ZERO-POINT RADIATION, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION

R. Alvargonzález y L.S. Soto

Facultad de Fı́sica, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain

arXiv:physics/0312096v4 [physics.gen-ph] 6 May 2008

In this paper it is shown that the forces which resist the acceleration of the mass of the electron, me , arising from
the Compton effect, the Klein-Nishima-Kann formula for its differential cross section and the transversal Doppler
effect when the electron moves in a straight line coincide, with ε < 1, 16 × 10−4 , with the force required to propel
me with the same acceleration, if the radius of the electron is equal to its classical radius and if the forces which
rise from the interaction of the electron and zero-point radiation are equal to those deriving from the electrostatic
repulsion of the charge of the electron against itself (Poincare’s tensions). The equations worked in this paper show
that there is no difference between inertial mass and gravitational mass and may be used to determine the value of
the gravitational constant.
PACS numbers:

• The flow of the zero-point photons of wavelength

nqλ through an area (qλ )2 is one photon in a lapse
 3
kλ
INTRODUCTION of time n3 qτ where qτ = qλ /c. Therefore
n
photons of wavelenght nqλ will flow through an
Sparnaay’s experiments in 1958 [4] showed the area (le )2 during any lapse of time te , where kλ =
existence of zero-point radiation which Nernst had con- le /qλ = te /qτ . See the final result of [2].
sidered as a possibility in 1916. This radiation is inherent • The minimun wavelengh in zero-point radiation is
to space, and for that to be the case its spectral density xqλ . See [3], p. 7.
function must be inversely proportional to the cubes of
its wavelengths. In other words, the number of photons • The energy flow of zero-point radiation per (qλ )2 ,
of wavelength λ which strike a given area during a given expressed in the (e, me , c) system is:
period must be inversely proportional to λ3 . In 1969,
2π (kλ )2 me c2
Timothy H. Boyer [4] deduced that the spectral density Wx = per (qλ )2 , See [3] p. 7. (1)
function of zero-point radiation is: 3α x3 te

1 1 • The energy transferred by a photon of wavelength

fϕ (λ) = nqλ to an electron is ETn = En π[Am ].
2π 2 (λ∗ )3

where λ∗ is the number which measures the wavelength hc 2π kλ

En = = me c 2 ;
λ. nqλ α n
To this function there corresponds the energy func-
tion  
7 11
[Am ] = lim A − A2 + · · · + (−1)m−1 {m}Am
1 hc 1 m→∞ 12 10
Eϕ (λ) =
2π 2 λ (λ∗ )3
2π kλ
A= ;
For λ = 0, Eϕ (λ) = ∞. There must therefore exist α n
a threshold for λ which will henceforth be written as qλ .
In order to simplify the following arguments, it is 1 2 3 m(m − 1)
convenient to use the (e, me , c) system of measurements {m} = + − −1− ;
m+1 m+2 m+3 6
in which the basic magnitudes are the quantum of elec-
trical charge, the mass of the electron and the speed of hence
light. In this system the units of length and time are, 2π 2 kλ
respectively, le = e2 /me c2 and te = e2 /me c3 . Moreover, ETn = [Am ]me c2 . (2)
α n
the following results and formulae obtained in titles [2]
and [3] of the references are basic. see [3], p. 8.
ZERO-POINT RADIATION, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION 2

• The zero-point radiation transfers to the electron this does not happen with S ′ , which continues to move
the energy flow at a uniform acceleration “a”.
After a minimal lapse of time qτ , the zero-point ra-
2π 2 (kλ )2 me c2 diation photons of wavelength λ in S1 , which at t = t1
WTx = 3
[B]m per (qλ )2 (3)
α x te arrive at P along a line which makes an angle θ with
O′ X ′ (see Fig. 1) are perceived in S ′ as if proceeding
2π kλ from a source of light Fϕ , situated on a line which passes
where B = ;
α x through P and makes an angle θ with O′ X ′ , and moving
7 {m} m at velocity ∆v = aq qτ relative to O′ , where aq is the ac-
[Bm ] = B + · · · + (−1)m B celeration “a” expressed through a system in which the
48 m+3
unit of length is qλ and the unit of time is qτ . Therefore:
see [3], p. 9.
4π 3 (kλ )4 (rx )4 [B]m qλ
• x3 = ; where (rx ) is the radius ∆v = aq qτ = aq c,
3α (qτ )2
of the electron expressed in le .
which can also be written:
For rx = re = le we have
kλ qλ le
4π 3 (kλ )4 [B]m ∆v = aq kλ qτ = a te ,
x3 = (4) (kλ qτ )2 (te )2
3α
which reveals that the increase in velocity per qτ given
qλ
see [3], p. 10. by an acceleration of aq is the same as the increase
(qτ )2
2π 2 (kλ )2 (rx )2 [B]m le
• x3 = . of velocity per te given by an acceleration of aq ;
3αGe (te )2
For rx = re = le we have this allows us to write:
2π 2 (kλ )2 [B]m le
x3 = (5) ∆v = ate = a te = ac
3αGe (te )2

