SLUPPAL

r
r H H '\ I
__
____ JJr.t IH
, I '-'- r I filMid
MAIN SWITCH
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CUTC'tiY
.- S ,,TARTER -
K11A!NA
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WIRIINGi iiMAi1PIG
AND COSTING
Electrical
Wiring, Estimating
and Costing
For
Technical Schools, Industrial Institutes, N.C.C.,
State Diplomas, Electrician and Supervisory Courses
By
Late Dr. &L UPPA4 N.DE.E. ; B.E. ; M.E.E. (Stevens Inst. U.S.A.);
Ph.D. (I.I.T. Chicago; U.S.A.), A.M.I.E. (INDIA) ; M.I.E.E.E. (U.S.A.)
Late J.M. L4ROL4, N.D.E.E.
Revised and Enlarged By

KB. BHATL4 (Electrical Engineer)
KHANNA PUBLISHERS
2-B, NATH MARKET, NAI SARAK
DELHI-110006.
Phones: 3912380, 7224179• Fax 3980311
published by:
Romesh Chander Khanna
for
KHANNA PUBLISHERS
2-B, Nath Market, Nai Sarak
Delhi-10006. (India)..
All Rights are Reserved

This book or part thereof can not be reproduced in any form or
translated (except for review and criticism) without the written
permission the Authors and the Publishers.
First Editio7I 1963 (3 Reprints)

Second Edition 1973
Third Edition 1976 (8 Reprints)
1994 (2 Reprints)
Fourth Edition
Fifth Edition 1997
Seventh Reprint 2006
price: Rs. 165.00
STREET.
Punted aLNIRMAN PRESS, 2107.KFAYAt
PAHARI BHOJLA. DELHI-I 10006
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This is the first book of its kind and has been written with
the main object to provide the basic text knowledge of the applica-
tions ofElectricity which are so common in our day-to-day life but
still uncommon. special attempt has been made to represent every-
thing diagrammatically. The book may prove quite useful for basic
courses at the technical schools, industrial institutes and at college
levels. A knowledge of electrical fundamentals is assumed (dealt
within the first volume of this book) and the use of calculus is
avoided.
The author is grateful to Mis. M.E.M. Electrical Accessories,
London and Ashley Accessories Ltd., England for their kind permis-
sion to use their catalogues. Suggestions to improve the book will be
appreciated.

March, 1963 Au-moRs
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

The main object of this edition is to completely revise the old
edition to meet the present day requirements of the students of
National -certificate, state diploma and basic Technical courses in
the trade institutions. Special efforts have been made to include all
aspects which the students are supposed to know.
This edition features additional chapters on The Electrical
Panel Boards, their Design, Miscellaneous Electrical Components
and Bell Circuits and Indicators.
The subject matter has been presented in a simple, easy and
understable language. The object has been to explain the impor-
tance of engineering technology.
I am sure that this book will now be useful even to the service
engineers, the young students of engineering colleges and polytech-
nics as efforts have been made to bring it out in a comprehensive
form. It is earnestly hoped that this book will be welcomed mostly
by the teachers and the taught alike. It will prove to be a boon for
them not only for providing guidance but also from the examination
point of view.
I will be highly indebted for any useful critism or suggestion
from the readers to improve the standard of this book.
K.B. Bhatia
CONTENTS
1. Tools 1-18
1. Introduction. 2. Screw Drivers. 3. Pliers. 4. Pocket
Knife. 5. Hammers. 6. Wooden Saw. 7. Chisels. 8.
Scratch Awl. 9. Hand Drill. 10. Ratchet Bit Brace. 11.
Auger Bits. 12. Rawl Plug Tool. 13. Hacksaw. 14.
Centre Punch. 15. Twist Drill. 16. Putty Knife. 17.
Blow Lamp. 18. Files. 19. fiumb Bob. 20. Conduit
wiring Tools. 21. Pipe Vices. 22. Conduit Pipe Cutters.
23. Conduits Cutting by Hacksaw. 24. Reamer. 25. Die
and Die Stock. 26. Conduit Bending Tools. 27. Taps.
28. Wrenches. 29. Precautions in Handling the Tools.
2. Wires, Wire Splicing and Termination ... 19-41
1. Introduction. 2. Sizes of Wires. 3. Standard Wires.
4. Types of Wires. 5. Rubbers. 6. Lead Alloy Sheathed
Wires. 7. Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S) or Cab Tyre
Sheathed (C.T.S.) Wires. 8. Weather-Proof Wire. 9.
FLexible Wires. 10. Wire Splicing and Termination. ii.
Western Union Splice or Twist Splice. 12. Married
Joint. 13. Single Branch splice or a Tap Joint. 14.
Doub l e Branch Splice. 15. Tap Joint for Stranded
Wires. 16. Flexible Cord Splicing. 17. Pigtail Joint. 18.
Pigtail Joint of a Solid conductor and a Flexible Wire.
19. Termination of Wires at Terminal Screws.
3. Type and Installation of Wiring Systems ... 42-72
1. Introduction. 2. Methods of Installing Wiring. 3.
Cleat Wiring. 4. Wooden Casting Capping. 5. Joints in
Casing Capping. 5a. Tough Rubber Sheathed Wiring
(T.R.S.). 6. Metal Sheathed or Lead Sheathed Wiring.
7. Metal Conduit Wiring. 8. Installation of Conduit
Wiring. 9. Thin Wall conduits. 10. Rigid Conduits. 11.
Flexible Conduits. 12. The Conduits Accessories. 13.
Coupling. 14. Elbows. 15. Conduit Bushings. 16. Lock-
nuts. 17. ConduitNipples. 18. Box Connector Bushings
for Flexible Cnduit g . 19. Conduit Reducers. 20. Con-
duit Box. 21. Conduit Saddles or Conduit Clamps Or
Conduit Straps. 22. Conduit fittings. 23. Fishing Wires
Through Rigid Conduits. 24. Conduit Cutting Thread-
ing and lending. 25. Comparison of Various Wiring
Systems.
( viii )
4. Lighting Accessories ... 73-108
1. Introduction. 2. Switches. 3. Surface Switch or
Tumbler Switch. 4. Flush Switches. 5. Pull Switches or
Ceiling Switches. 6. Grid Switches. 7. Architrave
Switch. S. Rotary Snap Switches. 9. Push Button
Switch. 10. Iron-clad Water-Light Switch. 11. In-
dustrial Ironclad Switches. 12. Quick-Break Knife
Switch. 13. Lamp Holders. 14. Switched Bayonet Cap
Lampholder. 15. Small Bayonet Cap Holder. 16.
Goliath Edison Screw Lamp-Holders (Brass). 17.
Medium Edison Screw Lampholders (Brass). 18. Por-
celain Lampholders. 19. Swivel Lamp-Holders. 20.
Fluorescent Lamp-Holders and Starter Holders. 21.
Lamp-Holder Adoptor. 22. Ceiling Roses. 23. Mounting
Blocks. 24. Socket Outlets. 25. Plugs. 26. Terminal
Block. 27. Appliance connection. 28. Main Switch. 29.
Splitter Units. 30. Distribution Fuse Boardsl
5. Protective Devices .. 109-128

Introduction ; Main Features of good Protective
Devices ; Protective Relays (Types) ; Description of
Relays-1. Attracted Armature type Relay. 2. Solenoid
t ype Relay. 3. Thermal relay. 4. Induction type over
current Relay. 5. Induction type Reverse Power relay.
6. Indiction type Directional over current Relay. 7.
Impedance or Distance Relay. 8. Impedance Time
Relay.
Fuses. Introduction and Importance ; principle of
operation offuse; Selection of fuse wire; Melting points
of various metals ; Silver as a fusing element ; Copper
as fuse wire; Lead tin alloy as fuse wire; Types of fuses
and their description-1. The ordinary Fuse. 2. The
screw plug type fuse. 3. A knife Blade Cartridge fuse.
4. The Ferrule Type cartridge Fuse. 5. H.R.C.
Cartridge Fuse. 6. Time Delay Fuse ; Disadvantages
of ordinary fuse ; Advantages of Rewirable (ordinary
fuse) ; Advantages of H.R.C. Fuses; Disadvantages of
H.R.C. Fuses ;Fuse Wire 'table for Tinned Copper.
Wires; Fuse Holders; Terms generally used--1. Fuse.
2. Fuse element or fuse wire. 3. Minimum fusing Cur-
rent. 4.. Curràt rating of fusing element. 5. Fusing
factor ; Questions.
(ix)
6. Illumination,.(Lamps, Discharge lamps and
Fluorescent Lamps) ... 129-180
1. Introduction. 2. Nature of light. 3. Colour. 4. Relative
sensitivity. 5. Radiant. 6. Definitions. 7. Laws of
Illumination. 8. Lambert's casting Law. 9. Design of
Lighting scheme. 10. Illumination Required for
various purposes. 11. Lighting schemes. 12. Methods
of Lighting Calculations (a) Watts per square Metre
Method (b) Lumens or light flux method (c) Point to
Point or Inverse square law Method. 13. Types of
electric lamps. 14. Incandescent Vacuum lamps. 15.
Gas filled incandescent lamp. 16. Characteristics of
Incandescent lamps. 17. Halogen lamp. 18. Working
Principle of Electric Discharge lamp. 19. Sodium Dis-
charge lamp. 20. Low Pressure Mercury Discharge.
Lamp. 21. Mercury Fluore-Scerjt lamps. 22. Neon
lamp. 23. Neon Tubes. 24 High Pressure Mercury
Vapour lamp-(a) M.A. type lamp (b) M.A.T. type lamp
(c) M.B. Type lamp. 25. Minimum Mounting Height of
lamps. 26. Street Lighting-Necessity. 27. Lighting
scheme. 28. Principle of designing of street lightining
in stallations-__(j) The diffusion principle (ii) The
specular Reflection principle. 29. Illumination Level
for street lighting and mounting height of lamps. 30.
Spacing of street lighting. 31. Types of lamps used for
street lighting. 32. Control of street lights. 33. Flood
lighting. 34. Location and mounting of Projectors. 35.
Flood lighting calculations. Questions.
7. Internal Wiring Systems and Lamp Circuits ... 181-22(

I. Introduction. 2. Wiring system. 3. Looping in sys-
tem. 4. Wiring of a Building. 5. Tree system. 6. Ring
system. 7. Lamp ci"cuits. 8. Simple circuits. 9. Series
parallel circuits. 10. Master Switch circuits. 11. Pilot
circuits. 12. Circuits using special types of switches.
13. Use of Marval switch. 14. Lamp control circuits
from more than two points or alternative method of
corridor lighting. 15. Use of parallel or series switch.
16. Use of reversing switch. 17. Fluorescent tube light-
ing. 18. Circuits with a thermal starter. 19. Tube
circuit with glow starting switch. 20. The instant start
circuit of fluorescent tube. 21. Flesher for moving lights
(x)
8. Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy
and House Service Connections •• 221-259
1. Introduction. 2. Various definitions. 3. D.C. and A.C.
system of supply. 4. Distribution of electrical energy.
5. Over-head lines. 6. Types of conductors. 7. Line
supports. 8. Arrangements of conductors. 9. Insulators.
10. Material of insulators. 11. Pin type insulator. 12.
Suspension type insulators. 13. Strain insulators; 14.
Stay insulators. 15. Shackle insulators or spool
insulators. 16. Stay set and stay wire or Guy wire. 17.
Pole fittings. 18. Lightning arrestors. 19. Different
types of lightning arrestors. 20. Miscellaneous fittings.
21. Earthing of overhead lines. 22. Service lines.
9. Underground cables and Installation ... 260-286

1. Introduction. 2. Cable Insulation-Rubber; Paper;
Vulcanized bitumen ; Varnished Cambric (or Empire
tape) ; Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C.) ; Gulta percha ; Silk
and cotton ; Enamel insulation ; Asbestos Insulation.
3. Underground Cables. 4. Types of 3 phase Cables-
Belted Cables ; Super Tension Cables-H. Type cable;
S.L. Type cable ; H.S.L. cable. 5. Advantages of
Screened types of cabes over Belted type cables. 6.
Extra High Tension Cables-(a) Oil filled Cables (b)
Gas pressure or compression cables-External pres-
sure cables; Internal pressure cables. 7. Cable laying.
8. Grading of cables-Capacitance grading and Inter-
sheath grading. 9. Measurement of Insulation Resis-
tance of cables-Galvano-meter method and By
Insulation Testing Meggar. 10. Cable jointing. 11. Fill-
ing compound in the sleeve. 12. Jointing a Multicoj-e
Cable.
10. Electrical Earthing and Shock ... 287-306

1. Introduction. 2. Neutral wire; 3. Why grounding is
required. 4. Fire hazards from electricity. 5. Why fuse
is not used in the neutral. 6. Connection with earth. 7.
Value of earth resistance and factors on which it is
dependent. 8. Methods of earthing. 9. Definition. 10.
Points to remember while earthing. 11. Earth leakage
circuit breaker. 12. Electric shock. 13. Care of shock.
14. Artificial respiration. 15. Precautions against
shock.
(xi)
11. Power Stations and Substations •.- 307-372
I. Thermal Power Station—Advantages and Disad-
vantages Schematic Arrangement of Modern Coal fed
power Station; Factors Influencing the choice of site
for Thermal plants; Contituent of Steam Power station
and layout—(i) Steam Generating Equipment-4a)
Boilers (b) Boiler Furnance (c)Super-heater and Re-
heaters (d) Economisers and Air pre-heaters (ii) Con-
densers (iii) Prime Movers (iv) Water treatment
chamber (u) Control Room (vi) Switch Yard ; Ex-
ampl es— i to 2.
2. Hydro-electric Power Stations—Advantages
and disadvantages ; Factors to be considered for the
location of hydro-electric power stations. Elements of
a Hydro-electric plant—U) Darns (ii) Spilway (iii) In-
takes (iv) Pen stocks (u) Valves and gates (vi) Racks
(vii) Tail Race (viii) Draft Tubes (ix) Prime Mover or
Water Turbines—The Pelton Wheel ; Francis Turbine;
Kaplan Turbine ; classifications of Hydro-electric
plant—Low Head; Medium Head; High Head; Hydro-
plant Auxiliaries; Examples-1 to 3.
3. Diesel Power Stations— Advantages and disad-
vantages; Diesel plant elements—(i) Engine air intake
system (ii) Engine fuel system (iii) Engine exhaust
system (iv) Engine cooling system (v) Engine lubricat-
ing oil system (vi) Engine starting system.
4. Nuclear Power Stations The basic require-
ments for the location of a nuclear power station; Fuel
used; Characteristics of Nuclear Power plants.
5. The Gas Turbine Power Plant—Advantages and
disadvantages; Application of gas Power Plants; Ele-
ments of simple Gas Turbine Plant ; Comparison
between various types of Power Stations.
Sub-Stations
1. Introduction. 2. Classification of Sub-stations. 3.
Transformer. 4. Advantages and Disadvantages ofout-
door substations. 5. Design of Substations. 6. Main
Connection Scheme. 7. Graphical symbols for various
types of apparatus and circuit elements. 8. Main Con-
nection diagrams showing the arrangements of
various typical connections and of the simplest sub-
station schemes. 9. Equipments in a substation—(i)
Insulators (ii) Conduction (iii) Isolators (iv) Circuit
(xii)
breakers (u) Loac-Interrupter Switches (vi) Power
transformers (uii) (a) Current transformer (vii) (6)
Potential Transformer (viii) Indicating and Metering
instruments (ix) Carrier Current equipment (x) Con-
trol Cables (xi) Air Break and Disconnect switches (xii)
Protective Fuses and Relays (xiii) Switches Boards
(xiv) Control Room. 10. Substation Auxilliaries Supply.
11. Complete Bus Bar Arrangements on High and Low
Voltage Side for a Substation. 12 Ring main system.
13. Circuit Breaker. 14. Circuit Breaker Contacts. 15.
Bushings. 16. Oil circuit Breaker. 17. Description of oil
circuit Breaker. 18. Connection Diagrams.
12. General Specifications ... 373-387

1. Introduction. 2. Generating set (Diesel Engine
driven). 3. Switches and O.C.B. 4. L.T.O.C.B. indoor
type with time limits fuse. 5. H.T.11. KV. switch with
H.R.C. fuses. 6. Ring main T. off switch. 7. H.T. feeder
panel. 8 L.T. feeder panel. 9. Transformer. 10.
Specifications for items of overhead lines. 11. Poles on
struts. 12. Pin Insulators. 13. Shackle insulators. 14.
Disc type insulators. 15. Stay assembly. 16. Stay wire.
17. Aluminium conductor steel reinforced. 18. G.I.
wire. 19. Specifications for items ofinte, nal wiring. 20.
V.I.R. Cable. 21: Weather proof cable. 22. Cord flexible.
23. V.I.R. L.C. cable. 24. P.V.C. cable. 25. T.R.S. wire.
26. Fuse Board distribution. 27. Energy meter. 28.
Fuse wire. 29. Fuse carrier. 30 Conduits. 31. Conduit
Boxes. 32. Screws. 33. Tumbler switch. 34. Water-tight
switch. 35. Socket outlet. 36. Metal Shades. 37. Glass
shades. 38. Lamp-holder. 39. Ceiling roses. 40. Main
switch. 41. Underground cable (High Tension).
13. Measurement of Earth Resistance and Testing

of Installation ... 388-397
1. Measurement of Earth Resistance. 2. Two Point
Method. 3. Three Point Method. 4. Fall of potential
Method. 5. Direct Measurement of Earth Resistance.
6. Testing of Installation. 7. Installation Resistance of
the Complete Installation. 8. Testing of Insulation
Resistance between Conductors. 9. Testing of Polerity
of the Single Pole Switch. 10. Testing of Earth Con-
tinuity Path.
(xiii)
14. Estimating and Conductor Size Calculations
for Internal Wiring H.T. and L.T. Overhead Lines
and Underground Cables 398-446
1. Introduction. 2. Price Cntaiogue. 3. Schedules of
Labour rates. 4. Schedule of Rates and Estimating
Data. 5. Determination of conductor. 6. Current Car-
rying Capacity. 7. Voltage drop. 8. Minimum permis-
sible size. 9. Conductor size calculation for Internal
Domestic Wiring. 10. Conductor size calculation for
underground cable. 11. Conductor size calculation for
over-head lines with A.C.SR.
15. Internal Wiring Estimates 447-608

16. Installation and Estimates for Service Lines 609-619
17. Estimates For L.T. Distributions and Street
Light Feeders - ... 620-658
A pole and stay assembly as shown in Fig. 17.1 are tc
be erected. Determine the volume of excavation r-
quired to be done and also draw a list of material which
will be used to provide such an arrangement.
18. Estimates For 11 K y . Feeders and Sujstations .. 69-677

Determine the quantity of Material reired and cc.t
for erecting 300 KVAO 4111 KV. substation Assuri-ng
that 400 volts generator patmel is at a distance oi 50
m in an adjoining power house.
19. Extracts from Indian Electricity Amendment

Rules-1972 678-721
20. Indian Standard (I.S.) Fundamental Definition '22-732
21. The Electrical Panel Boards-their Design
and Drawings ... 733-744
1. Introduction. 2. Types of Panel Boards. 3. Examples
of outside dimensions of some electrical accessories. 4.
Design of panel boards. 5. Specific size of sheet to be
used for fitting the accessories. 6. Examples of design-
ing the panel board. 7. Types of switch boards.
22. Miscellaneous Electrical Components ... 745-773

1. Sliprings. 2. Brush holders. 3. Main parts of brush
holders and their functions. 4. Types of brushes. 5.
(xiv)
Brush rockers and brackets. 6. Types of brush rockers.
7. Armatures. 8. Main parts of armature. 8. Field poles
and interpoles. 10. Commutators. 11. Parts of com-
mutator. 12. Field magnet frame. 13. Current trans-
former.
23. Bell Circuits and Indicators ...774-836
1. Types of bell and their description. 2. Bell trans-
former. 3. Simple alarm circuits without relay. 4. Types
of diagram. 5. The use of relay in alarming circuits. 6.
Bell circuits using to supplies. 7. T.D.R. circuits. 8. Use
of indicatrs in various circuits. 9. Examples on in-
dicator wiring.
Conventional Symbols for Electrical Installation
1. Control Gear and Distribution Fuse-Board
(I) Main fuse-board without switches, light-

ing
(2) Main fuse-board without switches, light-
ing
(3) Main fuse-board without switches, power
(4) Main fuse-board with switches, power
(5) Distribution fuse-board without switches,
lighting
(6) Distribution fuse-board with cwitchcs,
lighting -
(7) Distribution fuse-board without switches
power
(83 Distribution fuse-board with switches,
power
t9) Main switches. lighting Dl
(10) Main switches, power
(11) Meter
0
2. Ceiling Outlets
(12) Single light pendant

U
(13) Counter-weight pendant Oc.
(14) Rod pendant
O
(15) Chain pendant Qc
(16) Light bracket
0
(17) Batten lampholder
Q ew
(18) Water-tight light fitting 01
() Bulk-head fitting
(20) Power factor capacitor (when installed
I
j
remote from the lamp unit)
(21) Lighting outlet connection to an mergency
system 0
(22) Choke (when installed remote from the
lamp unit)
I
3. Switching Outlets
(23) One-way switch
V
(24) Two-way switch
(25) Intermediate switch
(26) Pendant switch
'P

(27) Pull switch
r
4. Socket Outlets
(28) Socket-outlet, 2 pin 5 amp.

D
(30) Socket-outlet and switch combined, 2 pin 5
amp.
(31) Socket-outletand switch combined, 3 pin 5
amp.

(34) Socket-outlet and switch combined, 2 pin

D.
15 amp.
(35) Socket-outlet and switch combined, 3 pin
15 amp.
S. Fix Heating Outlet

(36) Convecting heater

(37) Electric unit heater ISJ
(38) Immersion heater
4-
'39) Thermostat
ki
6.
(40) Immersion heater with incorporated th-
ermostat
(41) Se1fcontained electric water heater
(42) Humidislat
Bells, Buzzers
(43) Bell push
I[i]
(44) Bell I!
(45) Buzzer
(46) Indicator (at'N' - insert number of ways)
(47) 'Relay
7. Clocks
(48) Synchronous clock outlet
(49) lmpulse clock outlet
(50) Mater clock
0
8. Fire Ain
(5) Fire alarm push 0
(52) Automatic contact
(53) Bell connected to fire alarm
0
4
(54) Fire alarm indicator (at 'N', insert number

of ways)
9. Public Address System

(55) Amplifier Ma
(56) Control board
(57) Microphone outlet
(58) Loudspeaker outlet
0
1
10. Radio Reception Outlets
(59) Receiver outlet U1
I! J
(60) Aerial
'I'
11. Fixed Apparatus Outlets
(61) Ceiling fan
(62) Bracket fan roi
LøI
(63) Exhaust (an
(64) Fan regulator
(65) Cooker control unit tI
11
B-12. Earthing
(66) Earth point T
(67) Surge diverter
B-13. Othe, Symbols

(68) Pilot or corridor lamp
(69) Indicator (buzzer may be added if required)
11
(70) Relay
(71) Reset position
(72) Horn or hooner
(73) Siren 1;•
1
Tools
1. Introduction 2. Screw Drivers. 3. Pliers. 4.Pocket Knife. 5. Hammers. 6. Wooden
Saw. 7. Chisels. 8. Scratch Awl. 9. Hand Drill. 10. Ratchet Bit Brace. 11. Auger Bits.
12. Rawl Plug Tool, 13. Hacksaw. 14. Centre Punch. 15. Twist Drill. 16. Putty Knife.
17. Blow Lamp. 18, Files. 19. Plumb Bob. 20. Conduit Wiring Tools. 21. Pipe Vices.
22. Conduit Pipes Cutter. 23. Conduit cutting by Hacksaw. 24. Reamer. 25. Die and
Die Stock. 26. Conduit Bending tools. 27. Taps. 28. Wrenches. 29. Precautions in
handling the Toots.
1.Introduction. It is said that among the tool kits of engineers,

electrical engineer's kit is the most simple and brief. He can do much
work with a screw driver and a plier, but as electric lighting and
wiring is a specialized job, so it requires a special kit. Some of the
tools used for lighting and wiring are common with other trades.
These tools are not expensive and are available at all leading
hardware stores. While purchasin g tools, it should be remembered
that better grade tools should be preferred to cheap type tools. As
estimating the cost of any installation and executing the same are
related, it is imperative to know about the tools which form the
essential part of the execution. The following are the most common
types of tools.
2. Screw Drivers. As mentioned earlier, it is the most
important tool and is used more often than any other tool. The screw
drivers are available in different blade sizes, but commonly a 25
cms. screw driver with 15 cm.s. blade is a standard one which can
be used to meet different types ofjobs. Such a screw driver is shown
in Fig. 1.1 (a). - In addition to this, a similar screw driver with thin
blade is useful for screwing or unscrewing the small screws of
switches, lamp holders etc. In some cases a square blade screwdriver
may be required to augment handpressure. Such a screw driver is
shown in Fig. 1.1 (c).

2 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
-
Standard Screw
Driver Thin Blade Screw Driver
(a) (b)
Square blade Screw Driver

(c)
Fig. 1.1
3. Pliers. It is also one of the mostly used tools in wiring. The
various types of pliers in use are
(a) Side Cutting Pliers.
Side cutting pliers

Fig. 1.2
Such a pliers is used for cutting wires, gripping operation by
hand, twisting wires and a number of other operations required in
eletriçal work. It is usually provided with snub-nosed jaws and
have a cutting edge only on one side as shown in Fig. 1.2. Usually
15 cms. or 22.5 cms. pliers is used. An insulated pliers is always
preferred.
(b) Diagonal Cutting Pliers.
It is usually very difficult to cut the conductor of the wires
terminating into holders, switches etc. with the side cutting pliers.
Diagonal cutting pliers.

Fig. 1.3
TOOLS
So under such odd circumstances diagonal pliers as shown in Fig.

1.3 is much useful.
(c) Long Nose Pliers.
The efficient tool kit must also include a long nose pliers.
CÔ^^
Long Nose Pliers.
Fig. 1.4.
It is useful for forming eyes of the wires which are to be used where
they are held fast under the screw. Long nose pliers is shown in Fig.
1.4. -
(d) Slip Joint Pliers.
This type of pliers is useful for conduit wiring, where its

application is in the making up locknuts and bushings and holding
conduits. Such a plier has a slip joint so that its jaws can be opened
to a greater width.
Slip Joint Pliers,

Fig. 1.5.
4. Pocket Knife. The pocket knife is also one of
the most
important tools in the worker's tool kit. It is generally used for
removing insulation from the wires. The knife must be made from
high grade cutlery steel. The closing type of knife should always be
preferred, although a knife made from a broken hacksaw blade can
serve the purpose well.
PocketKnife
Fig. 1.6.
5. Hammers. For electrical work, generally two types of

hammers are used (i) Claw Hammer. (ii) Ball-Peen Hammer. Th
claw hammers are available in two types, i.e., with a straight claw
or a curved claw. Usually a straight claw hammer is preferred by
electricians because the straight claw can be inserted behind,
beneath or between wooden boards to be removed. It is shown
in Fig. 1.7 (a).
(a) Straight claw hammer (b) Ball-peen hammer

Fig. 1.7.
The ball-peen hammer is required for driving nails into wooden
batten or for cutting wall plaster and bricks when it is necessary to
take the wiring from one room to another. Fig. 1.7 (b) shows a
ball -peen hammer.
6. Wooden Saw. The house wiring is also done with wooden
casing capping or batten and it is necessary to make use of a car-
penter's saw for making joints or for cutting the casing or capping.
®R
(a) Wood Saw (b) Key-hole Saw
Fig. 1.8.
In addition to carpenter's saw, a small keyhole saw is also useful
which is used for cutting small holes. Such type of saw has a thin
and narrow blade, and the blade is usually attached with a fly wing
nut to the handle, so that the blade may be replaced when it breaks.
7. Chisels. In house wiring, chisels are required for cutting
wood and for cutting brick or concrete work. In wood work, the use
of chisel is made in making various connections of casing capping,
or for cutting the side of the wooden board from the centre in order
to allow the wires to be connected to switches etc. The wood chisel
TOOLS
is made from tool steel. It has a bevel at the cutting edge.

For plaster cutting or for brick cutting, cold chisels forged from
alloy steel are used. Before use, these chisels are tempered. The cold
chisels are generally available upto 25 mm. size.
(a) Wood Chisel (b) Cold Chisel

Fig. 1.9.
8. Scratch Awl. It is generally difficult to insert a wooden
screw into wood, unless there is a small hole. With a scratch awl,
an impression is made into the wood before starting. Generally itli
made from forged tool steel and has a very sharp point as shown in
Fig. 1.10. As the tool is quite sharp, much care should be taken to
handle such a tool, it should never be taken in hand or pocket.
Scratch Awl
Fig. 1.10.
9. Hand Drill. In house wiring, it is often required to drill a
hole in wooden blocks and wooden boards to facilitate the passage
of insulated V.I.R. wires which terminate into switches or other
fittings. For such purposes, a hand drill is much useful. It consists
of a chuck with hardened steel jaws into which is placed the twist
drill. A crank and gear is used for increasing the speed of drill. For
opening the jaws, hold the chuck in left hand and turn the handle
in an anti-clockwise direction with chuck pointing downward, and
Hand drill
Fig. 1.11.
WrRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
for tightening the twist drill, place the drill into the jaws, hold the
chuck firmly and turn the handle in a clockwise direction with the
drill pointing down, i.e., in the direction of operation of the drill, and
the drill will be firmly secured. Fig. 1.11 shows the hand drill.
10. Ratchet Bit Brace. Sometimes it is required to drill holes
in heavy materials such as beams andjoists. For such jobs, a ratchet
bit brace, as shown in Fig 1.12 may be used. A ratchet bit brace with
interlocking jaws ball bearing head and with 25 cm. sweep is best
suitable for electrical jobs.
Ratchet bit brace

Fig. 1.12.
But for drilling holes near the corners, corner bit or angle b ace
is used as shown in Fig. 1.13. With such an arrangements, the hcle
will be slanting. The degree of slant depends upon the place where
a hole is to be made.
Corner bit
Fig. 1.13.
An alternative arrangement of drilling a horizontal hole in a
joist is by means of a joist boring machine. With such a machine, it
is possible to drill a hole from floor level.
TOOLS
911
.Jf1
Joist Boring Machine
Fig. 1.14
11. AugerBits. In the above-mentioned boring tools, auger bits
are used for drilling. Fig. 1.14(a) shows different types ofaugerbits,
while Fig. 1.14 (b) represents auger bit extension.
Nam
Auger bits
Fig. 1. 14 (a)
IT 14
Auger bit extension
Fig. 1.14 (b)
For new constructional work, a bit with coarse pitch of thread

is to be preferred for which single spiral single cutter bit or double
spiral double cutter bit may be used, but si. gle spiral single cutter
bit is used for easy cuttings. The clip auger or spur ear bit is used
for providing holes in old house wiring, since in old houses there
might be nails etc. driven into the wood and more-over there is not
much to choose for drilling hole for wiring. The clip auger is not
easily damaged by such work as compared to other types of bits.
12, Rawplug Tool. In case of wiring, whether
it is casing
capping, wooden batten or conduit pipe, they are all to be fixed to
walls, for which purpose holes must be drilled into them. One of the
methods of nakin holes in the wall is by means of a drilling bit
fixed to a hoider and into the hole so made in the wall, a rawlplug
is ierted. The rawlplug consists of a t • be of hard fibre with a
central hole. The 'awlplug and the bit are selected to suit the job.
awiplug Tool
Tg. 1.15
I - r etypes of hit in use; cne is called a bullet bit and
tLe.]erd. The bul l et h i t has ah i untnose andis of smooth
hic : sd in so plaster. Such a bit is driven straight
ompres:s the sides of the hole and drills out
Lh rnLerial. Thc p ointed bi is used for making hole into cement
hn r ston Wke drilline', care should be taken to tap it slightly.
vth a r otar ly so th. with each stroke, it goes forward and
thv out
13. Hack. For curtiç metals such as conduits, cables etc.,
the wooden saw iF, not suitable and for such purposes a hacksaw as
z
shown in Fig. 1,1,'used. The hacksaw frame is adjustable and
carries a blad' c' tool steel. The blade is usually gripped into the
frame by means c wing nuts. The blade is usually 30 cm. long with
18, 24 or 32 teci o an inch. The less numbered ones are used for
coarse jobs while more numbered ones are used for fine cuts.
Hacksaw
rig. i.i3
When cutting with a haoksaw, make full strokes while pushing
the saw away from ou and no pressure should be applied on return
TOOLS
stroke. For starting, an accurate cut should be made with a blade

having 32 teeth an inch and later on, cut should be continued with
a coarse blade. No doubt the coarse blade will cut faster; but if the
cut is started with a coarse blade, the back strokes try thjump, thus
spoiling the accuracy.
14. Centre Punch. When a hole is to be drilled in metals, the
centre punch is usually used for making a startinghole. It is usually
made of high grade tool steel hardened at both ends as shown in
Fig. 1.17.
Centre Punch
Fig 1.17
15. Twist Drill. For drilling holes into metals, the twist drill
is used. It is held into the jaws of the hand drill and the drill is
rotated at a high speed. Such a drill can also well be used for drilling
holes into wooden boards etc. Fig. 1.18 represents the twist drill. It
is available in different sizes.
Twist Drill
Fig. 1.18
16. Putty Knife. The putty knife is used to replaster the holes
on the wall and ceiling after inserting wooden gutties into them. It
has a broad blade as shown in Fig. 1.19.
Putty Knife
Fig. 1.19
17. Blow Lamp. The blow lamp is used for soldering and cable
jointing purposes. It is capable of producing very high temperatures.
Usually kerosene oil is burnt into it. If its flame is projected directly
on a job, the temperature of the job will increase to a very high
degree. Blow lamp as shown in Fig. 1.20.

10 WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTING
Blow Lamp
Fig 1.20
18. Files. For wiring purposes, often we requr a File for
ri3ving burrs etc. For sum purposes, uuTh..- a smooth half round
ofiength 30 cm. size can be used. Since its use is limited, so only
oe uile will serve the purpose.
File
Fig. 1.21
19. Plumb Bob. The plumb bob is shown in Fig. 1.22. It has a
pointed end with a hole at the top for attaching a string. It is gen-
eraifly used to establish a true vertical line.
OGDi^
Plumb Bob
Fig. 1.22

TOOLS 11
20. Conduit Wiring Tools. The conduit wiring is a specialized

jo'i and requires highly skilled labour. There are special tools for
such works which are described in the following articles.
21. Pipe Vice. For cutting conduits or for cutting threads on
the conduits or for bending conduits, they must be held securely.
For holding such conduits firmly, the pipe vice is used. There are
three types of vices which are generally used. Fig. 1.23 (a) shows a
self-locking vice which is bolted to work bench at the site, while Fig.
1.23 (b) shows a portable vice which can be attached to a wooden
post at the site, and Fig. 1.23(c) represents aportable vice and stand
which can be used for bendin g conduits also.
(a) Self-locking vice (b) Portable vice attached to wooden post
(c) Portable vice with stand

Fig. 1.23.
The bench vice can also be used for holding the conduit pipe
securely, by using pipe grip with the vice as shown in Fig. 1.24.
Bench Vice
Fig. 1.24.
22. Conduit Pipe Cutter. The conduit can be cut by means
of an ordinary pipe cutter as shown in Fig. 1.25. The conduit pipe
is held securely by the pipe cutter which is rotated round the conduit
and after few round rotations the cutter is again tightened against
the conduit wall and further rotations are given to the cutter. But
the only draw-back is that it leaves with a bulge and a sharp edge
at the cut as represented in Fig. 1.26. Usually it is difficult to get
rid of such a bulge and sharp edge and if it is left, it strongly affects
the wires by spoiling their insulation and putting them out of action.
7Ip
Conduit pipe cutter
Fig. 1.25
Illustration of a bulge
Fig. 1.26
Although such sharp edges are difficult to remove totally, an
improvement can be made by reaming the edges by means of a
Reamer.
TOOLS 13
23. Conduit Cutting by Hacksaw. The conduits can better

be cut with a hacksaw, the construction of which has already been
explained earlier. Fig. 1.27 shows a cut which has been made with
the half of hacksaw. The cuts made by a hacksaw must also be
reamed.
F
Illustration of a cut made by Hacksaw
Fig. 1.27
24. Reamer. It has already been said earlier that when the
cut is made whether with a pipe cutter or with a hacksaw burr or
sharp edge is formed on the conduit. If these burrs or sharp edges
are not removed they damage the insulation of the wires. These
burrs are removed by means of a reamer as shown in Fig. 1.28.
!nstead of reamer a half-inch round file can also be used.
Reamer
Fig. 1.28
25. Die and Die-Stock. The conduits used in wiring must
have a continuous connection for which purpose the conduits must
be joined properly. The general method adopted is by jointing the
two lengths of conduits which are threaded and a socket is provided
over them.
Taps or Dies
Fig. 1.29
For cutting threads over the conduits, two types of die-stocks

are used : the solid die-stock and the adjustable die-stock. In a solid
die-stock, there is a single block of steel having two handles which
can carry dies or taps shown in Fig. 1.29 of different sizes. Fig. 1.30
represents the die and die-stock. The guide is placed first in the
stock, the purpose of which is to ensure that the threads are kept
absolutely square in respect to the conduit. The die is fixed in
position by two knurled fixing nuts. For cutting threads of different
sizes, the guide and the die must be changed. But in a stock with
adjustable guide, the lever adjusts the tool to any size of conduit.
A triplex die can also be used for this purpose.
amde Pr,je
\k Thrc,r
This
Die and Die-stock

Fig. 1.30
26. Conduit Bending Tools. There are four types of conduit
bending tools. They are:
(ci) Hickeys.
(b) Bending racks.
(c) Pressure benders.
(d) Roller benders.
(a) Hickey. It is a practical tool that is used so commonly by
the electrician for bending the conduits without spoiling the true
round shape of the conduit. It is a hand bender based upon the
principle of levers. It consists of a slot into which the conduit to be
bent is engaged and has a threaded end with which is attached a
handle by means of a pipe coupling. Fig. 1.31 (a) shows a Lakin
hickey, while Fig. 1.31(b) shows the hickey with a handle. The size
of the Lakin hickey depends upon the size of the conduit to be bent,
but there is another type of hickey which has a movable jaw and
when the operator pulls the handle, it automatically grips the
conduit and prevents the tool from slipping.
15
TOOLS
Threcxled for.
Standard Ibi P'pe
Coup/icy
Lakin Hickey
Fig. 1.31 (a)
thcky Head
Hickey with handle

Fig. 1.31(b)
k,Ie
Conduit
Under
Bending.
Bending Rack
Fig. 1.32
-3

(b) Bending Racks. It has an arrangement of A' shape made

from wood as shown in Fig. 1.32. In such an arrangement on end of
the conduit is fixed and a force is applied to the other end of the
conduit. The leverage of the bending conduit can be changed.
(c) Pressure benders. For pressure bending of the conduits, the

conduit is laid as abeam and the pressure is applied at the centre.
Such a bender is shown in Fig 1.33.
Ho
Roller
Hand/C
e/i795t
),76Cve
Pressure Benders
Fig. 1.33
(d) Roller benders. There are many types of roller benders. Fig.
1.34 shows an arrangement of roller bending in which system, a
roller is used at the top and bottom of the conduit.
Holes
P/as
Roller Bender
Fig. 1.34
11
27. Taps. For screwing a bolt into the holes made in metal, it
is necessary to thread the holes. The taps iihown in Fig. 135 is
generally utilised
Taps
Fig. 1.35
for such purposes. For cutting threads the tap is held into a tap
wrenches and is pressed downward with clockwise rotation.
28. Wrenches. For connecting or disconnecting the rigid con-
duits pipe wrenches are required. A pipe wrench which can handle
a conduit upto dia. of 35 mm is sufficient.
Pipe Wrenches
Fig. 1.36
Adjustable wrench
Fig. 1.37
In addition to this an adjustable wrench is also used for handling
square or octagonal head bolts. Such a wrench is shown in Fig. 1.37.
29. Precautions in handling the Tools. Great caution and
care are acquired in handling tools. A worker is liable to injure
himself in addition to the damage caused to the tools, if he, at any
time is slacked in handling them. The following are the safety
precautions in the handling of tools:
(1) The sharp edged tools such as pocket knife, chisels,

scratching awl should never be put in pocket without shield, and
while working with such tools, care should be taken not to place
hand or finger in the path of motions of the cutting tool. Also care
should be taken not to hand over the sharp-edged tools with its sharp
edge first.
(2) When cutting with a chisel, always cut away from you
rather than towards yourself.
(3) Before using a hammer, its handle must he examined,
whether it is properly secured or not.
(4) When making a cut with a saw, the cut must be guided with
a finger and thumb of one hand, otherwise the blade is liable to
brake which may cause serious injuries.
(5) Afteiusing tools, they should never be left at the top of the
ladder or any other place since they may fall accidentally and cause
injury. -
(6) Only a suitable tool should be used for the proper purpose
and if a particular tool does not suit the purpose, do not abuse the
cool, I ry to have a new t031 matching the need.
(7 All injuries must be attended to imniediaiely, since delay
may cause infection.
V
2
Wires, Wire Splicing
,and Termination
3. Stranded wires. 4. Types of wires. 5. Rubber

1. Introduction. 2. Sizes of w ires.
covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded wires. 6. Lead alloy sheathed wires. 7. Tough
Rubber sheathed or cab tyre sheathed wires. 8. Weather proof wire. 9. Flexible wires.12.
10. Wire splicing and termination. 11. Western union splice or twist sp lice.
Married joints. 13. Single Branch splice or tap joint. 14. Double branch splice. 15.
Tap joint for stranded wires. 16. Flexible cord splicing. 17. Pigtail joint. 18. Pigtail
joint of a solid conductor and flexible wire. 19. Termination of wires at terminal
screws.
1. Introduction. For estimating the cost of internal wiring, it

is necessary to know the type of wires in use. The wires sho.id be
specified and size of conductor accotding to the type of conductor
or the type of insulation and size of conductor.
As far as the type of conductor is concerned, the subject has been
of
in chapter 8. With the adoption of use aluminiu Tr as
explained
conductor, the use of copper as conducting material has been stopped
and the refore the usual way to specify the wire is with the reference
to the insulation, size and number of cores.
Knowing only the type of wire will not help the executive. For
this purpose it is imperative forhim to know the splicing termination
and jointing which has also been illustrated in this chapter.
2. Sizes of wires. It menuoned earlier h& for con-
duct:--n of electrical power, insulated aluminium conductors are
used. There is a limit to the current carrying capacity of the
aluminium conductor. The current flowing through a wire causes
heat which is proportional to the square of the current. Again there
a limit to the degree of heat which a particular insulation can
.hstand safely. According to the standards laid down, there is
"icular value of maximum current which can be safely carried
wires of different sizes with different insulations ; and if the
are not adhered to, there is a possibility of damage to insulation
may cause fire.

