No. 553 0.80 ± 0.00 8.47 ± 0.00 6.23 ± 0.00 1.43 ± 0.00
Chuanshu No. 294 0.99 ± 0.00 4.39 ± 0.00 2.55 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00
Fushu No. 2 1.59 ± 0.02 8.80 ± 0.02 5.73 ± 0.01 2.81 ± 0.03
Hongxinwang 1.03 ± 0.00 2.45 ± 0.02 2.14 ± 0.00 1.98 ± 0.00
Jingshu No. 6 1.45 ± 0.03 8.51 ± 0.01 4.86 ± 0.01 2.74 ± 0.03
Jinong No. 2694 1.35 ± 0.04 9.50 ± 0.01 6.29 ± 0.01 2.53 ± 0.04
Jinyu No. 1 1.61 ± 0.02 8.39 ± 0.18 5.53 ± 0.23 2.51 ± 0.03
Jishu 1.86 ± 0.25 10.09 ± 1.06 4.03 ± 0.33 2.58 ± 0.19
Jishu No. 04150 0.95 ± 0.01 3.96 ± 0.01 2.11 ± 0.01 2.04 ± 0.00
Jishu No. 22 1.59 ± 0.06 10.26 ± 0.21 3.20 ± 0.09 2.51 ± 0.08
Jishu No. 65 1.52 ± 0.04 8.08 ± 0.04 4.33 ± 0.02 2.43 ± 0.01
Langshu No. 7-12 1.20 ± 0.01 7.38 ± 0.03 4.82 ± 0.01 2.46 ± 0.04
Longshu No. 9 1.67 ± 0.01 6.90 ± 0.25 3.69 ± 0.03 2.46 ± 0.00
Miyuan No. 6 1.05 ± 0.00 4.15 ± 0.01 2.53 ± 0.01 2.05 ± 0.00
Ningzi No. 1 1.53 ± 0.02 8.28 ± 0.02 5.97 ± 0.05 2.43 ± 0.00
Ningzi No. 23-1 1.31 ± 0.03 8.44 ± 0.02 4.63 ± 0.04 2.97 ± 0.01
Nongda No. 6-2 1.14 ± 0.00 4.59 ± 0.02 3.03 ± 0.01 1.85 ± 0.00
Pushu No. 17 1.30 ± 0.02 6.26 ± 0.03 4.17 ± 0.02 2.11 ± 0.05
Pushu No. 53 0.89 ± 0.00 4.72 ± 0.01 2.70 ± 0.00 1.84 ± 0.00
Shanchuanzi 1.28 ± 0.02 9.76 ± 0.03 5.04 ± 0.02 2.21 ± 0.02
Shangshu No. 19 (spring) 0.67 ± 0.00 9.81 ± 0.01 4.85 ± 0.00 1.20 ± 0.00
Shangshu No. 19 (summer) 0.77 ± 0.00 19.64 ± 0.03 4.45 ± 0.00 1.48 ± 0.00
Shi No. 5 1.58 ± 0.05 8.45 ± 0.33 3.12 ± 0.12 2.76 ± 0.10
Sushu No. 14 1.54 ± 0.04 11.09 ± 0.28 3.98 ± 0.06 2.27 ± 0.10
Sushu No. 16 1.09 ± 0.00 4.96 ± 0.01 2.14 ± 0.01 2.08 ± 0.00
Wanshu No. 5 1.62 ± 0.00 8.93 ± 1.00 2.30 ± 0.01 2.55 ± 0.02
Ximeng No. 1 1.62 ± 0.09 10.06 ± 0.25 3.11 ± 0.01 2.74 ± 0.09
Xinong No. 1 0.84 ± 0.00 8.53 ± 0.00 5.10 ± 0.01 1.45 ± 0.00
Xinxiang No. 1 1.09 ± 0.00 5.95 ± 0.01 2.90 ± 0.00 1.99 ± 0.00
Xushu No. 038008 1.38 ± 0.03 6.90 ± 0.02 3.76 ± 0.04 2.81 ± 0.02
Xushu No. 053601 0.97 ± 0.00 3.71 ± 0.00 2.76 ± 0.00 2.28 ± 0.00
Xushu No. 22 (spring) 1.48 ± 0.03 21.77 ± 0.33 10.92 ± 0.18 1.84 ± 0.01
Xushu No. 22-1 0.90 ± 0.00 1.92 ± 0.00 1.71 ± 0.00 2.04 ± 0.00
Xushu No. 23 1.62 ± 0.01 9.08 ± 0.29 3.29 ± 0.01 3.23 ± 0.04
Xushu No. 26 1.37 ± 0.02 7.93 ± 0.02 4.12 ± 0.04 2.70 ± 0.02
Xushu No. 55-2 1.70 ± 0.01 9.51 ± 1.18 4.04 ± 0.08 2.72 ± 0.00
Yanshu No. 25 1.41 ± 0.01 14.52 ± 0.26 5.00 ± 0.03 2.00 ± 0.03
Yanzi No. 337 1.18 ± 0.01 6.29 ± 0.02 3.79 ± 0.02 2.49 ± 0.03
Yuzi No. 263 1.25 ± 0.03 9.10 ± 0.04 6.21 ± 0.02 2.36 ± 0.03
Yuzi No. 7 0.85 ± 0.00 4.39 ± 0.01 2.94 ± 0.00 1.72 ± 0.00

