Chapter 14 Electromagnetic Waves 14.1, INTRODUCTION Some wave solutions to Maxwell's equations have already been encountered in the Solved Problems of Chapter 13. The present chapter will extend the treatment of electromagnetic waves. Since most regions of interest are free of charge, it will be assumed that charge density p~0. Moreover, linear isotropic materials will be assumed, with D= we in the range of practical frequencies. Therefore, the propagation constant and the intrinsic impedance are y=atjp a=Bp=y\ P= Vinfna n= thus It is seen that for all conductors the E and H waves are attenuated. Numerical examples will show that this is a very rapid attenuation. a will always be equal to 8. At each fixed location H is out of time phase with E by 45° or /4rad. Once again assuming E in a, and propagation in a, , the field equations are, from Section 14.4, Ele, Bee M, HG) = Ete By o aw 2n_ 2x Moreover. “ Bo i = wd .= 5 Vague 2” The velocity and wavelength in a conducting medium are written here in terms of the skin depth or depth of penetration, —— Vafuo EXAMPLE 2. Assume a field E=1.0e-%e"-g, (V/m), with f = w/2x=100MHz, at the surface of a copper conductor, = 58MS/m, located at z>0, as shown in Fig. 14-3. Examine the attenuation as, the wave propagates into the conductor. At depth z the magnitude of the feld is IB}= 1.06 * = 1.06" where 6 1 =661 pm Vesna °°CHAP. 14] ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 221 ‘Thus, after just 6.61 micrometers the field is attenuated to. ~'=36.8% of its initial value. At $6 or 33 micrometers, the magnitude is 0.67% of its initial value—practically zero. 14.7 INTERFACE CONDITIONS AT NORMAL INCIDENCE When a traveling wave reaches an interface between two different regions, it is partly reflected and partly transmitted, with the magnitudes of the two parts determined by the constants of the two regions. In Fig. 14-4, a traveling E wave approaches the interface 2=0 from region 1, 2< @ E’and E’ are at z=—0, while E’isat z=+0 (in region 2). Here, jifies “incident,” r “reflected” and ¢ “transmitted.” Normal incidence is assumed. The equations for E and H can be written BG, 1) = Bie ea, EG, t)= Eeerea, BiG, 1) = Bie alte, HY, 1)= Hie ea, HG, 1)= Hees, Hz, 1)= Hie ea, One of the six constants—it is almost always E—may be taken as real. Under the interface conditions about to be derived, one or more of the remaining five may turn out to be complex. With nominal incidence, E and H are entirely tangential to the interface, and thus are ‘continuous actoss it. At z=0 this implies E,+ES=E, Hy + Ho= He Furthermore, the intrinsic impedance in either region is equal to. +E,/H, (see Section 14.4). Ee ES Ay He The five cquations above can be combined w produce the following tatius in vers of the intrinsic impedances: =m m~m22 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES [cuar. 14 ‘The intrinsic impedances for various materials have been examined earlier. They are repeated here for reference. [je a+ joe partially conducting medium: conducting medium: =f [45° perfect dielectric: n= iE free space: tto= yee 12072 0 EXAMPLE 3. Traveling E and H waves in free space (region 1) are normally incident on the interface with a perfect diclectric (region 2) for which ¢,—3.0. Compare the mognitudes of the incident, reflected, and. transmitted E and H waves at the interface. m= m= 10r2 m= Vi- 88-270 14.8 OBLIQUE INCIDENCE AND SNELL’S LAWS An incident wave that approaches a plane interface between two different media generally will result in a transmitted wave in the second medium and a refected wave in the first. The plane of