The sizes to the wires are assigned much intelligently. Alu-

minium wires are referred according to the areas, but in case of
copper conductor (which is not generally used), numbers have been
assigned to the wire sizes. The gauge commonly used is the British
Standard Wire Gauge.
04 0372 ' 0348" 02/2' 0 . 144

0324' of 027i0237 /
. •
occc 000 00
OR 710 0R4/0 OR 0R2/
Illustration of sizes of various notches of wire gauge

Fig. 2.1
The smallest wire gauge is ofNo. 40 having a diameter of 0.0048
inch ; while the largest No. of wire is 0,000,000 (named as seven
Wire Gauge
Fig. 2.2

WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINATION 21
zero) or written as 7/0 having adiamet.er of 0.5". It should be noted

that the higher the number of wire gauge, the smaller is the diameter.
Table 2.1 gives the diameters of the British Standard wire gauge.
Fig. 2.2 shows the wire gauge used for measuring the size of wire.
The American Wire Gauge is different from that of British
Standard. The American way of representation of diameter is miles
and not in inches. A rnils is one-thousandth part of an inch.
Table 2.1
British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.)
Gauge Diameter Area

; No.
Inch mm CIRC.Mils SQ. Inch mm2
7/0 .500 12.7000 250000 19635 126.6769

610 .464 11.7856 215296 .16909 109.0921
5110 .432 10.9728 186624 .14657 94.5638
410 .400 10.1600 160000 .12566 81.0732
3/0 .372 9.4488 138384 .10869 70.1202
2/0
8.8392.348 121104 .09511 61.3643
0 .324 8.2296 104976 .08245 53.1921
1 .300 7.6200 90000 .07069 45.6037

2 .276 7.0104 76176 .05983 38.5990
3 .252 6.4008 63504 .04988 32.1780

4
53824 232 5.8928 .04227 22.2730
5 .212 5.3848 44944 .03530 22.7734
6 .192 4.8768 36864 .02895 18.6792
7 .176 4.4704 30976 .02433 15.6958
8 .160 4.0640 25600 .02011 12.9717
9 .144 3.6576 20736 .016286 10.5071

10 .128 3.2512 16384 .012868 8.3019
11 .116 2.9464 13456 .010568 6.8183
12 .104 2.6416 10816 .008495 5.4805
13 .092 2.3368 8464 .006648 4.2888
14 .080 2.0320 6400 .005027' 3.2429

15 .072 1.8288 5184 .0040721 2.6268
(Contd.)
-

22
WIRING, E JbcATfl .
G AND COSTING
British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.)

Gauge Diameter
No. Area
Inch mm CIRC.Mjl,g SQ. Inch nun?I

.064 1.6256 4096
17 .056 .003217
1.4224 3136
18 .048 .002463 1.5890
1.2192 2304 .0018096 1.1675
19 .040 1.0160 1600 .0012566

20 .036 .9144 .8107
1296 .0010179
21 .032 .8128 .6567
1024 .0008042
22 .028 .7112 .5189
784 .0006158
23 .024 .6096 576 .0004524
24 .022 .5588 .2919
484 .0003801
25 .020 .5080 .2453
400 .0003142 .2027
26 .018 .4572 324 .0002545

27 .0164 .4166 .16417
269 .0002 112
28 .0148 .3759 .13628
219 .00017203
29 .0136 .3454 .11099
185 .00014527 .09372
30 .0124 .3150 154 .00012076 .07791
31 .0016 .2946 135 .000 10568

32 108 .2743 .06818
117 .00009161
33 .0100 .2540 .05910
100 .00007854
34 .0092 .2337 .05067
85 .00006648
.0084 .04289
.2134 71 .00005542 .03575
36 .0076 .193058
]60
37 .00004536 .02927
.0068 .1727
38 .0060 46.00003632 .02343
.1524
39 .0052 36.00002827 .018241
.1321 27Ô002124
L 40 .0048 .1219 .013701
2300018096 .011675
Similarly the American way of r

inches, but it is circular mils. epresenting an area is not square
A circular mil is the area of a circle of
one mil in diameter. A wire having a diameter of one mil is said to
have an area of one circular mu.
Since the areas of two circles are proportional to

their diameters, so the cross-sectional area of the wirethe square of
of diameter
2 mils is 4 circular mils. The areas are also sometimes measured in
WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINAI'lON 23
square mils. This is measured by multiplying the two dimensions

in mils. Say the area of a strip 2" x i " is given as
2" =2000mils
= 500 mils
Area = 2000 x 500

= 1,000,000 square mils.
Circular mils can be changed into square mils.
Square mils = circular mils x 0.7854.
Table 2.2 gives the American Wire Gauge for comparison only.
After the adoption of metric system in India the sizes of the
wires are being usually denoted by cross-sectional area in sq. mm . -
viz. 1.5 sq. mm ., 2.5 sq. mm ., 4 sq. mm . etc. The industry has also
started manufacturing the wires in accordance with the new trend.
3. Stranded wires. The wires used for ordinary wiring p.ir-
poea are ofringle solid conductors; but wli en the wires are required
for greater flexibility, such as for a pendant lamp, wires of single
conductors are not suitable. The flexible wire or cord may have -
number of wires of dia. 0.0076 inch, or 0.1930 mm. (36 S.W.G)
stranded together. The number of conductor: stranded together
depends upon the current-carrying capacity of the wire. For
example, a flexible cord of40/0.0076 has a current-carrying capacity
of 7 A and possesses 40 conductors of 36 S.W.G. stranded together
to give a cross-sectional area of . 1.171 sq. mm . The wire having
largest number of strands is 16210.0076 with a cross-sectional area
of 14.742 sq. mm . and has a maximum current capacity of 28 Amps.
4. Types of wires. The wires used for general elect.rical pur-
poses can be divided into the following
(1) Rubber covered, taped, braided and compounded or V.I.R.
wires.
(ii) Lead alloy sheathed wires.
(iii) Tough rubber sheathed (T.R.S.)/or C.T.S. (Cab. Tyre
Sheathed).
(iv) Weather-proof wires.
(c)) Flexible wires.

24
WERING,;ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Table 2.2
_____ Brown And Sharps Gauge (B.SJAWC)

Gauge Diameter Area
No.
____ Inches mm C1RC.Mjls SQ. Inch mm'
7/0 - - - - -
610 - - - -
5/0 - - - -
4/0 .46000 11.7 211600 .1662
3/0 .40964 107.2
10.4 167805 .1318 85.03
210 .36480 9.27 133080 .1045
0 67.43
.32495 8.25 105592 .0829 53.48
1 .28930 7.35 83694 .0657
2 42.41
.25763 6.54 66373 .0521 33.83
3 .22942 5•93 52634 .04133 26.67
4 .20431 5.19 41742 .03278
5 21.15
.18194 4.62 33102 .02599 16.77
6 .16202 4.11 26250 .02061
7 13.30
.14428 3.66 20816 .01635 10.55
8 .12849 3.26 16509 .01297 8.366
9 .11443 2.91 1304 .01028
10 .10189 6.634
2.59 10381 .00815 5.261
11 .09074 2.30 8234 .00646
12 4.168
.08081 2.05 6530 .00513 3.308
13 .07196 1.83 5178 .00407 2.627
14 .06408 1.63 4107 .00323
15 2.082
.05707 1.45 3257 .00256 1.651
.05082 1.29 2583 .00203 1.308
17 .04526 1.15 2048 .00161
18 1.039
.04030 1.02 1624 .001276 .8258
19 . .03589 .912 1288 .001012 .6516
20 . .03196 .813 1021 .000804
21 . .5189
.02846 .724 812 .000608 .4116
22 .02535 .643 640 .000503
23 .02260 .3243
.574 511 .000401 .2588
24 .02010 .511 404 .000317
25 .2047
.01790 .455 320 .000252 .1658
26 .01594 .404 254 .0001985
27 .01420 .1281
.361 202 1 .0001584 1 .10217
(Contd.)
Brown And Sharp'S Gauge (B.SJAWG)

Gauge Diameter Area
Na _______
Inches mm CIRC-Mils SQ. Inch mm'
28 .01264 .320 160 .0001247 .08064
29 .01130 .287 127 .0001003 .06452
30 .01003 .254 100 .00007854 .05067
31 .00893 .226 792 .0000622 .04014

32 .00795 .203 64 .0000496 .03243
33 .00708 .180 50.4 .0000396 .02554
34 .00630 .160 39.7 .00003116 .02011
35 .00561 .142 31.4 .00002463 .01589
36 .00500 .127 25 .00001963 .01267

37 .00445 .114 20 .0000159 .01026
38 .00400 .102 16 .0000126 .008107
39 .00353 .090 12 .00000962 .006207
40 .00314 .079, 10 .00000755 .004869
The rubber covered, taped, braided and compounded wires are

always single core ; )ut can be subdivided into two classes i.e.,
whether meant up to €00 V or 250 V. All other types of wires are
either single core, or double core or 3 core or twin core with E.C.C.
(Earth conti:u conductor).
5. Rubber covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded wires.
(i) Single braid 250 V. Such type of wire is also called simply
as V.I.R. wire. These are used generally for ordinary electrical wiring
in casing, capping or conduit wiring.
Rubber covered, Taped, Braided, Compounded Wires

Fig. 2.3
The general construction of the wire is as shown in Fig. 2.3. It

consists ofa tinned (to prevent the rubber sticking to the conductor)
copper or aluminium conductor covered with a layer of rubber
insulation. Over this rubber insulation is put up a cotton protective
braid which is usually saturated with flame retarding and
moisture-resistant compound. Finally it is finished with a wax for
cleanliness and for helping the pulling action of it into the conduits.
Such type of wire is also called as S.B.R.C. wire (single-braid rubber.
covered). The thickness of the rubber insulation depends upon the

voltage for which the wire is required, i.e., whether it is for 250 V.
or 600 V.
The wires required for higher values of current are usually
stranded, in case, copper is used as conductor. Stranded wires with
aluminium conductor are not manufactured. These wires are pro-
vided with two protective cotton braids and are usually called as D.
B. R. C. Std. (double-braid rubber-covered stranded) wires as shown
in Fig. 2.4.
Double Braid
Fig. 2.4.
6. Lead Alloy Sheathed Wires. Such types arq recommended
where the climatic condition is not dry, but has a little bit of the
moisture. Ordinary S.B.R.C. wires are specified for reasonably dry
locations, so in order to use rubber insulated wires in damp condi-
tions, the ordinary wires are covered with a continuous sheath of
lead.
Thelead covering is usually thin, about 1.25 mm. thick.
t t-•
Lead Alloy Sheathed Wires
Fig. 2.5
The lead alloy sheathed cables are usually available in the
following types
(1) Single core lead-sheathed.
(2) Flat twin lead alloy sheathed (as shown in Fig. 2.5).
(3) Flat lead alloy sheathed 3-core.
(4) Flat twin lead alloy sheathed with E. C. C. (earth continuity
conductor).
These types of lead sheathed wires provide only a little
mechanical protection. The more stronger and mechanically pro-
tected cablesare used for laying under the ground.
7. Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab Tyre Sheathed
(C.T.S.) Wires.
The lead sheathed cables are costlier and are quite heavy in
WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINATION
27
weight. The T.R.S. cables have properties similar to that of lead

sheathed cable, but is much cheaper.
The ordinary wire is provided with rubber insulation which is
not water resistant; but the T.R.S. wires are provided with a tough
rubber compound which does not deteriorate even after long expo-
sure to moisture. So it can well be used in wet locations. Such wires
are also available , in single core, twin core, 3-core and twin with an
earth continuity conductor. Fig. 2.6 (a) shows a single core cable
while Fig. 2.6 (b) shows a twin core cable.
(a)
Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab T yre Sheathed (C.T.S.) wres

Fig. 2.6
8. Weather-Proof Wire. The weather-proof wires are for
outdoor purposes, i.e., they are run between buildings. Such wires
when used are suspended at higher distances from the ground and
moreover there is no possibilit y that anyone will touch them. _lso
the wires used must be cheap and resistant to atmospheric varying
conditions. Hence the insulation provided over it is not the same as
that for indoor wiring. Although the T.R.S. wires can be used, yet
the T. R. S. wires are not much cheaper.
Such type of wires consists of 3 braids of fibrous yarn provided
over the copper conductors. The copper conductors are not usually
tinned. Before these braids are applied they are thoroughly satu-
rated with a water-proof compound.
ME
Weather-proof Wires
Fig 9.7
9. Flexible Wires. The wires used for household appliances
such as heaters, irons, refrigerators, lamps etc., must be durable
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
and very flexible. The flexibility is required firstly from the point of
view of handling the equipment, secondly to prevent the wires from
break. These flexible wires are also called as lamp cords. The flexible
cord usually consists of two separately insulated flexible stranded
conductors. The flexible wires are called as 14/0.0076 or 162/0.0076
which means that there are 14 or 162 strands of copper wire each
having a diameter 0.0076 inch or 0.1930 mm. which is equivalent
to 36 S..W.G. wire. There are different types of flexible wires. They
are
(a) Twin Silk Cord. it consists of two cores but each of these
consists of a number of fine copper conductors stranded together.
Over each conductor is given a layer of cotton, which prevents the
sticking of rubber to the copper conductor. After cotton layer cov-
ering the layer of rubber insulation is followed up by a loose braid
of cotton and finally the conductors are laid side by side and silk
insulation is provided over them as shown in Fig. Z.B.
TTi
Tn core flexible wire
Fig. 2.8
(b) Twin Rubber insulated Cord. It is also similar to that

of twin silk cord wire and consists of two stranded conductors each
covered with cotton in Order to prevent rubber sticking to the con-
ductor. Then the two conductors are embedded in a solid mass of
rubber insulation which is built up to a full size of finished wire and
there is no further provision of any other insulation. The two con-
ductors in the rubber insulation are so laid as to form a depression
in the middle of them which facilitates in separating the two
conductors at the termination of the wire in receptacles etc. The
rubber provided for such insulation must be of much higher grade
than is used for ordinary wire insulation.
Twin Rubber insulated Cord

Fig. 2.9
(c) Twin Twisted Cotton Braided Flexible Wire. In this
case each of the conductor is insulated as in the silk flexible cord,
i.e.,each conductor is cotton covered, followed up with a layer of

rubber insulation and after this comes a braid of cotton thus com-
pleting the insulation of the single conductor. Then two such con-
ductors are twisted together. Usually the two insulated conductors
twisted together have rubber insulation of two colours, i.e., red and
black.
Twin Twisted Cotton Braided Flexible Wire

Fig. 2.10
(ci) Twin T.R.S. Flexible Wire. The flexible lamp cords
mentiond earlier are not much resistant to moisture and also they
cannot withstand much wear and tear. The T.R.S. flexible wire
consists of two or more insulated conductors twisted together as in
case of twin twisted flexible wire. The open space in between the
twisted conductors is filled up with cotton or jute threads, so as to
form a round assembly. Over this assembly is provided a loose cotton
braid and then a final layer of high grade of tough rubber.
Twin T.R.S. Flexible Wire

Fig. 2.11
In case of a wire better resistant to moisture, rubber filler is
used to make the twin twisted conductors assembly round and the
wire is finished off with an outer jacket of cotton which is impreg-
nated with a moisture-resistant compound. Such a wire is called as
reinforced wire and is shown in Fig. 2.11.
10. Wire splicing and termination. In all jobs of wiring,
splicing (jointing) and termination is a necessity. The jointing is
required since the wires are manufactured in 100-metre lengths and
the total length of wire used for house wiring may be more than 100
metres. The termination of wires is needed, as the wires are to be
connected to switches, holders, receptacles etc. It is important to
note that all joints made must be mechanically and electrically
sound.
The jointing conductors and wires should always be carried Out

at outlets, i.e., in switches, ceiling roses using the looping in system
or in junction boxes used specially for this purpose. Splicing should
never be done in conduit runs. But sometimes when repairing old
works, jointing becomes a necessity.
11. Western Union Splice or Twist Splice. The western
union splice can be completed in four steps which are
(a) Removing insulation.
(b) Mechanically jointing the conductors.
(c) Soldering the joint.
(d) Tapping the soldered joint.
(a) Removing insulation. For joining two conductors together,
first their insulation is removed. The insulation of the wire should
not be cutbyholding the knife at right angles to the conductor which
cuts the insulation as shown in Fig. 2.12 (a) ;butit should be removed
by holding the knife at an angle just as in the case of sharpening a
pencil, as represented in Fig. 2.12 (b) taking care not to injure the
copper conductor. The removing of insulation in a tapered fashion
is a necessity since it facilitates better jointing and insulating the
joint. After the insulation is removed in a tapered fashion from a
certain portion of wire, the insulation from the remaining portion
of wire can be removed with one pull of pliers up to the end of the
wire as shown i Fig. 2.13. For joining insulated conductors it is
necessary W remove braid only for a required length i.e., 2.5 cm.
approximately as shown in Fig. 2.14 (a). Then the bare conductors
of the two wires to be joined together are gently cleaned with sand
paper.
Insulation removed in a wrong way Correct method of removing the

insulation
(ci) (b)
Fig. 2.12
Pulling insulation with a Pliers

Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.14 (a)

(b) Mechanically jointing the conductors. For making the joir.t,
cross the two bare wires at ends at a distance of about 2 cm. from
insulation of either of the wire, the wires are crossed or neck turne'
as shown in Fig. 2.14(b). The crossing or neck turn of the conductors
prevents the two wires being separated out under a pressure. Now
with the help of the forefinger and thumb or with pliers, make five
to eight turns, as shown. The remaining excess of the conductor
should be cut away with the pliers and the turns should be tightened
with it. Now a similar process is repeated with the other conductor
and isfinished off in a similar manner. The finished joint is as shown
in Fig. 2.14 (d).
V
AA
MV
-
Fig. showing neckturn of the wires

(b)
Fig. showing one of the conductor bent, around the other

--4
.32 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
fill
Finished joint
(d)
flg. 2.14
(c) Soldering the Joint. The mechanically bound joint made
earlier cannot be said to be mechanically secure. In order to make
the mechanical joint as strong as cont jriuous length -of the wire, it
is necessary to solder the joint.
The soldering can be done either with the help of a soldering

iron or by means of a blow lamp. Before soldering it is essential to
clean the surface and to make it free from dirt, grease etc. Now apply
soldering paste around the joint both at the top and bottom of it.
The application of soldering paste is not necessary if resin-core
solder is used which acts as a flux. Now heat the joint with the help
of a blow lamp heating it with the tip of the fiarne. It is essential to
heat thejoint. up to a proper temperature ; if itis I lot proptrlyheated,
proper soldering cannot be done, and if the jcnt s over-heated the
conductor is weakened and becomes brittle. The proper temperature
is tested with a piece of solder wire, which when placed over the
joint should melt. At that instant, apply solder over whole of the
joint as shown in Fig. 2.15. The soldt-'r hou!d le applied se;'eral
times until the solder floats or runs carrpletel: .hrcigh thesplice
Soldering the joint

Fig. 2.15
WIRES, WERE SPLICING AND TERMINATION
(d) Taping the splice. The soldered joint must now be provided
with an insulation, the thickness of which must be equal ¼that on
the wire. For the wires generally used for house-wiring purpose
rubber tape, friction tapes and black tape should be used.. The
method of applying the rubber tape is shown in Fig. 2.15. The tape
should half overlap the previous turn, and the type should be
stretched a bit until whole of the joint is covered and a bit of the
insulation of the other wire is also covered. Now apply friction tape
in a similar fashion to that of rubber tape.
Method of applying tape

Fig. 2.16
12. Married Joint. For a wire having one strand only, the
joint made is called twisted joint, but for wires having a number
of strands, the joint made is called as married joint. The following
points show how the joint is made
(1) Remove the insulation abcut 10 cm. on each wire with the
help of knife in a tapered fashion as explained in Twist Splice.
(2) Remove braid for shout 2.5 ern. or eacl
.3) Sera r.s . Lr iud of each wire by twtirg he stranded
cnuctcrs :. drecion to that of winding.
4) Uleor, ea, ll of the strand gently with saud paper.
Letwist the strands for a length of about 0,5 cm.
nd the ited wire with a binding wire.
) Cut off the Tniddh' strand with the help of a pliers.
.: e ndivduai strand as shown in Fig. 2.17 (a)

Spreading of Strands
(a)
(9) Bring the two wires end to end with all the strands inter-
seating as shown in Fig. 2.17(b).
Intersecting of strands of two wires

(b)
çlO) Hold cne of the wires in the left hand and wrap one of the
strands of the other wire around the twisted conductor in opposite
direction as shown in Fig. 2.17(c). Repeat the process with the other
strand and so on.
Twisting of strands
(e)
Finished joint
(d)
Fig. 2.17
(11) Round off the ends with a1let or pliers.

(12) Repeat the process with the other side of the wire.
The joint is then soldered and insulated explained in article
11.
13. Single Branch Splice or a Tap Joint. Sometimes it is
necessary to tap the electrical enr' from aiunning line. In that
case, only one free end of the wire is available and thus the twist
joint or western unionjoint is not possible whicInecessarily requires
two free ends. Soin such circumstances aTjoinlis necessarily math'
The following steps explain the process of joining.
Removing insulation of a running wire for T-Joint

(a)
-J
Removing insulation of a branch wire

(h)
Fig. 2.18
() Remove the insulation of the running wire as shown in Fig,
2.18 (a) for a length of about 2.5 cm. with care and precautions P-
explained earlier.
(b) Remeve the insulation of the branch wire fo- a rigth cf
about 7.5 cm, as shown in Fig. 2.18 (b).
Neck turn for making T-Joint

(e)
Fig. 2.18
(c) Gently clean the conductors with the help of a double zero
sand paper.

(d) Now keeping the branch wire at 900 to the running wire
and with insulation of both wires near to each other make a neck
turn as shown in Fig. 2.18 (c) which guards against the slipping of
the joint under pressure.
(e) With the branch wire now give 5 to 8 turns as in the case
of western union splice.
Finished T-Joint
(d)
Fig. 2.18
(f) Cut off the excees of the copductor.

(g) Now round off the conductor end with the help of a pliers
or mallet. The finished joint is shown in Fig. 2.18(d).
The splice is then soldered and insulated with a tape as already
ex.iaired in article 11.
Double branch splice

Fig. 2.19
37
14. Double Branch Splice. The double branch splice is used

when the electrical energy is required to be sent in two directions
at right angles to each other. Such a splice is nothing more than
that oftwo single branch splices in opposite direction, so the method
ofobtaining such ajoint is the same as that ofa single branch splice.
Fig. 2.19 represents the double branch splice.
15. Tap Joint for Stranded Wires. For stranded wires the
single branch splice or the tap joint is made as explained in steps
indicated in Fig. 2.20 (a), (b) . and (c).
Separating the strands of running wire

(a)
Strands of tap wire are divided

(b)
Finished Tap-Joint
(c)
Fig. 2.20
(a) Remove insulation of the running wire for a length of about
5cm.
(b) Similarly remove insulation of the tapping wire for a length
of about 7.5 cm.
(c) Clean the conductors gently with sand paper.
(d) Separate the strands of the running wire into two groups
as shown in Fig. 2.20 (a).

(e) Insert the tap wire into the opening made in the running
wire.
(I) Divide the strands of the tap wire into two groups, shown
in Fig. 2.20 (b).
(g) Wrap one of the strands around the running wire, then wrap
the second strand and so on.
(h) Wrap one of the strands around the running wire in the
opposite direction to the previous one as shown in Fig. 2.20 (c).
(i) Round off the ends of the conductor with aliers or mallet.
(I) Solder the joint as explain earlier and provide tape.
16. Flexible Cord Splicing. Sometimes it is necessary to
provide a joint in a twin core cord. In such cases the two joints of
the cores must be staggered as represented in Fig. 2.21. Such a splice
has double advantages. Firstly it avoids the accidental short circuit
between the two cores, secondly it does not make the splice bulky.
FIA
M1
Joint in flexibre twin core cord

Fig. 2.21
17. Pigtail Joint. The pigtail joint is the most important joint,
since it is often required for termination of the wires in switches,
holders etc. Moreover it can easilybe made and unmade. For making
such a joint :
Pigtail joint
Fig. 2.22
WIRES, WIRE SPUCThG AND TERMINATION 39
(a) Remove insulation from the two wires as shown earlier in

Fig. 2.14 for a length of about 5 cm.
(b) Gently clean both the conductors.
(c) Keep the two wires with their insulation parallel.
(d) With a pliers make a number of twists as shown in Fig.
2.21.
(e) Keep the length of the twists about 2.5 cm. and cut off the
excess wire.
(J) Round off the corners with a mallet.
Now solder the splice and provide a tape. Similarly more than
two wires can also be spliced together to form a pigtail joint.
18. Pigtail joint of a solid conductor and a flexible wire.
Such a joint is made in a manner similar to that of an ordinary
pigtail joint, except that after wrapping the stranded wire, round
the solid conductor fora length of about 2.5 cm., the solid conductor
is bent back parallel to the wire as shown in Fig. 2.23. and then the
Joint is soldered and provided with a tape as shown in Fig. 2.24 (a).
For providing tape, care should be taken to know that no end of the
joint is left without a tape, so for this purpose, the tape is started
between the wires as in Fig. 2.24 (a). The wires are brought together
tightly and provided a layer of tapes as in Fig. 2.24 (b). Then wrap
the tape ha l f overlap. At bottom, the tape is provided without stretch
as shown in Fig. 2.24 (c). Complete the tape as in Fig. 2.24(d). Over
this rubber tape is provided and then a friction tape.
Finished pigtail joint of a solid conductor and a flexible wire

Fig. 2.23.
19. Termination of wires at terminal screws. When it is
required to terminate an 18 S.W.G. wire or lighter wire to a screw,
the insulation from the wire is removed with the care to remove it
in a-tapered fashion. The conductor is bent in the form of a loop as

shown in Fig. 2.25 (a). It should be remembered that the loop of the
wire must be made in the same direction in which the terminal screw
is to be turned for lighting; such an action closes the loop in the
process. Fig. 2.25 (a) represents the correct termination. 'While
making a termination, the insulation of the wire is brought near to
the screw ; it is a wrong method to keep it away as shown in Fig.
2.25 (b) as such a termination causes short circuit. Also the excess
wire as shown in Fig. 2.25 (c) should be cut off and the wire end is
tucked inward to avoid exposing bare portion of the conductor.
kAW WIRES
5ETUER
START
115,
ETCN TAPE £..4'TAPE
CflYASIT OVER 8OTTCM
PPj: CP3LICWAK
COMPLETE COVIR
(a) (b) (c) td)
Method of employing tape on a pigtail joint of a solid

conductor and flexible wire
Fig. 2.24.
Bending of conductor in the form of loop

(a)

Wrong method of forming
the loop Excess wire needs cutting
(b) (c)
Fig. 2.25
Solderiess connection for

heavier wire
E IaA
Soldering lug
(b)
(a)
Fig. 2.26
Forheavier wire either a solderless connection is made as shown
in Fig. 2.26 (a) or a soldering lug as shown in Fig. 2.26 (b) is used
forconnection. The heavier conductors are soldered to this lugwhich
is terminated with a bolt.
3
Type and Installation of
Wiring Systems
1. Introduction. 2. Methods of installing wiring. 3. Cleat wiring. 4. Wooden Capping
casing. 5. Tough Rubber sheathed wiring. 6. Metal sheathed orload sheathed wiring.
7. Metal Conduit wiring. 8. Installation of conduit wiring. Q. Thin wall conduits. 10.
Rigid Conduits. 11. Flexible Conduits. 12. Conduit accessories. 13. Couplings. 14.
Elbows. 15. Bushings. 16. Locknuts. 17. ConduitNipples. 18. Box Connector bush ings
for flexible Conduits. 19. Conduit reducera. 20. Conduit Box. 21. Conduit Saddles or
Conduit clamps. 22. Conduit fittings. 23. Fishing wire through rigid conduit. 24.
Conduit cutting and threading. 25. Comparison of various wiring system.
1.Introduction. The type of wiring to be adopted is dependent

on various factors viz, durability, safety, appearance, cost and
consumers budget etc. Each factor is explained below.
(a) Durability. The type of wiring selected for incorporation in
a consumer's premises should be durable, i.c., it should be of proper
specification and as well as in accordance with the assessed life and
type of building. Cleat wiring suitable for a temporary building will
definitely be unsuitable for permanent factory building.
(b) Safety. While selecting the type of wiring, one has to look
into the safety aspect. In a factory, where lot of fumes are produced,
the cleat or capping casing wiring will be unsuitable.
(c) Appearance. It must betaken into consideration that the
wiring do not spoil the beauty of the premises. In a beautiful
banglow, if one resort to cleat or capping casing type of wiring, the
whole outlook of the building will deteriorate which will create a
bad impression on the capability of the designer.
(d) Cost. This is th 'nr.,t impornt factor. The executive or
the designer has-to see the funds avaiabie for the job and thereby
arriving at the conclusion for the type of wiring to be adopted for
meetingthe consumer's requirement within the available resources.
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS iS
(e) Accessibility. The extension, renewal of the wiring should

be suitable.
(1) Maintenance Cost. As far as possible the maintenance cost
should be low.
2. Methods of installing Wiring.,There are a number of
methods of installing a wiring system. They are:
(I) Cleat Wiring (Vulcanized India Rubber wire known as
V.I.R wire in porcelain cleats).
(ii) Casing Capping W.I.R. wires in Wooden casings).
(iii) T.R.S. Wiring (Tough, rubber sheath wires run over wooden
battens).
(iv) Metal Sheathed Wiring (V.I.R. wires covered with lead, run
over wooden battens).
(u) Conduit Wiring (V.I.R.
Conductors run in metallic con-
duits).
3. Cleat Wiring. In this system the V.I.R. conductors are
supported in porcelain cleats. These cleats are made in two halves
one of which is grooved to receive the wire and the other half is put
over it and the whole of it is fixed on the wall by means of screws
which further tightens the grip of the wire between the two halves
of the cleat. The cleats are of three types, having one, two or three
grooves, so as to receive one, two or three wires. Two types of cleats
are shown in Fig. 3.1.
Wi/I
Two and three grooves cleats
Fig. 3.1
It is one of the cheapest methods of wiring. The wires are
exposed to view: This system is most suitable for temporary wiring
as it can be quickly installed and the recovery of the material can
be made wlen the wiring is no longer required. Inspection, alter-
ations and additions can easily be made.
This type of wiring is not permitted for permanent Jobs, as the
wiring system, though it appears very neat and clean at the time of
erection, it gives a shabby look after sometime. It sags at some places,
afte r a certain period, dust and dirt collect over them, moreover a
44
WrRrNG ESTIMATING AND COSTIjG
the time of white washing or disternperjr L
g the lime falls over the
conductor, which erodes it and eventually the wire may break. Thus
the maintenance cost in increased.
Further oil and smoke are much
injurious to V.I.R. So this type of wiring should not be used in
blacksmith's shops or similar places. In order to ensure longer life
to such a wiring system, cleats should be used at intervals of 30 cm.
While installing cleat wiring system the following points should
be borne in mind:
1. The cleats used should not be more than 60 cm, apart
horizontally or vertically.
2. The wires must be laid stretched between the cleats, so as
to avoid contact with the wall.
3. Only proper type of cleats should be used,
i.e. a three-groove
cleat should not be used for 2 wires or a two-groove cleat for a single
wire. For a pressure up to 250 V, the distance between the cleat
grooves should not be less than 2.5 cm. for branch circuits but for
sub-mains it should not be less than 4 cm.
4. Sharp bends should be avoided and the spacing between
the cleats under the bends should be reduced.
5. With 2
metres above the floor, the wires must be run in
wooden casing or conduits and the end of these conduits must he
fil ed to round off the corners etc. so
that it may not spoil the insu-
lati,n when the wire is drawn in through them.
6. \Vooden bushings are preferred at each end of the conduit.
7. A cleat must be Placed close to each end of the conduit,
similarly a cleat must also be placed at each end of fitting.
8. When the wires are to pass through wails, they must be
taken through conduits.
9. Vhen tno wires CrOSS or superimpose,
they must be sepa-
rated by an insulating brid g e piece which will ma
cm, distance between th0 conductors i ntain at least 1.3
10 The it ires chould not
structural work. be run near water and gas pipes and
11. This svstam of wiring should not be

u sed for damp places
4. Wooden Casing Capping. This system of wiring is most
commonly adopted for residential buildings. It Consists of rectan-
gular wooden blocks made from first class seasoned teak wood or
an y other wood free from kno t
s, shakes or shaps etc. called casing.
It has usually two grooves into which the wires are laid. The casing
at the top is covered by means ofa rectangular strip of wood of the
45
TYPE AND INsTALLATION OF WRUNG SYSTEMS
as capping and is screwed to it.

same width as that of casing known
show the position of wires so
A double bed is cut in the capping to
through wrong position. Two or
that the screws may not be driven
three wires of the same polarity may be run in one groove and in no
case the wires of the opposite polaritiy may be run in one groove.
suitable for low pressure installations,
Such a system of wiring is
where vulcanized insulated rubber cables or plastic insulated cables
two main disadvantages which go against
are used in grooves. The
this system are:
to make the job
1. Highly skilled carpenters are requiitd
cleaner which will naturally be costlier.
2. There is every risk of fire.
According to Indian Standards, the size of the casing capping
3.1
and the size of the wire it can accommodate is given in Tables
and 3.2.
The capping and casing is available in pieces of lengths varying
between 3.0 metre to 6.0 metre.
The casing is so fixed on the wall that it does not come in direct
contact with but is supported by round porcelain disc insulators
The fixing is done with the help of wooden counter-sunk screws into
the wooden plugs or gutties. The gutties are. iitt'd into the wall at
mm. (2.5
intel vals not exceeding 90 cm. (3 ft.) for sizes u to 63.5
i n.) and not exceeding 60 cm. (2 ft.) for sizes atcve 63.5 mm. (2.5
in.). In the casing, the wooden screws are pascd into the diding
wall.
capping. Since the standards casing and
5. Joints in casing
capping is available in maximum lengths o,'3 m. and 6 m., so their
CiCSO
jointing will be required. All joints made must be smooth ar
, c. following are the
ft and they are secured with wooden screws. "'t
various joints generally req'...ret
Such a joint, is rrquied when t c p :c :!
1. S l ra.;ghi Joint,
cesirig ae to be joined S;raightjoiiits are rece.sary since
and capping is available inlen'ns of3 m and 6 m. For 5uch a
he walls of one of the casings i removed for a length of ab.ut 2.o
em. so that only thickness ot ene wood under the grooves isle there
ing the wooden piece under grooves is
and in the other piece of ca s
removed for a length ofaou i,5 cm. and the two casings properly
made are shown in Fig. 3.2. The joint is made permanent by pro-
viding one or more wooden screws. The completed joint is shown in
Fig. 3.3. If instead of this type ofstraghtj;int
e a gap
it is made b placing
betw en the t' c pieces
two casings side by side, it wi ll lea v
through which white ants etc can enter and can spc.il the insulation.
-.
E oo C', w
04 C'C4 cli C' c'i
to
c' - c' -
I .
•
0 00. w c c'.
.,, ,, in W C- 00 0
'--4

46 WIIUNG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
C,,
. .
E O0 00 C
1 ,..4 ,1 -4 ,1 ,4
to
0 C.O 0 0 0 C'
0 a ',. '' -
.E --T
L
I) C
-4 C' C
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS 47
I I I I
I I I I - -
I • - -
en
to
I I I - -
I - eq
• E
c'. 08I I - - • l• O
±±:i

Icn I cl i eq
cq eq C4

C C
- - eq eq C
- - eq eq 00
- - eq eq w- 0
eq eqm m o q -
—- — eq -
H

The figure represents two shaped casings to be joined together

Fig. 3.2
cc
The figure represents the finished joints

Fig. 3.3
The capping joints do not QVrlap, but the two pieces of capping
are cut at an angle of 45* and are joined, as is shown in Fig. 3.4.
cdpily
Jointing of Capping
Fig. 3.4
(ii) Tee Joint. Such ajoint is required where the wiring is to be
carried out at right angles to the normal run of the casing, since the
shape of this joint is a T, it is called as Tee Joint. In this joint, for
the piece of casing to be joined at right angles to the normal run the
flat portion of the wood at the bottom of the casing is removed for a
length equal to the outer distance between the middle and outer
walls of the casing (i.e. two wall thickness and a cavity). Such a
piece is called as tenon, which is further shaped as in Fig. 3.5 i.e.
the other two walls of the tenon are made shorter than the middle
wall by a length equal to one of the cavity plus one thickness of the
wall.
Figure representing Tenon and Mortise.

(a)
The other piece in which this tenon will be fixed is called mortise,
the outer wall (not the flat position) is removed for a width equal
to the width of the casing, also some portion of the middle wall of
Figure representing finished T-Joint.

(b)
Fig. 3.5

5° WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
mortise of width equal to the thickness of the middle wall is removed.

Under such conditions the tenon can be made tight fit into mortise
and a Tee Joint is obtained.
1i.
Figure representing top and bottom
pieces of capping with the shaded
portions marked for removing

Figure representing finished
T-Joint.
(d)
(c)
Fig. 3.5.
For the joint of the capping, the squares are made on the top
and right angle bottom cappings as shown. From the top capping.
Figure representing the two portions prepared to the right angled joint.
Fig. 3.6
one quarter of the square is removed, while from the right-angled

capping, of the square is removed so that the joint is Thaped as
shown in Fig. 3.6.
(iii) Right-angled Joint. When a right-angled turn is to be given
to the run of the casing, a right-angled joint is required. For this
joint, the squares are made on the two pieces of the casing to be
joined for a right-angled joint, the piece acting as a tenon is cut along
the diagonal of the square and thus half of the square is removed,
for the half of the square, the bottom flat portion of the casing is
removed; For the piece acting, as mortise, the walls of the casing
are removed along the diagonal of the square made as earlier. The
joint is made permanent by providing a screw in middle wall as
shown in Fig. 3.7.
Finish right angled joint

Fig. 3.7
For the capping joint, the squares are made at the ends of the
two pieces and they are cut along the diagonals of these squares.
Corner Joint. To avoid sharp bends in the insulating wire, a
cornerjoint is required. The carrier joint is a right-angled triangular
prism made by joining two casings and screwing them. For making
such a joint, two pieces of casing are screwed together by placing
one at the back of the other, and this composite casing is then
cut at an angle of 450 depth wise so as to form a right-angular
prism. Such a corner joint is fixed in the corner as shown in Fig
3.8.