see [3], p. 10.

From (4) and (5) we obtain
 1/2
1
kλ = (6)
2πGe

From here qλ = (2απ)1/2 LP , where LP is the

Planck’s length, and
kλ = 8.143375 × 1020
x = 5.275601 × 1027
kλ
z= = 1.548877 × 10−7
x
The value of kλ means that the minimum wave-
length of a photon is
le
qλ = = (2απ)1/2 Lp .
kλ
ON ZERO-POINT RADIATION WITHIN A
REFERENCE SYSTEM S′ MOVING IN A
STRAIGHT LINE AND WITH UNIFORM
ACCELERATION, AND ON ITS INTERACTION
WITH AN ELECTRON AT REST IN S′
Let us consider a reference system S ′ which co-
incides with the inertial system S0 , until at t = 0 it
begins to move along the axis OX at a uniform acceler-
ation “a”, and which after the lapse t1 coincides with the
inertial system S1 which is moving at a velocity v1 = at1
relative to S0 . It is obvious that the zero-point radiation
at S1 has the same spectral composition as at S0 , but
FIG. 1: .
We should point out here the enormous size of the
unit of acceleration in the (e, me , c) system, compared
with the unit of the same magnitude in the (c.g.s.) sys-
tem. The relation between them is given by:
le c 2.997925 × 1010 cm/s
2
= =
(te ) te 9.399639 × 10−24 s
cm
= 3.189404 × 1033 .
(s)2
One result of this is that the acceleration required
to move in one second from rest to the speed of light;
which is the (c.g.s) system is 2.997925 × 1010 cm/(s)2 , is
9.399639 × 10−24le /(te )2 when expressed in the (e, me , c)
system. This shows that the values of “a” are minuscule
for the accelerations which can be produced in physical
reality, excepting those which could be produced in the
process of the Big-Bang. It is therefore reasonable to con-
clude that “a” is an extremely small number, certainly
less than 10−23 .
ZERO-POINT RADIATION, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION 3

Figure 1 shows photons of the zero-point radiation same lapse of time and which make an angle θ with OX,
which, at t = t1 , arrive at P so as to make an angle d = Nn dθ
corresponds to the area produced by the arc AB
θ with O′ x′ and that, as aforesaid, are perceived in S ′ when rotated around OX, whence:
as if proceeding from a light-source Fϕ , situated on a
line which passes through P and moving at a velocity  3
1 kλ
ale ′
Nnθ = Nnθ = sin θdθ (8)
∆v = te = ac relative to O′ , along a line parallel 2 n
(te )2
to O′ X ′ . As a result of the Doppler lateral relativistic for every (le )2 during every te .
effect (DLRE), their wavelength in S ′ is:

1 − β cos θ
λ′0 = λ ;
(1 − β 2 )1/2

where λ is the wavelength of emission in Fϕ , β = v/c

and −v the velocity of the source Fϕ relative to O′ .
∆v
By introducing in this equation β = = a, we
c
obtain
π π
• For > θ > − ; where Fϕ is approaching P
2 2
′ 1 − a cos θ FIG. 2: .
λθ = λ
(1 − a2 )1/2
Figure 3 shows the equatorial section of an electron
3π 3π at rest at O′ , in system S ′ . Because of the Doppler lateral
• For > θ > − ; where Fϕ is moving away
2 2 relativistic effect, the photons of wavelength λ emitted
from P by Fϕ , moving at velocity −a∆v = −ate relative to O′
1 + a cos θ along a straight line parallel to O′ X ′ , and which on ar-
λ′(π/2+θ) = λ (7) rival at points P1 and P2 make an angle θ with O′ X ′ are
(1 − a2 )1/2
perceived at those points as having a wavelength:
We have already established that the flow of zero- 1 − a cos θ
point radiation photons of wavelength nqλ through a λ′θ = λ
(1 − a2 )1/2
frame of area (le )2 is one of (kλ /n)3 photons for each
lapse te . Viewed from the system of reference S ′ , mov-
ing at velocity ate relative to the inertial system S1 , and
along the axis OX, this number of photons appears to
pass through a frame of area:

(le )2
(le′ )2 = ,
(1 − a2 )
te
for every lapse t′e = ; this gives a photon flow
(1 − a2 )1/2
 3
kλ
of (1 − a2 )3/2 through a frame of area (le′ )2 , per
n
te ; however since the number a must surely be inferior to FIG. 3: .
 3
kλ
10−23 , this flow does not differ significantly from . According to (8), the number of photons of wave-
n length nqλ which arrive at all the points P of intersection
′
The fact that the intensity of the flow Nnθ of the between the surface of the electron and the cone having
photons of wavelength λ which arrive at O′ following a its apex at Q and making an angle 2θ at that apex, is
trajectory which makes an angle θ with O′ X ′ , through  3
1 kλ
the frame of area (le′ )2 during every lapse t′e , does not sin θdθ.
differ significantly from the intensity of the analogous 2 n
flow Nnθ , enables us to establish the value of Nnθ ′
with- Therefore, the energies transferred during each lapse
out difficulty. From Fig. 2 we can see that if Nn is the te to the electron by these photons, and by those which
number of photons of wavelength nqλ which arrive from arrive from the opposite direction, π + θ, are respectively
all directions of space at a frame of area (le )2 within given by:
a lapse te , and if that number corresponds to the area  4
4π(Nn )2 of a spherical surface of radius Nn , the number, π2 kλ (1 − a2 )1/2 h ′ i me c2
WT′ nθ = Anθ sin θdθ
Nnθ , of those which arrive at the said frame within the α n 1 − a cos θ te
ZERO-POINT RADIATION, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION 4

 4 h i h i
π 2 kλ (1−a2)1/2h ′ i me c2 and where the developments of A′nθ and A′n(π+θ) are
WT′ n (π+θ)= An(π+θ) sin θdθ
α n 1+a cos θ te 2π kλ
(9) analogous to the development of [An ] for A = ,
α n
per (le )2 , where: which appears in (2).
  In (9) the number to be considered in each of the
2π kλ (1 − a2 )1/2 formulas is the number arriving from a half-space, so
A′nθ = − ;
α n 1 − a cos θ that π 2 /α appears there instead of 2π 2 /α as in (2).
The total WT′ nθ + WT′ n(π+θ) per (le )2 is:
 
2π kλ (1 − a2 )1/2
A′n(π+θ) =− ;
α n 1 + a cos θ

(  5  
me c 2 π 2 7 2πkλ 1 1
sin θ dθ − − + ···
te α 12 αn (1 − a cos θ)2 (1 + a cos θ)1/2
 m+4  )  
2πkλ 2 m+1 1 1 α 4
+ {m} − (1 − a ) 2 m+1
− m+1
αn (1 − a cos θ) (1 + a cos θ) 2π
(    
5 m+4
me c2 π 2 7 2πkλ (1 − a2 )2/2 m−1 2πkλ
= sin θdθ 2a cos θ + · · · + (−1) {m}
te α 12 αn [1 − (a cos θ)2 ]2 αn
" ! #)
(1 − a2 ) 2
m+1
m+1  α 4
3 3
× 2(m + 1)a cos θ + 2 a cos θ + · · ·
[1 − (a cos θ)2 ]m+1 3 2π

m+1
Since a < 10−23 , (1 − a2 ) 2 and {1 − (a cos θ)2 }m+1 X
∞

do not differ significantly from n−m and by introducing it in (10)