incidence is the plane containing the incident wave normat and the local normal to the interface; in Fig. 14-5 this is the xz plane. ‘The normals to the reflected and transmitted waves also lie in the plane of incidence. The angle of incidence 6,, the angle of reflection 6,, and the angle of trancmicsion 8,—all defined as in Fig. 14-5—abey Snell's law of reflection, and Snell's law of refraction, Reflected © Transmited Incident norma Fig. 145CHAP. 14] ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 23 Bowes A wave is incident at an angle of 30° from air to teflon, ¢,=2.1. Calculate the angle of transmission, and repeat with an interchange of the regions. Since = Hs, sins fea_ sing Ve," Vet or 0= 20.18 From teflon to air, sin? . Mey On Supposing both media of the same permeability, propagation from the optically denser medium (€,>€;) results in 0,>6;. As @; increases, an angle of incidence will be reached that results in @,=90°, At this critical angle of incidence, instead of a wave being transmitted into the second medium there will be a wave that propagates along the surface. The critical angle is given by 8. =sin? 4/2 é: Mcumnes ‘The critical angle for a wave propagating from teflon into free space is +t . 0. sin 5 = 8.64 149 PERPENDICULAR POLARIZATION ‘The orientation of the electric field E with respect to the plane of incidence determines the polarization of a wave at the interface between two different regions. In perpendicular polarization Is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (the xz plane in Fig. 14-0) and is thus parallel to the (planar) interface. At the interface, Eo _ 2008 6, — n, cos 8, Eo 12008 8, + 1, 60s 6, E___ 212008 6, Ey mgcos 8, +7, c08 8, and Note that for normal incidence 6,= 8, =" and the expressions reduce to those found in Section 14.8.224 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IcHaP. 14 tis not difficult to show that, if j41= 2, m200s 6, —n,cos 8, #0 for any 8 Hence, a perpendicularly polarized incident wave suffers either partial or total reflection. 14.10 PARALLEL POLARIZATION For parallel polarization the electric field vector E lies entirely within the plane of incidence, the xz plane as shown in Fig. 14-7. (Thus E assumes the role played by H in perpendicular polarization.) At the interface, Ea _ 12008 0,~ 11008 6, Ed 008 8, + 2008 6, Ey___2n3008 6, E 4” i608 8, — 1, 608 8, and Fig. 167 In contrast to perpendicular polarizations, if 4,=H2 there will be a particular angle of incidence for which there is no reflected wave. This Brewster angle is given by MEXAMPLE 6. The Brewster angle for » par 5.0 is 2 Shan STANDING WAVES ‘When waves traveling in a perfect dielectric (0, = a; =0) are normally incident on the interface with a perfect conductor (o,==, 2 =0), the reflected wave in combination with the incident wave produces a standing wave. In such a wave. which is readily demonstrated on a clamped taut string. the oscillations at all points of a half-wavelength interval are in time phase. The combination of incident and reflected waves may be written E(2, 1) = [Ej + Beton Py Since m2=0, E9/E)=—-1 and E(z, 1) = &(Eie™ — Exe”), = -2)Easin prea, y= tan"! V5.0 = 65.91% = e(Ele + Eie™ a,ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 228 E(z, 0) =2E%sin Bz sin ora, is shown in Fig. 14-8 at time intervals of 7/8, where T—2n/@ is the everywhere; at ¢=1(T/8), the endpoints of the E vectors lie on sine curve 1; at 1=2(7'/8), they lie on sine curve 2; and so forth. Sine curves 2 and 6 form an envelope for the oscillations; the amplitude of this envelope is twice the amplitude of the incident