Values expressed in mg/100 g of dry weight (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

29
The vitaminic and mineral profiles of sweet potato leaves (Table 6) was based on
the studies of Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014), Ishida et al. (2000) and gathered by
Nguyen et al. (2021). An extra column was added to Table 6 with the mean values
in order to simplify the next topic of discussion. The values of Ishida et al. (2000)
were obtained with “Koganesengan” and “Beniazuma” varieties while Sun, Mu, Xi,
& Zhang (2014) studied 40 cultivars already presented on different tables of this
document (Nguyen et al., 2021; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014; Ishida et al., 2000).

Table 6 Vitamins and minerals levels from Sweet Potato leaves. This data was compiled by
Nguyen et al. (2021), based on the data collected by Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang (2014) and Ishida et al.
(2000).

Quantity
Elements
Min. Max. Mean
β-carotene (Vitamin A) 0.273 0.400 0.337
Thiamine (vitamin B1) 0.053 0.128 0.091
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) 0.248 0.254 0.251
Niacin (vitamin B3) 0.856 1.498 1.177
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) 0.320 0.660 0.490
Vitamin B6 0.120 0.329 0.225
Vitamin C 62.7 81.0 72.0
Vitamin E 1.390 2.840 0.002
Calcium 229.700 1958.1 1093.900
Iron 1.900 21.800 11.850
Magnesium 220.200 910.5 565.350
Phosphorus 131.100 2639.8 1385.450
Potassium 479.300 4280.6 2379.950
Sodium 8.060 832.31 420.185
Zinc 1.200 3.2 2.200
Copper 0.700 1.9 1.300
Manganese 1.700 10.9 6.300
Biotin 0.003 0.008 0.006
Values expressed in mg/100 g of dry weight (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

As an exercise, the comparison of Table 2 to Table 6 can elucidate about the

potential of the sweet potato leaves as food source, since the tubers are so valued
and the leaves considered a residue in most occidental countries. Sweet potato
leaves have indeed more β-carotene, since the roots have 0.008 mg and the
leaves have a minimum value of 0.2 mg, what means that even if the leaves don’t

30
grow under the optimal conditions for its expression, they still have more 25% of β-
carotene than the roots. For Thiamine the mean concentration in leaves (0.0905
mg) is closer to roots (about 0.1 mg) but for Riboflavin the leaves present more
than the double of the value of the roots, a content that finds similarity in spinach
leaves (0.23mg/100g). The leaves have more Niacin, Vitamin C (from 26 to 33%
more) and Vitamin E (more than 5% for the minimum value in leaves) but less
Pantothenic Acid. The content of Vitamin B6 varies but the leaves mean is not
much higher than the value of the roots. Nevertheless, the leaves presented
higher values for Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorous, Potassium and Zinc
and lower Sodium content. In addition, the leaves are an interesting source of
Copper. As it was already referred, the mineral and vitaminic profile of sweet
potato leaves are indeed interesting to explore, given the high values tabled and
discussed above (Nguyen et al., 2021; Mu & Li, 2019; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014;
Ishida et al., 2000).
Sweet potato leaves can likewise present high levels of polyphenolic compounds,
though its concentration varies with the chosen genotype, and the phase of
development of the leaves, as visible on Table 7 built with the same 40 cultivars
used in other tables. Phenolic acids found in plants exist in free, esterified or
glycosylated arrangements. Regarding sweet potato leaves, caffeic acid and
caffeoylquinic acid derivatives are considered the main phenolic constituents,
more specifically, 4,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,4,5-tri-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3-
mono-O-Caffeoylquinic acid, 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, and 3,5-di-O-
caffeoylquinic acid (Nguyen et al., 2021; Mu & Li, 2019; Sun, Mu, Xi & Song, 2014;
Khoddami et al., 2013; Truong et al., 2007; Ishida et al., 2000).
A study from 2021 (Nguyen et al.) stated that the total phenolic content from
Portuguese crops was between 1.20 to 1.32 g of chlorogenic acid equivalents
(CGAE) per 100 g of dry matter. On one hand, these values are considered low
compared to the ones in Table 7, but on the other hand the phenolic content
depends on the daylight exposure. Furthermore, it was successfully enhanced in
some crops by recurring to UV-B lights. Higher periods of sunlight have increased
leaves levels of hydroxybenzoic acids (p-anisic and benzoic), hydroxycinnamic
acids (sinapic and p-coumaric conjugates), anthocyanins, catechins and flavanols
(Nguyen et al., 2021; Anastácio & Carvalho, 2013; Carvalho et al., 2010).