Finished corner joint

Fig. 3.8
The points to be noted for installing such a wiring system are:
1. Only seasoned teak wood should be used for casing and
capping to avoid trouble from white ants.
2. The casing should be well fixed to the walls and in no case
it should be supported by the wires themselves
3. Proper measurement should be taken to avoid gaps.
4. In no case the casing should be buried under plaster or
masonry work.
5. When the wiring is to cross a wall, it must pass through
conduits.
6. At bends, the grooves must be well rounded off t.ó avoid the
insulation being damaged.
7. While fixing capping to the casing with the help of wooden
screws, care should be taken that they go into dividing wall of the
casing, otherwise they will damage the insulation of the wires.
TYPE AND 1NSTALLATOF WIRING SYSTEMS 53
5. Tough Rubhw sheathed Wiring (TJLS). The type of

cables are sometimes also called as cable-tyer sheathed wiring
(C.T.S.). The T.R.S.les are available in single, twin or three
cores with a circular ro y al shape. The cable is quite flexible and
has an insulation wh resist rough usage, moisture, climatic
variations, acids, alk, but is slightly affected by lubricating oils.
SoT.R.S. cables mayrun on the surface ofthewalls or buried in
plaster, but usually 1r cable is laid over wooden batten which is
fixed on the wall, lead strips or fibre brackets as shown. For per-
manent neat appear, the cable should be secured at a distance
of 30 cm.
fllution of surface conduit wiring

Fig. 3.9.
The following ari'the specific points which should be noted when
installing T.R.S. wig system:
1. For damp places, a wooden batten or beading must be used
over which the cabliould be laid.
2. In damp ples, care must betaken to earth switches, lamp
holders and other ntal fittings.
3. Fibre clips thould not be used in damp places as these are
hygroscopic.
4. If the cables concealed under plaster, care must be
to provide a layer ofneat cement over it to avoid danger from nails.
5. The cable skuld not in any case be put under stress either
due to lead clips ordae to bends etc.
54
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTINC
6. In damp places the ends of the cable must be sealed with

compounds.
7. While t4ing through walls conduit must be used and at
both ends of the conduit, rubber bushing should be inserted.
8 The wire should be properly tightened and to achieve this,
the distance between the clips should not be more than 6 cm.
9 Bends should be provided with longer radius to avoid
cracks.
6. Metal Sheathed or Lead sheathed Wiring. This type of
wiring consists of rubber insulated conductor covered with an outer
sheath of lead alloy containing about 95% lead which provides a
protection to the cable from mechanical injury. These cables can
also be run on wooden beading or batten in residential buildings.
The lead sheath must be earthed. If the lead sheath is not earthed
there will be an electrolytic action due to the leakage current which
will deteriorate the lead covering, also earthing provides a safety
against the metal sheath becoming alive. Metal sheath cables are
costlier than the T.R.S, ones. The following points should be kept
in mind for installation of metal-sheathed wiring:
(1) The cables should be supported by proper metal clips,
saddles etc; which must not be more than 30 cm. apart both hori-
zontally as well as vertically.
(2) The supports used must not be of such a material that it
set up chemical action with the sheath.
(3) Sharp bends should be avoided and for a change of direction,
a round bend should be made of not less than 10 cm. (approximate)
radius.
(4) The lead sheath must be earthed and it must have a con-
tinuous electrical contact.
(5) The cable should not be run over a damp place.
(6) When crossing a wall, the cable must be run in conduits
with bushings at both ends.
(7) The ends of the conduits used must be filed to remove burrs,
and bushes may alo be provided at both ends.
7. Metal Conduit Wiring. In this system ofwi ring, the V.l.R.
Conductors are run in metallic tubes called conduits. It is indis-
putably the best system of wiring which provides mechanical pro-
tection, safety against fire and shock if bonding and earthing are
well done ; and this is most desirable for workshops and public
buildings.
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS
Illustration of surface conduit wiring

Fig. 3.10
There are two types of conduits used for wiring. One is known
as closejoint or open seam conduits or brazed conduits and the second
type of conduits are solid drawn seamless or welded.
The conduits can either be buried under plaster or can be
supported over the wall by means of saddles or pipe hooks. The
wiring with conduit on the surface of the wall is known as surface
conduit wiring and whereas wiring with conduit buried under
plaster is known as recessed conduit wiring. The main advantages
of conduit wiring are:
(1) It provides protection against fire due to short circuits etc.
(2) It provides protection against mechanical injury to the
V.I.R. wires used.
(3) It provides protection against moisture of the atmosphere
since the conduits can be made water-tight.
(4) It provides an easy way of replacing the damaged wires.
(5) Such a system is most suitable for workshops.
The conduits are generally erected first and wiring isdone later.
There are three methods by means of which the wiring of the con-
duits can be done. They are
(a) Threading through.
(b) Pushing in.
(c) Drawing in.
The first method of threading through is suitable when the
wiring is done before the conduits are erected which is somewhat
laborious and takes more time. This is useful only for making
extensions.
The method of pushing in is possible only when the erected

lengths of the conduit are small and straight
The drawing in method of wiring the conduit is most commonly
adopted. First the wires are inserted in the conduits and later V.I.R.
conductors are pulled through by means of steel wires. In order that
the wires may be easily pulled they are sometimes rubbed with
French Chalk. Inspection boxes and bends are provided at frequent
intervals to facilitate drawing in ofthR wires. While drawing, care
must be taken that wires are in no case to be twisted round one
another. It will reduce the capacity of the conduit and it will become
difficult to change the-wire if necessity arises some time later. The
following are the chief points which should be cared for in the
adoption of conduit wiring:
(1) The main drawback for. conduit wiring is that there is a
considerable condensation in the conduits in places where there
occurs appreciable change in temperature. In order to avoid con-
densation of water, the conduits must be well ventilated to allow
free air circulation. When a conduit is run horizontally, it should
be given a fall and care should be taken that no pocket is formed
where the condensation may rest.
- (2) Much care should be taken in cutting the conduit lengths
so that burns etc. may notbe formed which will tear off the insulation
from the wires whendrawing in. It is always advisable to cut the
conduits with a fine blade having 32 teeth per inch.
(3) Correct measurements should be taken to make satisfac-
tory joints.
(4) The oil used for threading the conduits must be wiped off
as it is injurious to the rubber insulation.
(5) The threads should be coated with aluminium paint and
not with red lead as it may act as an insulator
(6) For change of direction, the conduit must be bent round cold
in a p ress and the radius of the bend should not be less than 8cm.
(7) Whenever the conduits are buried under plaster, the con-
duits must be screwed to the wall behind first so that it may not
become loose later.
(8) The conduit must be well painted even if it is galvanized
before burying it under plaster,
(9) Wooden or ebonite bushes should be used whenever the
wires enter or leave the conduit, while brass bushings may be used
when leading into the building from overhead lines.
(10) If the current is alternating, conductors of opposite polarity

should be bunched together so that the sum of current through that
length of the conduit will be zero at any instant, otherwise eddy
currents may be induced in the conduits which will heat them up.
(11) It is always advisable to use only one size of conduits even
if the parts of r gn of conduits be duplicated or if the conduit is to
carry much less number of wires than its carrying capacity.
(12) The conduit must be electrically continues and effectively
connected to earth.
(13) Contact of the conduits with the metal work should be
avoided and conduits should be kept away from gas and water pipes.
8. Installation of Conduit Wiring. The conduit wiring is
undoubtedly the best wiring system. It has attained much impor-
tance for interior wiring installations. The conduits used may either
h' non-metallic (such a fibre, plastic or alkathine etc.) or metallic.
The metallic conduits may further be subdivided into ferrous or
-'on-ferrous. The non-ferrous conduits may either be of aluminium
or of copper. The ferrous conduits are made of mild steel ; in its
appearance it is similar to that of a water pipe, but they differ from
it, in the sense that conduits are annealed to permit easy bending.
They are specially treated during manufacture so as to have high
degree of corrosion resistance. In general the conduits can be
classified as
(a) Thin wall conduits.
(b) Rigid conduits.
(c) Flexible conduits.
9. Thin Wall Conduits. Such conduits are further subdi-
vided into:
These are made out of light gauge steel
(a) Close joint conduits.
strips, bent so as to form a tube. There is no mechanical adhesion
between its two edges. It is the cheapest form of conduit, and pro-
vides only mechanical protection and covers risk against fire. Such
conduits are not recommended for quality work.
(b) Brazed conduits.
Such conduits are also made similar to
that of close-joint conduits, but the ends of the steel tubing ar
brazed together which makes the conduits damp-proof. If has the
greàtesi disadvantages that the brazing material is left projecting
inside the tube which makes drawing in of the wires impossible.
10. Rigid Conduits- Such conduits are made out of a heavy
gauge steel and the tube edges are electrically welded, so they are
named as heavy gauge welded conduits.
There is another form of rigid conduit called as Solid drawn

conduit. Such conduits are drawn from solids and have no joint
throughoutits section. They are the heaviest and the best, although
a bit costlier.
These are available in about 3-metre lengths and are threaded
at the two ends. The threads are usually tapered and are provided
with a coupling on one side similar to that ofplumbing pipe coupling.
They can be joined together to form one continuous run. The rigid
conduit is shown in Fig. 3.11.
Rigid Conduit
Fig. 3.11
While manufacturing conduits, care is taken to remove all burrs,
scale and other rough spots prom inside of the conduit to avoid
damage to the insulation on the wires. This also makes pulling in
of the wires and cables easier.
There are two general types of finishes in which conduits are
available. The y arc:
(a) black enamelled.
(b) galvanized.
The black enamelled conduits have a coating of black enamel,
baked in a heating furnace, so that it may not peal off easily. The
"galvanized conduits" have a coating ofzinc which is usually applied
by hot dipping process.
The black enamelled conduits should be used only in doors.
Their use should be avoided where the location is damp and where
they are liable to face acid fumes, and salt sea water atmosphere.
Table 3.3 gives the maximum number of wires which can be
accommodated in different sizes of conduits.
11. Flexible Conduits. The flexible conduits are made from
galvanized steel strips, specially wound upon each other.
There are three types of flexible conduit:
(a) Concaved double strip. It consists of concave-shaped steel
strips spirally wound one upon the other as shown in Fig. 3.12 (a).
To make the conduit moisture-proof a gasket is provided in between
the strips.
(b) Flat double strip. The consiruction of this type of flexible
conduit is similar to that in (a) except that the strips are flat as
shown in Fig. 3.12 (b).
5g
co
...
cli
0
E
0
• • ,.. . 0 0coC C
— .! L
— — -0 C'
— —
E
0 0 0 0 ' C
0
L) c.1
-
0 • •
—
lz
0
cl
L)
E--
E ' 0 0000
- . cq —
ru
c1
( C C
E e.l c c'J 0 o 0
NN

60 WIRING, ESI'IMATiNG AND COSTING
17&ous Gasket
2J1I1 iXI3
CONCAVED DOUSLE STRIP
(a)
=;Am
Fibrous Gasket
(b)
FLAT DOUBLE STRIP

Round GosAel Srrip
SINGLE STRIP
Flexible Conduits
Fig. 3.12
(c) Single strip. This type of flexible conduit is made from a
single galvanized steel strip. Such strips are interlocked as shown
in Fig. 3.12 (c). These conduits may also be gasketed.
Usually the double strip conduits are preferred to single strip
conduits since
(1) they are more flexible;
(2) they are smoother from inside.
The flexible conduits are available in lengths up to 250 metres,
so no couplings are required and hence no threading. Since the
conduits are flexible and are easily bent, no, elbows are required.
The flexible conduits have advantageous application in installations
where a certain amount of flexibility is required, i.e. with motors
having sliding bases. However, the flexible conduit is costlier than
the rigid conduit. Moreover it is not satisfactory in damp places as
the moisture is liable to enter into the conduit. So embedding of
such conduits into the concrete is avoided.
12. The Conduit Accessories. The general accessories
required for the conduit installations are given in the following
articles.
13. Couplings. Since the conduits are available in smaller
lengths, so to obtain a continuous length of the conduit the two are
coupled together by means ofcoupling. For the three types of conduit
(thin, rigid and flexible) different type of couplings are required.
(i) Thin wall conduit coupling. The thin wall conduits
cannot have threads, so counling cannot be done in an ordinary
way. There are two methods by which two conduit lengths can be
joined together. The first method is by means of a slip socket joint
in which case the two ends ofthe conduit,, are slipped inside a socket
which is provided with collars against which the two ends butt. But
this form ofjoint is not recommended as it does not provide a better
electrically continuous joint. The joint is shown in Fig. 3.13.
V's
Slip socket joint

Fig. 3.13
The second type of thin wall conduit coupling is the watertight
coupling. It consists of a slip socket similar to that of the previous
method, but each end of this socket is provided with male threads
and possess compession rings as shown in Fig. 3.14. A gland nut
is screwed at the top of this socket which compresses the compres-
sion ring, thus tightly clamping the two ends of the conduit.
Wa,MflsSaafl,
Slip socket with a gland nut at the top

Fig. 3.14
(ii) Coupling for rigid conduits. The rigid seamless or
welded conduits can be joined by means ofa screwed socket as shown
in Fig. 3.15. Such coupling is similar to that of water-pipe couplings.
'.. .V\"\ \ ' ':\ \' v'\s s\,\\\ I

Rigid conduit coupling
Fig. 3.15
(iii) Flexible conduit coupling. Usually for such types of
conduits slip couplings are used The split coupling may have two

or four screws. Fig. 3.16(a) shows a two-screw coupling, while Figs.

3.16 (b) and (c) show the upper and lower parts of the fourscrew type
flexible conduit coupling.
II.,
Two screw flexible coupling

(a)
fieXibIe-
Conduit _______ Iiff
Top half of the fl. eb1e coupling

(b)
,-eti0
-
. (ao'.;t Ho"CL Fr
Sto.'e BoIis
Bot'orn half of the flexible coupling

Fig. 3.16 (c)
Of tom i,cl(
flex ,L)e Cdt, Rigid
A .'i3.. >
for
Crrdu,t 0 80ft$
coJp&)c...±rrrfl
_ o I Top )oh'
Fig. representing ajoint b€.::. a rigid conduit and a flexible conduit

'g. 3.17
' 'flPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS
63
When a flexible conduit is to be connected to a rigid conduit, a

combination coupling is used. The combination coupling is similar
to that of split couplingwith 4 screws, but one end of such a coupling
is provided with threads for rigid conduit coupling, Fig: 3.17 rep-
resents such type of coupling.
14. Elbows. The change of direction in conduit wiring is always

made by means of an elbow which provides a 900 bend. Since the
wires are to be pulled through the conduits after installation, it is
necessary that the radius of the bend must be about 6 times the
internal diameter of the conduit. Usually the standard L's are
available in the market, but it is always a practice to bend the
conduit at the site by means of hickey or by hand in pipe vice. The
Offset due to ells is alwa y s more than the radius as

shown in Fig. 3.18. While cutting conduits, care \
must be taken to allow for this offset. Since this
offset is not the same for all sizes of conduit L's, the
usual practice adopted is not to cut the conduit until
the L is fixed to the job.
15. Conduit Bushings. These are used v.hn

the rigid conduit enters the conduit box or when Fig. 3.18
the conduit enter a hole which is not threaded. It is either made
from a malleable iron or from a formed sheet steel. The btshings
serve a double purpose. Firstly it prevents the insulation cn the
cables from being peeled off due to rubbing against the sharp hzes
of the conduit when they arepulied in ; secondlyit helps in securing
the rigid conduit to conduit box when no locknut is placed on the
inside of the box. Fig. 3.19 shows the two types of bushings used.
Generally the collarded bushing is used since it covers the hole in
the hoard.
10e-Pc'tus f9e
r5tCrdc. P,' rbr''
F!r;Gr!p ABG
Pred,' c-19
Bushings
Fig. 3.19
64
rd
eod
CAP ATTACHED
(b) Bushing with cap

(a) Collarded Bushing
Fig. 3.20
There is another closed type of bushing which is used during
the construction of the building. Such type of bushing is provided
with a cap as shown in Fig. 3.20. It prevents the moisture entering
the conduit system during construction.
16. Locknuts. When the conduit enters a
box, it is necessary that the locknut should be
1hread screwed on the conduit as it makes the con-
nection to the box rigid and electrically con-
tinuous. The locknuts are punched out of thin
/ steel sheets shown in Fig. 3.21. The locknuts
are either hexagonal or octagonal.
Locknut l7. Conduit Nipples. The nipples serve the

Fig. 3.21 same purpose as that of conduit bushing.
Similar to the bushing, it has a smooth inner surface and are used
for providing a coupling to the conduit bore. Conduit nipple is shown
in Fig. 3.22. The nipples are rarely provided because the system
becomes costlier.
Ro
a9on
'-'p
Pipe Thread
Conduit Nipples
Fig. 3.22
TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF wrnrNG SYSTEMS
65
18. Box Connector Bushings for Flexible Conduits. Fig.

3.23 represents the bushing to be used when the flexible conduit
enters the box. The Connectors so ':sed are usually made of cast
iron, one end of it clamps the flexible conduit while the other
threaded end enters the bore where it is fixed to the box with the
locknut.
ocktut
Bolt
5tar7do,-d Pipe Thread
Box connector bushings for flexible conduits

Fig. 3.23
19. Conduit Reducers. The reducers are used when the size
of the conduit is changed in between the ringsvstem, The conduit
reducers are similar to that of steam and water-pipe reducer. Fig.
3.24 shows a reducer changing a 19.0 mm conduit pipe to 12.5 mm
conduit pipe. In practice the size of the conduit used mono building
is not changed.
125 mm
Th
C"!,
cC7
Conduit reducer
Fig. 3.24
20. Conduit Box. The rigid conduits are always .erminated at
outlets into a box. There are different types of boxes ; it may be
round, square or octagonal. The depth of the box may be " to I
The boxes always have knockouts punch out at the time of

manufacture as shown in Fig. 3.25 and are held there by small
sections ofknockout these knockouts are removed by hammering,
or with the twist motion of the pliers or a blunt tool. The conduit
boxes are also called as outlet boxes since they are usually used for
outlets. The boxes are provided with a cover held by screw on it.

After removing the knockout the conduit is attached to it by means

of the locknut and bushing. Care should always be taken not to
remove the knockout until and unless it is to be used; ifthe knockout
is removed, it must be sealed. The purposes for which the boxes are
used are underlined
RQ!nd- Ho7
fc,'h,ne Scre.'
X,GCkOUtS
Square conduit box

(a)

Round condu. box Octagonal conduit box
(B)
(c)
Fig. 3.25
(i) to provide connections for lights, fan, heaters etc. in w}-ich
ease they are called as outlet boxes
(ii) to facilitate the pulling of con ductrs in the conduits and
are known as inspection boxes
(iii) to house the junctions of the conductors and are known as
junction boxes
(hi) to provide snap switches.
Figs. 3.26 (a), (b), (c) represent the method of fixing the rigid
t
conduit to the outlet box.

TYPE AND INSTALLATION OF WIRING SYSTEMS £7
oc
Fvrlched 041t
Fig. representing the conduit box and the conduit
(a)
•
Bushing
3ox
Fg reprPs nig thecondu fx -d Fig. representing the 1ocnu: ng-

to the box with the bushing m ned wh the box.
position (c)
(b)
Fig. 326
It should be noted that if the conduit to be fixed to the hx is

cut too long, two locknuts are provided, one inside the box and the
other out.
I ocknj-
P/ez6/ CO.'d,t (o'7/ectQp
Conoc-tor 5t'tscrew
Fig. representing the connector and Conduit fixed to be connector with

the flexible conduit the help of screw
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.27
Figs. 3.27 (ci), (b), (c) represent the method of connecting flexible
conduit to the outlet box with the help of a conductor.

68
Q. it 8o
Out/et Bo..
-
8ush'
The connector and conduit assembly Fig. representing the complete
is inserted into the box and the lock- assembly with the bushing
nut inside the box is provided (d)
(c)
Fig. 327
21. Conduit Saddles or Conduit Clamps or Conduit
Straps. The conduit straps or saddles are used to fix the conduit
to the wooden plugs in the wall. The conduit saddle may have one
or two holes as shown in Fig. 3.28. All such saddles are made from
sheet steel.
Renforcin9
I-COt/QUIT 5TR4 CR
5.400LE TWO HCLE
SADDLE TWO HOLE

(a) (b)
Conduit saddles
Fig. 3.28
22. Conduit Fittings. The conduit fittings are similar to that
of a box ; but the difference lies only in the method of fixing the
conduit to these. The conduit fittings have productions as shown
in Fig. 3.29 and have female threads. The use of boxes are generally
limited to the concealed type wiring as the conduit fittings are rarely
usedfor that, but for the surface work both fittings and boxes can
be used.

Presed -Sree/ Badj
Octagonal outlet fitting Rengular outlet fitting

(a) (b)
Another type of rectangular fitting

(c)
Fig. 3.29
Machine Screw
Long pull-out fitting

(d)
Switch outlet fitting Pull-out rectangular bend fitting

(e) (/)
Another type of rectangular pull-outfitting.

(g)
Fig. 3.29

70
WmG
ES7 1MATING AND coSTINC
For pulling the Conductors into the
called 'pull outlet fittings' are used. Con duits special fittings
23. Fi
cussing thenishing
methodWires Through
of wiring rid Rigid Conduits Before dis-
bered that the con c onduits it should be emern-
ductors or res should not be run into them until
and unless the whole of the mechanical works in the building are
co
mpleted The drawback in running of wires before such works
completed is that there is a Possibility of any nail etc. being driven
into the conduit which would spoil the insulation.
Thus no co
Conduit is comp nduit is wired until the complete Funning of the
Stage. leted and the building has reached the water-tight
There are two methods of installing

runs, namely, Con ductors in the Conduit
(1) Pushing.
(2) Drawing
In the pushing method
the wires are p
from one end of the outlet by exerting manual ushed into on
pressure thethem
conduits
but
this method is pr
acticable only when the Conduit runs are small and
straight In the drawing
method
conduit with the help ofa wire. Suchthea method
wires are pulled through the
is also called "fishing" of drawingthe wires
Pig. 3.30
The wire snake consists of a flat steel wire or j"thick which

IS rounded off.at
making the hook,onethe end to form
snake a hook
wire is heateas shown in Fig. 3 .31. For
blow lamp and is bend into shape with d at one end by means of
drawings in, the wi res are skinned and the the help of pliers. For '
as shown in Fig. 3.31. It is
over the connection. a dvantageous to p to the snake hook
i rovide a friction tape
There are two methods of fishing the wire in conduits.
(j) One-way fishing. (ii)
Two-way fishing.
In case ofone.wayflshjng Onlyone snake wire is used forpulling
the wires but where the conduit runs are very long and have a
number of bends close together, those require two-way fishing i.e.
two snake wires are pushed in, one from each end of the conduit.
The wires in the cGnduiL are so manipulated that their hooked ends
engage each other. Then one of the wires is pulled through the
conduit. Usually it is ajob of two men, in order that the wires may
engage easily, one of the workers shakes and rattles it while the
other worker tries to get it engaged with the other snake wire.
In fishing operation care must be taken that
(i) there should not be any kink or bend in the wire entering
the conduit.
(ii) the wires in the conduit should not cross.
24. Conduit Cutting, Threading and Bending. The
methods have already been explained in Chapter I while dealing
with the Tools.
25. Comparison of Various Wiring Systems. To decide
which t y pe of wiring should heused fora particularjobrnuch depend
upon the experience of the designer and the prevailing circum-
stances. There are no hard and fast rules regarding the best wiring
s y stem. Comparative statement given in Table 3.4 can well guide
one in the selection of proper type of wiring to be adopted,
Table 3.4
S. Cleat I Wooden I I Lead I Conduit Remark.,

I ParticularsI wiring I casing I T.R.S. I sheathed I wiring
1. Life Fairly
Short Long I Long I Very long
long
0 Cost Low Medium Mediurn Medium High
3. Mechanical pro- None Fair Good I Poor Very good
tection
4. Possibility o Nil Good IFir!resiiYair I Nil
fire .sting
5- Protection from None Slight Good Good I Poor
dampness pro-
vided
Type of labour Semi High'y Skilled I Skilled I Highly
required -skilled skilled skilled
I. No. of points 4 3 1 3 3 2 Average
which can be
installed per
day by an ekc-
trician with a
72
WIRrNG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the various types of conduit used
2. How is the conduit cut and threaded?
3. "hat is the use of offse, and how is it obtained?
4. How is the flexible cciijt fixed to the conduit box?
5. What do you understand by fishing wires through rigid conduit?
6.
What is the difference between a conduitbox and a conduit fitting?
Lighting Accessories
1. Introduction. 2. Switches. 3. Surface Switches 4. Flush -SA , 5. PUll Swithcs
or Ceiling Switches. 6. Grid Switch. 7. Architrave Switch. 8. Rotary Snap Switch. 9.
Push button Switch. 10. Iron-clad Water-tight Switch. 11. Industrial Iron-dad
Switch. 12. Quick Break Knife Switch. 13. Lamp Holders. 14. Switch Ba y onet Cap
Lamp Holder. 15. Small Bayonet Cap Holder. 16. Goliath Edison Screw I..ampHc'der.
17. Medium Edison Screw Lamp Holder. 18. Porcelain Lamp Holders. 19. S.ivcI
Lamp Holder. 20. Fluorescent Lampholders and StarterHolders. 21. Ccihr.gRcses.
22. MountingBlocks. 23. Socket Outlet. 24. Plugs. 25. Terminal Block. 26. App:ar.ce
Connection. 27. Main Switch. 28. Splitter Units. 29. Distribution Fuse Bcard. 30.
Neutral Link.
1. Introducticn. Under the heading of Lighting Accesscrs,

come the switches,lamp-holders, ceiling roses, socket outlet S, pgs
their different types will be discussed here.
2. Switches. A switch is used to make or break the 1ec.riç
circuit. It should so operate that it must make the circuit uirrly,
and under some abnormal conditions, it must retain its rigidity and
keep its alignment between switch blades and contacts correct to
a fraction of a cm. At the instant of breaking the switch, it should
break the current so that there is no formation of an arc between
the switch blades and contact terminals. The disadvantage of
formation of an arc is that it burns or damages the switch contacts.
Such an arc is avoided usually by means of providing a sprir. to
movableblade so as tohave a quick action. Further the switch used
must have a base mechanically strong, capable of holding the parts
together and must have high insulation resistance.
The following are the various types of switches which can be
classified as
(a) Surface switches or Tumbler switch.
(b) Flush switches.
(c) Pull switches or Ceiling switches.
(d) Grid switches.
(e)Architrave switch.
tJ Rotary snap switch.
74
WIRING, E
STIMATING AND COSTING
(g) Push button switch,

(/i) Iron-clad water-tight switch.
(i) Industrial iron-clad switch.
(i) Quick break knife switch
3. Surface Switch or Tumbler Switch. The surface
switches are those which are mounted on the mounting block
directly fixed over the surface of the wall, i.e., such types of switches
project out of the surface of the wall. The surface switches can be
classified as
Fig. representing 5 Amp single-way 5Arnp single-way

surface switch without cap with switch with cap
moulded box
(b) (°)
Fig. 4.1.
(i) Single-way Switch. Fig. 4.1 (a) represents the single-way
switch while the adjoining Fig. 4.1 (b) shows the switch with cover
removed while Fig. 4.2 (a) and (b) represent switches with metal
cap porcelain base. The cover when fixed with two screws does not
Fig. representing 5 Amp single-way The porcelain based switch with a

surface switch with porcelain base metal cap
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.2
L.IGHTLNG ACCESSORIES 75
rotate. Such a switch is usually provided with a single pole, with

robust contacts having a quick make and wipe action and has a wide
separation. Each switch movement is mechanically linked to the
dolly. Fig. 4.3 represent an oblong switch which again has a por-
celain base and moulded dolly and cover.
Fig. 4.4 represents a single-way heavy duty 15 Amp switch.

Such switches are required for power circuits, where more than 5
Amp current flows.
(ii) Two-way Switch. The two-way switches are used for wing
circuits which are to be controlled from two points independently.
Such switches are represented in Fig. 4.2 (a) and (b).
I I
5 Amp Oblong switch

Fig. 4.3
; '.
Single-way 15 Amp heavy duty switch

Fig. 4.4
76 wmrNc, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Two-way Switch
Fig. 4.5
4. Flush Switches. The flush switch as is clear from its name
is fixed in flush with the wall and it does not project out. Such type
of switches is used where high quality performance and appearance
are desired. In it, all current carrying parts are mounted on high
grade vitreous porcelain enclosed in an iron box recessed into the
wall. Figs. 4.6 (a) and 4.7 (a) represent 5 Amp single way switch
and its cover. Figs. 4.6 (b) and 4.7 (b) represent 5 Amp two-way
switch.
(a) Single way (b) Two way

5k-np Flush Switch
Fig. 4.6
5 Amp Two-way Flush Switch cap 5 Amp Two-way switch cap

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7
LIGHTING ACCESSORIES 77
Figs. 4.8 (a) and (b) represent 15 Amp single-way and two-way
switches.

Single-way 15 Amp
switch 15 Amp Two-way switch
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.8
Sngle . switch
plate Two-switch plate
(a) (b)
For-switch plate
(c)
Fig. 4.9
78 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTiNG
Figs. 4.9 (a), (b) and (c) represent the flush switch plate for a
single-switch, two switches and 4 switches. All switch plates are
supplied with suitable switch fixing rings which may either be
shallow insulated rings or deep rings as shown in Fig. 4.10. The
deep rings designated for use with their appropriate plates will
ensure proper fixing in those cases where excessive plaster depths
prevent the shallow ring bein g threaded on to the switches.
1I
Shallow insulated ring Deep insulated ring Standard insulated ring
(a) (b) (c)
F.-. 4.10
Fig. 4.11 shows the metal backing rings which should be used
in those cases where the switches are to be secured to a plate or a
panel and is dependent on the fixing ring for support. A metal
backing ring placed between switch and back of plate or panel will
ensure secure fixing.
7^^^
BW Backing rings
Fig. 4.11
Fig. 4.12 (a) shows a cast iron box into which the flush switch
is fixed ; while Fig. 4.12 (b) represents an assembled view of the
switch
Cast Iron Box Assembled cast iron box with a

(ci) switch
(1))
Fig. 4.12
LIGHTING ACCESSORIES
79
5. Pull switches or Ceiling
switches. The pull switches are
fixed on the ceiling and all the alive parts are out off reach of the
operator. The switch has a strong mechanical action and is usually
operated with a single pull on the cord for the on and Off position
Pull Switch
Fig. 4.13
Such switches are most conveniently used in bath rooms (. here

water heaters are used), bed rooms (where the pull cord is provided
near the pillow and restaurants) The only drawback in such a
switch is that there is a considerable wear and tear at the point
'here the cor'j enters the switch. Such a switch is shown in
Fig. 4.13.
.7
6. Grid Switches. The gri switches are sm.ar to thaa of

tumbler switches, except that they are lighter and are portable so
for that reason they are quite useful for the portable machines such
as hand-drill, portable grinder etc. Such switches have all insulated
moulded base and dolly and have a smooth and silent action. They
are manufactured either in a single-way or a two-way pattern both
for 5 and 15 amperes.
This t y pe of switch can also be used for house wiring as a flush
switch for which an iron box is required with an insulated plate.
Such an assembly is shown in Fig. 4.14.
Grid switch for etc. Grid swtch for house wiring

(a)
Fig. 4.14
7. Architrave Sv. itch. This type of switch is designed for
flush munting on aron it raves. The switch movement is enclosed
in a compact porcelain base to which is fitted a metal mounting plate
with 102.5 mm fixing centres. An ivory plate is secured to switch
mount b'. two fixing screws as is represented in Fig. 4.15. Such
Cuver pLite. Architrave Switch.

Fig. 4.15
switches are available in one and two-way patterns and they cannot
be used without the cover plate.
8. Rotary Snap Switches. The rotary switches are much

different from that of ordinary tumbler switch. It consists of an
insulated handle to which are fixed the blades. These blades move
in steps by the movement of the handle and make contact with the
terminals to which are connected the wires in the electric circuits.
The handle motion is controlled by a cam or a spring as the handle
is moved through a quarter turn, the blade is released and moves
over quickly (with the help of spring) to make or break the circuit.
Such switches are available in a single or two-way patterns and a
two-way switch is shown in Fig. 4.16.
(CL) (b)
Rotary switches.
Fig. 4.16
This type of switch is not used for ordinary lighting purpose
but they are specially used for reversal of small motors, speed
controls and for control of circuits or electric ranges of heaters etc.
9. lush Button Switch. The construction of push button
tch is similar to that of a rotary switch, instead of a number cf
l)]Jdes ir consists of only one blade. The operation of this switch is
Cr
Push botton switch.

Fig. 4'17
82 WIR!NG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
not due to rotary motion ; but the blade is given a rocking action by
press buttons and its movement is controlled by a cam and a spring
thus they open or close with quick motion. Such switches have a
special application for starting motors and they can also be used for
controlling the lighting circuits such as a light provided in a
refrigerator which lights automatically when the door is opened and
goes off when its door is closed. This type of switch is shorn
in Fig. 4.17.
10. Iron-clad Water-tight Switches. Such switches are of
cast iron and have very robust construction. A cork gasket is fitted
between the case and the cover which makes it water-tight. The
switch spindle operates through a packed gland. Its construction
is much similar to that of rotar y switch and is represented in Fig.
4.18. Another type of water-tight switch has a similar construction
to that of a tumbler switch. Such switches are directly mounted on
to conduits.
tj
Iron-clad water-tight switch

Fig. 41
11. Industrial Iron-clad Switches. The switches to be used
in industry must be of heavy duty and they require a robust con-
struction. The ordinary switch is provided with a cast iron cover
Iron-clad sw:ch 5 Amp Iron-clad switch 15 Amp

(c (b)
F 4.1i
\
UGHTING ACCESSORIES 83
designed to give protection to the nickel plated switch dollies against

possibility of damage. This cover is secured to the iron box with the
help of four corner screws. Fig. 4.19(a) and (b) represent a 5 ampere •
and 15 ampere, Iron clad-switches respectively.
12. Quick-break Knife Switch. The knife swih consists of
blades hinged at one end and are arranged to go into forked ter-
minals or jaws at the other end. Each blade consists of one or two
or more hard rolled copper bars, the cross-section of which is
dependent upon the current to be handled. The hard rolled copper
used makes a better contact. At the hinged end spring washers are
used. The knife switch assembly is either fixed over an insulating
5prl/79 li
Single pole knife

switch. 2-pole knife switch.
(a) (b)
2-pole double throw knife switch.

(c)
Fig. 4.20
84
board or on switch board panel. For making connection to the

external circuit, the hinged ends and the jaws are c onnected to the
threaded studs at the back as shown.
For making the switch a quick break, the main blade is provided
with an auxiliary blade independent of the handle and both these
blades are connected by means of spring. For breaking the circuit,
as the handle is moved out, the main blade comes out while the
auxiliary blade remains in the clip and maintains connection, but
as the handle is moved further out, its puts a tension in the spring
which brings out the auxiliary blade out of the clip quickly. Thus
the spring provides a quick break action. Knife switches are
available as single throw switches or double throw switches. Fig.
4.20 represents the single throw switch. In case of a double throw
knife switch, 2 more clips are provided on the other side of the hinged
side of the switch as in Fig. 4.20 (c).
13. Lamp holders. As is clear from its name a lamp-holder is
used to hold the lamp required for lighting purposes. Earlier, brass
lamp-holders were quite popular, but now-a-days these have been
superseded by the all insulated pattern. A lamp-holder has either
moulded or porcelain interior with a solid or spring plunger and
easily wired terminals. In case of a solid olunger holder, solid
plunger is a one piece construction and the wiring terminal forms
an integral part of plunger and thus the current flows directly
through this plungerto the lamp. The plungerhasan external spring
as shown in Fig. 4.21 (a). As the wire terminal moves in and out as
the tamp is moved out or inserted in, so only flexible wire should be
used fo: wiring.
Sectional view of a solid plunger Sectional view of spring plunger

lamp-holder lamp-holder
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.21

The sprng plunger is necessary a two part construction. The

spring is inside a barrel to one end of which is wire terminal and
on the other end is a solid contact making contact with the lamp.
There is no movement of the wiring terminal as the lamp is inserted
into the holder to any suitable V.I.R. wire or flexible wire can be
used for wiring. Such a holder is shown in Fig. 4.21 (b) Each holder
carries a threaded shade carrier ring orholder maybe of Home Office
pattern ventilated and provided with safety shields. The Home
Office pattern lamp-holders are required in bath rooms and places
where contact with live parts cause additional risks. The lamp
holders can be classified as
(i) Bayonet Cap Lampholders which can further be subdivided
into
(a) Pendant holder or Cord Grip pattern.
(b) Batten holder

(c) Screwed holder which when used with a bracket is called
as bracket holder
(d) Water-tight pattern provided with T.R.S. Gland.
Pendant holders
Fit . 4.22
Standard 3-hole batten holder Strap two hole batten holder

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.23
86 WIRING ES TIMATING AND COSTING
Angle batten holder

(c)
I,
Home office type batten holder
Different types of batten holders

Fig. 4.23
(d)
1041
(a)
(b
Two types of screwed entry bracket holders
Fig. 4.24
Ad
Bracket holder with bracket

Fig. 4.25
Water-tight lamp-holder has got a gland at the top. The gland
is moulded with a bush and a rubber grounmen which firmly grips
the T.R.S. flexible wire.
According to Indian Standard 732 clause 5.5 all lamp-holders to be used on

bracket and the like shall have not less than a 1.13 mm nipple and all those for use
with flexible pendant3 shall be provided with corded cord grips. All lamp-holders
shall be provided with shade carriers. Where centre contact Edison Screw Lamp.
holders are used, the outer or screwed contact shall be connected to the earthed
conductor of the circuit.

W

Pig. showing the gland Assembled view of the Home office pattern
(a) holder (c)
(5)
• Fig. 4.26
14. Switched Bayonet Cap Lampholder. The switched
bayonet bayonet cap lamp-holder has a hush bar switch and is used
only to carry an electric load not exceeding 2 amp. These push bars
are non-detachable. The usual types of switch holders are
(i) Pendant holder or cord grip icider.

(ii) Screwed lamp-holder.
IiuuiiV
1I
i
Ir
Fig. represents the sectional view of Assembled view of the cord grip
switched bayonet holder. type Pendant holder.
(a) (h)
Fig. 4.27

L1J
Screwed lamp-holder, Screwed lamp-holder Home office
(c) pattern
(d)
Fig. 4.27
15. Small Bayonet Cap Holder. The small bayonet cap
holders possess all the features of larger patterns. They are again
of:
(L) Cord grip type.
(ii) Batten type.

(iii) Screwed pattern.
They are designed for carrying small sizes of lamps.
.9
AZ
bayonet cap holders

Srnafl
Fig. 4.28
16. Goliath Edison Screw Lampholders (Brass). Such
holders are useful for the lamps having wattage beyond 300 W, the
maximum range the lamps with which they can be used is 1,500 \V
Fig. 4.29 (a) and (b) represent cord grip type and screwed entry type
Screwed Lamp-holders respectively.

I ' &I1:tItLJ• I
(a)
Goliath Edison Screw Lamp-holders
Fig. 4.29
17. Medium Edisbon Screw Lamp holden (Brass). Such
holders are used with the screwed type lamps upth 200 watts, 250
volts. The different types of such holders are showsi in Fig. 4.30.
They are:
(a) Cord grip type.
(b) Batten type and
(c) Screwed Entry Pattern.
Cord Grip type Batten type Screwed entry type

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.30
It will be quite to the point to mention that:
According to Indian Standard 732, clause 5.8, all incandescent
lamps unless otherwise required shall be hung at a high of 2.5 m (8
ft.), above the floor level. They shall be provided nth a cap holder
of the following patterns upto and including 200 watts—Standard
Bayonet.
Above 200 watts and exceeding 200 watts—Edon Screw.
Above 300 watts—Goliath Screw.
18. Porcelain Lampholders. The porcelain lamp-holders are
designed for batten lampholders in Bayonet Cap Edison Screw

90
Ii
Bayonet cap holder Bayonet cap holder Goliath Edison screw

without skirt with skirt lamp holder without skirt
(a) (b) (c)
Goliath Edison screw lamp-holder Edison screw lamp-holder without

with skirt skirt
(d) (e)
.1gIøUIIIHg,
IIi
Edison screw lamp-holder with skirt
Fig. 4.31
patterns wi thor without skirts. The bayonet cap lamp-holders are

fitted with spring loaded brass plungers while the Edison Screw
lamp-holders have spring loaded central contacts to ensure efficient
contact pressure. Figs. 4.30 and 4.31 represent the different types
of lamp-holders.
19. Swivel Lamp-holders. The swivel lamp holders are

designed for controlled wide angle directional lighting which are
used for lighting of shop windows, show cases etc. It consists of a
ball and socket joint fitted between back plate and lamp-holder.
Such a joint is separately shown in Fig. 4.32 (c). The swivel lamp-
holders are available in bayonet cap type, small bayonet cap type
and Edison screw type. All the three types of holders are further
available for wall fixing pattern or ceiling pattern.
Swivel lamp batten holder Miniature swivel lamp-holder

(a) (b)
Ba!l and socket joint

(c)
Fig. 4.32
Angle swivel lamp-holder Edison screw swivel holder

(d 1 (e)
Fig 4.32
20. Fluorescent Lamp-holders and Starter holders. The
fluorescent holders are either of hi-pin type or of bayonet cap type,
but pin type holders are generally used for ordinary fluorescent
tubes, Fig. 4.33 represents a holder for the starter and the twist
turn contact holder of the tube, while Fig. 4.33 (c) represents a
combined holder for the tube as well as for the starter.
Yli
1:
cscet p ii uibe Holder for th Srt-r ('cr tu)*. a

holder eirt.r hoidr
(a) (c
F1,.
The holder for ba y onet caped tube is shown in Fig. 4.33 for easy
of the tube, the holder is provided with a loai in guide.

q V -1 "-Z
Bayonet caped tube
Fig. 4.34
21. Lamp-holder Adopter. The lamp-holder adopters are
used for tapping temporary power for small portable electric
appliances from lamp-holders. Although such a practice is not
advised. In no case the electric appliance energized by this method
is permitted in bathroom or other damp places. A bayonet lamp-
holder adopter with oval contacts similar to that of an electric lamp
is as shown in Fig. 4.35.
Adopter
Fig. 4.35
22. Ceiling Roses. The ceiling roses are used to provide a
tapping to the -pendant lamp-holder through the flexible wire or a
connection to a fluorescent tube. The ceiling rose consists of a cir-
cular porcelain or bakelite base provided with 2 or terminal plates
(according to the type of ceiling rose whether it is a2-v.aycra 3-way),
which are separated from each other by a porcelain or bakelite
bridge. Each of the terminal plate is provided with metallic sleeve
and abinding screw cn one side through which circuit wire from the
back via mounting block enters the ceiling roses, on the other side
ofthe terminal plate is provided with a washer and a clamping screw
for making connection to the flexible wire. The insulating bridge is
provided with holders through which the flexible wire is passed
through first before making connection to the terminal plate. Such
a construction avoids the supporting of the load of the lamp-holder
flexible wire and lamp by the connecting terminal plate. To the
threaded base is fixed a porcelain or bakelite cover as shown in
Fig. 4.36.