wave. Note that adjacent half-wavelength segments are 180° out of phase with each other. Fig. 14-8 14.12 POWER AND THE POYNTING VECTOR Maxwell's first equation for a region with conductivity ois written and then E is dotted with each term. VxH= cE +e ar Es (UX H)= of! + Be where, as usual, F2=E+R ‘The vector identity U+(A%R) ‘employed to change the left side of the equation HX A)-AL(TXR) is He (0X E)—V-(EXH) = 08? + Ee By Maxwells second equation, He(V XE) =H: (-w Similarly, Substituting, and rearranging terms, of? = -5—— EO v-(EXH)26 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ICHAP. 14 Integration of this equation throughout an arbitrary volume v gives ' (se nme oe dv= L¢ eee ) av ~ f cece - as where the last term has been converted to an integral over the surface of v by use of the divergence theorem. ‘The integral on the left has the units of watts and is the usual ohmic term representing energy Gissipated per unit time in heat. This dissipated energy has its source in the integrals on the Fight. Because c£7/2 and wH?/2 are the densities of energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields, respectively, the volume integral (including the minus sign) gives the decrease in this stored ‘Consequently, the surface integral (including the minus sign) must be the rate of energy entering the volume from outside. A change of sign then produces the instantaneous rate of energy leaving the volume: PeO-fexm-ss-f 9-as where 9%=EXH_ is the Poynting vector, the instantaneous rate of energy flow per unit area at a point. I the cross product that defines the Poynting vector, the ficlds are supposed to be in real form. If, instead, E and H are expressed in complex form and have the common time-dependence e, then the time-average of @ is given by Pay = 4 Re (EX H*) where H* is the complex conjugate of H. This follows the complex power of circuit analysis, S= 4VI*, of which the power is the real part, P=4Re VI" For plane waves, the direction of energy flow is the direction of propagation. Thus the Foynting veviur offers a useful, eouidinate-fice way of specifying the direction of propagation, oF of determining the directions of the fields if the direction of propagation is known. This can be particularly valuable where incident, transmitted, and reflected waves are being examined. Solved Problems A traveling wave is described by y=10sin(6z—r). Sketch the wave at 1=0 and at =f, when it has advanced /8, if the velocity is 3x 10° m/s and the angular frequency w= 10°rad/s. Repeat for @=2x 10*rad/s and the same t,. ‘The wave advances A in one period, T=2x/w. Hence rs, 8 40 4 decn= = Ox) gp 26m ‘The wave is shown at 1=0 and (=f, inFig. 149(a). At twice the frequency, the wavelength 2 is coneshalf, and the phase shift constant fis twice, the former value. See Fig. 14.0(b). At 4, the wave has also advanced 236m, but this distance is now A/4.CHAP. 14) ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 21 © @) Fig 149 . In free space, E(z, t)=10"sin(wt—fiz)a, (V/m). Obtain H(z, 0). Examination of the phase, a ~ iz, shows that the direction of propagation is +z. Since EXH ‘must also be in the +2 direction, H must have the direction -a,. Consequently, 5 ye we y= = aoa or He — Fogg Sin (at ~ Bz) (Alm) 0 and He, =~ jppesin (or Be)a, (Alm) 14.3. For the wave of Problem 14.2 determine the propagation constant y, given that the frequency is [=95.5MHz. In general, y= Viow(o + jwe). In free space, 0=0, so that 2n(95.5 x10) = joViees pa IO Note that this result shows that the attenuation factor is @=0 and the phase-shift constant is B=20rad/m. 144, Examine the field zs E(z, #) = 10sin (wt + Bz)a, + 10008 (cot + fz)a, inthe z=0 plane, for wx=0, 2/4, 2/2, 37/4 and x. ‘The computations are presented in Table 14-1. Tobte 141228 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ICHAP. 