 significantly from 1, while the terms
n=x
m+1 m + 1 we obtain
2 a3 cos3 θ, 2 a5 cos5 θ, etc., are in-
3 5  3
significant with respect to 2(m + 1)a cos θ, and can be 2π 2 kλ me c 2
WT′ θ = kλ −[ Bx −] a sin θ cos θdθ (11)
ignored so that we can write: α x te

me c 2 π 2 per (le )2 , where

WT′ nθ +WT′ n(π+θ) = a sin θ cos θdθ 
te α 14 33
" −[ Bx −] = − (Bx ) − (Bx )2 + · · ·
   5 48 50
7 2π kλ 
× 4+· · · (10) m+1
12 α n + (−1)m−1 {m} (Bx )m − ,
m+3
 m+4 m+4 #
2π kλ 2πkλ
+(−1) m+1
{m} 2(m+1) and Bx = .
α n αx
WT′ θ
Hence we obtain the force Fθ′ = , whose projec-
c
per (le )2 . WT′ θ cos θ
The energy flow which is transferred to the electron tion along O′ X ′ is ; in other words:
by all the zero-point radiation photons which arrive at c
P1 and P2 with trajectories which, respectively, make  3
2π 2 kλ me c
angles θ and π + θ with O′ X ′ can be obtained by adding
′
Fθ cos θ = kλ [ Bx −] a cos2 θ sin θdθ (12)
α x te
up the values of n between n = x and n → ∞, where
xqλ is the wavelength of the zero-point radiation photon per (le )2 .
X∞
1
which possesses most energy. Since n−m = · Figure 4 shows that for an area (qλ )2 situated on
n=x
m−1 the surface of the electron at P on O′ X ′ , the sum of the
1 1 projections Fθ′ cos θ is:
, where ε < , and x is a very large number, we
xm−1 2x Z
1 1 2π 2 (kλ )2 me c π/2
can accept that the value · m−1 does not differ
′
FPθ = −[ Bx −] a cos2 θ sin θ dθ,
m−1 x α x3 te 0
ZERO-POINT RADIATION, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION 5

per (qλ )2 , whence ( 14 33

48 ) − ( 50 )B +· · ·+(−1)
m−1
{m}(m+1)(m+3)−1B m
= 7 11
( 48 ) − ( 50 )B + · · · + (−1)m−1 {m}(m + 3)−1 B m
2π 2 (kλ )2 me c
FP′ 0 = −[ Bx −] a per (qλ )2 . (13)
3α x3 te is equal to 2 for B → 0
2
 3 2π
(kλ ) kλ B= z must be < 1 which means that
where appears instead of kλ because (12) α
x3 x
2
expresses forces per (le ) ; while we are now talking of z < α/2π = 1.16 × 10−3
forces per (qλ )2 , i.e. the former divided by (kλ )2 .
For z = 1.1 × 10−3 , very near to its upper limits, we
−[ B−]x
have = 1.358
[Bm ]
For kλ = 8.143375 × 1020 and x = 5.257601 ×
27
10 , we obtain G = 6.67487 × 10−8 , which means
1.0001 × 6.6742 × 10−8 . This last value was taken
from CODATA 2002. In CODATA 1991 the value
of G was G = 6.67259 × 10−8 . The quotient CO-
DATA2002/CODATA1991 is equal to 1.00024. The ob-
tained value would mean an additional correction ap-
proximately equal to half the value of the anterior.