94
WIRING, ESTIMATING MW COSTING
Cover Base
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 4.36
L
Indian standard 732.5.1.
c.:!r.g rose c/an y other similar attachment shall not be
on a ct - cUit, the collage of which normally exceeds 250 volts.
(h) Vermall onl one flexible cord shall be attached to a ceiling
rose. Specicly designed ceiling roses shall be used for multiple
pendants.
(c) A ceiling rose sha!l not embody fuse terminal as integral
part c/it.
23. Mounting Blocks. According to I.S. 732 clause 5.10, all
the surface mounting accessories such as ceiling roses, batten lamp
holders, surface switches, ceiling switches etc., are used in con-
junction with wooden mounting block. For fixing the accessory on
the mounting block, it is placed centrally over the block, its binding
screws used to connect accessory with the main circuit wire are
slacked and through these metallic sleeves pricks are made into the
wooden ick. Then the accessory is removed and holes of mm or
more are drilled into the block for the entry of the wire. The rough
edges of the holes made are cleaned with a file. For fixing the block
over the wail or ceiling two holes are so drilled and made counter-
sunk so as to over these with the base of the accessory fixed over it.
The cable is drawn in for a sufficient length through these holes
LICI{TJNG ACCESSORIES
95
made earlier, which can again be pushed in after making connection
to the accessory. Then the wooden block is fixed to the wall with
the help of the two countersunk wooden screws.
Wooden rno'intr.g Block

Fig. 4.37
24. Socket Outlets The socket outlets have alHnsulatedbae
with moulded or socket base having 3 terminal sleeves. The two
thin terminal sleeves are meant for making connection to the cable,
Wit h the third trrnj7:cl sleeve, thicker in cross
. Sectjo, is us 1fo a
earth connection.
5 Amps Socket base

(a)
I.'. ç
All
Cover 3-;-. 15 Amp scket

F . 43;
0
The cover is again moulded and has corresponding 3 holes.

Earlier 2-pin sockets were Lsed for 5 ampere rouge, but now these
are obsolete and only 3-pin sockets are used. These sockets are
shown in Fig. 4.38 (a), (5) and (c) and are available either in flush
or surface mounting. -
The heav y duty 15 A is used for power circuits and is shown in
Fig. 138 (c).
25. Plugs. For tapping power from socket outlets, 3-pin plugs
are used. The thicker pin is used for an earth connection to the
-ortuh1 appliance. Fig. 4.39 represents a 3-pin 5 Amp plug while
Fi. 4.40 roresents a heavy duty power plug.
5 Amp plug.
Fig. 4.39
26. Terminal Block. Fig. 4.41 (a) and (b) represent 5 Amp
and 15 Amp 12-way terminal blocks used for termination and
connection to the other. A single-way terminal block is used for
differentiating the live line from the neutral when the domestic
connection is given and is called as Connector.
10-Ai, m m l a1-
-5 &^
(a) 5 Amp, 12-way terminal block.
(b) 15 Amp, 12-way terminal block.

Fig. 4.41
27. Appliance Connector. Making connection to the domestic
appliances such as electric kettle, electric press, percolator, etc. with
the suppl y mains appliance connectors are used. The connector is
provided with a 2-pin socket and the earth connection is provido
with a twin nickel spring. The cable entry has a rubber protection
tube. The connectors are either flat or round with a side entr y or
straight entry as shown in Fig. 4.42.
Flat connector with a top or side entry

(a)
Fig. 4.42

Flat ccnnecor with side entry

(b)
Round connector.
(c)
Fig. 4.42.
2S. Main Switch. Ir. order that the consumer may have sei
coa Ire1 of the electric circuit, he must have a main switch. Fig. 4.43
rearesents a 15 ampere main switch. The switch is a double-poled
or ind is cornbind with fuses. The bl-isc ofthe switch is high grade
vitreojS p3reelair, possessing perfect insulating properties and it
has MOUILIOd slots for the entry of cables. The blades of the double
pile 5 wjtch are made oftwo links mounted on an insulatin g bar, to
which is also connected the handle for the operatkn of the switch.
It is provided with a moulded cov er attached to the base with a

captive nut. The movement of the insulated bar is controlled by a

spring, which locks up the movement of the handle wen the switch
is without the cover and thus avoids the accidental switching on the
circuit. When the cover is placed in position, it releases a catch
which in turn unlocks the handle. Such main switches are designed
for maximum safe volts of 250, or 400 and they are available in 30
amperes range too, so they are suitable for domestic installations
Main switch having fuse grips in both the lines, and generally when it is
used for single phase the ends of one of the fuse are connected
permanently with a wire.
(a)
Single phase main switch with a fuse grip for neutral

(b)
Fig. 4.43

100 WIRING ES TIMATING AND COSTING
where ideal conditions prevail. But for control and isolation of

motors and machine tools etc. where oil and suds are prevalent, it
requires weather-proof, dust-proof and robust
Con struction of the
switch. So for heavy duty, cast iron switches are used, i.e., in fac-
tories, mills, chemical plants etc. The covers of such switches are
provided with a gasket to ensure that they are weather-proof
. Fig.
4.44 represents a closed and open view of a single-phase bakeflte
top main switch while Fig. 4.45 represents open and closed view of
ironclad switch. Fig. 4.46 (a) represents triple pole main switch,
while Fig. 4.46 (b) represents a triple pole main switch with a
neutral.
Main switch with Bakelite cover

1L
Fig. 4.44
Open and closed view of iron clad switch

Fig. 4.45
29. Splitter Units. There are f:xed number of lamps which can
be connected across the mains circuit, depending on the voltage
which is received at the lastpoint and according to Indian Electricity
Rules it must not be less than 5 per cent of the declared voltage
given by the supplier. If in a building, there are a number of outlets,
101
the wirir of all of the points is divided into a number of circuits.

hne, a splitter
For having a number of circuits from a singlesup ply
unit is required. Fig. 4.47 represents a splitter unit, splitting the
supply into three circuits. It consists of main switch and a fuse
board in cast iron box similar to that for main switch. Such a unit
does not control the individual circuits, for which purpose eparatC
main switch, one in each circuit is required. For the splitter unit,
to be weather-proof, a gasket is provided on the cover. They are
available either for 5 A range or 15 A range.
4
Triple pole 15 Amp i ron-clad 400 V switch
(a)
30 Amp switch.
(b)
Fig. 4.46

102 WIRING, EM ATGA&J.1J COSTING
Three-phase four-wire main switch.

Pig. 4.47
30. Distribution Fuse Boards. In th Industries or in ver)

big b0i1dings, where a number of circuits are to be wired, the dis-
tributicin fuse boards become a necessity. They are usually ironclac
and are designed to provide a large space for wiring and splittiri{
the circuts. The fuse bank in the distribution board can easil y b
removed. Since there are a number of wires making connection tc
the various fuse at top and bottom, to facilitate this, the fuse bank
can be tilted. Moreover, for further convenience of wiring, the cover
plate, top and bottom plates can he removed easily. In the top place,
knockouts are provided for fixing the conduits. Fig. 4.49 represents
30Q V, water-tight fuse boards.
Six-way distribution board

Fig. 448

(b)
12-way distribution board

(c)
Fig. 449
31. Neutral Links. With the help of a neutral link, the normal
three-phasefuse board can be converted into 3-phase 4-wire circuits.
Such neutral terminal consists of a terminal for incoming neutral
Ve
4i
Neutral links
F'ig. 4.50
main and a three-way outgoing circuit terminal, both are connected

by a link which can be detached for test purposes. The metal
components are mounted on high grade vitreous porcelain base. Fig.
4.50 represents 100 Amp, 60 Amp, 30 Amp, 15 Amp neutral links.
32. Miniature Circuit Breaker. The modem day practical
is to use miniature circuit Breakers which are available in sailings
varyirigfrom 0.5Amps to lOOAmps. These can be single pole, double
poles or three poles.
Miniature circuit Breaker Commanly known as MCB are final
sub circuit protective device as it comprises of thermal overload and
magnetic short circuit tripping devices. The MCB can carry rated
circuit continuously but sustained overloading of 150% or above.
Can be detected by thermal overload device which will trip the
M.C.B. The thermal elevate prevents rapid relosing of a circuit
while the overload still persists.
Magnetic short circuit device will trip M.C.B on fault. The trip
free mechanism incorporated in the breaker do not permit closing
of the contacts and in addition the thermal element also prevents
rapid closing of the circuit..
33. Spe9ifications of some Electrical Accessories.
(1) A.C. Energy meter:
Supply : Single phase/three phase 3 wire/4wire
Rated voltage 230 Volts/440 Volts.
Frequency 50 Hertz.
Current Rating : 5, 10, 20, 25 and 100 amps.
Revel utioriK\VH 450/900/1200 etc.
(2) Main switch, Lighting/Power (I.C.D.PJI.C.T.P.)
Material I.C. :(Iron clad)
Poles Double pole/Triple pole. 32A, 250/500V
Rating : 16 amps 250/500; 60A, 500V; bOA,
500V
(3) Tumbler Switch:
Rating : 5 Amp. 250V, one way/Two way, 15 A
250V one way.
Material Bakelite or bakelite with porcelain base.
Type : Surface/flush.
(4) Aerial Fuse:
Rating : 16A, 250V, or 16/32/60A, 500V
Material Tinned copper or tin lead alloy (63 % tin,
37 % lead)

UGHTINC ACCESSORIES 105
Size of fuse wire: Tinned copper : 24 SWG to 40 SWG

Lead : 10 SWG TO 32 SWG
(5) The complete specification of cable wil l give the following
data
(a) Size in metric system (19/2.34, 7/1.70, 7/2.24)-the nurner
ator giving the number of strands and the denominator dia. of each
strand in mm.
(b) Type of conductor material used in cables (copper or alu-
minium)
(c) Number of cores that cable consists ofe.g. Single core, Twin
core, Three core etc.
(d) Voltage grade 250/500 volts or 600/1100 volts or HV or EHV
grade.
(e) Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation,
taping, braiding and compounding etc.
(f) Type Designation:
The type designation is as per IS :709S-1977 (Part . I)
Ex. YY, AYA, YFA, AVMI1. etc.
In these codes, the FIRST letter indicates the material of
conductor, viz Al. or copper.
The SECOND letter indicates the type of insulation.
The letter A indicates Aluminium. If the code does NOT
start with A, then it is copper.
The letter Y in the Second place indicates, the insulation
is PVC
The letter 2X in the second place indicates the insulation
is FINVUL-X
The letter Yin the last place indicates it is PVC sheathed.
The letter M indicates, the conductor is in round con-
struction.
The letter W or R indicates, it is Round Steel Wire
armouring.
The letter F indicates, it is Flat Steel Wire (strip:
armouring.
Example:
AYA -+ Aluminium Conductor, PVC insulted
AYY -* Aluminium Conductor, PVC insulated, and PVC
sheathed, (unarrnoured)
YY - Copper Conductor, PVC insulated and PVC
sheathed, unarmoured
\TY -* Copper conductor, PVC insulated Flat steel wire
armouring and PVC sheathed.

106
AYWY - Aluminium Conductor PVC in sulated Round

steel wire armouring and PVC sheathed.
Also note:
1) AYRY -* 2 core upto 10 sq.rnm. available
3 core upto 6. sq.mm . available
4 core upt.o 4. sq.mm . available
2) AYFY -4 All other types available
3) YRY - upto 7 cores available
4) YFY -* from 10 cores available
(6) For House wiring, the cable size upto 1.0 KW
(Lighting only) load
Copper = SWG 1118. = 1410.3 multistrand, single core or
1mm2 111.12 single strand, single core
OR
Alum. = SWG 1118. = 3/0.80 rnultistrand, single core or
1.5 mn' 1)1.40 single strand, single core
(7) For House wiring the cable size for loads more than 1.5KW
and upto 3KW
(Plugs, and other House - hold appliances - Wet Grinders,
Refrigerators etc.)
Copper SWG 3/20, = 28/0.3 multi-strand, single core or
2.0 mm2 3/0.925multistrand, single core
OR
Alum. SWG 3/20, = 3/1.0 multistrand, single core or
2.5mm 2 111.80 single strand, single core
(8) For power loads more than 3KW and less than 10KW
Alum. SWG 7/20, = 7/0.85multistrand, single core or
4.0mm2 1J2.24single stand
Copper SWG 7/20, = 65/0.3multistrand or
4.5mm2 7/0.925single core
(9) Socket outlet:
Rating : 5Amps/25OVgrade
Type Flush/surface
Socket : 3 pin/2 pin.
(10) Adhesive black insulating tape.
The tape contains insulating adhesive material pasted on one
side of it. Its adhesive properties should retain for a considerable
period. It is available in rolls of 2, 5, 10, 20, 25 meters length. It can
withstand 250 volts per layer.
107
(11) Electric Heater.

Wattage : 450W/ 1000/150012000 watts.
Voltage : 230 volts.
Type : AC/DC
Make : BAJAJ/Klertonelcrompton Vijay, Recold, etc
(12) Electric press (for domestic use)
Wattage : 500/1000 watts, 230 volts.
Weight : 2 to 3 kg. System : Automatic
Non-automatic.
Name of manufacturing firm:Bajaj, Kiertone, Vijay, Maurya
etc.
(13) Ceiling Fan:
Name of the man- : Usha, Orient, Crompton, Rally, Kaiton
ufacturing firm etc.
Number of blades two or three or four

Size of blade : 900 mm (36); 60W: 1200 mm (48"), 100W
sweep 140!) mm (56 . I DOW; 1500 mm (60"), 100W
Type offan : ACorDC
Rated voltage : 230 71 , 50iz.
(14) Fluorescent tube:
Standard size : 2 ftJ60 cm; 4 1t1120 cm and I inch/2.5
cm din;
Name of the man- : Crompton, Philips, ElecEronSylvjnja
ufacturing firm Anchor etc.
Power consumed : 20 watts 1 40 watts; 230 volt; 0.6 lag.
(15) Choke for fluorescent tube:
Rating : 40 watts/20 watts at 230 volts
Power factor : 0.6
Name of : Crompton, Phiips, Sylvinia, Anchor etc.
Ma n ufacturers
(16) Starter for Flourvecnt tube:
Rating : 40 watt-,/20 watts at 230 volts
T y pe : Glow type.
Name cf Manufauturr : Crompton, Philips, Usha etc.

(17) Incandescent lamp:

Rating : 230 volts, 25/40/60/100/200 watts.
Type Pin/Screw.
:
Make : OsramlCrompton, Philips, Surya,
Sylvinia Pajaj etc.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. How many types of switches are there?
2. What are the various lighting accessories? Illustrate two types of
switches in use.
3. Why iron-clad water-tight switches are used? Illustrate with dia-
gram its various parts.
4. Why lamp-holders and ceiling roses are used?
5. How many types of lamp-holders are there, explain the construc-
t i onal parts of any two of them with sketches.
6. Illustrate with a sketch the various parts of main switch.
7. Write short notes and specifications for the following
(a) Quick break knife switch
(b) Tumbler switch
(c) Puh Button s.sitch
(d) Medium Edison Screw lamp-holder
(e) Mounting flloc< s
(f) Distribution fuse bards
() Plugs
(h) Socket outlet
(1) Fluorescent lamp-holder and starter holders
(j) A holder for hoid:r.g 60 watts, 230 volts lamps and suitable for
fixing to a brass bracket
[S.B.T.E. Pb. (Elect. Engg. 1967)]
(k) A switch for controll i ng 100 watts, 230 V lamp in cleat wiring.
[S.BT.E. Pb. (Elect. Engg., 1963)]
(1) A single phase ncrgy meter.
(ni) Ceiiig Fan.
(n) Man Switch lighting/power
Protection Devices
ThY.
1. Attracted Armature Type Relay. 2. Solenoid Type
3
. iTle
Induction Type over Current Relay. 5. Induction Type Reverse lsd Relay, 4.
Power
Re lay. 6.
Induction Type Directional over Current Relay. 7. Impedance or Distance Relay
(Induction T y pe) 8 Impedance Time Relay.
Introduction. In an electrical power station, when anything

becomes abnormal, it becomes necessary to isolate the abnormal
condition in
stantaneously or in some cases after a predetermined
time delaj'. The action may be automatic and selective i.e.
it must
segregate te faulty section or piece of apparatus leang the correct
apparatus in the circuit in the normal position. The function can be
fullled b y
using the protective devices like fuses or relays in the
circuit to isolate the circuit from the damages to be cecured due to
short circuit or over-loads etc.
The use of fuse in the circuit is limited for the protection of low
voltage circuits. For higher voltages say from 3300". upwards, the
protection of the circuit is achieved by p
roviding the protective relays
at proper selected points. At the time of occurring the faults in the
circuit, the relay operates to complete the circuit of trip coil, thereby
resulting in opening the circuit breaker and isolating the faults
section from ther
estofthesystern The relaythus ensures the safety
of the e q
uipments from being damaged and normal working cf
healthy portion of the system,
Main Features of Good Protective Devices
(i) Sensitivity The protective system should be so sensitive
that it should operate for low values of fault current'
(ii) Selectivity : The protective System should select correctly
the faulty part of the power s y
stem and disconnect the same without
disturbing the rest of the system.
(iii) Reliability: The protective system should operate defi-
nitely under p redetermined condition.
(it') Quickness: The protective system should be such that it

110
should respond quickly in order to improve quality of service,

equipment and increase stability of oper-
increase safety of life o r
ation.
(v) Non.inerfe1flc
e with Future Extension : There
should be scope for future extension without interfering the original
installation.
protective Relays : The protective relay may be defined as an
electrical device connected between the main circuit and the circuit
breaker in such a way that if any abnormality acts on the relay in
the circuit, it causes the breaker to open and the faulty element is
isolated. Thus the circuit equipments are saved from any damage
being caused by the fault.
The types of a relays may be classified as under
(a) According to Construction and Principle of opera-
tion.
The operation of this type of relay
(i) Attracted Armature type:
depends upon the movement of an armature under the influence of
attractive force due to magnetic field set up by current flowing
through the relay winding.
The operation of this type of relay depends
(ii) Solenoid type :
movement of an ircn plunger core along the axis of a
upon
50lenod.
In this type of relay, th.^ moving part
(iii) Electro dynamic type:
coil, free to rotate in an electromagnetic field.
consists of a
Induction type:
(it')
upon the movement of a metallic disc or cylinder, free to rotate by
the inter action of induced eddy currents and the alternating
magnetic field producing them.
(u) Thermal type :
upon the action of heat produced by the current flowing through the
element of the relay.
( vi) Meting ype : In this type of relay, the moving part
Coil T
con sists ofa coil, free to rctate in the air gap ofa permanent magnet.
(b) According to Applications
Over Voltage/Over Current/Over Power Relay : When the
()
.oltageJcurrefltJPOWet increases in any circuit above a specified
value, then the relay operates.
(ii) Under Voltage /under Current /Under Power relay: When
the v D ltageku Power falls below a specified value, then the

relay operatS
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
III
(iii) Directional or Reverse Power Relay : When the applied

current and voltage assume specified phase displacement, then the
relay Operates.
(iv) Directional or Reverse Current Relay : When the applied
current assumes a specified phase displacement with respect to
applied voltage, then the relay operates,
(v) Differential Relay : When'some specified phase or magni-
tude difference occurs between two or more electrical quantities,
then the relay operates.
(vi) DistanceRelay: In this type, the operation of relay deperd
upon the ratio of voltage to the current.
(c) According to timing characteristics
(i) Instantaneous Relay : In these types, the operation of relays
takes place after a very short duration from the incidence of the
current or other quantity resulting in operation.
(ii) Definite TirneLagRelay: The time of operation is sensibly
independent of the magnitude of the current or of other quantiv
causing operation in these relays.
(w) Inverse Time Lag-Relay : In these types of relays, the time
eioperation is approx. inversely proportional to the magnitude ol
te current or other quantity causing operation.
Description of Relays
1. Attracted Armature Type Relay. One of the most corn-
men type of instantaneous electro-magnetic relays (attracted
armature type) is shown in the fig. below.
I
TRIP
CIRCUIT
The system of an attracted Armature type Relay

Fig. 5.1
The relay described here consists of an electro-magnet and a
Pivoted armature. The armature is balanced by a counter weight
and carries a pair of spring contact at its free end. The armature of
the relay is attracted as soon as the fault or abnormal condition
takes place, s. the stationary contacts attached to the relay frame
:re bridged and trip circuit is completed. The magnet coil is tapped
-9
at intervals and the tapping points are brought out to a number of

terminals or contacts on a plug section bridge, so the number of
turns in use and consequently the setting value at which the relay
operates may be varied.
A definite time lag can be obtained by using an oil dash pot, an
air escapement chamber or a clock work mechanism.
An instantaneous or definite time lag relay works as an inverse
time lag relay when a fuse is place1 in parallel to it.
2. Solenoid Type Relay. This type of relay is used for over
current protection. It consists of a lever which is attracted by the
solenoid, when any fault occurs, the trip circuit is completed.
This type of relay is also an instantaneous type but it can be
converted into a definite time lag or inverse time lag by using an oil
dash pot, an air escapement chamber, a dock work mechanism or
by placing a fuse in parallel with the relay.
System of a Solenoid Type Relay

Fig. 5.2
3. Thermal Relay. It consists of a metallic strip, which i
heated by.the flow of current through the filament. Due to heat, th
TRIP CIRCU.T
RENT
E HEN T
System of a Thermal Relay

Fig. 5.3

PROTECT IVE DEVICES 113
strip expands and it closes the trip circuit for the operation of circuit
breaker. Due to the availability of magnetic relays, the use of
thermal relays have become outdated.
The other type of thermal relay is Buchholz relay. It is used on

all oil immersed transformers having rating more than 750 KVA.
It is used in conjunction with some for-ms of electrically operated
protective gear between the transformer and conservator to give
warning in case of less severe internal faults in oil immersed
transformer and to disconnect theransformer from main supply in
case of severe internal faults. It only protects the transformer from
internal faults and does not respond to external bushing or cable
connection faults.
0
I 0 (1)
- iqik
ii
Or
lit LL
'H ii -
144 i1A
U
if
LU
•lll
I—
c ,
-4
-
c
-cJ
ILU
zt
The construction of Buchholz Rela y is d:scribed below and

shown in the Fig. 5.4. It contains two elements mounted in a small
chnmherlocatc-diri t}-e pipe connection between the conservator and
the transformerol tar.k.When an y minor fault occurs, current leaks
and heat is produced. Due to this heat, some of the oil evaporates
in the transformer tank and some vapours are collected in the top
of the chambe r, wflhie passing to the conservator. When a sufficient
amount of vapour is a accumulated in the top of the chamber, the

oil level falls, the mercury type switch, attached to a float is tilted,
thereby closing the alarm circuit and the bell rings. A release cock
is installed at the top of the chamber so that after operation, the
pressure in the chamber can be released and the gas emitted to allow
the chamber to refill with oil. When any severe fault occurs, large
volume of gas is evolved so that the lower element containing a
mercury switch, fitted on a hinged type flap is tilted and the trip
coil is energized. A test cock is installed at the bottom ofthe chamber
to allow air to be pumped into the chamber for test purposes.
4. Induction type over Current Relay. It gives an inversc
time operation with definite minimum time characteristics. As
shown in the Fig. it corsists of modified mechanism of an a.c. watt
hour meter to give required characteristics. There are two windings
cn the upper electromagnet, one of these is primary and is connected
to the secondary of a current transformer in the line to be protected
and is tapped at intervals. The tappings are connected to a plug
setting bridge by which the number of turns in use can be adjusted,
thereby giving the desired current setting. The second winding is
connected in series with the winding on the lower magnet and is
energized by induction from the primary winding.
r CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
-
UPPER
MAGNET
L_.. . PRIMARY WOG.
ADJUSTABLE
SETTING 77 SEC. WDG.
8PAKE-. ijij- --±J TRIP

MA GNET Co L
ALUM/NUM DISC
SPRING CONTROLLED
LOWER ,4AGNEr
AND WINDING
Internal structure of Induction Type Over Current Relay

Fig. 5.5
The fluxes produced by the primary and secondary windings
are separated in phase and space and a rotational torque is set up
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
115
on the aluminium disc suspended between the two magnets. This

torque is controlled by a special sprini and also by a permanent
magnet brake on the disc. The disc spindle carries a moving contact
which bridges two fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through
an angle which can be adjusted to any value between 0 and 360
degrees. The relay can be given any desired time setting by the
adjustment of angle. Since the torque increases with the current,
therefore, the relay has an inverse tirre characteristic.
In recent designs, the definite minimum time characteristic is
obtained by saturating the iron in the upper electromagnet so that
there is practically no increase in flux after the current has reached
a certain value.
5. Induction Type Reverse Power Relay. As shown in the
Fig., a reverse power relay can be obtained by having a winding on
the middle limb of the upper magnet, energising it from a potential
transformer (P.T.), a separate winding on the two limbs of lower
magnet and energising it from current transformer (C.T.). The
system is just like an energy meter and direction of torque depends
on the direction of flow of energy, When the power flows in a circuit
in the reversed direction, the relay can be used to close trip circuit
contacts. The relay can be made more sensitive by introducing a
very light control spring so that a very small reversal of power
should cause the relay to operate. This relay is very suitable for
parallel feeder protection.
UPPER MAGNET
TA GE
TRIP
BRAKE.
MAGNET
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
LOWER MAGNET ij SEC. WDG.
Internal structure of Induction Type Reverse Power Relay.
Fig. 5.6
6. Induction Type Directional Over Current Relay. This
type ofrelay consists of induction type relays, one of which is simple
over current relay and the other is reverse power relay, both fitted
in one case. Their contacts are connected in series so that the trip
circuit is not energized unless both operate i.e. when the current is
more than the set limit and at the same time direction of power flow
is also reversed.
7. Impedance or Distance Relay (Induction Type). This
relay is similar to induction type over current relay in construction
except that there are two magnet systems, one on each side of the
disc. The over current relay operates only due to current but in
induction type impedance relay, one additional magnet system,
operated by voltage is provided such that under normal working
conditions, torque exerted by voltage operated magnet system-is
grater than that exerted by current operated magnet system and
the trip circuit remains open. In case of occuring any fault, current
becomes excessive and hence the torque exerted by the current
operated system overcome that of the voltage operated system Lind
thus the trip circuit is closed.
. Impedance Time Relay. In this type of relay, the current
drives a disc round by induction and a spring is wound up. This
spring tends to close the trip circuit contacts but is opposed by an
armature attached to the spindle and attracted by a coil carrying
curr.nt due to line voltage. Under normal working conditions, the
force exerted by armature is more than that of the induction elernnt
vnd thus the trip circuit contacts remain open. When any fault
occurs, the induction element, operated by current exerts greater
torque tha that of the armature and thus there is a tendency of
cli- ig of trip circuit contacts. When the disc starts rotating, spring
is wound u p and when the spring is sufficiently wound u p , the
armature leaves the voltage coil and the trip circuitis closed at once.
FUSES
Introduction and Importance

Fuse is the safety valve and the weakest part of the electrical
system. It consists of a small link of soft metal which melts when
excessive current passes through it. The fuse wires are usually bare
wires and are made of lead and tin. Lead alloy for small current and
tinned copper wire issued for large current. Upto 3 amperes load,
lead fuse wires are used, upto 15 amperes alloy of lead and tin is
used and above 15 amperes, tinned copper wires are used.
If a short circuit occurs anywhere in the wiring system, an
excessive current flows through the wires and fuse and if the fuse
operates properly, it will melt, cutting off the current before any
PROTECTIVE DEVICES 117
harm can be done. If the fuse fails to operate, the wire may become
hot enough to ignite the insulation, possibly causing a fire and it
may harm the appliances and fittings connected in the circuit.
Fuses have a second function. Besides protecting in the case of
short circuit, they protect in the case of overload. If too i.a'y
appliances are connected to one circuit, more current will flow
through the supply wires than the wires were meant to carry and
will cause the wires to be burnt and appliances, accessories con-
nected to circuits will be.also damaged. In such case, the fuse, if
properly selected, will melt or blow, thus protecting the wires,
appliances, accessories etc.
Principle of Operation of Fuse. The operation of fuse
depends upon the heating effect of an electric current. When the
electric current is increased in a circuit due to short circuits or over
loads, it increases the rate of heat generation which will increase
the temperature of the fuse wire and thereby the rate of heat dis-
sipation increases from the exposed surface of the fusevire. The
final .temperature reaches to such stage that the heat generation
wiil be oival to the rate of heat dissipation. If this temperature
happns to ne above the melting point of the material of iue wire,
fuse n. ust have operated.
SeIcetion of Fuse Wire. To selecc the proper fuse wire to he
insorted in a circuit two factors viz (a) maximum current rating of
the circuit and (b) current rating of the smallest size of wire or
accessories is to be seen, the fuse wire inserted should he of size so
that whan the current with reference to factors a) and (b) is
increased, it should blow out.
The tpe of wire to he selected to use as a fuse wire deer:ds
upon the ty p e of load connected to the circuits i.e. stead load and
fluctuating loads. The stead load covers the heating loads and the
fluctuating load consists of motor, capacitor and transformer loads.
all ofwhich take transient over current when they are stitched into
the circuit. In steady load circuits, the fuse forms only the protection
part of the circuit. Therefore, the fuse rating should be equal to or
next greaterthan the ratings of the smallest cable used in the circuit.
But if a number of fuse wires are run in parallel to augment the
ratin 6, of fuse, total rating should not be equal to the product of
rating of one strand and number of strands used. In fluctuating load
circuits, fuse should have current time characteristics such as to
allow the short time over current to flow without blowing. For this,
it is necessary to select fuses of rated current greater than that of
the cable of the circuit. In motor circuit, fuse is rated for short circuit
118 WIRING, E MIMATING AND COSTING
and not for over current nro which is looke l af cer

current protection provided in the sta rter. On the other hand, the
over current protection is not suitable forclearingheavy short circuit
current. As at th .Larting the motors, very heavy current
is to be handled, so the fuse must be of sufficient size to carry these
current, over long period and as such these are rated at twice the
full load current of motor. The three phase motors which have
protracted starting period or are driving heavy inertia loads, it is
necessary to select fuses of required current time characteristics. In
three phase motors, all the fuses used on the three phases should
be the same rating otherwise it would have single phasing trouble.
For other type of fluctuating load circuit using capacitors,
fluorescent lighting, battery charger, transformers etc., the fuses to
be used must be of 50% more than rated current.
The fuse wire should always be inserted in live wire or phase
of the circuit, or otherwise even if the fuse blows out, the faulty
circuit will be fed and would cause considerable damage in case of
leakage fault.
Melting Points of Various Metals.
Table 5.1 gives melting point of various metals.
Table 5.1

Metal Melting Point in
Aluminium 671.5
Antimony 428.5
Copper
1092.5
Lead 329
Silver 999
Tin 239.5
Zinc 419.20
Silver as a Fusing Element. It has been determined prac-

tically that silver is quite satisfactory material for fuse wires as it
is not subjected to oxidization since its oxide is unstable. There is
no deterioration of the material when used in dry air, and it remains
bright. But when the air is moist and contains hydrogen sulphide,
the silver surface is attacked ; a layer of silver sulphide is formed
at the top which shields the metal from further attack. The only
drawback in its use as a fuse wire is that it is costlier.
Either copper or lead-tin alloy is mostly used as an ordinary
fuse wire.
PROTECTiVE DEVICES 119
Copper as Fuse Wire. Table 5.2 gives the fusing current of

copper in air.
Table 5.2
Diameter of Equivalent Fusing Maximum

Wire in S. IV. G. Current Safe Working Remarks
mm Size Amps. Current Amps.
0.2336 34 8.6 4.3 The length
- of fuse wire up
0.254 33 9.8 4.9 to 0.4572 mm
dia. must be
0.2736 32 11.0 5.5 between 63.5
mm to 90.0 mm,
0.3149 30 13.5 6.8 but for large
dia. wires the
0.3759 28 17 8.6 length must not
be less than 100
0.4572 26 22 11 mm.
0.5588 24 30 15
0.7112 22 41 21
0.9143 20 62 31
1.016 19 73 37
1.219 18 98 49
1.422 17 125 63
1.828 15 191 96
2.032 14 229 115
Lead-tin Alloy as Fuse Wire. Mostly for small value of cur-

rents lead-tin alloy has been used in the past. The tin content varies
from 2 per cent and above. The main objection for the lead-tin alloys
is that these alloys being soft, they are apt to spread under pressure.
The most preferred lead-tin alloy for a fuse element contains 37 per
cent lead and 63 per cent tin. Such an alloy is known as euectic alloy
and is preferred due to the following reasons
1. It has the highest brinnel hardness in all the lead-tin alloy
series and hence there is less tendency to spread over.
2. The material is quite homogeneous.
3. If the fusing characteristic of eutectic alloy and other

composition of alloys is studied, there is only one arrest point in
eutectic alloy as compared to two in other type of alloys.
Table 5.3
DiameterEquivalent Fusing MaximUm
of Wire - size Current Safe Remarks
mm IS Amps. Current
0.508 25 2.0 The maximum length

0.5588 24 3.5 2.3 of wire used must be
0.6095 23 4 2.6 63.5 mm to 90.0 mm
0.7112 22 5 3.3
0.8128 21 6 4.1
0.9143 20 7 4.8
1.219 18 10 7.0
1.626 16 16 11.0
Table 5.3 gives the approximate fusingcurrents of lead-tin alloy
in air (lead 75 per cent, tin 25 pe r cent).
The values of current given in the above tables will be true only
when the fuse w i re çasses through asbestos tube and does not come
in contact with it. When the fuse wire comes in contact with por-
ceain, the value effusing current increases.
Generall y for rupturing small values of current, the fuse wire
used is of lead-tin alloy, because the fusing current for such a type
of fuse wife is about 50 per cent over load. For heavy currents
lead-tin alloy is not used since the diameter of the wire used will be
large and after fusing the metal, released wilibe excessive. Lead-tin
ahoy fuse wires are not used beyond 10 ampere range, for which
copper wires are suitable.
Note When a fuse blows, some t hing is wrong, either a cord or
an appliance is defective or there are too many appliances connected
at the same time on one circuit. Find the trouble and correct it,
otherwise when the blown fuse is replaced, the new one will also
blow out immediately. Before replacing a bown fuse, remove the
appliances from the circuit involved. It is usually advisable to open
the main switch before changing fuses. Never, at any time insert a
fuse ofgreater current carrying capacity than the wires ofthe circuit
can safely carry.
Types of Fuses and Their Description

Fuses can be built in various forms but the most common types
are described below:
1-The Ordinary Fuse. The ordinary or single link fuse is

simply a strip of metal, usually lead. The strip of metal, called the
fuselink, is the part of the fuse through which electricity flows. This
metals when more electricity flows and breaks the connection and
stops the flow of electricity.
2. The Screw-Plug-Type Fuse. It is used on electric

machinery circuits of 220 volts. This type of fuse can be had in sizes
from 3 to 30 amperes and is constructed with either a porcelain or
glass body which encloses the fuse link.
3. A Knife Blade Cartridge Fuse. This type of fuse is used
mostly on heavy power lines of 60 to 600 amperes and 250 volts and
more. They are constructed with a heavy fibre body, fitted with brass
ferrules at each end and a heavy copper blade for making contact
with the circuit. The fuse link can easily be renewed by removing
the end ferrules and inserting the new link.
4. The Ferrule Type Cartridge Fuse. This type of fuses are

of two types—the renewal or non-renewal. The renewal type ha -
a small screw plug in each end whica can be renewed and he new
link is inserted. The o3y part of this fuse is made of fibre with
brass ferrules fasten 3 t.,, each end and can be had in sizes up to
100 amperes and 250 volts.
Type Fuse trdge Fuse with

Fuse Link
Fig. 5.7. Types of Fuses.
I!
1. Ordinary Fuse 2. Screw Plug 3. Knife blade Car- 4. Ferrule-Type
Cartridge Fuse
with Fuse Link

122
WIRING, ESTLMA'FTJ ..G AND COSTING
RENEWAL
FUSE BODY
BASE
SOLDER
..EPMAL
cUT' u/CF
LINK
5. The Renewal Type Cartridge 6. Time Delay Fuse
Fuse
Fig. 5.7. Types of Fuses.
5. H.R.C. (High Rupturing Capacity) Cartridge Fuses. These
are used where the high power is supplied. These have a definite
known breaking capacity and a high value.
6. Time Delay Fuse. It is a fuse which has the ability to carry
overload currents of short duration without melting. The heavier
the overload, the less is the time required for the fuse to 'Blow". In
most circuits where the starting currents are high but of short
duration, this type of fuse need not have as high rating as an ordi-
nary fuse to permit the motor to be started. Like the common fuse
the time delay fuse is also made in plug and cartridge types.
Disadvantages of Ordinary Fuses
- Rewirable /ordinary fuses suffer from the following disadvan-
tages
(a) Unreliable operation. It is due to
(i) Oxidation of fuse wire and consequent thinning of wire
section with lapse of time.
(ii) Loose connection causes the local heating.
(iii) Heat radiating devices used in the circuit.
(iv) Single phasing of three phase induction motors when one
of the fuse in blown off.
(b) Lack of discrimination. : On account of unreliable opera-
tion, discrimination can not be ensured always.
(c) Small Time.Lag . On account of small time lag, these type
of fuses can blow will large transient currents when three phase
motors, transformers, capacitors and fluorescentlights etc. are used
in the circuit.
(d) Misuse Sometimes the proper rated wire for the fuse
element is not available and any other piece of wire is used for the
fuse element to solve the purpose which is against the I.S. rules of
electricity.
(e) Low Rupturing Capacity The use of rewirable fuse is
limited to 4 RA in faulty circuit.
Advantages of Rewirable Fuse

Advantages
1. It is the cheapest form of operation.
2. It affords current limiting effect under short circuit con-
ditions due to cut off.
3. It requires minimum time to replace.
4. It requires no maintenance.
5. It has current limtir.g effect.
Advantages of H.TLC. Fuses

1. They are simple and have easy installation.
. They are cheaper as compared vith cther type of circuit
interrupter of the same breaking capacity. They have high breaking
capacity.
3. They do not require any maintenance.
4. Their operation is quick and sure.
5. They have inverse time current characteristic.
6. They do not deteriorate with time.
7. They are quite reliable and can be selected for proper
discrimination.
S. They are capable of clearing high as well as low currents.
9. They have closer control on sustained overloads due to low
fusing factor and the time lag feature.
10. They have current limitation by 'cutoff' property.
Disadvantages of H.R.C. Fuses

1. After each operation, its replacement is required.
2. interlocking is not possible in these types of fuses.
3. They lack relays in complete discrimination.