31
Table 7 Phenolic content of sweet potato leaves (mean ± standard deviation) from 40 different
cultivars (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).

Cultivar Total polyphenols (g CGAE/100 g DW) Antioxidant activity (mg ACE/mg DW)

Beijing No. 553 6.01 ± 0.02 0.54 ± 0.00

Chuanshu No. 294 5.44 ± 0.65 0.29 ± 0.00
Fushu No. 2 5.31 ± 0.03 0.22 ± 0.00
Hongxinwang 8.45 ± 0.05 0.60 ± 0.00
Jingshu No. 6 11.57 ± 0.21 0.73 ± 0.01
Jinong No. 2694 10.17 ± 0.21 0.39 ± 0.01
Jinyu No. 1 4.03 ± 0.05 0.26 ± 0.01
Jishu 3.49 ± 0.04 0.11 ± 0.01
Jishu No. 04150 12.46 ± 0.62 0.73 ± 0.01
Jishu No. 22 5.36 ± 0.55 0.22 ± 0.00
Jishu No. 65 5.88 ± 0.16 0.37 ± 0.01
Langshu No. 7-12 8.97 ± 0.12 0.36 ± 0.00
Longshu No. 9 5.07 ± 0.00 0.23 ± 0.01
Miyuan No. 6 11.66 ± 0.07 0.58 ± 0.00
Ningzi No. 1 6.26 ± 0.07 0.40 ± 0.02
Ningzi No. 23-1 4.02 ± 0.22 0.19 ± 0.02

Nongda No. 6-2 8.74 ± 0.14 0.47 ± 0.01

Pushu No. 17 11.45 ± 0.13 0.39 ± 0.00

Pushu No. 53 6.76 ± 0.07 0.59 ± 0.01
Shanchuanzi 6.92 ± 0.27 0.35 ± 0.01
Shangshu No. 19
4.73 ± 0.12 0.30 ± 0.00
(spring)
Shangshu No. 19
6.76 ± 0.09 0.40 ± 0.00
(summer)
Shi No. 5 2.73 ± 0.02 0.08 ± 0.01
Sushu No. 14 2.74 ± 0.03 0.31 ± 0.01
Sushu No. 16 9.71 ± 0.36 0.56 ± 0.01
Wanshu No. 5 6.00 ± 0.03 0.08 ± 0.01
Ximeng No. 1 7.67 ± 0.31 0.57 ± 0.01
Xinong No. 1 6.70 ± 0.07 0.69 ± 0.01
Xinxiang No. 1 3.25 ± 0.04 0.09 ± 0.01
Xushu No. 038008 3.62 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.00
Xushu No. 053601 11.36 ± 0.07 0.66 ± 0.01
Xushu No. 22 (spring) 3.13 ± 0.21 0.19 ± 0.01
Xushu No. 22-1 8.82 ± 0.10 0.62 ± 0.01
Xushu No. 23 7.09 ± 0.12 0.19 ± 0.00
Xushu No. 26 9.19 ± 0.50 0.57 ± 0.01
Xushu No. 55-2 3.41 ± 0.04 0.10 ± 0.01
Yanshu No. 25 6.91 ± 0.10 0.12 ± 0.01
Yanzi No. 337 5.06 ± 0.14 0.21 ± 0.00
Yuzi No. 263 9.75 ± 0.29 0.39 ± 0.00
Yuzi No. 7 12.30 ± 0.65 0.82 ± 0.01