FIG. 4: Fig. 1 CONCLUSIONS

The sum FP of the projections along O′ X ′ of the

forces which come from zero-point radiation and the 1. The results obtained through the set of equations
Doppler lateral relativistic effect is the same at every (4), (5), (6) and (15) show that inertia may be
point inside the circle whose center is at O′ and whose considered as the opposition to any change in the
radius is O′ PP , perpendicular to O′ X ′ . Therefore, the motion of electrons immersed in zero-point radi-
force which comes from the presence of zero-point radi- ation because of the lateral relativistic Doppler
ation and the Doppler lateral relativist effect is effect (Therefore, there remains a difference equal
to 1.1438 × 10−6 % to be explained).
2π 3 (kλ )4 (rx )2 me c
F = 3
−[ Bx −] a (14) 2. The equations worked in this paper show that
3α x te
there is no difference between inertial mass and
where rx is an integer. For rx = 1 gravitational mass.
2π 3 (kλ )4 me c 3. With abstraction of the aforesaid difference, equa-
F = 3
−[ Bx −] a (15) tion (15) constitutes a new validation of Einstein’s
3α x te
Theory of Special Relativity.
By introducing in this last formula the values ob-
tained in [3] for kλ and x, which are reproduced in the 4. There are no gravitons. The photons of zero-point
me c radiation are the messengers of gravity.
Introduction we obtain F0 = 0.999884a , instead of
te 5. Quantum theory plays an important role to ex-
me c
F =a ; the difference is less than 1.16 × 10−4 . plain gravity. The extremely large and the ex-
te tremely small are closely linked.
For a = Ge /d2 (15) gives:
6. The equations (4) and (5) come from title [3] of
2π 3 (kλ )4 Ge me c the references and form a system of two equa-
FG = 3
−[ Bx −] 2 .
3α x d te tions with two variables, x and kλ , which might
be the result of mere imagination. With equation
2π 2 kλ2 [B]m me c
By equalising with Fd = (see [3], for- (15) we have a system of three equations with the
3α x3 d2 te same variables to explain three different phenom-
mula (18)) we obtain: ena, apparentely independent. This system would
[B]m have no solution if the equations were the result
Ge = (16) of more imagination. Therefore they must be truly
π(kλ )2 −[ Bx −]
linked with the physical reality.
1
instead of Ge = as in (6). The quotient: 7. Formula (16) may be useful, possibly, to obtain
2π(kλ )2 better values for Ge and, therefore, for G.
−[ B−]x 8. Formula (15) expressed the resistence of zero-
=
[Bm ] point radiation to a change in the state of motion
 ZERO-POINT RADIATION, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION 6

of the mass me with acceleration “a”. This re- where d.le is the distance between their centres.
sistence can be identified by calling it F0a . There-
fore we have F0a 2π 3 (kλ )4 1 me l e
Fe
=
3α x3
−[ Bx −] 2
d (te )2
/
2π 3 (kλ )4 me c
F0a = ![ Bx −] a
3α x3 te
The mass me is the mass which has been consid- 1 me l e 2π 3 (kλ )4
ered in the equations in article [4], which leads = −[ Bx −]
to equations (4), (5) and (6) in this paper. We d2 (te )2 3α x3
have not considered any difference between grav-
itational mass and inertial mass. By introducing the equation (4), x3 =
Equation (19) in paper [4] expresses the force 4π 3 (kλ )4 [B]m /3α, we obtain
produced by the “shadow effect” between 2 elec-
trons immersed in zero-point radiation, which is F0a −
[ Bx −]
later identified with the gravitational attraction = .
Fe 2[B]m
between them, which leads to equations (5) and
(6) of this paper. If we call this force F0G , we can
write: There is no question of inertial, gravitational or
electrostatic mass, but of forces against the resis-
2π 2 (kλ )2 [B]m me c tance of zero-point radiation to the change of mo-
F0G = ;
α x3 d2 te tion of masses. If we measure any of them consid-
ering the acceleration which produces in a known
whence, by using the remaining equations, we ar-
mass and the equation Fa = ma, we obtain the
rive at:
value 1.0001006FR, being FR the force really nec-
F0a −[ Bx −] essary to produce the acceleration “a” in the mass
= =
F0G 2[B]m m.

14 33
( 48 )B −( 50 )B 2+· · ·+(−1)m−1 {m}(m+3)−1(m+1)B m
= 7 11 [1] R. Alvargonzález, Rev. Esp. Fis. 14 (4), 32 (2000).
2{( 48 )B −( 50 )B 2+· · ·+(−1)m+1 {m}(m+3)−1B m }
[2] R. Alvargonzález, arxiv: physics/0311027
[3] R. Alvargonzález, arxiv: physics/0311139
We get the same result by considering the electro- [4] T. H. Boyer, Phys. Rev. 182, 1374 (1969); Sci. Am. N.
static repulsion between two electrons, instead of 10, 42 (1985).
gravitation [5] H. B. J. Casimir, J. Chim. Phys. 46, 407 (1949).
[6] M. J. Sparnaay, Physica 24, 751 (1958).
e2 1 le [7] S. K. Lamoreaux, Phys. Rev. Let. 6 78, 5 (1997)
Fe = = 2 me · ,
(dle )2 d (te )2