124
WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
TABLE 5.4
Fuse Wire Table for Tinned Copper Wires
Current Rating in App. Fusing
S.W.G. Amperes Current
in Amperes I
37 3.5
35 5.0
6.0 10
32 7.0
31 11
8.0 12
30 I 8.5
29 13
10.0 16
28 12.0
27 18
13.0 23
26 14.0
25 28
15.0 30
24 17.0
23
33
20.0 38
22 24.0
21 48
29.0 58
20 34.0
19 70
38.0 81
IS 45.0
17 106.
65.0 135
16 1
j 73.0 166
15 1
78.0 197
-----
Fuse Holders. The fuse
the following points; holders are designed, keeping in view
Ii) Ir1u!atjon and separion of the terminals;
(ii) Securjy against fire:

/ kj\
(ii1
c / )
Ease of replacement_This requirement
\T\

so i mportant when the working volta
FL- / /
i. n3t
dc not exceed ioo Volts. ge
Farmcrly fuse holders used to be made in a

• vancty of pater Fig. 5.8 shows a t
3RASS (cy y pe of fuse
Pig. 5.8. holder which was being used in the plate. :
consist of a porcelain base with Lwo brass
connecting plates. Between the two brass
contts is connected a fuse wire, and also in
PP.OiV j - 25
between them is a porcelain portion P which helps in suppression

of forming an arcbetween the two contacts.
This type of fuse holder is, although useful from the protection
point of view, has the following disadvantages
(i) For replacement of fuse wire, the worker has to touch the
live mains or the main switch mustbe opened for such replacements.
(ii) On occasions when the fuse is blown off there is an appre-
ciable arcing which will take place on the screws, holding the fuse
wire, thus damaging it. After two or three such arcing, the fuse unit
will become unusable and will have to be replaced.
In order to overcome this difficulty, fuse holders were designed
across two knife contact and these contacts clip into fixed contacts
on a porcelain base. Fig. 5.9 shows such an arrangement which is
its simplest form and was used in early days. The greatest
advantage of such an arrangement is that the holder can be isolated
fiom the fuse base for replacement of fuse wire or to interrupt the
circuit. By continuous use, if the holder is damaged, it can irrrme-
diately be replaced without handling the wires etc.
Fuse holders
Fig. 59.
Many useful designs of fuse have been now developed whose
uses depend upon the naure of work. In practice two types of fuses
mostly used are
(i) Semi-enclosed fuse.
(ii) Totally enclosed or cartridge fuse.
(i) Semi-enclosed fuse. In this type of fuses the fuse element
is neither kept in free air nor it is totally enclosed. Forhousehold
installations mostly such type of fuses are used. Fig. 5.9 shows the
semi-enclosed fuse. The advantage of semi-enclosed fuse is that the
fuse wire used is of shorter length. The shorter length increases the
minimum fusing current. The short length of fuse wire may be
enclosed in an asbestos tube. The added advantage of such enclosure
126 Wm!N, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
is that the temperature d i stribution along the length of the fuse

wire becomes quite uniform in the centre.
The following terms are mostly used in connection with fuse
holders
(a) Fuse Link. It is that part of fuse which consists of fuse
element and cartridge or other container and is capable of either
being attached to contacts or is fitted with contacts as an integral
part of it.
(b) Fuse Carrier. It is a removable holder which carries the
fuse links.
(c) Carrier Contact. It is a contact which engages with fixed
contacts and is capable of having a fuse link attached t it.
(d) Fuse Base. It is that part of fuse which carries the fixed
contacts.
(e) Fixed Contacts. These contacts engage with carrier contact
and are connected to fixed terminal.
(ii) Totally enclosed fuse. It is a
totally enclosed form of fuse. In this , the I
fuse element is placed in an insulating
container called the cartridge. Generally
the cartridge is in the form of tube and
it.-, enj are enclosed with metallic caps as Totally enclosed fuse
shown in Fig. 5.10. Fig. 5.10
Gi.rily thecartridge fuse containing the fuse element is filled
w i th t . ;o der or granular material called the filler. The filler used
Tripple pole iron clad switch show- Iron clad cutout showing semi
ir.g semi enclosed knife carrier and
enclosed knife fuse carrier and
holder fuse. holder.
() (b)
Fig. 5.11.
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
127
expresses the inection and rL r iatin l3s from the fuse element.
There are various types of materials used as filler. Formerly sand
was used, because sand is useful for quenching etc. but the main
drawback in us use of its thermal expansion which causes cracks
in cartridge. The other material used as filler may be calcium car-
bonate ; but it evolves gas when heated. Generally quartz is used
as filler as it is chemically stable. The use of filler increases the
minimum fusing current.
In practice the open fuse holders are not used ; unless they are
provided with some protection. Usually iron clad knife fuse as shown
in Fig. 5.11 is used. The porcelain fuses are fitted into the iron box.
Terms generally used.
The following are the definitions of a few terms mostly used in
the study of fuses
1. Fuse, as defined earlier, is a device used for protecting the
cable in a circuit against damage from an excessive current. Fuse
is a term used in general to represent all parts of the device.
2. Fuse clement or fuse wire. It is that part of the fuse which
melts when an excessive currentflows in thecircujt and thus isolates
the device from the supply mains.
3. Minimum fusing current. It is that minimum value of
current of which the fuse element melts
4. Current rating of fusing element. It is that value of
current which the fusing element can normally carry without
melting. Its value is less than the minimum fusing current.
5. Fusing factor.The ratio of minimum fusing current and the
current rating of fusing element.
or Fusing fuctr Minimum

Minimum fusin,rcLrrofl!
raunsn ecncnt
Its value is ways more than 1.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
I. \V}'.at is the importance of protective devices in an electrical

Circuit?
2. \Vhatare th€. main features ofgood protective devices and explain
a . ut them?
3. How would define a protective relay?
-10 you
4. What are the types of relays according to construction and

principle of operation and explain about them?
5. State the types of relays according to applications and timing
characteristics.
6. Describe the attracted armature type relay and draw the din-
gram.
7. Explain about the solenoid type relay and draw the figure.
S. Describe about two types of thermal relays and draw the figures.
9. Explain about the Induction type over current relay and draw
the figure.
10. Describe about the Induction type Reverse Power relay and draw
the figure.
ii. Explain about the following:
(a) Induction type directional over current relay.
(b) Distance Relay.
(c) Impedance time relay.
12. What is the importance of fuse in an electrical circuit?
13. Explain about the principle of operation of fuse.
14. What the factors on which selection of a fuse wire depends?
15. What are types of fuss? Explain about them and draw the fig-
ures.
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of an ordinary
rewirable fuse and H.R.C. fuses?
17. Write short notes on (a) Fuse, (b) Fuse element, (c) Minimum
fusing current, (d) fusing factor.
18. What are the various types of metals used for making fuse ele-
ments?
19. What is the difference between fusing current and maximum safe
current or the current rating?
20. Explain with diagram the construction and function of fuse
holder.
21. According to the I.E. Rules a cut-out (fuse) shall not be placed in
the earthed netural conductor of two-wire system. Discuss the reason to
justify the rule.
IsJ
Illumination-(Lamps, Discharge.
Lamps and Fluorescent Lamps)
1. Introduction. 2. Nature of Light. 3. Colour. 4.

Relative Sensitivity. 5.Radiant
efficiency. 6. Definitions. 7. Laws offliumination. 8. Lamberta'cosifle Law. 9. Design
of Lighting Scheme. 10. Illumination Required for Various Purposes. 14. H. Lighting
Schemes. 12. Types of Electric Lamp. 13. Incandescent Vacuum Lamp. Gas-filled
incandescent Lamp. 15. Characteristics of Incandescent Lamp.Low Pressure Principle
16. Working
Mercury
of Electric Discharge Lamp. 17. Sodium Discharge Lamp. 18. 20. Neon Lamp. 21.
Discharge Lamp. 19. Mercury Fluoresent I.amp (Low Pressure).
High Pressure Mercury Vipour Lamp.
Introduction. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was

not possible to do daytime work after sunset, due to lack of adequate
light. During those days, crude system of lighting was used but
during the middle of the 19th century, a gas mantle was used as
source of light. In the year 1900, the electric filament lamps came
into the field as a source of light and they proved to be the best
competitor to gas as a source of light. The electric lamps are pre-
ferred to other sources of illumination for reasons of cleanliness,
convenience, steady light output and reliability.
Due to proper sources of good illumination much advancement
has been made in the sphere of industrialization of countries as it
has reduced the differences between day and night. Every work
which can be done in daylight, can equally be done during night
time with same efficiency. Too bright lights may not be confused
as good illumination because it may cause viewing a bit painful. The
best illumination is that which produces no strain on the eyes.
2. Nature of Light. Light is a form of energy which is
radiated by bodies whose temperatures are increased. The main
source of light is sun which gives out energy in the form of heat and
light at a very high rate (of the order fifty thousand million billion
horse power); but only a fraction of it reaches the earth (250 billion
h.p.). Of the total energy received on earth only 40 per cent is in
the form a light. The energy reaches earth in a very peculiar way.
The energy trnsmitted by the sun is received without.heating o
11W
lighting the space in between and w i t hout an obviuus tanmt)ng

agency such as copper c onductors in case of electrical energy. The
energy is released only when it strikes solid object. The energy
radiated in such a fashion is called 08 radiant energy. An example
of it is a room heater, in which case the heat is felt at a d
the radiator. The radiant energy is necessarily a wave istance from
motion
propagated in an other medium in a manner similar to that of an
electromagnetic wave. The velocity of p ropagation in a medium is
2.99776
x 10 nilsec. or say 3 x 10 mlsec. which is constant, but the
wavelength is different. If some obstacle comes in the way of radiant
energy, either-the energy is reflected or observed by it. If the energy
is absorbed then the light energy is converted into heat.
All this has been said about natural source ; but for the treat-
ment of the subject are concerned with the light which is obtained
from the incandescent body which is at a higher temperature than
the surrounding medium radiates out energy into the medium. At
low temperatures the radiation is only in the form of heat waves
but as it becomes red hot it emits light waves in addition to heat
waves. At low temperatures, the wavelength is comparatively larger
than the wavelengths at high temperatures.
At about 300°C the energy emitted has wavelength of 85 x 10m;
at about 800°C (when it is said to be red hot) the wavelength of
radiation is of the order ofo.9 x 10m; at temperatures about 3000°C
(temperature at which incandescent lamps work) the wavelength of
radiation is of the order Of 0.4 >-10to0.7x10 m
6 Actually the
radiation is amixture of different wavelengths. The whole of the
energy radiated out is not useful for illumination purpose. Radi-
ations of very short wavelengths of range of 0.000015 x 106 m to
0.001 x 10' in are not in the visible range and are called as Rontgen
or X-ray's which have the very useful property ofpenetratjngopaque
bodies.
There is a definite relation betweer wavelength (X) and the
frequency (/).
i.e., Wavelength x Frequency = Velocity of propagation
fx),. r3x1OnVs
The wavelength is not usually represented in era/sec., but is
usually represented in the following two units:
(l)Micron : (2) Angstrom (A°) so that
1 micron = 10' metres (6.2)
I A 0 cm
.(63)
ILLUMINATION
131
3. Colour. Let the enery radiated by the heated body be

monoc } romatjc i.e. radiation of only one wavelength, then the colour
of the radiation is as shown in the Table 6.1.
• Table 6.1
Colours of Radiation
Wavelength in A* Colour
4000 Violet
4750 Blue
5500 Green
6000 Yellow
7000 Red
4. Relative Sensitivity. The wavelength which can produce
the sensation of sight lies between 4000 A° and 7500 A°. The sen-
sitivity of the eye to lights of different wavelengths varies from
person to person and according to age. Fig. 6.1 shows an average
relative sensitivity according to which sensitivity decreases for
lesser and more wavelengths. The eye is most sensitive for a
wavelength of 5500 A° and relative sensitivity according to this
wavelength is taken as unity. The ratio of visual sensation at any
wavelength to sensation at 5500 A° is called as relative senitivitv,
the colour corresponding to wavelength 5500 A° is yellowish green,
which is not suitable for most purposes. The relative sensitivity for
any wavelength is also called as Relative Luminosity Factor
(KX).
I
WAVE uwry
Relative Sensitivity
Fig. 6.1
5. Radiant Efficiency. It has been said that when a body is
heated, its temperature increases, and it radiates out energy. The
whole of the energy radiated is not in the form oflight, i.e. producing

132 WIRING, ESTrMATING AND COSTING
sensation of vision ;but it radiates out energy in the form of waves

too.
Radiant efficiency =Energy radiated in the form of light

Toth] energy radiated by the body
Definitions. (i) Light. It may be defined as that radiant energy

which produces a sensation of vision upon the human eye.
(ii) Luminous Flux. It is defined as the light energy radiatec,
per second from a luminous body. Say. for example, the luminous
body is an incandescent lamp. The whole of the electrical power
supplied to the lamp is not changed into luminous flux ; some of the
power is lost by heat conduction, heat convection and absorption.
Of the remaining radiant flux, only a fraction of it lies in between
the visual range of wavelength, i.e. between 4000 A° and 7000 A°Fig.
6.2 shows the representation by a flux diagram.
PY,VERA 5 LLl4%a,5 FLL

RADUNT __,. P4Ra5rA5
-, , . M,,lvrnNous Fwr
ELECTRICAL P(7WER LOST BY

FtW7? INP(JT __... t770'V Eec.
Flux diagram
Pig. 6.2
• •. from point source

'Fable 6.2
Tungsten Limps Fluorescent La
Pouer Luminous Efficierw Input inI Length Luminous I YE cient
input Flux in y Lumens watts in cn.
in Fi Lumens
watts Lumens, per waft
Lumens. app.
10 80 8 4 15.25 75 18.75
40 460 11.5 8 30.5
60 325 40.53
840 14.0 20 61.0
100 1630 950 47,5
1.3 91.5 1500
200 3660 18.3 50.0
1 40 122.0 2300 57.5
500 9950 19.9 100 152.5 4400 44.0
133
ILLUMINATION
Table 6.2 gives the approximate overhaul efficiency of incan-

descent tungsten filament lamp and fluorescent lamps.
(iii) Luminous Intensity. Consider a point source of light 0.
Let dF be the luminous flux crossing any section of a narrow cone
of solid angle* dw steradians. The apex of the cone so formed is at
the source. Then the Luminous intensity in the direction of the cone
it maybe defined as
is the ratio offlui dF to the solid angle, dw or
the flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle. If luminous
intensity is represented by I
(iv) Lumen. It is a unit of fluxand is d e fi ned as the luminous

flux per unit solid angle from a source of 1 candle power.
Therefore total flux emitted by the source of 1 C.P. is 4ic lumens.
Cu) Illuminance or illumination or degree of illumina-
tion. When the light falls on a surface it is illuminated, the illu-
minance is defined as the luminous flux received per unit area. Let
the incident luminous flux on a small area cL4 be dF, then
Illumination = -
dF
dA
If the area is in square feet, then the unit of illuminatict is
lumens per sq. foot or foot-candle. If the area is in metres the unit
is lumens per square metre.
*The point source radiates out energy in all
directions. With this point source as centre, and
with any distance R as radius, imagine a spherical
surface Lobe construeted.The lines ofliux willcress
an area A forming a cone. The steradian is a
measure of solid angle o which is defined as the
ratio
A
()
Since surface area of the sphere is 4R 1 , the

total solid angle subtended by the point is
4t- -
R3 Fig. 6.4
13-1
/NC/EVT
Representation of luminous flux or. an area

Fig. 6.5
(ti) Mean Horizontal Candle Power.
The mean horizontal
candle power of a source of light is the mean of the candle power in
a horizontal plane in all directions.
(tii) Mean Spherical Candle Power. It is the mean ofC.P. of
a source oflight in all directions within the hemisphere either above
the horizontal plane or below the horizontal plane
Reduction Factor.
Mean s p herical candle poer

RtIutor :ucLor = ---------.- - ---
Mean harizonhi candle rxm cr .
s caded as the reduction factor of the source of lighL.
(tx) Foot candle. It is a unit ofillumination and maybe defined

as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 ft at the
centre of which there is a source ofj.C.p
(x) Lux. It is mere candle and is defined as the illumination of
the inside of the sphere of radius 1 metre at the centre of which
there is a source of I.C.P.
I metre = 3.28 ft.

... (6.8)
I ft -c = (3.28)2 x
= 1076 lux .. .(6.9)

or I lax = -
= 0.093 ft.-c. . (6.10)

- .
Ln the illumination is Inversely p pOional to the q uar t, of the distance

135
I1,LIJM1NATION
Nit. It is an M.KS. unit of illuminance as of degree of

(xi)
il1umiP.ti0fl at th surface and is defined as illumination of one
candle per square metre.
Stub. It is a bigger M.K..S. unit of illuminanCe and is equal
(xii)
to illumination of one candle per square centimetre.
Brightness It is defined as the flux emitted per unit area
(xiii)
of the source in a direction perpendicular to the surface.
Brightness is a term which may be applied either for emission
of light directly from the source of light covering a large area such
as an incandescent lamp in a globe or for an installation used for
seen, in which
production of certain illumination on the object tobe
case actually the light reflected by the object reaches our eyes, such
as the light from a cinema screen.
- Fig. 6.6
be 1 lumens per
Let the illuminous intnsity in direction OP
steradian on an area A, the projected area ,ill then be A cosO.
... ( 6.11)
or brighflCS5B = A cos .0
brightness is candles per sq. metre or ca

The unit of
since 1 candle gives I urit solid angle.
since
lambert (ft.-L) and
Another unit of brightness known as toot
is defined as brightness of an area emitting or reflectingliglitat the
rate of 1 lumen per sq. foot.
...6.12)
one candle/ft2 ... ft.L.
Law of Illumination. It is defined as
The illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the
the distance oft he surface from the source of light. It is true
square of
only if the source is point source.
136
6. Quantity of Light to b;Obtained from Various Devices.

Luminous flux— lumen (unit)
Bicycle Lamp 10 Im.
Incandescent lamp of 150 w 1940 Im.
Flouresent lamp of 40w 3000 Im.
Sodium Lamp of 200 w 30000 Im.
Mercury Vapour lamp 100 w 52000 Irn.
Luminous Intens jy-_candela (unit)
Bicycle lamp, straight ahead (without reflector)-1 cd.
Bicycle lamp, straight ahead (with reflector)—_250 cd.
Light House light, centre of beam 20,00,000 cd.
Illumination—Lux (unit)
Summer, midday (Cloudless sky) —100,000 lux.
Winter, midday 10,000 lux.
Summer, midday under balcony 2000-5000 lux.
Summer, behind a window 1000-3000 lux.
Sun rise & Sun set 500 lux.
Full moon & bright sky 0.25 lux.
Living room table under good 200 lux.
artificial lighting
Office with good artificial lightingl000 lux.
Luminance -_cdJm 2 (unit)
Sun - 16.5 cd/rn2
Moon - 0.25 x 10 cd/rn2
Incandescent lamp - 0.7 cd/rn2
Flourescent Lamp 8.0 cd/rn2
(lateral direction)
Flourescent Lamp 0.5 cd/rn2
(longitudinal dirction)
7. Lambert's Cosine Law. According to this law the illumi-
nation of a surface at any point is dependent upon the cosine of the
angle between the line of flux and the normal at that point.
Let F be the total light flux falling on the area.
Thus in Fig. 6.7 (a) the angle between normal to the surface and
line of flux is zero.
Intensity of illumination F
Area ABCD
in Fig. 6.7 (b), the angle between them is 0.
F
Intensity of illumination abcd Cos 0. ...(6.13)
Area —

137
ILLUMINATION
T
L/N(FWX
--,-
(a) (b)
Lambert's cosine law

Fig. 6.7
In view of article 7 Eq.6.12 can be rewritten as
intensity of illumination = —i--- .. .(6.13)
8. Design of Lighting Scheme. For designing a lighting

scheme the following factors should be taken into account:
(i) Space-height ratio. It is defined as the ratio of horizontal
distance between lamps and the mounting height of the lamps, or
Space-height ratio
- The horizontal distance between (6.14)
- Mounting height of lamps
In order to have a uniform illumination which can be only with
reflectors, it is necessary that the value of this should be properly
chosen. When reflectors are used, the value of this ratio is given as
between 1 and 2. The height of the source should be between 2.2 in
to 2.45 in from the ground level.
(ii) Utilization factor. The total light flux radiated out by the
source is not utilized on the working planes and its value is given
as
Utilization factor
Total lumens utilised on working planes (6.15)
- Total lumens radiated by lamp
The value of this co-efficient depends upon the following con-
ditions
(a) the area to be illuminated;
(b) height at which the lamps are fitted;
138
(c) the colour of sur

rounding walls, ceiling fittings etc.;
(d) the type of lightir — direct or indirect.
i.
The value for direct light varies from 0.25 to 0.5 while its value
for indirect lighL varies from C.1 to 0.3.
(iii) Dep
reciation factor. When the lamps are covered with
dust, dirt and smoke, they do not radiate out same amount of flux
as when they do at the time of fitting new lamps.
Similarly, after some time the walls and
s urrounding in which
lamps are fitted are covered with dirt and dust, so they do not reflect
the same amo
unt of light as compared with the initial conditions
The depreciation factor takes into account all such loss of flux.
Thus depreciation factor
= Illumination Linder nefl..o..k. con d it i ons

lliumnion when everything is ricaa
Its average value O..
The depreciation factor is also givea s
= lilumilIation when-------
cvcrythjn - -- - ...
l rnnation under n ouna, workinc (6.17)
In this case, the value o
fdepreeitjen factor is more than 1 and
its value is 1.3 to 1.4. Table 6.3 indicates the light reflected from
various coloured surroundirigs
Table 6,3
Colour s urfc cc
Ltght reflected in percentage
Light Whit2
Light Cream 81%
69% to 75%
Light Green
65%
Light Grey
58%
Medium Gray
55%
Dark Tan
46%
Dark Grey
25%
Dark Olive Green 15%
Dark Red
12%
Natural
23%
Total lumens required The total gross lumens Output
Area (sq. ft.) x 1Ilurnj na1on (It. candles)
Co-efficient of utilization x Dcpxeciaj,on (6.18)
(for vaj ucs less than 1)
Also
= .-\rca (Sc fi) ,< l''m I f M Dep. factor (for values flre than l
Co-cffjeient of utilization ..(6.19)
ILLU'MNATION 139
9. Illumination required for various purposes:

The illumination required is given in Table 6.4 and 6.5
Schemes. If the light from the source falls on
Poi;' aetallic surfaces, the light is reflected back. According
to laws of reflection, the angle of reflection is equal to angle of
incidence. This is very good as far as illumination is concerned but
only drawback is that it produces glare on the eyes.
If the light from the source falls on coarse surface like painted
ceilings, frosted glass and paper, the light is diffused in all directions
and no glare or image is formed. This method is used for internal'
or external lighting. Following types of lighting schemes can be
incorporated in any construction:
(1) Direct lighting. In this type, the light directly falls from the
source i.e. lamps. The shades or globes are provided to cover the
source from the line of vision. Such type of arrangement is shown
in Fig. 6.8. Direct lighting is very efficient but it causes shadows
.1
.-V.
AN
(0) (b)
(c)
Direct .lighting schemes
Fig. 6.8

A4u WING, E STIMATING AND COSTING
-
'-•: • ol
C
C.?
as
-a
-1
C
c..
cv
CI) —0
000
C.-- 000
E
- C
g O.c•. 0
U,
I.-
C.?
III
ba
8 >4
0
0
to C. ca to -
.,j '.. -
c! *
- 4
cz
—
a 000
.$ECI) 0 - )..
C a .....
0 I >4>4>4.
to >4 000
m co
:
C.) .-
-
E I-
88 -I
C.) 0
. C 0
E c
00000 .
0 0 0 00
C- C'l C
E at ca cj
CI)
cZ-- C)
,cI:1<
cZ
E
c_S -a
141
ILLUMINATION
and glare. The correct and un ifo rm light in a room is obtained by

correctly locating the lamps at different places.
(2) Indirect lighting. As the name implies, in this case the light
does not reach the surface directly. it, this case maximum light is
thrown towards the ceiling from where it is diverted to the room
through diffuse reflection. The indirect lighting is suitable specially
for drawing offices, workshops where shadowless light is preferred.
However there is one drawback in this system that the illumination
will be depressive to the eye. Fig. 6.9 (a) shows an arrangement
which can provide indirect lighting.
i. F i•.;•
r.
'
I
• ii..
.1
I.,
Indirect lighting Semi-direct lighting
(a) (b)
I
- -.-,- -.- . . •.-
(c)
Fig. .9
(3)Semidirect lighting. In this system about 50% of the light is
142 WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
sent from the source directly on the reading plane and about 30%
is sent upward. Diffused globes are preferred in this case, which
avoids glare. Such schemes provide uniform distributed light in a
room. Fig. 6.9 (b) shows an arrangement wbich can provide semi-
direct lighting.
• .:-:
-,
4
Semi-indirect lighting
Fig. 6.10
(4) Semiindirecc lighting. In this system 40% light is sent
upward for diffused reflection and 40% is sent directly on the surface.
Fig. 6, 10 shows an arrangement for such a scheme semi translucent
plastic bawls are used. The defect of indirect lighting as given above
does nrt exist in this scheme.
Table 6.6
\.tnount of Light to be received in different
System of Lighting Scheme.
Systems Down wards Up uards
1. Direct 90-100% 0-10%
2. -em.i direct 60-90% 10-40%
3. General Diffuse approx. 50% approx. 50%
4. MxedDffuse 40-60% 60-40%
5. Semi-indirect 10-40% 60-90%
6. Indirect 0-10% 90-100%
Example I. A lamp having mean spherical candle po;ve'rof 800'
is suspended at a height of loft. Calculate (a) the total flur oflight.
' he illumination just below the lamp.
S d Ut ) fl
i cs of r = M.S.S.P. x 4:: = S(X)x i.
- 11M4 lumens. Ans.
ILLUMINATION 143
(b) The illumination just below the lamp
C.P. 800
d 2 (10)2
= 8 ft.-candle. Ans.
Example 2. A room 50 ft. x 20 ft. is illuminated by twenty 200
watt lamps. The M.S.C.P. of each lamp is 250. Assuming a depre-
ciation factor of 1.2 and utilization factor 0.6, find the average
illumination produced on the floor.
Solution. Area of the room = 50 x 20 = 1000 sq. ft.
M.S.CJ'. of each lamp = 250
Total number of lumens given by each lamp
zr25Ox4lt=3,l40lumens
Total number of lumens given by all lamps
= 3,140 x 20 = 62,800
62,800 x 0.6
Lumen2uulized= =31,400
1.2
From Eq. (6.18)
Average illumination on floor = Lumens utilized

Area of the floor
31,400
= 31.4 ft candle. Ans.
= 1 400
Example 3. A workshop measures 20 x 40 ft. and is lighted by
10 lamps which e.re each rated at 200 watts and have an efficiency
of 15 lumens It atts. Assuming a depreciation factor of 1.5 and a
coefficient of utlisation of 0.5 find the illumination at workshop
plane.
[A.M.I.E. Sec. B, 1955 (Elect. Engg.))
Solution.
Total luminous output
= 10 200 x 15 = 30, 000 lumens

In view of Eqn. (6.19),
-11
144 WIRING. PQT IMATING AND COSTING
imirauon 1.5 x 20 x40
= 12.5 lunens/fj 2 Ans.
Example 4. A workshop size 40 x 60 ft.

by 12 ft. height is to be
illuminated to 45 lumens per sq. ft. on
the working plane. If the
coefficient of utilization is 0.5 and the source gives out 10 lumens
watt, find the total wattage required and nurn berof lamps assuming per
depreciation factor as 0.8.
Solution.
Total lumens required = 40 x 60 x 45 2,70,000 lumens

0.5 x 0.8
Power required -
_2,710=27,cx0\atts Ans.
If each lamp of 200 watts is to be fixed, then
No. of lamps - 27,000 -

_—rl3. lamps Ans.
Example 5.An illumination on the working plane of3ft, candle

is required on a room 270'x 50'. The lamps are required to be hung
15 ft. above the work benches. Assuming space/he i ; .rio of 1.25,
a utilisajon factor of 0.5 and a candle power depreciation of 20%,
estimate the number, rating and disposition of suitable lamps.
Effc:ency of a lamp may be taken as 0.5 watt per candle power.
Solution.
x 270 x 50 x 1.2
Total lumens required= 3-.------------
0.5
= 97, 200 lumens
Output of the lamp for 0.5 watt I C.P.
= 4't lumens
Output of the la:np for each watt = 8t lumens

ILLUMINATION 145
97,200
age
Total wattage . =
8it
= 3,866 watts
Spacing of the lamps
= 1.25
Height
Spacing of the lamps = 18.75 ft.
Now if 2 lamps are provided widthwise, the space height ratio
Ail be too more; and if lamps are provided, the ratio will be 1:10
approx. which will be acceptable.
Similarly 14 lamps can be placed lengthwise, bringing the
number of lamps as 42.
h lamp-Total wattage
Wattage of e ac
No. of lamps
3,866
= 92.05 or say 100 watts. Ans.
11. Methods of Lighting Calculations

Some of the common methods of lighting calculations are given
below
(a) Watts per square metre method.
(b) Lumen or light flux method.
(c) Point to Point or Inverse square law method.
Description
(a) Watts perLwre metre method. Basically it is a °Thumb Rule'
method. It is very handy for rough calculation or checking. While
applying this method, an allowance of watts per square metre of
area to be illuminated is taken according to the illumination desired
on an average figure of overall efficiency of the system.
(b) Lumensor light flux method. This method is applied to those
cases where the sources of light have to produce an approximate
uniform illumination over the working plane or where an average
value is required. Total lumens output is calculated from the effi-
ciency of each lamp and the number of lamps used in the circuit. To
calculate the lumensreceived on the workingplane, the total lumens
already calculated are multiplied by the co-efficient of utilisation.
When the lamps and surroundings are not perfectly clean then white
calculating the Lumens received on working plane, the depreci-
ation factor or maintenance factor is taken into consideration.
Thus Lumens received on working plane

= No. of lamps x Wattage of each lam p x efficiency of each lamp
Cofflcicnt of utilisation
in terms of lumens/watt x
depmciation factor
or =No. of lamps x Wattage of each lamp x Efficiency of each lamp

in terms of lumens/watt x coefficient of utilisation x mainte-
nance factor.
Coefficient of Utilisation or Utilisation factor
The light which is radiated by all lamps does not reach the
working plane. When the installation is new, the ratio of lumens
reaching the working plane to the total lumens given out by the
lamp/lamps is known as utilisation factor or coefficient of utilisation.
If the utilisation factor is on higher side, then more lumens will
reach the working plane for the given lumens output of the lamps.
The value of utilisation factor depend upon
(1) The mounting height of lamps i.e. it decreases with the
increase in mounting height of lamps.
(ii) Area to be illuminated i.e. utilisation factor increases with
the increase in area to be illuminated.
(iii) Type of lighting i.e., it is more for direct lighting and less
for indirect lighting.
(iv) Colours of surroundings i.e. it is more for light colours and
less for darkcolours.
Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.5 and from 0.1 to 0.25 for direct
and indirect lighting schemes respectively.
Maintenance factor. The illumination produced by a lighting
installation decreases considerably after a year or two partly due to
the aging of lamps and partly due to the accumulation of dust on
the lamps, on the transmitting and reflecting fixtures and on the
ceilings and walls. So at the time of calculation of lumens received
on the working plane, this fact is taken into account by including
the maintenance factor which may 1e defined as the ratio of the
ultimate maintained metre candles on the working plane to the initial
metre candles. If the lamps and fixtures and surroundings are
cleaned regularly, its value is more say 0.8 and if there is more dust
then its value decreases to 0.6.
Depreciation Factor. This is merely the revse of maintenance
factor. Its value in more than unity.
(c) Point to point or Inverse-square law method. This method
ILLUMINATION
147
is applied where the iB

uminatjoiJjs required at a point due to one
or more sources of light.
The illumination at any point within the range of the lamp can
be calculated from the Inverse square law, if a polar curve of lamp
and candle power of lamp reflected by its reflector in different
directions is known. If two and pore than two lamps are illumi-
nating the same working plane, illumination due to each can be
calculated and added. This method is not commonly used due to
rore complications involved in its calculations. However, it is used
in some special problems such as flood lighting and yard lighting
etc.
12. Types of Electric Lamps. Following types of lamps are
being used:
(1) Incandescent lamp. This type can further be divided into
the following:
(a) Incandescent vacuum lamp.
(b) Incandescent gas filled lamp.
(2) Discharge lamp.
being used: Following types of discharge lamps are
(a) Sodium discharge lamp.
(b) Low pressure mercury discharge lamp.
(c) Neon lamp.
(d) High pressure mercury discharge lamp.
1 3.Incandescent Vacuum Lamps. When an electric current
is passed through a fine metallic wire, it raises the temperature of
the wire, and heat energy will be radiated at low temperatures. At
high temperatures heat as well as light energy will be radiated: the
higher the temperature of the wire, higher is the amount of light
energy radiated.
The incandescent lamp consists of an evacuated* glass bulb
having a fine metallic wire within it. The metal which can be used
as a filament must have the following properties
(1) It must be capable of being worked at very high tempera-
tures, i.e. its melting point must be high.
(2) It should have low temperature co-efficient.
(3) It must be ductile.
(4) It must be very strong mechanically to withstand vibration
during normal -use.
(5) It must have low vapour pressure.
*The lamps are evacuated (i) to prevent the oxidization of the filament,
prevent the temperature lowered by radiation. (ii) to

The different types of materials which can be used for the

production of light in incandescent lamps are carbon, tantalum and
tungsten. Carbon has a melting point of about 3500 but the main
drawback is that it cannot be worked at higher temperatures as at
high temperatures it starts disintegrating and blackens the inside
of the bulb : moreover its temperature co-efficient is negative and
thus its resistance decreases at higher temperatures and so it takes
more current from mains. The efficiency of this lamp is low and is
of the order of 4 lumens per watt. When tantalum metal is used as
a filament of the incandescent lamp, the drawback of negative
temperature co-efficient is compensated since its temperature co-
efficient is positive and is of the order of .00235. But the greatest
drawback in such types- of filament is --------------"
thnf. m1t r 'b rn;rf
F . JflLlJ'
2580°C, thus it cannot be worked at higher temperatures to give
more efficiency. The efficiency of tantalum lamps is about 5 lumens
per watt.
Tungsten is the most common material used as filament in
modern lamps. It is being preferred to carbon and tantalum due to
the following reasons:
(i) Its melting point is hig'h, of the order of 3400°C, (no doubt
it is less than that of carbon, but it can be worked at higher tem-
peratures).
(ii) Its vapour pressure is low.
(iii) It is very strong and can be made ductile.
(iv) Its temperature co-efficient is 0.0051.
CON7C ï.ç
The chemically pure tungsten is
t4SE
very strong and fragile. In order to
make it ductile, the pure tungsten
oxide is first reduced in the form of
T4,.4 a grey powder in an atmosphere of
hydrogen. The powder then is
pressed underhydraulic presses into
small bars. These bars are again
heated in an atmosphere of hydro-
gen at about 1100°C. Further in
F'4ME,vT order to make these bars strong
mechanically, they are raised to
Fig. 6.11 melting point bypassing an electric
current through them, but still the bars are not ductile. In order to
make them ductile, they are heated and resolved and then they are
drawn into wires. Fig. 6.11 represents a vacuum lamp with a large
barrel-shaped filament. --.
ILLUMINATION
149
14. Gass-filled Incandescent lamp. It has been said earlier

that in order to prevent the oxidization of the filament the lamps
are evacuated. The minimum temperature at which the filament
can be worked without oxidization is 2000°C. It has been observed
that when the tungsten lamp is worked beyond 2000°C it blackens
the inside ofthe lamp. Now in order to make the lamp more efficient
it must be worked at the highest temperature possible. In tungsten
lamps, it can be attained by inserting a small quantity of inert gas
(nitrogen with small quantit' of argon). In the barrel type of con-
struction of the lamp, the filament is quite distributed over whole
of the lamp surface, and in this type of construction, if gas is added,
the he-t of the lamp is conducted away and it reducesthe efficiency
of the lamp. To reduce the dissipation of heat, the surface area of
filament lamp is reduced. So the filament is so wound that it takes
very little space, i.e. theyhave coiled uilamentor a coiled coil filament
as shown in Fig. 6.12. The gas prevents the arching between two
consecutive coils of the spiral filament. As the lamps are always
hung vertically, any disintegrated part of the filament is convected
to the top of the lamp and so the efficiency of the lamp is not affected.
In case of low wattage lamps the heat loss due to introduction
gas is more than in the medium wattage lamp, so for low wattage
lamps vacuum type is used. For wattage up to 100, coiled coil lamps,
are used and for still lighter wattage lamps single coil filament are
used.
CONTACT
8RA5
CAP
57EM \L LEAD
tN WIRES
Û^Fj
iUI(
GASFILLE D
LAMP CO/LED FILAMENT COILED CO/i.

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.12
15. Characteristics of Incandescent Lamps. The candle
power or the total number of lumens given out by the lamp depends
much upon the applied voltage and the relation between them is
given as:
C.P.°'En ... (6.20)
where n = Constant and varies from 4 to 5 for tungsten filament

lamps, and from 8 to 7 for carbon filament lamps.
The efficiency of the lamp is given in lumens/watt, the efficiency
or the total number of lumens given out by the lamp increases with
the increase of temperature or voltage. The life of the lamp in
number of hours decreases with the increase of voltage. Fig. 6.13
represents the curves for life, efficiency and total lumens.
35C
v 304
25i
20
j
z
' 10
'.. 5
-J
0 20 40 60 80 foo 120 140

VOLTAGE AS PERCENrAGE Of NORMAL
Curves for life efficiency and total lumens

Fig. 6.13
1 6.Halogen Lamp. This is one of types of incandescent lamps,
possessing number of advantages over the ordinary incandescent
lamp. The life and efficiency of an incandescent lamps are affected
by the gradual evaporation of tungsten and also its operating
temperature. But the addition of small amount of halogen vapour
to the filling gas restores part of the evaporated tungsten vapour
back to the filament by means of a chemical reaction and the cycle
goes on. Halogens are a group consisting of the elements fluorine,
chlorine, bromine and iodine.
ILLUMINATION 151
As a result, halogen lamps poss o ss the following advantages:

(a) The blackening of the bulb is not caused, so there is no
depreciation of light output.
(b) It has 50% more efficiency than that of an ordinary
incandescent lamp.
(c) It is smaller in size than that of incandescent lamp.
(d) It gives better colour radiation.
Halogen lamps are manufactured upto 5 kW and are suitable
for outdoor illumination ofbuilding, sports grounds, parks, airports
etc. These are also used for lighting of halls, factories, sport halls
and marriages' shamianas etc.
1000W Incandescent
lamp
The Comparison of Halogen Lamp of 1000 W

and 1000 Wincandescent lamp.
Fig. 6.14
17. Working Principle of Electric discharge Lamp. Such
lamps have a transparent enclosure and contain a gas or vapour at
low pressure (sometimes the pressure is several atmospheres). At
the two ends of the lamp electrodes are provided for connecting the
lamp to the mains. The principle of such lamp is that the light is
obtained from the excited atom of the gas. In the discharge space,
there are three kinds ofparticles such as neutral atoms or molecules
ofgas or vapour, positive ions and electrons. When the potential is
applied to the electrodes, the neutral atoms will not respond to
potential gradient but will have a motion at random depending upon
thermal conditions ; but the positive ions and electrons will have an
axial drift towards the cathode and anode respectively. The move-
ment of the electrons is accelerated by the potential gradient and
thus obtain a very high velocity and so possess high kinetic energy.
During the passage of the movement of the electrons toward anode,
they collide with the neutral atoms or molecules of the gas or vapour.
The collisions are of three types which are detailed below and as
well as shown in Fig. 6.15.
INSTANTS I COLLISION COLLISION COLLISION

TYPE TYPE II TYPE ill
e
BEFORE
COLLISION
T
co^ .00
AFTER
COLLISION (0 (0 0
Types of collision in discharge lamp

Fig. 6.15
(i) The collision may be elastic in which case the electron

simply bounces off the neutral atom without any physical change.
Such a collision results in the change of direction and change of
velocity of both electron and neutral atom.
(ii) Thecollision may be so severe that the neutral atom may

receive sufficient energy to displace the valency electron from no
mal orbit to the outer orbit. The energy received by the neutral atom
for such displacement is equal to the work done against the
gravitational attraction of the molecules. The loss inthe kinetic
energy of the colliding electron is equal to the energy gained by the
neutral atom with which the electron has collided. When the
structure of the atom is thus changed, the atom is said to be in an
excited st-ate. The excited state of the atom is an unstable state for
about lO secs, after which the atom attains its original state and
in doing so, it gives out energy exactly equal to that received by it in
Me form of light waves.