32
Many parameters can affect the yield of phenolics extraction for instance time,
temperature, ratio solvent-to-sample, sample repetitions and chemical nature of
solvent. Notably, the optimum recovery is mainly influenced by sample type and its
composition in bioactive compounds. When it comes to time and temperature
impact, high time and temperatures of extraction, endorse solubility of analytes,
notwithstanding plant phenolics undergo to enzymatic oxidation. About solvent-to-
sample ratio, increasing this ratio facilitates phenolic extraction, but if it is too much
high, saturation effects between solvent and phenolics interfere negatively in the
extraction. Nguyen et al. (2021) stated that the extraction of polyphenols from
sweet potato leaves with different solvents (Fu et al., 2016) that higher total phenol
content was achieved by extraction with 50% (v/v) acetone. Meanwhile, phenolics
may bind to proteins and carbohydrates, so the addition of enzymes and hydrolytic
acids and bases to incite the release of bounded phenolics is advisable. When it
comes to express phenolic contents, literature presented two different kinds of
units: galic acid equivalents (GAE) and chlorogenic acid equivalents (CGAE)
(Table 7) (Nguyen et al., 2021; Fu et al., 2016; Khoddami et al., 2013).
Chlorogenic acids (CGA) are a family of secondary metabolites with health
beneficial properties, especially famous in coffee, and the most present in human
diet. CGA are esters formed from cinnamic and quinic acids, present in leaves in
high amounts, and related to the defence of plants from pathogens. CGA modulate
glucose and lipid metabolism in vivo, increasing insulin action. It decreases by
30% the probability to get Type II diabetes mellitus and regenerate gastric
functions in rats with induced gastric ulcers (Ahmed et al., 2021; Babatola & Oboh,
2021; Ayeleso et al., 2016; Meng et al., 2013).
Thereby the polyphenolic content of sweet potato leaves was linked to radical
scavenging, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic and hepatic
protection activities when tested in vivo. Antibacterial and heart protection
properties were shown when tested in vitro (Table 8) (Ahmed et al., 2021;
Babatola & Oboh, 2021; Lin et al., 2021; Ayeleso et al., 2016).
Moreover, the values for total antioxidant activity measured in sweet potato leaves
(Table 7) were analysed. These values were expressed in mg of ascorbic acid
equivalents (ACE) or Vitamin C equivalents. This is an essential compound to

33
enhance iron absorption in the intestine and one of the most used natural
preservatives in food industry. Additionally, the main compounds found in sweet
potato leaves were gathered together with its correspondent proven properties
(Table 8) (Nguyen et al., 2021; Mu & Li, 2019; Engelking, 2015; Islam, 2014;
Mohanraj & Sivasankar, 2014; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014; Khoddami et al., 2013;
Meng et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2002; Ishida et al., 2000).
Table 8 Compounds found in Sweet Potato leaves and the respective functions reported in
literature (Nguyen et al., 2021).

Compounds Functions

Anticancer, Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, Anti-

Caffeic acid derivates
inflammatory, Anti-mutagenic

Phenolic Acids Anticancer, Antidiabetic, Anti-hypertension,

Caffeoylquinic acid derivates
Antioxidant, Cardio protection

Chlorogenic acid Anticancer, Antidiabetic

Quininic acid Anticancer

Anticancer, Anti-inflammatory, Anti-mutagenic,

Anthocyanins
Antioxidant, Hepato-protection, Hypoglycaemic

Quercetin Anticancer, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant

Apigenin Anticancer
Flavonoids Kaempferol Anticancer
Myricetin Anticancer, Antidiabetic
Fisetin Anticancer, Anti-inflammatory
Morin Anticancer, Anti-inflammatory
Isorhamnetin Cardio protection
Luteolin Anticancer, Anti-inflammatory