14 ‘As shown in Fig. 14-10, E(,1) is circularly polarized. In addition, the wave travels in the direction. Fig. 14:10 14.5. An H field travels in the —a, direction in free space with a phaseshift constant of 30.0 rad/m and an amplitude of (1/32)A/m. If the field has the direction —a, when ¢=0 and z=0, write suitable expressions for E and H. Determine the frequency and wavelength. In a medium of conductivity 0, the intrinsic impedance 7, which relates E and H, would be complex, and so the phase of E and H would have to be written in complex form. In free space this restriction is unnecessary. Using cosines, then HG.) =~ Leas (or + Ba, For propagation in ~2, fm ~mo=-12008 or E,= +40 cos (at +82) (Vim) Thus Bz, 1) = 4008 (ot + fz)a, (V/m) Since B=30rad/m, x10" _ 45 Ss eX WH 14.6. Determine the propagation constant y for a material having ,—1, €,-8, and o- 0.25pS/m, if the wave frequency is 1.6 MHz. Ir this wane, 0.25% 107? Ta(.6 x 10} (ETO 73x) ~ "°° so that Viz an0 provae=2af and y=a+jp~j9.48Xx10%m'', The material behaves like a perfect dielectric at the given frequency. Conductivity of the order of 1 pS/m indicates that the material is more like an insulator than a conductor. 9.48 x 107? rad/m 14.7. Determine the conversion factor between the neper and the decibel. ‘Consider a plane wave traveling in the +z direction whose amplitude decays according 10 BakeCHAP. 14] ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 29 From Section 14.12, the power carried by the wave is proportional to £*, so that PaRem ‘Then, by definition of the decibel, the power drop over the distance is 101og.0(Ps/P)4B. But B 10 P__ 20 log p= 33006!" p 2.3006 ‘Thus, az nepers is equivalent to 8.686(az) decibels; i.e., Np = 8.68648 (a2) = 8.686(02) 14.8. At what frequencies may earth be considered a perfect dielectric, if o=5x 10-*S/m, ,=1, and ,=8? Can abe assumed zero at these frequencies? ‘Assume arbitrarily that marks the cutoff. Then voi) ~o V2) SNE “Thue, ne matter how high the frequency, 1 will he shout 0.383Np/m, or almost 3 db/en (ese Problem 14.7); ar cannot be assumed zero. 14.9. Find the skin depth 5 at a frequency of 1.6MHz in aluminum, where o= 38.2MS/m and u.=1. Also find v and the wave velocity u. a ; = 6.44 10% m= 64.4 um ‘aft 95 =647 (m/s) =85, Un=1, o%1=0) to 14.10. A perpendicularly polarized wave propagates from region 1 (¢, .OuV/m, find: E5, region 2, free space, with an angle of incidence of 15°. Given E} E4, Hy, Hy, and Hy, ‘The intrinsic impedances are 12120 1990 and m= m= 12002 Vex V5 ‘and the angle of transmission Is given by sins’ [e sing, Vase, % °F230 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES [cHap. 14 E4_ M2008 0 ~ 11008 6, Ey 10056,4 710056, Ey___2nscos 6, Ey 72008 0, + 7, 208 8, Finally, = Ei/n.=7.750A/m, He=4.830A/m, and Hy=431nA/m. 0.623 or = Ee =0.6234V/m = 163 or Eh=1.623 xV/m 14.11. Calculate the intrinsic impedance 4, the propagation constant y, and the wave velocity u for a conducting medium in which o=58MS/m, y,=1, ata frequency f = 100MHz. y= Veopio [45° = 2.14 x 10° /45° m* a= YH us =200 x10 ps0 Elum = w= wb =4.15 x10" m/s a= p=1.51 x10" @ 14.12. A plane wave traveling in the +z direction in free space (2 <0) is normally incident at z=U on a conductor (z>U) tor which o=61.7MS/m, 4,=1. The free-space E wave has a frequency f=1.5MHz and an amplitude of 1.0'V/m; at the interface it is given by E(0, t)= 1.0sin2afta, (V/m) Find H(z, t) for 2>0. For 2>0, and in complex form, Efe, )= 1.0", (V/m) ‘where the imaginary part will ultimately be taken. In the conductor, a= B= Vifua = Vt 5x 10(AR 10” (GL.T ADF ~ 1.91 > 10" a= fs a38x 10 tem Then, since E,/(-H,)=n, Ez, 1) = -2.28 x Ie eH, (AL) or. taking the imaginary par H(z, 1) = -2.28 x 10°e-* sin (2a — Be — x/4)a, (Alm) where f, a, and B are as given above. 