ILLUMINATION

153
(iii) The collision of the electron with the neutral atom may be
so violent as to detach the electrons from it. The atom after losing
electron becomes positive and starts moving towards the cathode.
All these effects of collisions have been given in Table v.7.
Table 6.7
Instants Collision Type I Collision Type II Collision Tve III
Result (i) No physical (i) Thestructureof (i) The electron is
change. the atom is detached from
changed. the neutral
atom.
(ii) Change in the (ii)Loss in (ii)The neutral atom
direction of el ?C- energy of the attains positive
trons. colliding elec- charge.
trons and is
equal to the
energy received
by the atom. -
(iii) Change in (iii)The structure of
velocity' the atom is
changed and
the atom is said
to be excited.
(iv)After about 10
secs, the atom
reverts to its
original state
and gives out
energy in the
form of light
waves.
The gas discharge lamps are preferred to filament lamps due
to the following reasons
(a) It has been seen that the efficiency of the filament lamp is
dependent upon the temperature at which it is worked but there is
a limit to which its temperature can be increased which is much less
than the melting point of the filament. Even if the working tem-
perature of the filament is high only a small portion of the total
energy radiated is in the form of light energy, while in the case of a
discharge lamp the light energy is obtained from a gas column which
is not heated but is excited electrically.
(b) The gas discharge lamps are capable of giving only one
particular type of wavelength of electrical energy while the incan-
descent lamps give light energy of all wavelengths. It is due to the
fact that the atoms in a solid filament are closely packed and are
not capable of radiating energy of one frequency, while in gas dis-
charge lamps, the atoms are widely separated and so can radiate
out energy without interference from any other atom.
The luminance of the discharge lamps is dependent upon—
(a) composition of the gas;
(b) the gas or vapour pressure.
18. Sodium Discharge Lamp. It is in the form of U-tube as
shown in Fig. 6.16. The glass of this tube is also special since sodium
vapourbiackens the ordinary glass. Usually a thin coating of special
glass is made by fusing it on inner surface of the ordinary glass tube.
WPPLY
p.,.
AUTO TRANSFORMER
r-- - - 1
L..
I'-
II
II COIL ED
I II I ELECTRODE
II
II
I,
II I,I
UTU5E
II Iii
I,
I,
I'
'S
—VACUUM
FLASK
• I
I I
I,
• ' I'
•I
Sodium discharge lamp

Fig. 6.16
ILLUMINATION
155
The lamp is quite s ensitive to
temperatures, as when the temper-
ature increases over the normal
attained by the working temperature , the velocity
the electrons to 2nd e er ' level and excesaive and they excite
since the radiation from 2nd
energy level of 3.61 V is of wavelength which lies in the ultraviolet
region ; also if its te
temp mperature lowers below the normal working
erature, the sodium does not remain in the vapour form. So to
keep the temperature of the lamp within the working range, it is
enclosed in a doubl
e-walled flask as shown. In addition to sodium
a small quantity of inert neon gas is also inserted.
Operation.
Before the lamp starts working the sodium is usually
in the form of a solid deposited on the sides of the tube walls. So in
the initial state when the potential is applied to the lamp, it operates
as a low pressure neon lamp with pink colour (characteristic of the
itneon
r gas); but as the lamp warms up itvaporizes sodium and slowly,
adiates outyellow light and after about twenty minutes, the lamp
starts giving its full output.
/J
Transformer core
Fig. 6.17
At the time of starting the discharge lamp, a voltage higher than

the normal supply voltage is required which is 350 V forth e 45 watts
lamp an
from and 410 volts for 100-watt lamp. Such voltages are obtained
auto.tran sformer. The auto -trsan
Poor regulation i.e. former used has a very
at no load when no current is taken from the
tr ansformer, the voltage is very much higher than when the
transformer is loaded. Thus when the discharge starts, the output
voltage of the transformer falls. The regulation of the transformer
is made poor by increasing the leakage reactance which in turn is

obtained by means of providing magnetic shunts in the core as shown
in Fig. 6.17. Hence the transformer acts as a blast.
The colour of the sodium discharge lamp is bright yellow and is
recommended only for street lighting. The life of such a tamp ends
when:
(a) the filament breaks or bums out;
(b) when the cathode fails to emit electrons
(c) when the sodium particles may concentrate to one side of
the tube;
(d) when the lamp tube is blackened due to sodium vapour
action on the glas., in which case the output will be reduced.
Advantages. (1) First excitation level is achieved at law
potential and thus requires less energy in excitation as compared
to other vapours. -
(2) Most of the radiation is on visible region and therefore more
economical.
Disadvantages. (1) Its luminous intensity is low which is
approx. 9 candle-cm' and to evercome this, U-tube of larger size as
shown in Fig. 6.16 is used.
(2) The colour of the light is bright yellow and thereby its use
is restricted to street lights or advertisement.
19. Low Pressure Mercury Discharge Lamp. The mercury
discharge is quite complicated since the atom of mercury has eighty
electrons and they are of two valency. These two valency electrons
are excited in a number of ways and in the visible spectrum, the
colours radiated are yellow, green, blue and violet. From this visible
radiation, the effect of variation of wavelength 5461 A°, which
produces green colour, on the human eye is maximum and as the
radiations depart from this wavelength, the visual effect decreases.
Therefore the radiations from the low pressure mercury dis-
charge give a spectrum of few lines resulting in a colour which is
very objectionable from practical point of view. The gaps in the
mercury discharge spectrum must be filled in. Such filling is
obtained by the following methods:
(i) By using fluorescent materials in the tube.
(ii) By increasing the va pour pressure in the tube.
(iii) By using mixed vapours.
/
ILLUMINATION . 157
(iv) By using low mercury discharge lamps in conjunction with

temperature radiations.
20. Mercury Fluorescent Lamps. (Low pressure)
It has been pointed out earlier that the low pressure mercury
discharge lamps produce an objectionable colour and have a low
efficiency. Such drawbacks can be overcome by coating the inside
of the tube with a fluorescent material. Before the discharge lamps
are explained, it is necessary to have some knowledge offluorescence
which is explained as
All bodies except perfect absorbers reflect most of the light
falling on it ; the difference may be due to the absorption of certain
wavelengths of incident light by the colour of the body. There are
certain b6dies which do not observe the general law of reflection but
radiate out light energy in a different wavelength if the incident
radiation is in the ultraviolet region. Usually the radiated wave-
length 1s longer than the incident wavelength. The phenomenon of
re-emission is called as luminescence. The luminescence can be
classified as
(a) Fluorescence, in which case the excitation lasts only for the
excited period.
(b) Phosphorescence, in which case the excitation persists even
after the exciting source is removed.
In case of discharge lamp, the radiation of light energy is du
to the collision of electrons. Again, for luminescence the radiation
is due to the collision process but of photons. The photon is an excited
atom as a whole and possesses an energy equivalent to the energy
level acquired by the excited valency electron of the atom, for
example the energy of photon ofresonance radiation is exactly equal
to the first excitation of the electrons. When the photon, say of
resonance radiation, collides with a neutral atom of fluorescent
material, it transfers its whole energy to the neutral atom and it
disappears itself. The part of the energy received by the neutral
atom reappears in the form of light energy of longer wavelengths.
Let E by the energy received by the fluorescent materiaL
So wavelength of photon giving incident radiation to the fluo-
12, 378
rescent material is = £
Let the energy re-emitted = czE . . .(621)

where ais always less than 1, since the energy re-emitted is always
less than the incident energy.

I" WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Wavelength of re-emitted radiation12378 . . .(6.22)

The fluoresent powders used in case of low pressure lamps
are solids and are usually called as phosphors. The phosphors used
are shown in Table 6.8. They are excited by resonance mercury
radiation. By the use of suitable mixtures of phosphors a variety of
colours can be obtained.
Table 6.8

Pho8phor Wavelength in A of Colour of

emitted radiation Fluorescence
Calcium tungitate 3800-7000 Blue
Magnesium tungstate 3800-7200 Blue-white
Cadmium borate 4000-7000 Pink
Cadmium silicate 4300-7200 Yellow-pink
Zinc silicate 4C0-6200 Green
Zinc-beryllium silicate 4500-7200 Yellow-white
For commercial use the phosphors usually contain a heavy
impurity called activator, such an impurity is introduced in order
to have the required spectral distribution in the re-emitted radi-
ation. The materials used as activators are shown in Table 6.9.
Table 6.9

Activator Colour of Fluorescence
Silver Blue
Copper Green
Bismuth Green
Gold Blue-white
Manganese Deep-yellow.
Copper plus silver I Bluish or greenish white
Construction of the Lamp. The low pressure mercury lamp is
essentially a long tube, the
ANDE CATkOD( inside of which is coated witb
phosphor. The tube contains
a small amount of mercury
and a small quantity of argon
OLAS
i of mercury. The presence of
-LE ADS
the gas is justified as at
Construction of mercury fluorescent starting the mercury is in the
lamp (low pressire; form of globules, so in the
Fig. 6.18. beginning the lamp starts

ILLUMINATION 159
conducting with argon gas and as the temperature increases, the

mercury changes into vapour form and takes over the conduction of
current. Both the electrodes of the l amp are of tungsten and are
coated with an electron-emitting material (usually an alkaline
earth). Each of the filament alternatively acts asa cathode andemits
electrons and so also each of them alternatively acts as an anode.
But since during each half of acycle it is almost an insulator, it does
not attract electrons. So for collection of electrons, each end is
provided with metallic fins called as anodes as shown in Fig. 6.18.
The starter filaments of the tube and the choke all form one series
circuit. The series choke acts as a ballast when the lamp is running
and it also provides a voltage impulse for starting. The starter used
is a small cathode glow tube with bimetal strips as support to the
electrodes and when starter is cold, the electrodes of the starter are
open.
21. Neon Lamp. It is a cold cathode lamp. It consists of glass
bulb filled with neon gas with a small percentage of helium. Such
types of lamps give orange pink coloured light. The electrodes used
in the lamp are of pure iron and are spaced only few mm apart so
that lamspmay be made for the voltages as low as 110 volts ac. or
150 volts d.c. When the lamps are to be used an a.c. supply,
ELECTRODES
GLASS BULB FILLED

WITH NEON & HELIUM
GAS
GLASS STEM
BAYONET CAP
(Resistance inside
the cop obout 200011)
Neon lamp
Fig. 6.19
the electrodes used in theamp should of equal size, when the lamps
are used on d.c. supply, the gas glows near the negative e]ectrcde.
Therefore negative electrode is made larger in size owing to dis-
charge of the gas between the electrodes in the form of an arc, it
may cause the current drawn by the lamp to increase indefinitdy.
-12
160
This can be prevented by inserting a high resistance of few thousand
ohm in series of the electrode and mounted in the cap of the lamp.
The size of this lamp is of an ordinary incandescent lamp. The
efficiency of the lamp lies between 15 lumens/watt . to 40
lumens/watt. The power consumption of the lamp is 5 watt.
22. Neon Tubes.
The high voltage neon tubes or neon signs are
used for advertising; for signs ; for the decoration of buildings etc.
The neon tubes are used in varying lengths upto 8 rn and are bent
into almost any desired shape during ma nufacturing. The neon
Cubes contain two electrodes, one at each end of the tube, made of
iron, steel or copper.
Te neon tabs are ma1;uuctured in different col ours by varying
the com p osition, of glass and adding different substances to neon
gas.
Colour Prod ihetiQa
1. Orange-Red -* Neon gas
2. Blue -- Mercury neon and argon gas
3. Green -- Yeflow glass and mixture ot'neon and mercury.
4. Yellow - Yellow glass and helium gas.
L•-JLJJ )IbGLASS TUBE
TENSION
f1rnThT STEP - tiP

I TRANSFORMER
CAPACITOR
N
For PFimp,-orner, TO A C
Arrangemon of Neon Signs

Fig. 6.20
The tubes are n1anufactued in different, diameters like 10, 15,

20 and 30 mm which may carry currents of 25, 35, 60 and 150 m
respecL'vely. The voltage required per netre of tube length is 300
ILLUMINATION 161
V to 1000 V and for starting the discharge, a striking voltage of

about I times this value is required. The high voltage is obtained
with the help of step up transfofmer, having a high leakage reac-
tance so that it may give drooping characteristics.
The neon tubes are installed either on a wooden frame ora metal
base. Nickel wires are used for the connection of letters in the neon
signs which are covered with glass tubings and these are matched
with step up transformer by connecting suitable tappings for the
rated current. Since the power factor of the neon tubes is quite low
which is improved by using capacitors on the low voltage of trans-
formers in the circuit. When the neon tubes are installed in open,
they require frequent cleaning, say 4 times per annum. Sometimes
flickering is noticed in the lighting which can be rectified by
adjustment of the transformer tappings. Flickering may be due to
low gas pressure in the tube on account of absorption of the gas in
the electrodes. The gas can be got filled by the manufacturers.
23. High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp. There are dif-
ferent types Gfhigh pressure mercury vapour lamps. They are
(a) M.A. Type made in 250 and 400 watt sizes for 200-250V
A.C. mains.
(b) M.A.T. Type made in 300 and 500 watt sizes for 200-250V
A.C. mains.
(c) M.B. Type working at very high pressure and is available
in 80 and 125 watt sizes.
The high pressure lamps are used either for street lighting or
for industrial purposes where there is no objection to the greenish
light.
(a) MA. Type Lamp. It consists of aglass tube ofborosilica-
tewhich is quite hard. At the two ends in the tube are provided two
electrodes of specially coated wire. Near the upper electrode is
another auxiliary starting electrode which is connected to the bot-
tom electrode through a high resistance as shown. The tube is sealed
with an inside pressure of one and a half atmosphere. This tube is
further enveloped by another tube, the advantage of which is that
the heat of inner tube may not be dissipated and the tube may not
be caused to come in contact with sudden changes in temperature.
The lamp has a screwed cap and is connected to the mains supply
through a choke. To improve the power factor of the tube, a con-
denser is connected across the mains as shown.
The inner tube, in addition to mercury, also contains a small
quantity of argon gas since at the time of startin g . the tube is celd
162
WIRING, EST MATING M'I) COSTING
]444IN
1cHaeE
AUX
L1A$T EL (C
-RE 5/5 TA NCE
I 1L/8( W,'TH
ME 'CJR V
f^^] 1^
AC . /C. I
MA/I
O(/TE. GLA
I ELECTRQ(
ENVELOPE
(EVACUATED.)
H.P.M.V. lamp (M.AType)
Fig. 6.21
and the mercury is in the condensed form.
on, 'Vhe the tube is
an are starts between an auxiliary electrode to the main switched
and at this instant the discharge is in argon gas controlledelectrode
by high
resistance and due to this discharge ,
the whole of the argon gas
becomes conducting and a discharge starts between the two
main
electrodes. Due to the high resistance in the auxiliary anode circuit,
the discharge shifts in between the mairi electrodes The
discharge
is of a paleblue glow and is now controlled by the choke. Due to the
heat prcdced drng discharge ,
the tube warms up and the mercury
is evaporated and the pressure inside develops .
takes up the shape ofan intense are. After about 5The discharge later
starts giving full Output. minutes the lamp
In such lampsit should be noted that—

(1) As the lamp is not operative when cold, its
some time, about six minutes ru nning up takes
(ii)
Once the lamp is switched off, it will not restart again until
and unless the pressure is developed inside the tube subsides but
there is no harm in keeping the
swit ches on.
(iii)
The lamp should always be hung ve-tically, otherwise the
arc will burn the inner tube.
(b) M.A.T. Type Lamp. This type of lamp iA
that of M.A. type, but the outer tube, instead of beingalm ost similar to
empty,
of tungsten filament Similar to that ofan ordinary lamp inconsistsseries
ILLUMINATION
163
with the discharge tube, so that it acts as a blast. Since the lamp
does not require a blast of choke, it can be qsed for a.e. as well d.c.
mains. When the lamp is switched cn, it wrks as a Mament lamp
and its full output is given by the outer tube, at the same time the
discharge tube starts warming up and when a particular temper-
ature is attained, a thermal switch operates and coils of a part of
the filament is cut off so that the voltage across the discharge tube
increases.
'ERUAL
VI TCI4
:Rcupr
IBE
F/LA A4LpIT
VOL TAE
H.P.M.V. Lamp (M.A,T. Type)

Fig. 6.22
The advantage of the type of lamp is that the colour given out
by the M.A. type lamp is of poor appearance since it is short of red
colour while light given by this lamp consists of a mixture of lights
due to discharge lamp (short of red colour) and that due to filament
lamp (excess of red colour). The colour so obtained is more some-
thing.
(c) M.B. Type Lamp. This lamp operates at an extra high
pressure of 5 to 10 atmosphere. The discharge tube in this type of
lamp is of quartz about 5 cm. long has three electrodes, two main
and one auxiliary. This tube is in a pearl glass bulb, similar to that

of 100 watt lamp. There is a high starting resistance in series with

the auxiliary starting electrode. This lamp generally has 3 pin
bayonet cap so that it may not be put in an ordinary holder since it
requires a choke and a condenser.
TARflfi
RSISTA,',C(
STARTING
&tECTODE
QUARTZ TU5E
WIT/I MERCURY
PEARL GLASS
8UL S
_MAINELECT,,-009
AC VCLTAE - -
H.P.M.V. lamp (MB. type)
Fig. 6.23
The function of the tube is similar to that of M.A. Type lamp.
Since quartz tube can withstand high temperature due to arc etc.,
it can be used in any position.
nimim Mounting Height of Lamps.
S.No. Lamps and Watae Auin. Hr. ufrzounting in
Tu rig IMercury I Sodium Feet I Metre
1. 60 8 2.5
2. 100 9 2.75
3. 150 45 9 2.75
4. 200 .80 60 10.5 3.2
5. 300 125 85 12 3.6
6. 500 250 140 14 4.2
7. 750 17 5.1
8. 1000 400 20 6.0
9. 1500 24 7.2
Notes. In order to avoid the feeling of inconvenience or dis-

comfort and disability, the light should be installed at the proper
height so that there should be no strain on the eyes and direct type
of fixtures should be avoided.

165
ILLUMINATION
25. Street Lighting

(i) To make the road clearly visible is order to promote safety
and convenience to the traffic and any other obstruction
if any.
(ii) To make the street more attractive.
(iii) To.increase the community value of the street.
26. Lighting Schemes. In this system of lighting, since there
are no walls and ceiling which reflect or diffuse light, hence only
direct lighting scheme is used. As the areas te be illuminated being
large, the value of illumination for economic reasons is very low as
compared to that of indoor lighting and the questi3n of colour ren-
dering is also of minor importance. Owing to the ow illumination,
the eye is in its most sensitive state and therefore glare must be
avoided.
27. Principle of designing of street lightng installations.
Generally two principles are employed in 0,v design of street
lighting installations i.e.
(i) The Diffusion Principle ti;) The Specuar Reflection Priri-
ciple
i) The Diffusion Principle-In this the lamps are fitted
with suitable reflectors. The refleetcrs are €-igned in. sucha way
that they may direct the light downwards and c2ead over the road
surface uniformly. To avoid glare, t}e reflectors are made to have a
cut-offofIbetween 300 to 450 so th- he flarent is not visible. The
diffusing nature of the road surface c' uses he i flection of a certain
proportion of the incident light in tte direcin of the observer and
therefore the-road surface appears bright t- the observer. The
il l umination at any point on the road surface is calculated by
applying point to point or inverse square method.
(ii) The Specular Reflection Principle. In this case, the

reflectors are curved up in such a way that he light i thrown on
the road at a very large angle of incidence. It has been observed that
a motorist requires to see objects about 30 rn away, which is fulfilled
by the method bf the using the type of reflectors in this principle.
The object will appear against the bright road surface due to lamps
ata long distance. The requirement.ofapedest.rians is to see objects
nearby which is also fulfilled in this method as some light falls
directly downwards from the lamps. This method of lighting is more
economical than the diffusion method but thee is one drawback
thatit produces glares for the motorist. This method is more suitable
for straight sections of the road.
WJNC ESTIMATING AND COSTING
28.
Illumination level for street lighting and
height of lamps. The
illu
ofinstaflation ofstreet lightmination required depends Upon the class
j n,g. The class A
Shopping centres and road jun insta llation is used for
c
required is 20 lumens/M2 The classtions H and level of ilumjnatjon
i nstallation is used for poorly
lighted suburban streets and the
illu mination level of I lumen/M2
in sufficient. The level ofi llu jn j
natjon required for an average well
lighted Street is between 2 to 5 lurnen&/mZ
Lamps posts should be fixed aLthe junction of roads and they

should be avoided from large trees. Norrn& spacing for
lamps is 50 metres with a m standard
ounting height of 8 metres.
29. Spacing of Street Lighting The spacing should be uni-
form between luminaries i.e.
about 29.31
metres in case of cut O fT
type fittings and in case of 'non cut ofl type fittings, it should be
31.46 metres. Maximum spacing is
r ecommended 37 metres only
for 'non—cut off fittings Light sources may be installed on one or
both sides ofthe road, in parallel or in Staggered way or in the middle
denending upon the width of road and the intensity of li
required. Staggered arrangement is more p referred g hting
uniforrG as it gives more
lighting than other systems of lighting arrarlgern1
30.
Types of lamps used for street lighting Due to lower
efderjcy, high glare and high recurdng cost,
are used only in the streets having less traffic.inca ndescent lamp
The streets where
there is medium and heavy intensity oftrafflc is
O f i;iinos used there are fl ob served, the types
uorescent tubes, mercury lamps
and
sodium ]amps. Fluorescent lamps fitted one above other gives better
light distribution for street lighting . -
31.Control ofstreet lights. Two types
for street lighting i.e. ofcon nect j ons are used
(i)
Lamps in Parallel connections (Constant Voltage Control)
(ii)
Lamps in Series connections (Constant Current Control)
The constant voltage control is not
p referred due to the
of voltage from lamp to lamp and Conductors ofmore cross variation
are required. But there is no such d r sectional
control and is thus p awback in constant current
referred more for Street lighting system. For
this purpose, special high voltage transformers are used. Series type
connections are used for sodium vapour lamps and parallel
con-
nections are used for mercury vapour lamp but for incandescent
lam p
s either connection can be used. Special cutout is provided with
each lamp in series arrangement to maintain the
Circuits. continuity of the
1LLU1'11NATION 167
32. Flood Lighting This type of lighting is obtained by using

a powerful projectors on any line. This type of lightingis mostly
ernoloyed for decoration of buildings (ancient or religious), public
places, monuments, on important occasions / festivals at night.
These are also used for illuminating railway yards, parking areas,
recreation and sports grounds, shipping yards, Air ports, con-
struction sites, advertisement boards and show cases etc.
For flood lighting, it is necessary to concentrate the light from
the light source into a relatively narrow beam. For this purpose a
flood light projector is used which is robust in nature and weather
proof in construction as it is to be used in remote positions. Since
the reflecting surface is the most important part in a projector, so
it should be made of silvered glass or chromium plate or stainless
steel. Metal reflectors are preferred more being robust in nature.
The casing and mounting of the projector are arranged in such
a way so that the beam can be varied in both a vertical and a-hor-
izontal direction as per requirement on any site. Use of cast-metal
cases is made for the robustness and protection against weather for
permanent installations. For temporary installations or those in
sheltered situations, the use of sheet metal casing is made.
At the time of using 500 or 100 watt lamps in the projectors,
ventilation is provided for adequate cooling by providing sufficient
radiating surface.
Projectors are classified according to spreading of beam
(a)Narrow beam projectors, the beam of which is spreaded
between 12 to 25 0 and are used for above than 70 metres range.
(b) Medium angle projectors, the beam of which is spreaded
between 25 to'40 0 and are used between 30 to 70 metres range.
(c) Wide angle Projectors, the beam of which is spreaded
between 40 to 90 are used for distance below 30 metres.
For economic reasons, the use of wide angle projectors with high
wattage lamp are more preferred than that of narrow' beam pro-
jectors with low wattage lamp. High wattage lamps prove more
efficient in narrow beam projectors. Medium and wide angle
projectors make use of standard gas filled tungsten filament lamps
of 250, 500 or 1000 watts or special lamps having bunched fila-
ments, known as projector lamps.
33. Location and Mounting of Projectors. There are two
possible locations of projectors in practice i.e. symmetrical and
unsymmetrical. Symmetric projectors are kept 20 to 35 metres away
from the surface to be flooded and provide approximately páraile

WIRING, ESTIMATING AND CCT[NG
beam having beam spread of 25 0 to 300, Sometimes when the

projector cannot be located away from the building, in such a case
an unsymmetric reflector mounted in a basement area or on a
braéket attached to the building is used which directs more intense
light towards the tip of the building.
34. Flood Lighting Calculations. Flood-lighting calcula-
tions may be considered into three steps :
First Step Illumination leuci required.
The level of illumination i.e. lumens/m' to be required depends
upon the type of building, the purpose of the flood lighting ; the
amount of conflicting light in the vicinity etc.
Second Step Type of Projector
Beam size and light output are taken into consideration to select
the type of projector. The former calculates the area to be covered
by the beam and the latter is for providing illumination. While
deciding the beam angle of the projector, the distance of projector
from the surface is kept in view.
fhird Step : Number of projectors
The number of projectors for ony desired intensity of light over
a definite surface is obtained fora the following relation
A x E x deprccin factor x woste light factor
N-
Utilisation factor x waua.c of lamp x Luminous efficiency of lamp
where N = Number of proctors
A = Area of surface to t illuminated in sjarc metres
E = Illumination level re q uired in lumens/m2

Description of terms used in the above relation
(i) Waste light factor. When a surface is illuminated by a
number of light sources, there is always a certain amount of waste
light on account of over lapping arid falling of light beyond the edges
of the area to be illuminated.
This is known as waste light factor which may be taken into
account as 1.2 per rectanguler areas and 1.5 for irregular areas and
objects like states and monuments etc.
(ii) DepreciatiorL factor. Depreciation factor may be defined as
the ratio of illumination under ideal conditions to the illumination
under normal conditions. The need of taking this factor into con-
sideration arises when dirt and dust depositing on the reflector
surface and on the source of light reduces the effectiveness of the
projector..
169
ILLUMINATION
It is also known as beam factor and i
(iii) Utilisation Factor.
defined as the ratio of beam lumens to lamp lumens. Its value is
factor is taken into accountbecause all the
taken as 0.3 to 0.5. T his
light emitted by the projector is not along the direction of the beam
but some of it is absorbed by the reflector and by front glass when
the losses increases, the utilisation factor becomes low.
35. Brief Description of Various Lamps
1.VaccuU-Ifl Lamps ; - single coil, rating upto 25W
2. Gas filled lamps; - Coiled-Coil . rating 25W to 300W.
Gas filled imaps ; - rating 300 to 1000W
3. single Coil
All the above are available with clear inside - frosted or opalised
bulbs (milky white upto 200W). For ratings 300W and above, the
bulbs are practically clear.
4. Bulbs upto 200W: -
warm light (b) Soft
Special characteristics are (a) Pleasant &
shadow effect (c) Perfect diffused light.
5. Super lux Lamps:
These are partially satin-frosted bulbs. These have increased
luminous intensity (upto 30%) in the direction of the working plane.
Hence most suitable for all applications where brighter local illu-
mination levels are riquired.
6.Three-Light Lamps:
These have 3 contacts. One for the lower wattage, the second
for higher wattage and the thrid being the combined contact.
7. Bowl Reflector Lamps: -
These are normal, inside-frosted incandescent lamps (60 -
200W). The bulb is provided with a silvered bowl, such that the
filament is completely shielded from the viewer. This bowl elimi-
nates the glare, with suitable fittings, and these-bulbs can give
diffused lighting.
For usage for displays and in shop windows. Clear glass bulb
with bowl reflector bulbs (24V) are also available.
S. Reinforced - Construction Lamps
These bulbs are available with an inside - frosted finish (25 to
200\V). These bulbs have strong, special filament wire which enable
.tiofls occur
them to be used in places where shocks, jumps and vibra
frequenclY.
9. K - Lamps:
These bulbs are smaller in dimension & the bulb's shape is
pleasing. In smaller size rooms, these can be used.
WIRING ESTIMATING A VD COSTING
10. Show - Window Lamps:
These are ordinary inca
lope with a cap at each end. ndescent
These two bulbs
capsbut have tubular enve-
straight contacts in single - pole lamp are clamp
tube is s maller, h olders since th eeddia.
between
of the
the lamps can be
Sh op windows, show cases, acqujrja concealed behind small covers in
filament P r p ictures and mirrors. The
hence gives actically
a uniformextends
strip ofover
light.the entire length of the bulb, &
ll.Phjljnea Lamps:
Another type
of tubular
diffusing glass, having low luincandescent lamp, with the bulb of
minance is available.
These
of light canhave caps
be got byatarr
one side of the bulb and a continuous line
p atterns of one's choice. anging these bulbs end - to - end or in
12. " Fantasje" Lamps:
These are new-style lamps for
lighting of1jvjg decorative and general interior
rooms, halls restaurants shops, recreation rooms,
canteens
ad d i tionaletc. Ordinary lamp holders can be used and eliminates
gass outer glebe.
13. Decorative Lamps:
Decorative ;:imps like candle lamps
lighting sets, chistmas tree c olorenta lamps festoon
illu mination sets are av ailable.
14. Co loured Lamrs:
These limps can be used fdr
illu mination of streets, gardens,
fairgrounds etc. The colour coating is flushed
not inside & hence it can
chip, scratch or fade & can not be affected by
different shapes are a w eather. Two
low wattage rating only, vailable for lvoltage iio to 230V These are
less than
suitable for ill uminating specifi OW to avoid glare & hence not
c work task.
15. R eflector Lamps:
These have a light quality i

Of lamps giving beams of various nternal
widthsmirror. An extensive range
& luminous
available. Two clases of r in
eflector lamps are available tensities are
(i) Pressed - Glass Lamps &
(ii) Blown - bulb Lamps.
used Pressed glassoutdoor

for indoor.& lamp have higher luminous efficiency & can be
li ghtin g
(2001-Jrs) These are made from These have longer b urning hours
-is thick & strong, water proof at pressed hard glass, the bulb wall
Water al l' times and can be p
laced even in

ILLUMINATION 171
Available wattage 100W &150W

Operating voltage 24 V, 250V
Narrow beam (2 x 7.5)
Illuminating smaller surfaces or ohjccts placed at longer dis-
tance
Wide beam (2 x 18).
Illuminating large surfaces or objects placed at shorter dis-
tances.
16.Halogen Lamps:
Halogen gas in smaller quantity is added in an ordinary
incandescent lamp. The chief advantages are blackening of bulb is
avoided, light depreciation is greatly reduced, size becomes smaller
and the filament efficiency is increased. (22 lmJw to 33 lm/w). These
aremost suitable for lighting of film studios, 8mm line photography,
narrow-guage film projection & for use in motor car head lights. For
flood lighting tubular quartz halogen lamps are avaiable. Halogen
lamps can also be used for outdoor illumination of buildings, sports
grounds, playing fields, parks, large gardens, fountains, car parks,
lighting of Air port runways etc.
100W, 150W bulbs give symmetrical cone shaped beams.
300W bulbs give elliptical or oval shped beams.
300W Wide flood beam spread 2x 190 (horizontal)
2 x 80 (vertical)
Medium flood beam spread 2 x 12.5° (horizontal)
2 x 6' (vertical)
Narrow spot, beam spread 2 x 7' (horizontal)
2 x 5' (vertical)
Flood Colour Lamps:
100W pressed - glass reflector lamps are available with red,
green, yellow or blue front. These are heat & weather resistant &
hence most useful for indoor & outdoor uses.
Blown - Bulb Reflector Lamps;
These are used for indoor lighting. These have low luminous
flux. These have a narrow beam (2 x 9°) and a wide beam (2 x 25°)
17. Neon Tubes:
These tubes have a maximum length of 25 feet (750 cm) and
dia. ranging from 112" to 1" (12.5 mm to 25 mm) & can be bent in

all shapes. The current intensity is low (50 - 200mA). Luminous

efficiency 5 - lOim watt. For advertising signs, the length is dis-
tributed over a few letters, which are connected in series. The gases
introduced in the bulb, Neon (red) Helium (pink). Nitrogen (golden
yellow), Sodium (yellow), xenon (pale blue), kypton, carbaric acid
and mercury vapour (blue), argon (solet). These colours are also
varied by using either coloured glass or internally coating the glass
wall with a filtering or colour powder.
18. Glow Lps:
Glow lamps or neon indicator lamps have very low currents and
have lower gas pressure & hence the radiation of light remains
limited to a faint glow. . The gas in the lamp is normally neon or
helium or argon. These are available in a great variety of sizes and
voltages with or without series resistor. These are smaller in sizes
& suitable for mains tension. These have high brightness and never
affected by mains fluctuations, these are shock and vibration proof
to a large extent, develope minimum heat & serve for a longer period.
These can be used in all kinds of electric appliances such as
irons, grills, domestic heaters, boilers, frying pans, electric ovens,
washing machines, dish washers hair dryers, coffee percolators,
freezers, refrigerators, blankets etc.
19. Night Larrqm
These lamps also belong to the large family of discharge lamps.
The neon gas filling, acts as the current - carrying medium. These
have no filaments, these can withstand vibration & shock. These
are fitted with a flourcscent bulb & give a greenish light.
These have low wattage rating (0.8W) & serve for a long life.
These are suitable for children's bed rooms, hospitals, nurseries,
passages, staircases etc.
20. Sodium Vapour Lamps:
Available in 85W, 140W & 200W
Average life time 6600 Hrs.
(for 3 or more burning hours per switching) -
Power factor : 0.25 to 0.35 without a capacitor
0.8 to 0.9 with a paralled capacitor
Luminous gfficienev High (110 lm!W)
The light is monochromatic (single colour)
These are most suitable for lighting of motor ways, storage
yards, & for flood lighting of high buildings.
ILLUMINATION
21. Mercury Vapour Lamps:

Lamp Mm. starting Ballast Nominal lumi
Voltage losses ndus
flux. Im.
50W 200V 9W 1700

SOW 200V 9W 3100
125W 300V 11W 5400
250W 200V 17W 11500
300W 200V 25W 20500
700W 200V 32W 36000
1000W 200V 43W 52000
2000W 340V 68W 125000
Application : Factory lighting, quarries, paper mills, Iron

foundaries & advertisement flood lighting.
22. Mercury Iodide Lamps:
These are lamps with a mercury - discharge tube made of quartz.
In this tube, apart from Mercury, there are a no. of iodides - like
sodium iodide (pinkish -yellow light), thallium iodide (green light),
indium iodide (blue light). These lamps are available with high
efficiency 75 lm/watt.
They are also available with 400W, 2000W, 30,000 Ims. and
1,90,000 Ims. These are mostly used in the field of flood lighting,
industrial lighting & public lighting.
23. Blended Light Lamps:
The Construction of these lamps is similar to that of mercury
vapour lamps, but, with addition of a filament which is connected
in series with the vapour tube. i.e. apart from mercury light, the
same quantity of incandescent lamp light is also produced i.e. the
ballast is incorporated in the lamp itself. Operating voltage should
not be lower than 200V.
Average life time - 600 burning Hrs.
Light Depreciation - 20%
Available wattages - 160, 250, & 500 watts
Note: HOW bulb has to be used in vertical position only.
24. Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps: Flourescent Tube
Lights
These are subject to ageing. After 3000 burning hours, the
depreciation of luminous flax is about 15 to 20% of normal value.
These give the best efficiency when the ambient temp. is arotind
25°C to 30°C. When used in cold and draughty places, tightly closed
fittings are to be used. When used in warm surroundings open type
fittings or fittings with ventilating holes are to be used. When there

is a variation in the frequency of supply mains, the lamps have to
be switched OFF.
These are slightly sensitive to vibration & hence can be mounted
on machines, in trains, ships. For violent vibrations, spring loaded
suspensions have to be used.
25. Special Gas Discharged Lamps:
(1) Low pressure Pulsed Xenon Lamps
These are used in the printing industry for reproduc t ion &
copying. The wattage rating will be 1500, 3000, 4000W. These are
instant start and Restart - max efficiency immediately after start-
ing'. Colour, temperature, and light out put remain constant
throughout its life period. Long life period, uniform burning during
exposure and high efficiency are their advantages. So they are
excellent for colour reproduction.
Applications:
1. Copy - Board lighting
Small size horizontal copy - boards, as well as large vertical
ones can be lit very evenly with 2 or 4 lamps.
2. Stop and Repeat copying machines.
3. Light source in photo and film studios.
4. Plate making : The concentrated beam from the lamp is
used for plate - making, wattages required ; 4000W.
5. Light printing Lamps In Photo.copying equipments
Super Actinic Lamps:
' These are flourescent lamps used in various photo - chemical
processes such as light printing (Diazo), copying and reproductions.
These are tubular, low pressure lamps coated with a flourescent
layer that transforms the short. wave ultra. violet radiation of the
arc into useful actinic radiation. For a higher light printing speed,
several lamps are used together. No complicated cooling systems
are required.
Mercury -Vapour Lamps 125W
In this, the discharge tube is fitted in a bulb of hard glass pro-
vided with an internal mirror reflector. This reflector allows the
transmission of long - wave ultra violet radiation. This is
particularly suitable for black white reproduction and copying
process. Also used for flood light.
ILLUMINATION 175
Sun Lamp:
The sun lamp 300W is a tungsten mercury lamp, constructed
in the same principle of Blended - light lamps. No ballast is nec-
essary. The bulb is made of hard glass which filters out radiations
of lower values.
Applications:
Used for pre - heating and drying processes of plastics.
Black Light Flourescent Lamps:
These are tubular low pressure mercury vapour lamps. The
tube is of dark blue glass transparent to ultra violet and opeque to
visible radiation. A minimum of visible light is produced by the
lamp.
Applications:
Analysis in chemical, suger, food and textile industries.
Detection in philately, mineralogy, bauring, criminology and
medicine and in the field of entertainment.
GERMICIDAL Lamps:
Power rating 6W, 220/230V. No ballast is necessary. This gives
ultra - violet radiation.
Applications:
Used in refrigerators and in all vending machines for liquids.
Tubular Germicidal Lamps:
These are low pressure mercury vapour lamps without a
phosphor coating. These lamps radiate energy at 2537 Armstrong
line, which is very near the wavelength that destroys bacteria &
moulds.
Applications:
Used in Hospitals, cold storage rooms, cheese ware - houses,
pharmaceutical industries, dairies, breweries etc.
Warning:
Do not have long exposures. This will affect the skin and eye;.
Compact Sources Mercury Lamps:
These are super - high pressure mercury lamps. Thes3 have
high energy concentration with in a small dimension. Hence high
brightness is possible.
Applications:
Micro film enrgers, recording and measuring instruments,
photochemistry.
-13
176
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COTJNG
Compact Source Xenon Lamps:
These are super - high pressure xenon lamps. Chief advantages

is that o p
tical adjustment remains constant when once set and
Perfect in operation. Th is is to be used only on
D.C. Supply.
Applications
Cinema projection (900 - 2500 W), COlOUr matching scientific
purposes (microscope) Small spotlights, Spot lights in films studios,
Back ground projectors, Beacons Zone melting.
36. Light
Sources and Light Fittings. The three main groups
Of light sources available for industrial lighting and their main
ch aracteristics are tabulated below.:
Type of Sources Characterj.stics Applications

1. Incandescent Low initial outLv
lamps For lighting areas or
Rather high-running rooms of restricted
costs owing to the extent or where traffic
limit.d luminous etl- or occupation density
ciency and reati'jv is low and hours of
short life burning is limited.
2. Discharge lamps High Luminous cE- For residence and
ci.ncj Factory lighting
a) Mercury vapour Low :urningcosts All factory premises
with high ceilings
b) Sodium vapour Long lfc Al! premises with a
smoky or dust laden
atmosphere.
3. Flouresent Lamps High luminous effi- In circumstances
ciency (5 times more where colour
light tliarj appraisal is impor-
incandescent lampsl tant.
for the same power'
Consumption). Long
life. Low running
costs, (compensating
the higher initial out-
lay). Pleasant diffuse
light. No shadows.
Once the light source is selected, the next step is to select the
type of fitting to be used. For big factory halls, high bay fittings are
used; for mercury vapour lamps, fittings with slots in the reflector
can be utilised, to present excessive contra,t5 between fittings and
background. Where atmospheric conditions warrant, specialty
designed fittings such as water tight, dust proof, explosion proof and
corrosion resistant fittings have to be used.

ILLUMINATION 177
37. Recommended Values of Illumination.

S. Nj. Visual Taska

Illumination
lox
A. Industrial Buildings and Processes

General Factory Area.,:
a) Canteens b) Cloak-rooms and c) Entrances, corri- 100
dors, stairs
Factory Outdoor Areas:
Stockyards, main entrances and exit roads, car parks, 2.0
internal factory roads
3 Assembly Shops:
a) Rough work, for example, frame assembly and 150
assembly of heavy machinery.
) Medium work for example, machined parts, 300
engine assembly, vehicle body assembly.
C) Fine work, for example, radio and telephone 700
equipment, typewriter and office machinery
a ss.e m bly.
d) Very fine work, for example, assembly of very 1500
small precision mechanisms and instruments
4. Thwt and Shoe Factories 900(ave
S. Canning and Preserving Factories 300(avf.
6. Carpet Factvrie8 300'av,.
7. Chemical Works 200(avr
8. Engraving 1000
9. Flour Mills 200
10. Forges 150
11. Foundries 250(ave
12. Gas work 50(ave)
13. Gouge and Tool Room 700
14. Glass works and Processes 300(ave)
15. Inspection shops (Engineering)
a) Rough work for example counting and rough 150
checking of stock parts, etc.
b) Medium work for example 'go' and no 'go' gauges 300
and sub-assemblies
c) Fine work for example radio and telecommuni- 100
cation equipment, calibrated scales, precision
mechanisms and instruments.
d) Very fine work for example, gauging and 1500
inspection of small interior parts.
e) Minute work for example, very small instru- 3000
ments.
16 Iron and Steel Works 150.200
(Cvntd.)

178
S.No. Visual Tasks
Illumination
lux
17. Laborutorjeg and Test Rooms:
a) General laboratories and balance roomb
b) Electrical and instrument laboratories 300
18. Machine and Fitting shops: 450
a) Rough bench and machine work
b) Medium bench and machine work, ordinary, 150
300
automatic machines, rough grinding, medium
buffing and polishing.
c) Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic
750
machines merLum grinding, fine buffing and
polishing.
19. Motor vehicle plan.'.,
20. P/virpnaceuti,,j and Fine Chemisal works 400(ave)
21. Plastic works 300(ave)
22. Plating shops 200(ave)
a) Vat bath, buffing polishing and burnishing
b) Final buffing and polishing 150
Special
23. Sheet Metal Work: lighting
a) Bench work scribing, pressing, punching,
rLer.ringr 200
eta png pning an4 folding
b) sheet inspection
Special
24. Textile Mills (Cotton Linen): lighting
25. Textile Mills (Silk or Synthetics): SOO(ave)
26. Textile Mills (Woolen): 400(ave)
27. Textile Mills (Jute): SOO(ave)
28. Welding and soldering: 1SO(ave)
25O(ave)
B. Office, Schools and Public Buildings
29. Cir,eruis
l20(ave)
30. Libraries:
a) Shelves (stocks)
71 to 150
b) Reading room (newspaper and magazines) 150 to 300
c) Reading tables
300 to 730
31. Office:
400(ave)
32. School and Collages
a) Aseenibly halls
l)Geneial 150
2) When used for examinations, 300
3) platform
300
(Con td)
179
ILLUMINATION

S.Nu. Visual Tasks lila ni 1,10 £LOfl
lax

b) class and lecture room (1) Desks (2) chalk boards 300
33. Homes: a) Kitchen - 200

b)Bathrooms, Sta4s 100
c)Garazes k 70
d) Reading (casual) 150
e)Homework and sustained readings 300
POWER REQUIREMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT

HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCE
Electric iron ... 400- 1000W Small Kitchen range... 2200 -3500 W
Immersion heater ...500 - 1000W Large Kitchen range .. 3700 - 7300 'N
Rapaid.action cooker ... 700- 1200W Water heater ... 1200-6000W
Electric heater ... 1000 -2000W Washing machine ... 300W
Hair-drier ...500 W Washing with heating ... 1 -6 k.W
Heating pad ...90 W Refrigerator .. 100 -200W
Vacuum cleaner ...150 .300W Radio ... 50- 100W
Cooker ..1200 - 1500W Wet Grinder ... 025 HP - 0.5 HP
180W -400W
Oven ... 700 - 1500 W Mixics 40W -60 W(small)
250W -450W (big)
Kettles & Jugs Grills : 20.3 x 15.2 cm 750- 1000W
46 x 30,5 cm 3000.4500 \V
1.13 litre 450- 650W Ovens: 36 x 36 x 30 cm, 1.5 kW
1.7 litre 800 . 1000W 30x30 x41 cm- 1.5 kW
2.3-3.4 litre 1000 - 1400W 36 x 36 x 41 cm 2kW
Hot-water tanks & Wash boilers Irons (Laundry and tailoring):
3645 litre 3 k W 1.36 kg 250W
54 litre 4.5k W 181 kg 280.300W
2.27 kg 350.450W
3.17 kg 500 -600W
5.44 kg 600 - 750W
9.10 k g 800.1500W
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain coefficient of utilization and depreciation factor in con-

nection with the lighting schemes.
2. Define the terms (a) brightness (b) illumination (c) luminous
intensity (d) luminous flux.
3. Explain (a) Relative sensitivity (b) Radiant efficiency (c) Foot-
candles and (d) luminous flux.
4. Explain the (a) Sodium discharge lamp (b) Mercury vapour lamp.
5. Explain the various lighting system employed in interior lighting.
180 WllNC, FS T[MATING AND COSTING
6. What do you u nderstand by discharge lamp ? Explain the con-

struction and working principle of sodium vapour lamps.
7. What do you understand by incandescent lamp? Explain the
construction of vacuum incandescent lamp.
8. Why high pressure mercury vapour is used in H.P.M.V lamp ?
Explain its construction and working.
9. A class room size 20' x 30'y 12 ft. high, is to be illuminated to 15
lumens per sq. ft on the working plane. If the coefficient of utilization is
0.45 and the source gives 12 lumens per watt. Calculate the total wattage
required and the number of lanips. Arts. 10 lamps 200 watts
10. An illumination on the working plane of 0.33 ft. candles is required
in a room 270' x 50'. The lamps are required to be hung 15 ft. above the
working benches. Assuming a suitable space ratio and utilisation factor 0.5
and candle power depreciation as S0%, estimate the number of lamps
required. (A.M.I.E. See. B, Nov. 1958)
Ans. 22
11. A certain incandescent lamp has an MSCP of 250. It is suspended
at a bright of 16 ft. above the working plane and is provided with a reflector
which gives an approximate uniform light distribution over an area of 16
ft. in diameter on the working plane. If the efficiency of such reflector is
such that 45% of the total light emitted by the lamp is directed en t o this
circular area, calculate the average i urirato- wc ' uld you expct .t the
outer part of the circular area if the reflector is rcmoved from the lam.
(A.M.1. E. Nov. 1957, Elect. Engg.)
12. What are methods of lighting CaiCUlat v)fl5 9 Ans. 0.7 lumens/ft2
Explain about them.
7• 3 Explain about the Halogen lamp and draw the figure.
Wh,at is the difference between neon lamp and neon tubes ?
Expicir aot them with figures.
15. What is the necessity and lighting scheme of street lighting?
16. On what principles the designing ofinsta]latior,s of street lighting
dep'nd ?
17. Explain about the illumination level and rr.ountingheight oflamps
for street lighting.
i. What do you know about spacing of street lighting ?
19. What types of lamps are used for street lighting and how are street
lights controlled?
20. What types of projectors are used for flood lighting?
21. Explain about the flood lighting calculations.
..-Th
7
Internal Wiring Systems and
Lamp Circuits
I. Introduction. 2. Wiring Systems. 3. Looping in System. 4. Wiring ofa building. 5.