Monogalactosyldiacylglycerol and
Anti-inflammatory
digalactosyldiacylglycerol

Carotenoids Anticancer, Cardio protection

Anticancer, Antidiabetic, Antioxidant, Cardio

Dietary fiber
protection

Dietary protein Growth performance enhancement

Ipomoea batatas anti-cancer peptide (IbAcp) Anticancer

Polysaccharides Antibacterial, Antifungal

Omega-3 fatty acids Anti-inflammatory, Cardio protection

Alkaloids Antioxidant
Saponins Antioxidant
Coumarins Antioxidant
Tannins Antioxidant
34
According to literature, antioxidant activity measurement methods should be
chosen depending on adequate extraction method and solvent, and on the nature
of the sample and active compounds. On one hand, it was stated that extraction
by Soxhlet resulted in higher polyphenols and flavonoid contents when compared
to maceration. On the other hand, extraction by maceration resulted in higher
antiradical activity. Most studies regarding sweet potato leaves antioxidant activity
used DPPH radical (DPPH·) scavenging activity method with ascorbic acid as a
positive control at different concentrations, so the results were presented as ACE
g per 100 g of dried weight of sample. DPPH is a free radical but stable molecule
with hydrogen acceptance capacity. It is soluble in methanol and characterized by
a deep violet colour with maximum absorption at 515 nm. In the presence of
antioxidants, a reaction of these with DPPH occurs and a hydrogen atom is
provided to DPPH. The reduced formed, DPPH-H is characterized from pale-
yellow colour to colourless and easily checked with a spectrophotometer, at 515
nm (Njoya, 2021; Pisoschi et al., 2016; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang, 2014).
Additionally, Suárez et al. (2020) also conducted a ferric reducing antioxidant
power (FRAP) assay that measured the reduction of ferrous tripyridyltriazine after
30 min in the dark. Then was submitted to absorbance reading at 593 nm, with the
results expressed as μmol Trolox equivalents (TE) per 100 g of dried weight of
sample, since the standard curve was built with Trolox (Suárez et al., 2020).
About sweet potato leaves amino acid content, it was higher when compared to
other leafy vegetables, with lysine as the first limiting amino acid (Table 9). No
traces of the amino acids Asparagine, Tryptophan nor Glycine were detected. As
for the methodology used in other studies, the most recent study applied
hydrolyzation in HCl in acid hydrolysis tubes with air elimination by nitrogen
blowing at 110°C for 24 h. Next, the samples were submitted to cooling, filtering
and washing and the hydrolysate was diluted, dried with nitrogen flow and
dissolved in HCl. Finally, the total amino acids were determined using an Amino
Acids Automatic Analyzer (Table 9) (Nguyen et al., 2021; Suárez et al., 2020;
Ishida et al., 2000).

35
Table 9 Amino acids found in Sweet Potato leaves from different moments of harvesting, identified
in first column (Suárez et al., 2020).

Group Amino Acids 21st August 6th September 21st September

Cys 0.4 ± 0.3 0.5 ± 0.6 0.1 ± 0.0

His 5.0 ± 0.2 5.1 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.2
Ile 8.8 ± 0.5 8.4 ± 0.2 6.7 ± 0.4
Leu 16.1 ± 0.9 12.9 ± 4.1 11.9 ± 0.7
Lys 13.1 ± 0.7 13.1 ± 0.3 10.0 ± 0.6
Essential amino acids
Met 0.9 ± 0.2 0.8 ± 0.0 0.6 ± 0.0
Phe 11.1 ± 0.6 10.9 ± 0.3 8.8 ± 0.5
Thr 8.9 ± 0.5 8.7 ± 0.2 7.0 ± 0.5
Tyr 5.9 ± 0.4 6.4 ± 0.1 4.7 ± 0.2
Val 11.4 ± 0.9 10.8 ± 0.1 8.8 ± 0.5
Ala 11.8 ± 1.0 11.3 ± 0.1 9.3 ± 0.6
Arg 11.1 ± 0.3 11.3 ± 0.0 9.2 ± 0.7
Asp 32.3 ± 1.7 27.8 ± 0.7 28.7 ± 0.2
Non-essential amino acids Glu 28.3 ± 1.4 25.8 ± 0.7 21.1 ± 1.4
Gly 10.8 ± 0.6 10.5 ± 0.3 8.3 ± 0.6
Pro 8.6 ± 0.7 8.3 ± 0.2 6.1 ± 0.4
Ser 8.5 ± 0.4 8.2 ± 0.2 7.3 ± 0.5
Values expressed in mg/g of dry weight (Suárez et al., 2020).

Concerning the anti-nutritive profile, a study from 2006 (Antia et al.) stated that low
amounts of toxic compounds such as oxalates, tannins, and phytates were found
among sweet potato leaves from diferente cultivars (Table 10). However, the
levels in which all toxic compounds can be found depend on the cultivar, part of
the plant, and cooking process applied (Abong’ et al, 2020; Antia et al., 2006).

Table 10 Antinutrients from sweet potato leaves reported by Antia et al. (2006).

Antinutrient Composition (mg/100g)

Cyanide 30.24 ± 0.02

Tannins 0.21 ± 0.02

Total oxalate 308.00 ± 1.04

Phytic acid 1.44 ± 0.01

Values expressed in mg/100g of dry weight (Suárez et al., 2020).