14.13. In free space E(z, t) =50cos (wt —iz)a, (V/m). Find the average power crossing a circular area of radius 2.5m in the plane z= const. In complex form, B= Steher-Fte, (Vim) and since = 12012 and propagation is in +2, 5 pioe-n, Hep a, (Alm) Then ng 4 Re (EX) = 1650-5), Wi?CHAP. 14] ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 231 ‘The flow is normal to the area, and so, (2.5) = 65.1W 14.14 A voltage source, v, is connected to a pure resistor R by a length of coaxial cable, as shown in Fig. 14-11(a). Show that use of the Poynting vector # in the dielectric leads to the same instantaneous power in the resistor as methods of circuit analysis. From Problem 7.9 and Ampére’s law, E= In bia) where @ and b are the radii of the inner and outer conductors, as shown in Fig. 14-11(b). Then # -ExH- EXE Fn bla)” ‘This isthe instantaneous power density. The total instantaneous power over the cross section of the dielectric is rom" f sextagec radon which is also the circuit-theory result for the instantaneous power loss in the resistor. 14.15, Determine the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted E and H at the interface shown in232 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES [CHAP. 14 Fig. 14-12, if Ej=1.5x 10"? V/m_ in region 1, in which €1=8.5, Ha and 9; 0. Region 2is free space. Assume normal incidence. ma ft = 1292 n= 1200 0=370 me nt 2m mm = 7.38. 10'V/m, Ba B= 2.24% 10 Ven n-P 1.16 «10° A/m nm <1 Fi, = -3.69 x 10" Alm atm t= 2 ry= 3.91 x10 “Arm htm fnstin A 0-Bo % e * — ie 4 Mig. 1412, 14.16. The amplitude of E’ in free space (region 1) at the interface with region 2 is 1LOV/m. If Ho=-141x 10 A/m, €2=185 and o2=0, find wa. From Rue ce Fo m-377 iH 120% Q = -3772 and B37, 10 aor . er o m= Ie Then 1a4= or a= 1984 14.17. A normally incident E. field has amplitude £}=1.0V/m_ in free space just outside of cig Seawater in which €, =80, 4,=1, and o=2.5S/m. For a frequency of 30MHz, at face will the amplitude of E be 1.0mV/m? Let the free space be region J and the seawater be region 2. n=3I7Q = 9.HYSKO “Then the amplitude of E just inside the seawater is E Fe 5.0710? V/m Eo n+mCHAP. 14) ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 233 From y= Vfan(a ¥ Toe) =24.36/4659'm *, 4 24.36 cos 46.53" = 16.76Np/mn Then, from 1.0=10 *= (5.07% 10 2" ™ 234m. 14.18. A traveling E field in free space, of amplitude 100 V/m, strikes a sheet of silver of thickness Sum, as shown in Fig. 14-13. Assuming o=61.7MS/m and a frequency f= = 200 MHz, find the amplitudes [Fa]. [EsI, and [é4) 4, ote foto For the silver at 200 MHz.» = 5.06 x 10°* 45° Q. B,__ 265.06 x 10°? 1454) Eas sexi pas MiB 2.68 10°" Vm in the conductor, 21 x 10 ‘Thus, in addition to attenuation there is phase shift as the wave travels through the conductor. Since UF and IE; represent maximum values ofthe sinusoidally varying wave, thie phase chift i not involved VE a] = LE ad e°% = (2.68 X 10)" 7" 8 8B x 10-* Ven 5 2@77) and Ec aaascex ie (fen B= 1.78% 10-'V/m Supplementary Problems 14.19. Given (2, 1) =10°sin (6x 10'r— fz)a, (V/m) in free space, sketch the wave at and at time f, when it has traveled 4/4 along the z axis. Find t,Beand 2. Ans, t=262ns, B=2rad/m, A= mm. See Fig. 14-14