Tree System 7. Lamp Circuits. S. Simple Circuits. 9. Series parallel Circuits. 10.
Master switch circuit. 11. Pilot circuits 12. Circuits using special types olswitchcs.
13. Use of Marval switch. 14. Lamp Control circuit from more than two points or
alternative method of corridor lighting. 15. Use of paralici or series sch 16. Use
Of reversing switch. 17. Fluorescent tube lighting IS. Tube circuit with a therrnl
switch. 19. Tube circuit with glow starting switch. 20. The instant starkngcrcuit of
fi)rcscct tube. 21. Flasher for moving light.
i. Introduction. During these days aitenin urent i

usuaiy supplied by the Electric Companies. The eierc energy
(AC.) received by the consumer has to pass through various stein
after its generation in the power house. These sy;te1 are 55
fol:ovs:
(i) Transmission. It consists of:
(a) Step up substations
(b) H.T. overhead lines and underground cable;
(ii) Distribution. It consists of:
(a) Step-down Substations

(b) L.T. Overhead lines and underground cables
(iii) Service Connections. From the distributor the consumers
main switches are concted through service connections and
electric energymeters. One end of the service connection is con-
nected to the distributor and the other end to the meter which is
connected to the main switch. No electric company in India permits
the installation of the energy meter after the main switch to prevent
theft of electric energy.
After the main switch, there are wires which convey the electric
current to each lamp and appliance. In this chapter the various
152
\V[RNG
EST IMATING AND COST
svseni.s b y
appliances iswhich
done, the
havewing
beento feed electricity to the lamps and
e xplained The tran
and srvice Connections hate been dealt w j smitting distri.
t in chapter 8.
In accordance
companies and und with the Indian Electricity Rules ; the supply
ertakings are Supposed to
voltage at the consumer p remise m aintain (a) the
g
and ± I2.5 of the declared H.T. Vo+ 5% of the declared L.T. voltage
ltage(b) 0 supply fr e q
50 cycles and variation allowed is ± 1%. uency at
The lamps and other appliances are
Co nnected in parallel as
otherwise these will not receive the full voltage. Therefore the leads
or wires must he capable of c a r
rying the current equal to the sum
of current required by all lamps or appliances after making due
allowance for demand factor*
2. Wiring System. The fun
damentals of wiring systems are:
(a) The sw
itchgears and switches should be placed on the Jive
wire or the phase. The second terminal of the switch shoul
connected to the lamp or applianc d be
e The neutral should be dirftç
connected to the lamp. This is to be strictly observed as
even if the switch is n O - pn sjtjon oth.rwjp
t he current will flow to the lamps
through the wires even if there is fault (assuming the fuse does n ot
m
elt) and thus causing damages. The advantage of placing
switch in phase or live wire is that the workman can safely the
the defects by switching off the supply. rectify
(b)
The fuses should be placed on the live wire or the phase
otherwise the whole p
urpose of safety will be defeated The lamp
Will get the electric Current even after the fuse has blown
(c)
All the lamps and appliances Should be connected in parallel
to enable all of them to get nearly equal volte and to avoid
excessive voltage drops.
Keeping into consi
deration the above fun
can be done by any of the following systems damentals the wiring
(i) Looping-in system.
(ii) Tree system
(iii) Ring system
These systems have been dealt with in details in

paras. subsequent
consumer may
not be working at a time, o his dema 0 em m-1y
lamps, plugs and fans, d may not the mini or current
but only a fraction of it. So the re q u ired by all
the ratio of the actual maximum demand (i demand factor is defined as
(in amper3) n a mperes) divided by the
connected load
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND TAMP [RCUITS 183
3. Looping in System. The looping at the wires can be done

in either of the following ways:
(a) Looping out from switch and ceiling Rose. Fig. 7.1
shows a simple looping in method which is commonly employed. It
will be seen that one terminal of the ceiling roses and switches is
connected to the wires coming from the main switch and other
terminals of both are connected to each other. The system is similar
even if the light point is to be provided with a batten or bracket
holder intend of pendant holder. In that case one terminal of the
holders is commonly connected to the neutral and other terminal of
each is connected to the live wire or phase through a switch as shown
in Fig. 7.2.
FIEX/5L5
FOR
CIF)LIA'(9
PENDANT
LAMP/ROSE
NEUTRAL \
TOt/EXT
HALF OR CEILING
/ OFF WIRE ROSE AND
FL/SE ON SWITCH
PHASE
PHASE OR
WIRE
Looping in system with switches and ceiling roses

Fig. 7.1
8RAckEr
- OR
/ BATTEN\
NEUTRAL ,.4 HOLDERS
FuSE ,
L2) HALF OR
W/R
PHASE 1T0 NEXT
BA TTEN I
I 1/CL DER
K
1III
SWITCHES AND
TFJ
WIREW/TCN
P1/ASEO
L15
Looping in system with switch and holder

Fig. 7.2
(b) Looping out from Switch. In this system special two
terminals and one connector switches are used as shown in Fig. 7.3.
As seen from the diagram both phase or live wire and natural wire
are taken to the switch. The live wire is connected to one of the
actual terminal and neutral to extra terminal or Connector. The
184
lamp oe the appliance is connected to the sec
o nd terjna1 and
con rector oft switch. 8..'A c•r p

cOSEON PHASE ROSE 5AT7 . v ,''Oç
I
A'EIITR.4L_1
I
FL X/8L. E -
CiI.CTOR
L / MP
;.•E'TnAL
:7.
70 ,vCX 7.
--
PHASE OR
LIVE WIRE
Virj wir tw'j -rra n-d one coflflcto'

Fig. 7.3
cc Looping out from Ceiling Rose. In this sst,em specin

ft ree :crminals and ccnnctor ceibng roses as shown in Fig. 7.4 arc
..-\.s can oe. soon v.irn s similar to (b) above.
,V..f Li TR40
TO ;'Lx r
CEO IN G
ROSE
FUSE ON
PHA SE
O TER..'y..'
-; O•'s CDIINEOTOP OR P&4 '17
TEIL,'cV5 P(YSE
.c Wi rcg
\Vn-ing with two terminals and one connector ceiling rose
Fig. 74
(d)
Looping out with Junction box. In this system pair of
conductor from the s.vitches and ceiliig roses will terminate in
box krxon asjunctioo box. The junction box is
kept in the centro
of all light PomtE fcr the economy in
wire icagth. This system is
only economical in small houses having few lighting
p oints because
the looping is only done in the joint box as shown in Fig. 7.5.
4. Wiring of a Building. Fig. 7.6 shows the wiring of a hou'
.vith srige phase A.C.
or two wire D.C. supply. From the main
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 185
)ToNExr
Pt?/NT
CEILING
J ROcE
-F EX/&E
9R PENDANT
A LAMP
OR
Wh'5
BOX WI 7W
THREE
TERMINALS
Swirai
i
Ir -
Fig. 7.5 Looping out with Junct on Box
THIRD FLOOR
SUB-BOARD
AND
5113-CIRCUITS i
_
7T L
SECOND FLOOR r - --
5I8-8a4RO
AND
FR5TF1OQR C— 't
H '! 1
5/88OARO I
AND
Sa-CIRCLII IS ____ T TEl1
GROUND FLOOR
S5-8OARO L RCU1T5
SUB-C/RCL/i 15
FOR G'QUNO
FLOOR
MAINS
4JN D/STRJ&/T/0I?
FL'5 BOARD
MAIN SW/7.CN&+qEUTRAL LJA/(
single phase supply
Fig. 7.6
186
WIRING, ESTThIAT]NG AND COSTING
switch the leads known as rrins are taer
to main distribution
board. From the main distributu beard wras ae taken to various
distribution boards whicn are known 3s sib-L..ards The
connec-
tions between the main distribution hoard and sub-boards are
known as circuits. Various su5 -circu its as shown are drawn from
the sub-boards for connection to various ei:L-i: load p c int
The
uiringofthe points is dofle by an y of the me:h..d explained in article
3. For the purpose of reliability and safety, the fusing current
capacity of the fuse wire inserted at the mar sv : itch should be 1.5
times the numerical sum of the afl loads. Sirnflar principle is to be
adopted while inserting fuse in circuits and sub-circuits. The wire
size of the mains circuits and sub-circuits shauld be in accordance
with the electric toads on them. For econo:ny, the bigger size of the
wire is used for sub-circuits in the beginning and later on small size
of wire matching the load is used.
Fig. 7.7 showthe wiring of
a building with three-phase four-
wire A.C. source without any main board.
co
AiO 5c'd-cu'y
SECONO FL .;o.
CIRC,! 7
fIRST
L..JAND 5418-CIRCJ,71;
PHA 1 TO 6RJNt P.CQR

J W8 -e4R.&5
AND SLf C/cc-s
TWEEPHA5E
FOUR WIRE
MAIN SW,TC
RJIJk
Wiring of a building with three-phase four-wire supply.

Fig. 7.1

INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND TAMP CIRCUITS 187
5. Trce System. !n this system from the main switch rising

mains are run to every floor. Rising mains are of copper or
aluminium strips which go up from the main switch to all floors.
iTO 5ECCP0FLZR
NfRTW St's-BOARD
]
5EOONO FLOOR
CENTRAL
TO SECC SUE -8CARO
FL O(,' VIES T
st3 144/PI BOARD

FIRST Fi.00R
I F/Psi. FLOOR
,.ORTII 5V3-BCAR
ro FIRST FLOOR
CE/I TP2 L 4/ID
WEST- SUB 80,4R)
RI5/N—.
MAINS
6RUU1/O FL cUR
AZPR7,W
S tJI-8OA".) J8-8CARO
5L'81,4ISCAR0
CROt VU FOCR
TO NO
MAIN 5iTC F/CUR W TS T
TRIPPLE r St9-BG.4R0
POLE WITH
NEUTRAL
L/N ___
1WRCE PHASE
FOUR WIRE
SUFVLY
Wiring of building by 'Free system

Fig. 7.8
las WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
The rising mains are usually provided in the centre of the 1od for
the purpose of economy. At each floor rising mains are connectcd
to sub-main boards as shown in Fig. 7.8. Various circuits are taken
from the nb-main board to sub-board. Sub-circuits are taken from
the sub-boards. The sub circuits are used for wiring the portion of
the load in accordance with the method explained in articles 3 and
.4.
6
Ring System. In this systems a pair of conductors are run
through all the rooms. The ceiling roses, plugs and appliances are
fitted after decision on the layout of furniture is taken. The ring
circuits is brought back to the main board. With this system, wiring
is required to be done with suitable fuse in each plug and ceihr.g
roses if the both ends of the conductors are ending on the same main
sub-hoard. There may be saving of Copper because the current can
be fed from both sides, but the method is not used because of higher
cost of the special plugs and ceiling roses. -.
Sometimes the main boards are connected to two diflèren
switches of suitable capacity. The both ends of the ring circits
terminate ma separate switch. One of the switches is always he;t
in off-position. This reduces the cost of the special type of plug a.d
ceilin g, roses and also increases the reliability.
7. Lamp Circuits. The lamp circuits used for house ring
are quite simple and they are generally controlled from one
_Iclias roorr(lighting, bathroom lighting, lavatory lighting etc ;but.
in staircase wiring it is necessary to control the lamp circuit fron
two points, .e. at the top and bottom of the staircase. Similarly in
halls or corridors or bedrooms, it may be necessary to contro jh'
lamp from more than two points. But still there are other circuits
which are not frequently used for particular house wiring, but still
they ha'e utility in other spheres of life. In general the lamp circuits
can be d:vided into the following heads
(1) Simple Circuits.
(2 Series Parallel Circuits.
(3) Master Switch Circuits.
(4) Pilot Circuits.
(5) Miscellaneous Circuits.
8. Simple Circuits. In addition to the lamp circuits
explained in article 3,.the following are commonly used
(a) Bed-rooii Lighting. In bed-rooms a light is required at the
dressirg table which may be a single switch circuit, and another
light provided near, the bed must be controlled by two 2-way
swtchs. One of the two-way switches used should be a tumbler

switch and the other should be a pendant type, suspended from a

3-plate ceiling rose. The circuit for such type of lighting is as shown
in Fig. 7.9.
C
£cp Tc
3('C ';P c
Spv
7 ) pe v C/.
Circuit for bed-room lighting
Fg79
b) Staircase wirngorlamp circuit controlled by tuo i
For the lamps to he controlled by two switches, it is necessars. to, ue
two-way switches. Fig. 7.10 (a) shows that the lamp is dark. Tc
WjrtS used between the switches are called as strap wires.
In Fig. 7.10 (b) the lamp is switched on with the switch No. 1,
while Fig. 7.10 (c) represents that the lighted lamp is switched off
with switch No. 2 and in Fig. 7.10(d) the lamp is again lighted with
switch No. 1. Thus when the lamp is lighted either off the strap
wires carries current.
SL'. pf
2Wcy'fchN.. 2 2ylc7,v S., fch Ac I
(a)
Lamp made off with switch No. 2
Fig. 7.10.
V,flNC EST1MATG AND COSTThG
2 -
..,'
(b)
Lamp made on with
No. 1
—7—_'/
No
2w
Aci
(c)
S howing lamp dark
L.
2w07 —"ck?
Re presenting the lighted lamp

With Switch No, 1.
Fig. 7.10(d)
(c) Staircase Wiring with T.R.S. For
ith T.R.S. wire, a Ilavinga s tairce wiring
four-way terminal box is reu j
is shn in Fig. 7.11. For red T. eircuj
ter co mpleting the t y
minal box and mains, also for terminal pe of wing between
box
and lamp 2-core cable
is used; but for wiring between terminal box and either of the 2-way
switches 3-core cable is used.
Starcase wiring with the help of T.R.S. Wire

Fig. 7.11
(d) Conversion of Single-way Switch Circuit to two 2-u.av
Switch Circuit. Sometimes it is necessary to convert single-way
switch circuit to two 2-way switch circuit. Fig. 7.12(a) shows a lamp
frffTc
Way
L
L mp circuit controlled by single-way switch
(ci)
Fig. 7.12.
circuit being controlled by a single-way switch. For conversion the
single-way switch is removed and is replaced by a two-way switch.
Now if the connections to the two 2-way switches are made in a
similar manner as in the previous cases, then it is necessary to have
a joint at the point shown in Fig. 7.12 (b). A revised method of
connecting two switches is as shown in which case no jointing of
wires is required. -
-14

192 WflUNG, ESTP.ATiNG ANL) COSTThC.
2y
Switch
2 Wy
Switch
Conversion to 2-way sw: circuit w-, t to icp of a

joint provided at point sho'.
(b.
5W14v,
^tD6
r.
There is an a1ternatvc i'conv ia which case one
of the two-way switch*" , De har 4 terminals, two of
which are shorted toget in Fig. 13.
E)
Alternative ner-.-. cf c' a of injie-way switch

circj cr't.
F-?

(e) Corridor Lighting Circuits. Let the corridor have a number

of lamps and let each lamp be controlled by two switches. For such
a scheme the circuit is as shown in Fig. 7.14. In this case
i,L. 2 L, and L 4 are different lamps having controls at
S 1 S, S 2 S 21 S 3 S 3 and S 4 S. respectively.
Corridor lighting
Fig. 7.14
9. Series Parallel Circuits. Series parallel circuits are
to either provide dim lights or full bright lights. Such lights are
required in hospitals, bedrooms, hotels, railway carriages etc. The
dim lights are usually obtained by con nec tin gthc parallel lamps of
the circuit in Feries. The following are the methods of obt.ziwng
such lights
(j" With "Two-way ON and OFF' Switch.
n the circuit shown the lamp L

No. L 1 is lighted to full brightness (
when the switch position is on the
terminal No. 1. When the switch
position is on terminal No. 2, the
whole of the circuit is off. When
the switch is on position No.3 the
lamps No. L 1 and L are connected
in series so as to give dim light.
Thus with such an arrangement
either 'amp No. L 1 can be lighted Two-way ON and OFF C.
to full brightness or lamp No. L1 F'ig.7.15 -
and L2 are connected in series for dim lighting.

(ii). Circuit for either lamp full bright or two lamps is
194
IV
.\ >-...S,,_-- -
Nf \_-
First assume that the
single-way switch of circuit
•
011 shown in Fig. 7.16 is in the 'ON'
• position. When the two-way
switch is on terminal 1, the lamp
No. L 1 is shoit-circujted and
lamp No. L 2 is full bright.
Alternatively when the two-way
2 Wcy
Off Svi 3t./ switch is on terminal 3 the lamp
No.L 2 is short circuited while the
S.79/e K'cy -.'ich
lamp No. L 1 is full bright. When
Circuit for one of the lamp bright the two-way switch is on the
or two in series 'OFF position both the lamp are
Fig. 7.16 made in series for dim lighting.
The purpose of single-way swit&
is to control both the lamps.
(iii) Circuit for only one particular la7r.p bright or two lamps in
series. Foj-such circuit one single-way switch and one ordinary 2-way
switch is used. Assume the siagle.va y swjtcho in the on position
and the 2-way switch is on the position No. 1, then the lamp No. L1
is fully bright and lamp No. L 2 is out of circuit. When the 2-way
switch is on position No. 2 ; at that instant both the lamps are made
in series to give dim light.
4cy S.v.c/, S.i Woy 5*-7

Fig. 7.17 Circuit for one particular lamp bright or two lamps in series
(w) Circuit for operation either both lamps in series or both in
parallel across mains. Such a circuit is most useful practically for
having a lamp load to be connected across 230 V supply mains as
well as for 400 V mains. Since each lamp is for 230 V mains, so
when they are to be operated at 400 V, they are connected in eries,
and for operation at 230 V they must be in parallel. Such a circuit
can be obtained with the help of a 2 . t Pr miraltwo-way f;\',it.ch. When
the switch is at top making contact with termia1s1 and 2, the lamps
are connected in series as shown in Fig. 7.18. When the switch is

moved down making contact with terminals 3 and ' 4 the lamps are
connected in parallel across 220 V mains.
.
7_f3
400V -
720 /
(a) Circuit for lamps in senes
(b) Circuit for 'amps in parallel
Fig. 7.18
Such a circuit can also be obtained with the help of either two
ordinary 2-way switches and a single-way switch orby a single 2-way
switches and single-way switch or by a single 2-way ON and OFF
switch and a single-way switch.
Fig. 7.19 (a) represents the circuit in which the position of 2-way
switches is so shown that the lamps become in series while Fig. 7.19
(b) represents the position of 2-way switches for the lamps to be
connected in parallel across the main.
Circuit for lamps in series.

Fig. 7.19 (a)
WIRING, ES TIMATING AND COSTING
Alternative position of 2-way switches for operation of lamps in parallel.

Fig. 7.19 (b)
2 W.y8 011
--------------------- p175
Fig. 7.20
The terr.tive .ircuit for achievement of above-mentioned
aims is as shv.' u h g. 7.20 in which one of the switches is
single- wa arid he other is 2-way with off-position. When the 2-way
switch is conneced to terminal 3 and the single-way switch is off,
the two lamps are connected in series across the mains. When the
2-way switch is connected to terminal 1 and the single-way switch
is switched on, then both the lamps are connected in parallel across
the mains.
10. Master Switch Circuit. The master switch is just an
ordinary standard s"itch either single-way or two-way, btt it has
attained its name due to its function. Following are the main objects
of the master with
(1) toput o f the lamps irrespective of the position of the
individual switches and to prevent anybody switchingon the lamps,
such a control i z also --a] led as "Master off';
(2) to switch on t h e lamps and to prevent anybody switching
thorn off with i rdividli.a1 switches ; such a control is also called as
Master on";
(3) to control eithrr switching on or off of the circuit,
i.e. its
(unction is as in (1) or in (2), so it is called as variable master control.
INTERNAL W[JUNG SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 197
(a) "Master on" Switch Circuits. (1) Fig. 7.21 represents the
two-way control of the 3 lamps in the corridor, but when a single-way
switch is connected across terminals 1 and 2 of the two-way and is
switched on, then the independent control of the 3 lamps by the
two-way switches goes away. Whatever be the positions of the
two-way switches, the lamps will remain lighted.
re
Sy/e Woy S'z /ch
Master on circuit - with two 2-way switches and one single-way switch
Fig. 7.21
Fig. 7.22 represents a circuit for 3 lamps being independently

controlled by the two switches. The three two-way switches used
are worked assingle-way switches. In addition to these independent
Master control on circuit with three two-way switches and

one single-way switch
Fig. 7.22
98
WIRING, EST IMATING AND COSTING
controls is connected a sin gle-way switch in s.
which acts as a master control and it is so
i
C6 W -1 the iive wire
Conne cted that when the
switch is made on, the lamps rrnain lighted
Position of 2-way switches. in dependent of the
Fig. 7.23 represents a circuit for two corridor lamps being

controlled by 3 switches (2 two-way sw
itches, and one in termediate
switch), in addition to these switches a .naster switch is connected
in the circuit as shown. When the rrastcr switch is switched on, the
lamps remain lighted in dependent of
position ofall the switches
2$v5f4 Pis/er , q,/ch J me'wjfr Svj/c4
A/e,,70t, s/f/0
- Of
SbI'itCh
Master control on circuit with two way Switches
and one intermediate switch.
Fig. 7.23
(b)"Master off'Circuit. Fig. 7.24 Shows
three lamps being
controlled by three single-way switches in
dependently. Across the
main supply is connected a double-pole switch and when this switch
Hasler Off
I I I Swi
Fig. 7.24 Master off circuj

INTERNAL W[IUNC SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS
is made off, then the complete circuit is isolated from the mains and
the lamps cannot be lighted until and unless the main switch is
made on.
In Fig. 7.25 the lamp is being controlled by 3 switches, if the
first 2-way switch used is of the special type, i.e. two-way on and off
switch. The special two-way switch acts as a master off switch, i.e.
when it is put on the off-position the lamps cannot be lighted.
Znkr,nedoie5p -,:,C, i 2y
S q/kb Q S'ci 'PP1Y
Alternate Posiin Off

Mater 5..-'tc/'
Master off circuit

Fig. 7.25
(c) Variable ',faster Control. The variable master controls are
those master switches which act both as "Master on and "Master
off. in Fig. 7.26 the five lamps are being controlled independently
Cs
Variable master control

Fig. 7.26
204J WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
by their switches while the two single-way switches, M 1 and ''2 ac

as variable master controls. When both switches M and Al, are in
the oft-position, no lamp will light thus acting as Master off Contral.
If either of the switches M 1 or M 2 switched on, then all lamps 'an be
individually controlled, i.e. can be lighted or extinguished at will,
but when both the switches M and M2 are switched on,then lamps
will remain always lighted independent of the position of their
individual switches, thus acting as Master On Control.
Fig. 7.27 (a) represents the corridor lights being controlled by
two-way and the intermediate switch. The single-way switches
iJ and M 2 connected in the circuit act as variable master control.
When both the switches are off, lamps will not light, and when one
of sin g le-way switches is switched on, then the lamps can be con-
trolled by the two switches, but when both the switches M ?nd'4
are switched on the lamps will remain lighted. The two single-vay
switches M 1 and M 2 can, be replaced by a twin knob single sfth a
shown in Fig. 7.27 (b).
Twiiob
5Tth
t
Variable master control circuit for corridor lights
(a)
Replacing two single-way switches in

Fig. 7.27 (a) with twin knob switches
Fig. 7.27 (b)
ii. Pilot Circuits. The pilot circuits are used only to indicate
whether at the remote point, the load is on or off. The simplest pilot
indicator is a lamp which is automaticany switched on when the
remote load is switched on. Fig. 7.28 represents circuits for 2
lamp-loads at different remote places. Fig. 7.28 also shows the two
pilot lamps in the circuit.
1o.iips-,/Q\4_LLonoi1
I jCirrwfI.l
ç P tLompç I
.4
piv 4omp
''CvOrc"ItNo.?
5.7 0C, re.- /71

N. 2
5w' k* /i
Grw t No./
Pilot circuit
hg. 7.28
12. Circuits Using Special Types of Switches. The
following are the different types of switches
(1) Marvel Switch, Ordinary Type. Such a switch has six ter-
minals and three positions of the operating lever. The terminals L
and L' are for lamp connections. When the level is up, the lamp
terminals L L' make contact with the terminals land S respectively.
For one central position of the level, the lamp terminal L makes
contact with terminal 1 while L' makes contact with terminal 2.
Again, if the level is in the down position Land L' make contact with
terminals 2 and 3 respectively. Fig. 7.29 represents an equivalent
circuit of the marvel switch, which represents the two movable links
L and L' making contact with terminals 1 and 2 and the switch is
so arranged thatboth ofthese movable contacts move together. Thus
when L makes contact with 2, L' will make contact with 3.
yfl\ V\
—L
toLo
Ordinary Marvel Switch

Fig. 7.29.
202
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND
COST'L\G
(2) Mart;el Switch
Inter mediate T ype
terminals and 3 movable l Such a switch has 6
terminals i, 2 and 3 while inks links
these hangmake
peanent connection with
Contact
three ter minals 1',
2' and 3' in a cyclic with the other
three P o s i tions of order. Fig. 7.30 represents the
equi the intermediate switch The Fig. represents an
valent circuft of the switch The three links make
the ter
c ontact with
unison.minals
Wh ]',2',3' and these three movable contacts move in
contact withen the switch is
2',2 with 3'and 3 in the central Position the link 1 makes
with 1' and so on.
.-
- ^110
3^
lip Cer,/rc)
0^,^
Marvei switch, inter
mediate type
Fig. 7.30 -
(3) Whole or Pa
terminals, Switch
T h1 5 type of switch has four
ter minals 3for such a switch the live wire comes to terminal 1, while
and 4 are Con nected to the lamps
.
Whole of the circuit comes into the circuit in In one posi tion, the
only thpar circuit remains in the circuit, th e second Position ,
the whole of and in the third position
the circuit is made of
P;:.
o. j.
Position No. 2
Fig. 7.31 position No. 3
(4) Parallel or Series Switch
Positions. In one positiorl, the lampsSuch
are a switch again has three
co nnected in p arallel in
Ist Positjo
2nd Pos i tio n
Parallel or Series Stch 3rd Position
Fig. 7.32
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND
LM1P CIRCUITS 203
the second position the lamps are connected in series while in the
third position, all the lamps are switched off.
(.S) Reversing Switch.
The reversing switch is generally used
to reverse the direction of current in the load.
It is a six-terminal
switch. The terminal 1 a;d 4 also 2 and 3
are short circuited. The
terminals 5 and 6 are con nected to two links which move in unison
and can either be connected to terminals 3, 4 or to terminals 1 and
2 as shown in Fig. 7.33.
To load
S
R—e versing Switch

F'g. 7.33
6. Use of Marvel Switch. Fig. 7.34 (a) represents a 2-1amp

circuit controlled by two Marvel switches. There are nine different
P osi tions of the switch with which a lamp can be lighted. In Fig.
7.34 (a) it will be obserd that either of the lamp can be lighted in
turn or whole of the circuit i switched off, i.e. itis arestrictjvecircuit
in which the numb. of larnp lighted at a time is restricted. The
use of restrictive circuit s that it reduces the maximum demand by
reducing the number of lamps lighted at a time without sacrificing
the conveniences gained from multi-control lighting system. Such
circuits are useful in hotels where the usual demand of the load is
veryhig'i. Fig. 7.33 (c)to Fig. 7.34(i)
represent 9 alternative circuits
Position No. 1
Fig. 7.34(a)
204
wmrNG, ESTI
MATiNG AND COSTThJG
In Fig. 7.34 (a) the m oveable
c ontacts of both the switches are
up. In each of the switches the termjnalsL
ter and 3 are connected and
the minals
lamp Lland U are shorted In this case the lamp L2
2 is off. lights while
M. Cfnfrv/
Position N. 2
Fig. 7.34(b)
In Fig. 7.34 (b) the
thus terminal L zm r, d L' Marvel switch S 1 is in the central position
up and the and 2 are shorted, while the switch MS 2 is
T the circuit oiL slinks make contacts with te rminals 1 and 3.
completed
and Lamp L 2 is off.
Posit No. 3
Fig. 7.34 (c)
In Fig. 734 (c) switch M.s 1
is in the down P o sition and so the
moveable links make contact with t
2 is up. It is clear fron Fig. 7.34 erminals 2 and 3, while switch
(c) that the circuit of either lamp
is not completed , thus both of them remain off.
205
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEM S AND LkMP CIRCUITS
(d)i M. S 1 is down, while M. S 2 is in

In this circuit [Fig. 7.34
cent! al position. The lamp L, lights.
M5 Cenfrol !i Dow"
Position No. 4 Fig. 7.34(d)
For the circuit shovn in Fig. 7.34 (c) the moveable contacts of
the two Marvel switches are down. Thus lamp L, lights.
Down H. 5 Dow'?
Position No. 5—Fig. 7.34 (e)

For the circuit shown in Fig. 7.34 the psitn of hoh the
y , lamp L2light.
switches is central and again onl
1-01 W111,
I,
J'1.S 2 Cenfrc/ (5 Centro'

Position No. 6—Fig. 7.34 (fi

206
WIRING, EST CATING AND COSTING
MS
Cow
Position No. 7
M.S ....... Central
MS2 ...... Down
No. Lamp lights
Pig. 7.34 (g)
In this circuit [Fig. 7.34 (g)] MS 1 is in the central-position while
MS 2 is in the down position and the circuit. of neither lamp is
completed, thus the lamps remain in the off-pojtjon
In Fig. 7.31 (h)M.S 2 5 down position andM5 1 isin up position
A4.5
.iton No. 8
ig. 7.34 (/)
1TERNAL WIR?NG SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 207
and again lamp L 2 is lighted vheres when the switches are on the
position as shown in Fig. 731 (;), lamp I is lighted.
H. 5
Oo
Position No. 9
Lamp L 1 lights; M.S 1 --Up ; M.S2--Down
Fig. 7.34(i)
Circuits of either one lamp or both of them light in
parallel. With the revised connçctions in between the two Marvel
switches, a circuit for either lamp L 1 or lamps L 1 and L 2 in parallel
can be lighted. When the switch po5itions ofM.S, and M.S 2 are in
the Down and "Up directions respectively, no lamp will light as
shoo in Fig- 7.35 (h). The position of the two Marvel switches are
similarl y to the other positions as shown in Fig. 7.34.
MS2 (en/rot 15; Cei/rc/
15 Fig. 7.35 (a) Two lamps in parallel

208
MS 2 UP Fig. 7.35 (h) M.S2 DOWN

Circuit for one lamp or two lamps or three lamps. Fig.
7.36 represents the circuit for the three lamps being li g hted at a
time when both of the Marvel switches M.S and MS 2 are in the
central positions.
Circuit for one lamp or two lamp or three lamps without off posinon
Fig. 7.36
For other positions of these switches, it will be observed that
either lamp L 1 alone lights, or L 1 and "2 light in parallel and there
is no off position.
Lamp controls at 3 places with the help of Marvel
Switches. Fig. 7.37 represents a two-lamp circuit similar to that of
shown in Fig. 734 in which case the two Marvel switches M.S and
INTERNAL VIR1NC. SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS 209
MS 2 are in the up-position ; but in between these two switches is

connected the Intermediate Marvel switch which is again in the
up-position. The different positions of the Intermediate switches
are shown in Fig. 7.38.
M..) ? up M51 Up
C:rcjit for controlling the li.rnps at three places
Fig. 7.37
The alternative method of controlling the lamps is as shown in

Fig. 7.S n which case the connections between MS 1 and M.S 2 are
so made ns to a "Master On Circuit, i.e. at no position of M S 1 or
M.S.,,the lamps will go off.
5w,fh
Three lamps being controlled at three places
Fig. 7.38

Whole circuit is lighted

Fig. 7.39
Use of whole or part circuit switch. The switch is connected
in series with the live wire as shown in Fig. 7.39. In this position,
all the four lamps are lighted, but in the other position of the switch,
onl y two lamps are lighted as shown in Fig. 7.40. In the third position
of the switch, no lamp lights. lithis switch,. in steai of being put in
series with the live wire is put in series with the negative wire and
this circuit is used in series with two 2-way switches and one
Intermediate switch, the whole or part circuit switch will acL as
Master Off switcn.
Part of the circuit is lighted

Fig. 7.40
14. Lamp Control circuit from more than two points
alternative method of or
corridor lighting. The other system of
corridor lighting is to connect all-the lamps in parallel and all such
lamps may be controlled either from three or four points. The cir-
cuits for such controls are usually achieved with the help of Inter-
mediate switches and the ordinary2way switches. Fundamentally,
211
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS
the Intermediate switch is a combination of two 2-way switches
coupled together. Fig. 7.41 represents the circuit of the lamp being
controlled at three points. The Intermediate switch used has four
terminals, the two positions of this switch are shown in Fig. 7.41.
The alternative type of Intermediate switch which can be used io
the lamp to be operated from three positions is as shown in Fig. 7.42
J
1ferm&'/e Stch
$
2y
Switch 24ty $wiftf
Afternale 4°csitai.
Y I,,ter,ik Si,q*jè
-Q
Controlling a lamp from more than one point
Fig. 7.41
Controlling of a lamp from more than two points

Fi g, 7.42
For the lamps to be controlled at four different points, two
intermediate switches are used in addition to two ordinary two'-way
switches. Figs. 7.43 and 7.44 represent the two circuits for the lamps
to be controlled from 4 alternate positions in each diagram the
different types of Intermediate switches are used.
gpl
/
7
h't- /7cC c' 5w'(c/ er,yerJ
Hoins
Lcir *',r.
2Wy 5w•c,
Controlling of a lamp from four poin

Fig. 7.43
. L
\
5w.
Controlling of a lamp from four points

Fig. 7.44
15. Use of Parallel or Series Switch.

/.
(es.'? Wp
S e r i es c o nnections of switch Parallel co nnection of switch

Fig. 7.45(a) I
Fig. 7.45 (b

INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP C1RCUTS 213
As exc' laned earlier, the parallel or series switch has three

Positions and has four terminals. In one position the twa lamps
operate in parallel as shown in Fig. 7.45 (b) so that they give full
light. In the other position shown in Fig. 7.45 (a) the two rnps are
connected in series so that they give dim light. In the third pasition
the lamp circuit remains off as represents in Fig. 7.45 (c).
The circuit remains 'OFF'

(c
Fig. 745
16.Use of Reversing Switch.

To terminals 5 and 6 is connected the lamp. In Fig. 7.46 (a) the
circuit is off while in Fig. 7.46 (h) the two links are connected to
terminals land 2 ,thus the direction ofcurient in the lamp load is
Off position of the circuit with Position of the reversing switch

reversing switch when the current is in clockwise
(1)
direction
()
Fig. 7.46
clockwise while in Fig. 7.46 (c) the links re connected to terminals
3 and 4 which changes the circut in the lam p to the anti-clockwise
direction.
214
WIRING, ESTINIATTNG AND
COSTING
6 p—..
Position of the reversing switch when the current

is in anti-clockwise direction
(c)
Fig. 7.46
17. fl
usuafl y uorescent Tube Lighting. The fluorescent tubes are
available in lengths ofO.61 metre and 1.22 metres. The tubes
are generally coated from inside with fluorescent materials and the
colour of light given out by these tubes depend upon the fluorescent
material used. The powder used as a f
vated by the ultraviolet rays g luorescent material is acti-
enerated in the tube. The Popularity
of this tubes in the daily life is due to the reason that total
illumin ation given o
ut by them is much higher than filament lamps
they operate at low temp
eratures and the glare IS eliminated
illumination of 80W. Tube (4 ft. length) is same as that of 200W The
filament lamp. The following are the wing diagrams for stating
the tube circuit
Themo/$t'op,.,
Srr;os
II
Circuit of a fluor
escent tube with thermal starter
Fig. 7.47
INTERNAL WIRINMSY STFMISAND LAMP CIRCUITS 215
18. Circuit with a Thermal Starter. Fig. 7.47 represents the

tube circuit which consists of choke L, condenser C and a thermal
starter. The thermal starter consists of two bimetallic strips and a
heater toll Fl. When no current passes through the heater the
bimetallic strips make contact with each other. When the tube is
switched on to the mains, the current passes through the choke L,
heater H, left electrode of the tube and back to the mains through
the right electrode as shown in Fig. 7.48.
8,rnetc I/' Strip c
4' C
Circuit with a thermal starter immediately after switch i ng on

Fig. 7.48
As the current passes through the electrode of the tube, they
are heated and produce electrons into the tube path, at the same
time the heaterHheats thebimetalije strips and this heating causes
them to spring apart, thus the current into the circuitis interrupted.
The sudden interruption of the current in an inductive circuit causes
a high voltage surge across the electrodes of the tube, which is
sufficient to start the tube in operation. Note that the function of
the choke is to produce a blast (high vcit.age at stn r.ing) for starting
the tube. As the choke is in series with the circuit, it makes the
tube to work at a very low power factor, approximately 0.5 lagging.
So in 9rder to improve the power factor, a condenser C is connected
across the main supply. The value of the capacitor should be 7.5 )IF
for an 80-watt tube, and 3.25 i.tF for a 40 watt-tube.
19. Tube Circuit witic Glow Starting Swich. In Fig. 7.49
when the switch S is closed, the full voltage is app lied across the
starter bimetallic strips and the normal supply voltage is sufficient
to start a glow across the starter terminals, i.e., foi that period for
which the glow persists, the tube cathodes are short circuited and
are heated up. At the same time, the glow across the bimetallic
strips heat them up and so they are bent and the glow disappears,
216
itch
Tube circuit with a glow starter

Fig. 7.49
i.e. the circuit breaks This sudden
in terruption of the current in
the inductive circuits causes high voltage to appear across the tube
electrodes which is sufficient to start the discharge in the fluorescent
tube. A small condenser
C. across the two bim etallic strips suppress
the radio interference g
across the Supply enerated by the lamp. The condenser
C
mains is for improving the power factor. Fig.
7.50
represents the internal view of the starter, while Fig. 7.51 repre-
sents a circuit with the tube in position.
V/(' rst—,
71ff?Lq7
(Jer7s'rAcrcss
Star Coll tacts -Gkw
T E/4muc.', Hrne/j, Sec/ed
In Gloss Casdy
/n/et-fer',.
Eaye..f.L0* Cv'c/..
Internal view of starter
Fig. 7.50
c1
Internal view of starter with tube in

Fig. 7.51
pOSj ion
21
INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LAMP CIRCUITS
20. The Instant Start Circuit of Fluorescent Tube. The

for the tube is felt where the tubes are fixed to
use 0 f instant sta g
inaccessible position and where maintance for the starterrCqUiTCd,
and the
9U to.tn 0rer is
,.Ube is difficult. For such a circuit an
ho primary of which is in parallel with the main supply and the
secondary is connected to the electrodes of the tube. When thet to tuhe
the
is switched on, the auto transformer supplies heating curren
electrodes and when the electrodes are sufficiently heated, the high
voltage of the transformer strikes the tube at that instant. Ju:t
after starting the voltage across the electrodes is brought to normal
by the choke. The starting ishelped by the capacitance betwcet thE
Lamp and earthed conductor as shown in Fig. 7.52.
Fig. 7.52 Instant start circuit of a fluorescent tube

21. Flasher for Moving Lights. For decoration purposas in
marriages etc., moving lights are used. The movingefTectis usuliY
obtained by means ofaflasher, which consists of wooden cyuer
which rotates into the two hall bearingsa t the two ends. The
v;000fl
cylinder is connected to the motor through a belt or a couplii.he

speed of the motor and the selection of pulley should be so ma-de
wGOClefl
that the wooden cylinder rotates at about 100 r.p.m. On the
cylinder is provided, a copper ring (to which thelive wireis connected
through a brush) and 3 copper segments 120° apart from each other
and each end of these segments is permanently connected to the
copper ring : As this cylinder rotates, these three segments make
contact alternately with the brushes 1, 2 and 3 in turn. The biush
3 are connected
No. 1 is connected to lampsL i ,the brushes No.2 and
to lamps L 2 and L 3 respectively. Fig. 7.53 shows the instant when
the copper segment No. I makes contact with the brush No. 1, it
ights all the lamps L 1 . As the cylinder rotates through lJ3rd of the
revolution the circuit No. I goes off and just at the same andinstant
after
circuit No. 2 becomes alive and lights all the lamp L 2 ,
further 1/3rd ofthe revolution the circuit No. 3 becomes alive and
lights all the lamps L 3 and in such a system of ligbting, th amo
cIrcuit is repeated and it so appears that the lights move from right
to left.