Opposingly to a previous stateman, and as a recent study sustains, yellow-

coloured root varieties do not contain higher concentrations of phytates. These
36
levels were said to be moderate among orange fleshed varieties, similar to the
ones reported among cereals and higher in the leaves when compared to the roots
(Abong’ et al, 2020).
Furthermore, phytic acid is known for binding phosphorus to the matrix. High
levels of phosphorus were stated to be accumulated among sweet potato and
related to high levels of phytates. The ratio of phytic phosphorus to total
phosphorus in leaves was moderate, from 15 to 25%. Among the roots, it was
reported a high range ratio, from 4 to 40%. Nevertheless, both ratios are
reasonable low when compared to the ones founded among cereals and legumes,
from 60 to 70%, what means that sweet potato has lower phytic acid than cereals
and legumes, in general (Abong’ et al, 2020).
Regarding tannins, these polyphenolic molecular complexes bind essential
minerals like iron, reducing their availability. On one hand, the excessive consume
of tannins may cause a deficiency of iron, on the other hand tannins proved to
have medicinal properties (Table 8). Approximately 40 times higher concentrations
were founded among leaves (from 0.87 to 5.05g per 100g of sample) than roots
(from 0.003 to 0.132g per 100g of sample) (Abong’ et al, 2020).
With respect to oxalates, these molecules tend to bind calcium and magnesium,
interfering in absorption and metabolism of these minerals. High levels of oxalates
were reported among sweet potato leaves from various varieties, with the
maximum value of 16178.7 mg per 100g of sample from Yellow fleshed varieties.
This may concern individuals that suffer from kidneys stones to not consume great
quantities of sweet potato leaves (Abong’ et al, 2020).

Life cycle of plant and applied treatments for leaves

Some researchers from North Carolina University explain that sweet potato life
cycle begins as vine cuttings currently called sprouts or slips. These sprouts can
come from greenhouses or from small sweet potato that are covered with soil in
March (North Hemisphere seasoning). By May or June, sprouts are cut and
transplanted to develop. After 90-120 days, generally in August, sweet potato can
be harvested (Jennings et al., 2019).

37
Suárez et al. (2020) compared the nutritional and phenolic content of leaves
harvested on 21st of August, 6th of September and 21th of September. They
concluded that the last sample registered higher levels of total phenolic (9.1 ± 0.3
g / 100 g DW), vitamin E (5.8 ± 0.4mg / 100 g DW), vitamin C (104.6 ± 4.9 mg /
100 g DW) and antioxidant activity (Suárez et al., 2020). According to Lebot (2020)
and An et al. (2013), the better option to produce leaves and stems with no impact
on the development of roots is to cut them at intervals of 20 days with 50% of the
total stems defoliated. Nevertheless, based on the previous information it is
obvious that the content of leaves from different periods of harvesting may vary
(Lebot, 2020; Suárez et al., 2020; An et al, 2003).
After harvesting, researchers from North Carolina University referred the
submission to a curing process for 4 to 7 days at 28 ± 2ºC in order to enhance its
stability for over a year. Equally, other researchers found that drying at low
temperatures, meaning below 30ºC, allows achieving stability for a long shelf-life
with higher nutritional values (Nguyen et al., 2021; Jennings et al., 2019).
For example, freeze-drying samples registered higher levels of caffeoylquinic acid
derivatives, but vacuum-freeze drying samples had higher levels of vitamins (B1,
B2, C, and E), minerals (Zn, P and Mg), total dietary fiber and total polyphenolic
content (Sui et al., 2019).
Regarding postharvest stability, sweet potato leaves have a short period of life,
influenced by temperature. A study conducted in China in 2009 (Peng et al.) with
the aim to evaluate the shelf life of fresh leaves at 20ºC, 6ºC and 2ºC, concluded
that the longest shelf life was obtained at 6ºC, of 16 days. At 2 ºC fresh leaves had
good quality for 8 days, and at 20ºC only were admitted 6 days (Peng et al., 2009).
Moreover, weight losses were registered at all temperatures, but lower at 6ºC and
2ºC, with 0.26% and 0.31%, respectively, compared to 1.87% at 20ºC. Likewise,
ascorbic acid content decreased during the first 2 days at storage at all
temperatures, but it remained constant after that in the samples at 20ºC and 6ºC,
with higher levels at 6ºC and lower at 20ºC. For the ones at 2ºC, ascorbic acid
content was slightly lower than at 6ºC. These reductions in ascorbic acid content
occurred due to its enzymatic degradation by ascorbate oxidase, which levels
increase in stress conditions, as Lee, & Kader (2000) first stated. Most vegetables

38
lose ascorbic acid during bruising, trimming, and cutting (Peng et al., 2009; Lee, &
Kader, 2000).
Alongside, amino acid content in sweet potato stalks registered a growth during
storage for all tested temperatures with daily increase of 7.66 mg/100 g of fresh
weight at 20ºC, 0.70 mg / 100 g of fresh weight at 6ºC and 1.08 mg /100 g of fresh
weight at 2ºC. The mentioned amino acids accumulation during storage was
explained by the occurrence of proteins break reactions in early senescence and
detachment of stalks from the stems. Proteolysis in the first days of storage links
to accumulation of free amino acids and chilling injury may contributed to
proteolysis, explaining the differences registered between the values at 6 ºC and 2
ºC (Peng et al., 2009).
About the impact of different cooking methods in the content of sweet potato
leaves the results obtained by Sun, Mu, Xi & Song (2014) (Table 11) showed an
increase of protein when processed, excepting when fried. The same study
presented a decrease in fiber and fat values for processed leaves, except for fried
samples.

Table 11 Main composition of raw and cooked Sweet Potato leaves (Sun, Mu, Xi & Song, 2014).

Handling Crude protein Crude fat Crude fiber

Raw 24.04 ± 0.08 4.39 ± 0.12 11.33 ± 0.46

Boiled 25.56 ± 0.05 3.19 ± 0.14 10.47 ± 0.11

Steamed 28.66 ± 0.14 3.32 ± 0.12 10.41 ± 0.25

Microwave 28.11 ± 0.13 2.90 ± 0.06 10.05 ± 0.08

Baked 29.56 ± 0.28 3.38 ± 0.11 10.96 ± 0.06

Fryied 17.11 ± 0.07 42.92 ± 0.12 20.51 ± 0.19

Values expressed in g/100g of dry weight (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Song, 2014).

Regarding Polyphenolic and Antioxidant contents, boiled leaves reported a

decrease of 30.51% for polyphenols and of 63.82% for antioxidants. Steamed
resulted in a gain of 9.44% of polyphenols and 81.40% antioxidants. Microwave
decreased the amount of polyphenols in 25.70% and of antioxidants in 32.35%.
Baked leaves presented no change in polyphenolic content, when compared to
raw leaves, but an increase of 30.09% of antioxidants. Finally, fried leaves
39
reported a decrease of 15.73% on polyphenolic content, but an increase of
85.82% on antioxidant content.
Among all of the tested methods, steaming was the best to cook sweet potato
leaves given its balanced nutritional profile result (Table 11) (Sun, Mu, Xi & Song,
2014).
Oppositely, a study from 2012 stated that leaves from American and Asian
varieties that were boiled for over 4 minutes lost protein content, from 3.7% to
2.5% on a fresh weight basis. The same study also reported decreases in ascorbic
acid, carotene and minerals (Padmaja et al., 2012)
Additionally, dried leaves at open sunlight showed a loss of 96% in carotene and
98% loss in vitamin C. On the other hand, 50 seconds boiling followed by drying in
an enclosed solar drier reported the retention of 34% carotene (Padmaja et al.,
2012).
The main polyphenolic content was analysed by HPLC by Sun, Mu, Xi & Song
(2014) (Table 12 and Figure 13). Baking proved to be the best cooking method
given the value obtained for the sum of phenolic compounds, followed by steaming
and then by frying.

Table 12 Polyphenolic composition of raw and cooked Sweet Potato leaves (Sun, Mu, Xi & Song,
2014).

Compound Raw Boiling Steaming Microwaving Baking Frying

5-O-caffeoylquinic
2.58 ± 0.16 1.55 ± 0.11 1.93 ± 0.16 2.63 ± 0.22 2.25 ± 0.05 1.76 ± 0.00
acid
3-O-caffeoylquinic
3.06 ± 0.31 1.16 ± 0.35 1.63 ± 0.25 1.14 ± 0.12 3.06 ± 0.06 1.32 ± 0.06
acid
4-O-caffeoylquinic
13.55 ± 1.36 11.20 ± 0.00 14.67 ± 0.33 13.17 ± 0.45 13.53 ± 0.52 12.86 ± 0.19
acid
caffeic acid 4.62 ± 0.81 0.62 ± 0.00 0.75 ± 0.04 0.74 ± 0.02 5.80 ± 0.59 0.75 ± 0.02
4,5-di-O-
27.23 ± 2.28 19.60 ± 0.13 29.84 ± 2.88 24.28 ± 1.47 30.10 ± 3.81 30.04 ± 0.54
caffeoylquinic acid
3,5-di-O-
25.02 ± 1.26 18.19 ± 0.07 26.96 ± 2.53 23.14 ± 1.09 26.01 ± 2.80 25.90 ± 0.38
caffeoylquinic acid
3,4-di-O-
14.18 ± 0.44 12.90 ± 0.04 17.71 ± 1.16 14.91 ± 0.60 14.38 ± 1.04 18.32 ± 0.08
caffeoylquinic acid
3,4,5-tri-O-
10.68 ± 0.00 10.84 ± 0.00 11.08 ± 0.17 10.81 ± 0.03 11.07 ± 0.28 11.11 ± 0.10
caffeoylquinic acid
sum of phenolic
100.92 ± 6.62 75.95 ± 0.30 104.58 ± 7.52 90.82 ± 4.01 106.21 ± 9.04 102.07 ± 0.82
compounds
Values expressed in mg/100g of dry weight (Sun, Mu, Xi, & Song, 2014).

40
Figure 13 HPLC analysis of polyphenolic compounds in raw and cooked sweet potato leaves: 5-
O-caffeoylquinic acid (1), 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid (2), 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid (3), caffeic acid (4),
4,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5), 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (6), 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid (7),
and 3,4,5-tri-O-caffeoylquinic acid (8), adapted from Sun, Mu, Xi & Song (2014).

Development of products from sweet potato leaves

A group of researchers tested the acceptability of a soup made with sweet potato
leaves. The soup recipe was based on a Nigerian traditional soup named “Edikang
Ikong” and made from pumpkin leaves, sweet potato leaves, mix of meats (such
as cow tripe, snails, and cow’s skin), palm oil, ground crayfish, stock cubes,
onions, and fresh pepper. The results showed a good acceptability for the
prepared soup (Olufunmilayo et al., 2020).

41
Another application for sweet potato leaves was the production of a healthier ice
cream, as an answer to the increased commercial search for lighter and healthier
products, poorer in sugar and richer in bioactive compounds associated to immune
system boosting originated by the 21st century pandemic of COVID19. This study
had the ambition to take advantage of the vitaminic and phenolic content of sweet
potato leaves, already described in the present document with health properties
(Table 8), allied to stevia sugar and skim milk to create a more attractive product
for healthier consumers (Hartati et al., 2021).
Other researchers isolated caffeoylquinic acids from sweet potato leaves by a
cellulose-dissolving ionic liquid to use as pharmacologic molecules to target the
aggregation of amyloid peptides linked to Alzheimer’s disease. The leaves used
for this study were from cultivar “Sui-Oh”, that can be commercially acquired in
Japan, since are used to make tea (Usuki et al., 2017).
While some Asian and African regions already use sweet potato leaves for human
or animal diet, many countries do not seem to be aware of the benefits that this
food source can present. Consequently, most information that literature provides is
related to varieties developed by Asian or African countries. No articles describing
the nutritional content of varieties most commercialized in Europe are available.
Even the name of the varieties was only mentioned by the Centre for the
Promotion of Imports from developing countries CBI, a project funded by
Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs established in 1971 (Centre for the
Promotion of Imports from developing countries, 2019; Li et al., 2017).
According to CBI, European market shows a preference for the varieties named
“American Covington” and “Spanish Beauregard”, since both cover 95% of the
market (Centre for the Promotion of Imports from developing countries, 2019).
Regarding its characteristics, the two referred varieties have orange flesh and light
rose skin. However, The American Covington has a harvesting time of 101 to 115
days after planting, while The Spanish Beauregrad has a harvesting time of 90 to
100 days, with highest production rates (Jennings et al, 2019).
In relation to pests, both cultivars show resistance to Fusarium oxysporum,
moderate resistance to Streptomyces Soil Rot and susceptibility to Wireworm
Diabrotica Systena Complex (wireworms, Diabrotica -cucumber beetles, Systena-
flea beetles, Sweet Potato flea beetle (Chaetocnema confinis). Conversely, for

42
Southern root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) The American Covington
showed resistance and The Spanish Beauregrad showed susceptibility. As for
Flea Beetle, the first is moderately susceptible and the second is susceptible.
Nevertheless, no information related to human consumption with toxic
consequences was found in literature (Jennings et al, 2019).
The aim of the current study can be divided into 4 parts. First of all, it is important
to do a nutritional assessment of the leaves from the varieties cultivated in
Portugal. Secondly, it is convenient to submit the leaves to steam or fry processes
and measure its content, since it has been proved to be the best cooking options,
and like it was done by Sun, Mu, Xi & Song (2014). Third, the low values of Na
founded in the analysed Sweet Potato leaves (Table 4) open space to combine
them with something that increase the content of sodium, for example, the
application of leaves as commercial chips. At the same time, it would be
interesting to explore the use of an extract for vegan gummies. Finally, it is
pertinent to submit the developed product to a sensory study (Harvard Health
Publishing, 2020; Lebot, 2020; Sun, Mu, Xi & Song, 2014; Sun, Mu, Xi, & Zhang,
2014).

Timeline

Table 13 Timeline for the present project in development.

Task Description Date

T1 Research and writing of seminar November 2020 – November 2021
T2 Presentation of seminar January 2022
T3 Application of the proposed methods from October 2021 – March 2022
seminar literature references
T4 Development of a commercial product January 2022 – March 2022
T5 Writing of discussion of results and conclusions October 2022 – April 2022
T6 Review and corrections May 2022
T7 Presentation of thesis June 2022

43
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