Such moving effects of ights can be used to show Waving Flag,

Flickering light or Lighting etc.
22.. Suggested P osition of Electrical Fittings. For the
purpose of obtaining proper illumination, air circulation, ease of
operation, normal comforts, safety etc., it is necessary the various
Crcujt for moving lights with a flasher

Fig. 7.53
electrica l fittings shall be placed in a room at appropriate places
Fig. 7.54 represents section view for showing heights of different
electrical fittings. The suggestion given is this sketch will also
facilitate the students and readers to plan ind design for internal
using scheme.
I INTERNAL WIRING SYSTEMS AND LU CIRCUITS
Li
-
U,.

-
U
219
LO
I
00
wD 9E
OO1 O IH5F4
-i
j
Ii
r-.
----.--
C E
•__
0
H
ir$
0
H
CD
XQ-
cc
-4
w
<0
04
U
o
-- -I
UI -,
Q -
4

220
WIRING, ESTIMATlNG .INI) COSTING
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the looping in system of wiring.
2. Explain the looping in system of wiring with junction box.
3. What are the different types of house wiring?
4. State the precautions to be observed in various types of wiring.
5. What are the various types of lamp circuits?
6. Explain with diagram the application of series parallel circuit.
7. Explain with diagram the working principle of fluorescent tube
8. What doyou understand by Master switch circuits? Explain wit}
diagram the Master-on Circuit.
9. How many types of marvel switches are there? Write short note
on any two of them.
Transmission and Distribution
of Electrical Energy and House
Service Connections
Introduction. 2. Various-definitions. 3. D.C. and AC. Svsuni n Supply. 4. Dig.

of electrical ene'. 5. Overhead lines. 6. Types o1 Cc 7. Line
Supports. 8. Arrangement of Conductors. 9. Insulators. 10. Material of insulatc..
11. Pin-type Insulator. 12. Suspension type insulators. 13. Strain nsuiae:. 14. S:ay
kulntor. 15. Shackle Insulator. 16. Stay set and Stay wire or Gu y wirc. Y:. Pole
PHng. IR. Lightning Arrestors. 19. I)iffcrent t y pes of ltrr ArretnN 20.
\l. elaneous Fittings. 21. Earthing of over-head System.
Lumparison between overhead and underground Systems. -
1, Introduction. It is well known that the eit.rcal energ

is generated in powerhouses or generating station. For thi., purpose
big darns have been constructed throughout the country. Until and
unless this energy is conveyed to the users, no useful purpose is
going to be served by merely generating the same. The electrical
energy is converted to the users through transmisoion and distri-
bution networks.
Typical power scheme by which the electrical energy is obtained
from water has been shown in Fig. 8.1. The generator coupled to
the turbine g2nerators 11 K y A.C. supply which is stepped up tA)
220 NV at the sending end and is transmitted to the receiving
station. At the receiving station the voltage is reduced to 33 KV
with the help of stepdown transformers. From these substrr
again will radiate out a number of feeder to various distribution
substations where the ecr is further stepped down to 11 YV or
6.6 NV. Various distributors for feeding the bulk consumers or the
transforming stations will radiate from these suhst.nticns. The
voltage at the transforming station is further reduced to 400 vcits.
Fig. 8.2 represents the lin'e diagram of the power scierne.
222 WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
.J . 5r(p IP TR4NcFopfl(j
"/220kv
220kv TgA,IcM1ccW,
Prc'ddctj Q n of Electrical Energy from Water

Fig. 8.1
2. Various definitions.
(i) Power transmission. It includes all augmentation
equipments viz, step up transformers, switchgears etc. at the power
TIIANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAj
223
house, overhead lines, underground cables and switchgears between

power house and bulk consumers, a distribution sub-station.
9 L ..................
1;Qj
,e(.;(c-5
Ar
4t"04 fl0-,'3kV'' Th4.\V(..,,_C

•c.' .flt
Line diagram of the Power Scheme from Water

Pig. 8.2
(ii) Transmission lines. These are the overhead lines which
convey the electrical energy from the generating station at high or
extra high voltage to the distribution sub-stations. These are alsc
known as feeders. The current loading of these feeders usually
remains the same as these are not usually tapped for feedi rig the
consumers. However at certain places, the bulk consumers are fed
by tapping the feeders, but such tappings are ver y few and therefore,
current loading of feeders will vary from the tapping point to hulk
consumers and will remain same upto distribution sub-station.
(iii) Distribution System. All the equipment in the distribu-
tion sub-station, overhead lines U/G cable radiating from the dis-
tribution sub-station combine together is known as distribution
system.
(iv) Distributors, As clear from the name, these are the
overhead lines from which number of consumers are fed by el-ectrica
enerL,v at low voltage.
(c) Servk Connections. The aluminium conductors or the

Weatherproof connecting the —distributors with the consumers mains
is known as service connections
16
224 V''G, FSTVAT": ) COSTING
3, D.C. & A-C. Syscm ui . a, Possib l e to

increase the voltage in d.c. system, with the resilts, the pleer:a
energy in case of d.c. system is to be transmitted and distributed at
the generated voltage. It is nrt possible to generate the d.c. ener'
beyond 440V potential. Whereas from article 1, it will be seen that
in case of A.C., voltage can be increased to 120 K y . Thus, for the
same amount of power the currents is tremendously reduced. The
copper losses which are directly proportional to the square of the
current are therefore negligible in A.0 .sy stem. flue to this reason
the ac. system is preferred to d.c. system. Comparison between a.c.
and d.c. Lrinn. ...................... s g.;
(A) Comparison between A.C. & D.C. transmission sys-
tem. The advantages and disadvantages of ac. transmission and
d.c. transmission are given below.
(i) Disadvantage of a.c. system.
(a) For the same working vtege. the po.:ntial stress a:rs
the insulators terminals for the same working voltage is in
case of ac. system ,2 times tnin the d.c. -ystem. To avoid
this, more spacing is requi..d between the insulators to
avoid corona bss atd. o i•vdc insulation. This will
increase the cost of the rrOs: arm.
(b) In ac. system, one has to take into consideration the efTct
of inductance and capacitaice while designing the a.c.
transmission line, wheror there is no such problem in d.c.
system. Due to capacitance, there is continuous loss due to
charging current and even if there is no load on the line,
the loss will take place cnti:iuousiy.
(c) Due to the skin effect, the resistance of the same line is
more in a-c. system than d.c. system. This vill cause more
copper losses in a.c. system for the same amount of power
transmitted at constant volLage.
(d) If the load and sending end votages are same, the voltage
regulation for d.c. tr2nsnmisiori line is better.
(e) If underground cables ae used, dielectric losses due to
potential stress will be more in a.c. transmission system.
(I') A.C. transmission is ver muh compUcated in cornpam son
to d.c. system. ?.lore staff i' therefore quired to erect and
maintain the n.e. transrosscn system.
(ii) Advantage of a.c. transmission system. The main
advantage is that the transrnison voltage in ca.e ofa.c. system is
TJA NSMTSS!ON AND DIS
TR[BUTION OF E LERICAL
225
very high th the results, the tr
a wide ansmission of electrical energy at
distance after generation is possible with much less copper
losses. This phenomena in a.c. supply is such an important that
a lm ost all the countries have adopted the alternating current sys-
tem of supply.
4. Distribution of Electrical Energy. As the transmission

is usually done with a.c. supply, the a.c. energy is distributed after
stepping down the voltage due to the following reasons
(a) The cost of conversion plant is high in comparison to
stepdown transformer.
(b) By running three phase four wire distributor it is possible
to obtain 400V for motors and other industrial machine and
230V for residential lighting and domestic appliances.
(c) Maintenance cost of ac. distributor is low.
Ilowever the main disadvantage of ax, distributor is that the

initial cost of distributor is more in comparison to d.c. dstdbutür
where only three conductors are seen. The copper efficiencies of
various terms for t r
ansmission and distribution havebeen tabulated
in Table 8.1.
5. Overhead Lines. An overhead line mainly compnses o

the following:
(i) Conductor
(ii) Supports or poles and cross-arm brackets
(iii) Insulators
(iv) Pole fittings
(u) Stays or Guy wire
(Li) Miscellaneous items such as lightning arrestors, guard
wire, danger plate, an ticlimbing devices, jurnoers. earthing
etc.
While erecting an overhead line, the following points are to be

taken into consideration.
(i) The voltage at the tail end of the lines should he within the
prescribed limits which are (a) ± 5% of the declared LT
voltage and (b) ± 12.5% of the declared H.T voltage.
(ii) It should he in a position to conduct the desired load effi-
ciently.
(iii) The lines should be strong enough to stand during adverse
climatic conditions. Wherever required the guvire should

be provided at a proper angle.
(iv) Continuous earth wire of proper size which is solidly

earthed at sub-station is to run all along the route of
overhead line. For reason of safety after every fifth span,
the pole is to be provided with the earth from the ground.
This earth wire is to be connected solidly with the contin-
uous earth.
(v) All metallic portion viz supports and bolts are to be con
nected with the earth.
Table 8.1
Copper efficiencies
Systems
Maximum voltage Maximum voltage
between one conductor between two outgoing
and earth conductors
(z) D. C. System
(i) two-wire systeni 1 1
(ii) tNo-wiro systeml
vth mid-point 0.25 1
earthed
(iii)three-wire system 1 0.3125 1.25
(b) Single phase A.C.
System
(i) two-wire system
cs2 0 c0s 2 0

(ii) two-wire with 0.5 2
mid-point c0s2 0 C0s 2 0
earthed
(iii)three-wi ' e system 0.625 25
c0s 2 0 0
C0s 2
(c) Three-phase Sys-

tem
(i) three-phase 0.5 1-5
three wire CO52 0 cos e
system
(ii) three-phase four 0.583 1-75
wire system Cos' 0 c05 2 6
22
frRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL
C.)
U
C
C)i C
C)
C)
C
W.
C.)
C
C.)
> Cu,
tz o I-.
CL
C) t,
C
to to 10
C C
C.)
+C) jC1 C.) C)
- c$ -
U,
C.) + a> C
U,
V
• - -
C.) C)
C._•- C
C. bE
I-
C) EE 2
-z
C _z, •
C >
C) C
1.-
C.
C
C
-
.- ,, •::
C..
C
LLr,-' E
I- Cl)
C
C
—a C
C) -
I-'-'-
.a C
—
-
C
0•
C
Cr— C)
C) 0 2
Cl)
.0>>
C - C)
,.c
C. C cC
5-. C)
.-'
z
th
Table 8.3
Specng btwen coaductor

S. No. Working for Spacing between
voltage conductors and
supporting
Structure
ertical Horizontal
formation formation
I. Lw Tension38 cm. 46 cm- 15 cm.
2. 6.6KVorll K\' 76 rm. 114 metres 30,5
3. 33RV
4. 1
5. 110KV
66 K 1.22 metres 1.53 metres
1.98 metres 3.23 metres
61 cm.
76 cm.
3.13 rretreg 4.96 metres 1.07 metres
6. 1 132 KV 6metres 4.87 metres 1.30 metres
(i.x) Anticlirnbirw devices and danger boards should be provided
on each pole for Overhead lines 6.6 NV and above.
(x) The ards as indicated below should be provided
a) In a soon, the c,uards near each supporting pole should he
o';ded if the line is passing along the roads or in open
l:
(h) If.', -- overhead i:e crosses sonic building or road, numbers
O cLoards sh.l be provided.
(c) Nunber of g'..ard should bc provided if two different lines
cross each otFr.
(xi) The jointing of conductors should be done with sleeves of
proper size.
(--ii ) Ac each support, the conductors should be bound properly
With help of binding wires.
(xiid Shockie of points should be rovjderi afer about 10 spans
or as required for the p urpose of isolating the faulty area.
(xiv) Jumpers of proper size should be used.
(xv) In .now bound area, wooden poles aie roofed before
iitSnlllatiOn to avoid snow or ice standing on the top of
pole.
This is done by providing
45' metallic slanting cap on the
top of the p ok topreent decay from snow.
(xvi) Pole steps are provided for the line man to climb the pole.
(xvii) The cost ci the overhead lines should be low. For this
pv.rpos€- the span of the line should be optimum. This will
reduce the Iumberof poles and other fltthb While
deciding upon the ]enth of the span, public safety and Govt.
reg-ulations must he kept in mind The maximum length of
the span should be as under.
rRANsMlsSroN AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECIRCAL 229
(a) With wooden poles: 40-50tres

(b) With tubular poles: 50-80etres
(c) With R.C.C. Poles: 80-10itetres
(d) With steel towers: 100-3O metres
It should be remembered that the iniJatjon cost at high voltage
can he kept lou by increasing th leogthif the span.
6. Types of Conductors. The metals which are used as
conductors are of copper and aluminium The advantages of each
metal has been explained below.
(A) Copper. The most common coi4luctor used for transmis-
sion and distribution is hard drawn coer, as it is twice as strong
as soft drawn copper. The merits of copper as a conductor are given
below.
(i) It has a best conductivity as impared to other metals.
However the conductivity also ends upon the impurities
present in it and the method bvwhich it is drawn.
(ii) It has a larger current densitvand so far a given current
rating, the cross-sectional arcoof the copper concluct.r is
less in comparison to other rnels
(iii) Copper is quite homogeneous.
(iv) It has a low specific resistance.
w) It is durable and has a high scrip value
Its properties are given in Table 8..
(B) Aluminium. Next to copper thiminiurn is the conductor
used in order of preference for conductirgthe electrical energy.
(i) It is cheaper than copper
ii) It is lighter in weight
(ii) It is seond in conductivity. cmmonly hard drawn alu-
minium wire at standard temWrature has approximately
60.6 per cent conductivity it comparison to standard
annealed copper Conductor.
(iv) For same ohmic resistance, itsüameter is about l.27 times
that of copper.
(v) At higher voltages, there is le--5 corona loss in aluminium
conductor.
(vi) Since the diameter of the cond.ictor is more, it is liable to
be subjected to more wind pressu-e and ice load due to v.hich
the greater is the sag.
(Lii) As the melting point of aluminum is low, therefore, there
is more damage to the alumium conductor when short
circuited.
(viii) 'Jointing of aluminium is muck more difficult than copper.
g
H
cc -: , cc c', cc ' ' N- c' o cc c C,
- '-' NC, c' cc C —Cc
L.
I.
. te
N - - cc - cc c) - cc N- O N C) C,
ON L) .-C) N- I) ' coco C'
C') C') C' C' c'fcs -
L
PIZ
C') ('1 C') C •) c C'
) NCCtCcc.
C, cc C- c '- C14 C,4
0,0 c.'
cc
t- .- I) C '- ) - cQ c - C' N- c N- C L -
C'
-4-C) C) N L,C') C')
C4 C"I - - - -,
L') '' C' - C, C) Ct C) I'- (C' cC' L') L')
C C C' a) c '' C) C' cq C c
-4---
C C) "
C) '•'
C C '' C') '' (C' C'- a) C) C) - -
C) ' - -
I -
I- C' C') •' C) — C'1 C') LI) (0 C'- a) C)

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRI g UTION OF ELECTRICAL 231
Table 8.5
Properties of Soli&Aluminiu.m Conductor Used for
Making A..C.S.R.
(The particularsare based on data from I.S. 398)
bta . Sta nda r dSta nda r d Sta nda r d Minimum

S.No. mm. sectional weight resistance U.T. stress breaking
area mm1 per at 20'C km/mm' loadkg.
km/kg. ohmsl km . ______
1 2.11 3.497 9.45 8.136 18.14 64
2 2.36 4.374 11.82 6.504 17.65 77
3 2.54 5.067 13.70 5.615 17.37 88
4 2.59 5.269 14.24 5.400 17.30 91
5 2.79 6.114 16.53 4.654 17.11 105

6 3.00 7.069 19.11 4.025 16.80 119
7 3.10 7.548 20.40 3.769 16.66 126
8 3.18 7.942 21.47 3,582 16.59 132
9 3.35 8.814 23.82 3.228 16.52 , 146

10 3.40 9.079 24.54 3.154 16.45 149
11 3.53 9.786 26.45 2.907 16.3S 160
12 3.66 10.521 28.44 2.04 16.31 lU
13 3.71 10.810 29.22 2.632 16.31 176

14 3.78 11.222 30.33 2.535 16.24 182
15 3.86 11.702 31.63 2.431 16.24 189
16 3.91 12.007 33.46 2.369 16.24 194
17 3.99 12.504 33.802.275 16.17 202

18 4.09 13.138 35.51 2.165 16.17 212
19 4.17 13.657 36.92 2.083 16.17 221
20 4.22 13.987 37.81 2.034 16.17 226
21 4.27 14.320 38.71 1.987 16.17 231

4.39 15.136 40.91 1.880 16.17 245
22
4.50 15.904 42.99 1.789 16.17 257
23
4.65 15.982 45.90 1.675 16.17 275
24
4.72 17.497 47.30 1.625 16.17 283

25
5.00 19.635 53.07 1.449 16.17 317
26
27 5.28 21.896 59.18 1.229 16.17 354
28 1 5.36 22.564 60.99 1.261 16.17 365
Because of shortage of copper ores in India, the use of aluminium

conductor in transmission and distribution has been adopted.
Th mechanical properties of aluminium are given in Table 8.5.

232
'Y, IRING ESTI
MATING AND COSTING
(C) Steel. No doubt it has not got the

greatest tensile strength,
but it is least used for tr
ansmission of electrical energy as it hasgot
high istance. Bare steel conductors are not used since,it dete-
riorates rapidly owing to rusting .
are used for telecom munication Generally galvanized steel wires
lines. It has the followin g
properties.
(1) - It is lowest in conductivity.
(2) It has high internal reactance.
(3) It is much subjected to eddy current and hysterisjs loss.
(4) In a damp atmosphere it is rusted.
Hence its use is limited.
(D)
Aluminium Conductor with Steel Reinforced (A.
S. R.). An aluminium conductor hang a central core C.
steel wire , is used for high voltage tr ofg alvanized
ansmission purposes This is
done to increase the tensile strength of aluminium conductor. The
galvanized steel core is covered by one or more strands ofa]umjqjun-
wires. The steel conductors used are galvanized in order to prevent
rusting and electrolytic corrosion (since zinc is near to aluminium
and there is no electrochemical action between the two metals)
The cross-sections of the two metals are in the ratio 1:6, but in case
of high strength conductors their
ratio is 1 : 4. Thus the steel
reinforced aluminium conductor has less sag and longer span then
copper condaetor line since it has high tensile strength
otherThe aitminium steel conductor has a larger diameter than any

t y pe of c onductor of same resistance.
For all calculation purposes it is assumed that the current is
passing only in the aluminium section.
Table 8.6 represents various properties of
this type of conductor
Tables 8.7 and 8.8 represent the mechanical P
types of r operties of various
conductors and comparison of aluminium and copper con-
ductors respectively..
8. Line Supports. The line supports are poles and the chief
require '
merits for such Supports are
(1) They must be me
2.5 to 3. chanically strong with factor of safety of
(2) They must be light in weight without the loss
of strength
(3) They must have least number of parts.
(4) They must be cheap.
(5) Their maintenance cost Should be minimum.
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL 233
E
,. E °-ttS
N
C,
&
j
0
-
-
-. .c z,ir- N "t 0 cU,OOZO't tNN'tN
N N ?".-. 4 t L. N t
N SC -r NLt N CC? NtNON -
-,
r_t,LcN.tC_NPtNNOXTZC
I coo0
-
z
C1 N CI - -
C -rr-- CI 0- C - S C' '77: 7: N
= N 0
C)
_CO_COCOCrC.C000t_N
E
0
z
it t
C OC C C 57CC C'tOOCCC ..CN = 7:
7: 0 7: St 55 = 0 CO C N hO Ct U, N 0 CO N C CI Ct
N CI CI N N N N CD CD CO CD 7:'? '7 Ct
—
CI SI N 7:7:7: 7:
0 CC C,CC55000000000000 CD0
z N CD tO CD CDt, CD CD
7: CD CD 7: 7:
I-
COCCOL000Ct ZQL0000t00005"° QISOj
N
C
234
Table .7
Showing Properties of the Conductor,
Mechenj Copper L1u,.jnjum Steel AJunijo,, S:ecl
properies
13
Specific weight
kgiczn.'
•9x1042.7x10 786xI01 345x 3.7 x l0'
Young's Modulus
kgJmm 13,000 5.600
Ultimate Tensile 20,700 1 7,5000 8,300
Strength 40 18
kgimrn.2 40to320 120 120
Specific resistance p
at 2OC in
Conductivity 1 at 20'C
56 :4 8 56
Resistance tempera.
ore 00038 0-()4 000496 - -
Table 8.8
Comparison of Aluminium and Copper Conductors
- Pci rticulars
Alum *"umCoppe,
A. For equaj. resistance
U) Area ratio
16
(ii) Diameter ratio round conductor i2
(iii) Weight ratio
041
B. For equal current and temp. rise
(1) Area ratio
. 1-39 i
(ii) Diameter ratio for round conduc
tor 1-18 1
(iii) Weight ratio
0 42 1
C. For Equal Diameter
(1) Resistance ratio
(ii) Current carrying capacity 1-61 1
0.78 1
(6) They must be easily
accessible for paint and erection of line
conductors.
(7) They must have longer life.
(8) They must be of pleasing shape.
The poles are grouted in the earth with cement concrete in the
ratio oil :2 :4 and one-sixth of the pole is embedded in the earth.
values vary to a Ia rge ex tent dcpenng upon degree
The different types of poles which can be used as line supports

are
(i) Wooden Poles. The use of such poles as line supports is

limited to low voltages and are generally used for distribution
purposes. Initially these poles are cheap and provide an insulating
property. The poles preferably must be straight, strong with gradual
taper and free from knots. The wooden pole should have 70 to 76
cm. grith ofbutt and 38 cm. to 50 cm. grith of butt. Jts length should
be between 9 m to 11 m.
The main disadvantages of such poles are that they are elastic
and tend to rot, hence their life is short.
The portion of the pole

which is buried in the ground A _.. 8
must be treated with a creosote
oil or with any other repre-
sentative.
(ii) Steel Tubular Poles.

The wooden poles may be sub-
stituted by steel tubular poles.
Since these poles are stronger
than wood, so with the help of
these poles longer spans are
possible. To increase the life of
poles, they must be galvanized
or painted regularly. For safety
purposes, they must be earthed
to increase the longitudinal
strength of the pole, by steel
rope guys.
(iii) Reinforced Concrete

Poles. In the modern days, th
reinforced concrete poles have Sngie-phase single.crcu:.
almost replaced the wooden and Fig. 8.3
steel tubular poles, since they are attractive to look at. Such po1
are quite heavy, so transportation cost increases ; but their maifl.-
tenancecostis quite low and are mechanically very strongandherce
have longer life.
There poles having sectional bottom varying from 23 cm. x 23
cm. to 30 cm. x 30 cm. are usually used.
(iu) Steel Towers. The po l es are used ford istributiofl purpoc,

but the towers are useful for long transmission lines. It is not a
hard and fast rule even wooden poles may also sometimes be used
236
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTrNc.,
for transmission purposes depending upon the need and circum-

stances. Generally broad base l attice-steel towers are used, which
are mechanically very
strong and have longer life. It is said that if
its design is given a proper care, the steel tower is good indefinitely.
Due to robust construction, long spans can be used and much useful
for crossing fields, valleys, railway lines, rivers etc. Fig. 8.7 to 8.10
represent the steel towers.
8. Arrangements of Conductors
A Transmission Lines. The following are the methods of
arrangement of conductors over the line supports:
(i) Single-phase circuits.
The single-phase transmission lines
can either be double-circuit.Fig. 8.3 represents the
most common method of single-phase single-circuit transmission.
Fig. 8.4 represents a double-circuit single-circuit transmission line
with conductors arranged in a horizontal disposition, while Fig. 8.5
represents double . oircujt-wjth vertical disposition of conductors.
.4 8 d F
A
A
Ta
1 8
MRTH V/h
Sirige-phase doube.crcujt horizon- S in g

le-phase double-circuit vertical
tal disposition. disposition
Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5
(ii) Three-pha. circuits. Figs. 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9 and 2.10 rep-
reenta method of three-phase transmission. In Fig. 8.6 conductors
have been arranged at the corners of an equilateral triangle
In Fig. 8.7 the conductors aic arranged at the corners of

right-angled triangle, so that the distancebetwee. them is unequal.
ARTJ4 WJRF
FOR CA
Three-phase single-circuit over Three-pa so single-circuit with

wooden or see1 tubular poles. urequal distance between the con-
Fig. 86 ductors
Pig. 8.7
Fig. 8.8 represents the methods of transmission of elecricaI
power by two-circuits. It represents a small tower used fcr rndium
voltage transmissions.
In Fig. 8.9 the conductors are arranged in a horizontal plane,
and it will also result into an unequal distance between ccndi:tor.
Fig. 8 10 represents twocircuittransmiSSiOfl lines used for very
high voltages of 132 KV or 220 Ky.
Due to unequal spacing, the three conductors of the trar.srnis
sion line will be having unequal inductance and capacitance and
thus phase will be unbalanced. This effect is overcome by
transposition. Transposition ofline means the position cfafl three
conductors are mutually changed in such a way that each conductor

is placed in one position for 1/3rd length of the transmission line.
The transposition also avoids disturbance on th parallel running
telephone lines.
Three-phase double-circuit, over steel towers for medium voltage.

Fig. 8.8
Three-phase single-circuit hwizontal disposition of

conductor and steel towers.
Fig. 8.9
B. Distribution lines. The following are the methods of
arrangement of conductors over line supports.
(i) Vertical formation. In this formation the conductors are
placed over the poles one below the other. Natural conductors is
kept at the bottom. Shackle type insulators are used for this pur-
pose
(iii' HorL?o-'tal formation. In this formaton the conductofs are
placed over the poles as shown in Fig. 8.6.
-1'7

Threepiase double -circuit over steel towers for high voltage.

Fig. 8.10
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF EIEC1RICAL 241
(iii) In certain congested area, where it is not possible to have

the minimum clearance from the building as prescribed, projected
brackets of required lengths are used. Horizontal or vertical for-
,nation of conductors are made depending upon the requirement.
Necessary support to projected bracket is provided with braces.
A.C. supply can be distributed by single phase distributor or
three-phase four-wire distributors. The single-phase distributor
has 230 volts between the phase and neutral and in three-phase
four-wire distributor the voltage between two-phases will be 400V
and 230V between a phase and neutral. D.C. supply can be dis-
tributed by two wire or three-wire distributors. The voltage of the
line in two-wire distributor is 220V, and in three wire distributor,
it is 440V.
9. Insulators. In order to prevent the flow of current to the
earth from supports, the transmission lines or distribution lines are
all seLured to the supporting towers or poles with the help of insu-
lators. Thus the insulators play an important part in the successful
operation of the lines. The chief requirements for the insulators
are
(i) They must be mechanically very strong.
(ii) Their dielectric strength must be very high.
(iii) They must provide high insulation resistance to the leakage
currents.
(iv) They must be free from internal impurities or flaws.
(v) They should not be porous.
(vi) They must he impervious to the entrance of gases or liquids
into the materials.
(vii) They must have high ratio of puncture strength to flash
over voltage.
The main cause of failure of insulators is due to flash over cr
puncture. The flash over may occur between the line conductor and
the earth i.e. the pin of the insulator, and due to production of
extreme heat produced by arc, the insulator may puncture.
10. Material of Insulators. Porcelain is the most common
material used for insulators, but in addition to this moulded
toughened glass and steatite are also used.
(a) Porcelain Insulators. The porcelain is manufactured
from china clay which occurs in nature in the form of aluminium
silicate. It is mixed with plastic kaolin, felspar and quartz and the
242
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COST
mixture is heated in a
kiln at a cc.. rolled temperature The insu-
lator so obtained must be hard, smooth, glazed and iree from
porosity, due to the glaze of the m
aterial its surface will be free from
traces ofwater. The Porosity of the insulator
m a t erial will decrease
its dielectric strength, also any impurity or air bubble left within
the material will result in a lower dielectric strength
ture,Ifits
the insulating material is manufactured at lower tempera.
m ecanica1 properjes
improve, but the material remains
porous and when it is put in service it may deteriorate If the
material is manufactured at higher temperature, the Porosity of t
decreases but the material becomes brittle. So, a
co mpromje is
always made between the mechanical strength and the porooity
of
the material and a suitai-p temperature of the kiln is designed A
m
echanically sound porcelain irultor has a dielectric strength
of
about 60,000 V per cm. of its thickness, and its compressive and
tensile strengths are 70,000 kg/cm, 2
and 500 kg./cm.2.
(b) Class Insulators.
Many times glass is used as an insulating
material. The glass is made tough by annealing and these
have the follow i ng advantages . i nsulators
(i) They have very high dielectric strength of the order of about
140KV per cm. of thickness of the material
(ii)
When properly annealed they have high resistivity.
(iii) They have low coefficient of thermal expansion
(iv)
Due to higher dielectric strength, the glass insulators have
simpler d2sigii
and even one-piece designs can he used.
(u) They have higher comprssj .
insulators. ,.e strength than porcelain
(vi) They are tr ansported, so any flaw, im

cracks, i mpuritiei etc. can be easily detect p urities air bhh1es,
(vii) They are quite homogeneous.

(viii) They are cheaper than porcelain.
The main disadvantages
of such type of insulators are
(i) The moisture easily condenses over the surface due to
which dirt will deposit on its suace and it will help to the
of currents leakage
(ii)
For higher voltages, the glass cannot be casted in irregula -
shapes, since due to irregular cooling, internal strains are caused
(c) Steatite Insuiators The
found in various p stcatje is magnesium sil icate,
roportions of magnesium oxide and silica in many
TRANSMISSION AND D1STRBUT1ON OF ELECTRICAL 243
parts of the world. It has a very high tensile strength as compared

to porcelain insulator, and can advantageously be used in situations
where the insulator is in pure tension i.e. when transmission lines
..akes sharp turns.
11. Pin Type Insulator. It is one of the earliest designs used

for supporting line conductors, since then, many changes have been
made in its design, but its appearance has not changed. For lower
voltages, generally one piece type of insulator is used. Fig. 8.11
represents the two one-piece insulators, and the leakage paths are
shown by the dotted line AR. In order to increase this distance one,
two, three rain sheds or petticoats are made. These rain sheds are
so designed that when these insulators are wet (its outer surface is
almost conducting), even then, a sufficient dry space is provided by
the inner sheds.
95 M M
t 1
T_.r
28 5mrn-f-
¶
B
(a) One-piece Pin insulator for 25,000 V

Fig. 8.11
The pin insulators are screwed on and firmly attached to gal-
vanized steel bolts shown in Fig 8.11(c). There are various methods
of securing insulator to the bolt. They are
(a) The insulator has coarse threads, and the steel bolt also has
coarse threads but is provided with a - sofl washer at the top.
(b) The porcelain insulator has coarse threads hut, they are
lined with a soft material into which the coarse steel pin is screwed.
This method is generally adopted.
(c) Into the coarse threaded pocelain insulator is screwed, the
steel bolt with a lead head.

(h) One-piece Pin insulator (c) Gal vani zed Steel p;n.
Da
:anzm.
CONDUCTOR
Eel
L Two-part 33 KV pin insulator for 33,000 V

Fig. 8.12
Such type of insulators are used only for straight run of the
lines.
For higher voltages, the thickness of the material required for

insulator purposes is more, but from practical point of view a quite
thick single piece insulator cannot be manufactured. Hence for
higher voltages, multipart pin-type insulator can be used, which
consists of a number of shells fixed together by Portland cement.
Figs. 6.12 and 8.13 represent two multi-part insulators which can
be used for 33 KV and 66 KV volts, the flash over distances are also
represented when the insulators are dry and wet in Figs. 8.12 and
8.13 respectively.
/52/TI/Il.
Ii
Three-part 66 V. pin in insulator for 66,000V

Fig. 8.13
12. Suspension Type Insulators. .As the line voltage
increases, the pin insulator to he used becomes heavy and compli-
cated in construction, also its cost increases. Further the replace-
ment of the damaged insulator will cost more. So, pin insulators
are not an economical for higher voltages.
For higher voltages suspension insulators are used, a number
of them are connected in seriesby metallic links to form a chain and
the line conductor is carried by the bottom-most insulator. The
advantages of such a system are
(i) Each suspension insulator is designed for 11 KV, so by
connecting a number of such insulators a string of insulators can be
designed for any required voltage.
246
c.
z
ci)
- -w-1

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRfI3UTJON OF ELECTRICAL 247
(ii) If any one of the insulator in the string fails, it can be

replaced easily and at a lesser cost.
(iii) The mechanical stresses on the string decrease since the
line suspended is flexible and it can oscillate a bit and it will attain
that position where the stress is pure tensile.
(iL) When the string of the insulator is used in conjunction with
the steel towers, line conductors are less effected by lightening, since
the line conductors are lower than the cross arm which is earthed
and acts as a lightning arrestor.
(s') If the load of be su,eJ, by the transmisn lines
increases, it can either be accomplished by running another parallel
line which will no doubt cost more, or the potential of the existing
line can be further increased by simply increasing the number of
insulators in the string. Fig. 8.14 represents such type of insulator.
3. Strain Insulators. When there is a dead end of the line
or there is a corner or a sharp curve or the lines crosses river etc.,
the line is to withstand great strain. For low volta fl ines shackle
cr wpr
IC LI.t
SPENS!C.N hLAO.S
&.so r S'
LWE CONDUCTOR
srR.v-
INSULATOR
GUY WIRE
O(.-(NO POLE
Suspension Insulators used as strain insulators.

Fig. 8.15
insulators can be used, but for high voltage transmission lines,
strain insulator consists ofan asseubly of SupCuision insulators as
shown in Fig. 8.15. If the pull on the string of the suspension
insulators is high such as in case of long spans across the river,
under these circumstances two, three of four strin g s of insulators
are used in series. The top portion of Fig. 8.15 is the plan of the
line.
14. Stay insulators. For lOW voltage line, the stays are to be
insulated from ground at a height not less than 3 metres from the
ground. The insulator used in the stay wire is called as the stay
insulator and is usually of porcelain and are so designed that in case
of breakage of the insulator, the guywire will not fall to the ground.
Fig. 8.16 represents the stay insulator and the method of inserting
the stay into the insulator.
[E1111 M11
St isu]at,cr
- Fig. 8.16
15. Shackle Insulators or Spool Insulators. The shackle
isutor or the spool insulator is mostly used for low voltage
Shackle insulator Shackle insulator mounted in a D

(a)
clamp
(b)
Fig. 8.17

249
'SS1ON AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL
distribution lines. Such insulators can either be used in a horizontal

position or in a vertical position. Fig. 8.17 (a) represents a shackle
insulator, while Fig. 8.17 (h) represents when it is mounted in a
clamp. The conductors in the groove are fixed with the help of soft,
binding wires.
16. Stay Set and Stay Wire or Guy wire. Fig. 8.18 represents
the complete stay assembly. It consists of:
STAY INStIL AT0,

AND CLAMP
POLE
j,-6AL VAN/SED
fT THM5L
iHPE,4 D -D
END W.'T/
NEEL
STAY 80W 15117117. £21A.
AND 37 . 5 Cli? LONG
6ALVAN'SED STAY CR.cHR R00

Ciii 10/16 AND 19 r'r'i OR 160717; 0/A
/ CCKRETE
• . . .. 5 TA ( PLATE ,lIL £2 S TEEL. 65 /77177. THCK

225Crn.x275 CM. WITH/6.D/A.RDOR
WITH
3ccrn3oc,n ,clirnzD,A.ROD
—FC6E0 HEAD 4NC,O

STAY OR GUYS 5E7
Anchor stay or guys set

Fig. 8.18
(i) Mild stel stay plate 6.5 mm. thick, 22.5 cmx22.5 cm having
16 mm dia. or 30 cm x 30 cm having mm dia. pole in its centre.
(ii) Galvanised stay rod 60 cm. long and 16 mm or 19 mm dia.

250
WIRING ESTApc AND COSTING
(iii) Stay bow galv
length anised having l5 mm dia. and about 375 cm.
(iv) Galv anised thimble
The stay plate is embeded in the ground with concrete as shown
One end of stay rod or anchor rod is
ground level. p rojected enough above the
Galv
anised iron stay wire having 7 or 10 strands of SWG
8 wire
is connected with the stay assembly. The other end of stay wire is
connected with the stay i
nsulator and further connected to st.2y
clamp fixed on the pole. The stay wire is t
w istedri d1y to provide
a Permanent joints at both ends.
The tension on the pole can be increased or decreased tightening

or loosening the nut on the stay or anchor rod.
The stay assembly is erected in
such a manner that it cancels
the tension on the pole due to conductors which will be found at the
terminal pole, at the angle, or where the
c onductDrsize on spans or
conduct
both sides of the pole differ.
The more is the tersos on the pole, the
more is the angle subtended by the co y
or the sta y s represented in Fig. wire a ith the pole. The guys
stays. 8
.18 are known as anchor iys or
In, certain pieces, there ma y not be

si fici p nt space for the
anchor stay to be inserted in such cases, fil!
are provided : ' wing types of sta y s
(i) Sub pole or PusA brace. A
pole of smafler lenh known as
stub pole or push brace is butted with the pole as sho',.'n in Fig. 8.19.
The stub or the push brace keeps the pole in straight position.
PVLE__J i \\)lEL
I ROAD
IPRIVATE
IOF M425Hy
Stub pole or Push Brace

Fig. 8,19
TRANSMISSION Au ini z1BUTlON OF ELECTRICAL 251
(ii) Foot or Braced angled Stay or Guy. In this case, projected

angle iron and brace is fixed with pole as shown in Fig. 8.20. By this
method, the angle subtended by the guy wireat the pole is increased.
This method is employed only when the tension on the pole due to
conductor is small.
(iii) FlyingorStub Stay or Guy. In this case another pole across
the road is erected either straight or at an angle. The mriimurn
height of this pole above the ground should be 5.791 metres. The
guy wire is fixed as shown in Fig. 8.21. It will be seen that the
anchoring is done in similar way as shown in Fig. 8.18,
ANGLE EYE BOLT
PROJECTED ANGLE
5RACKE T AND BRACE
STAY OR GUY iWRE -
STAY ROD
.-GAL VA N/SEQ
-STAY 80L7
Fort or braced angled stays or guy

Fig. 8.20
Flying stay or stub guy

Fig. 8.21
17. Pole Fittings. It comprises of brackets, clamps, bolts etc.

Each of them has been discussed separately:
(i) Brackets. Cross-arm brackets and projected brackets are
in use.
The conductors are supported on the corss-arm brackets as
shown in Figs. 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6. For wooden poles teak or sheesam
wood cross-arm brackets are used. For steel and R.C.C. poles mild
steel angle iron cross-arm brackets are used. The spacing of the
conductors is done as given in Table 8.1. The cross-arms are sup-
ported with braces as shown in Figs. 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6.
Projected brackets and bracesare shown in Fig. 8.20. These are
used to (i) install foot or braced angle stay or guy and (ii) to carry
overhead conductors on the pole at a prescribed distance from the
building to avoid accessibiLty.
(ii) Clamps
(a) D clamps are used to fix shackle insulators on the pole.
These are made of mfld steel fiat 50 mm x 6.5 mm and are shown
in Fig. 8.17 (b). The central hole on the clamp is to accommodate
bolt for fixing it on the pole.
(b) Stay clamps. These are also made of mild steel flat 50mm
x 6.5 mm and used for fixing the stay orguy wire with the pole. Stay
clamp is shown in Fig. 8.18.
(C) Eve clamps. These are used to accommodate L.T pin
insulator specially on t}'c service pole. There is also made of flat
iron. Such a clamp is shown in Fig. 8.25.
(d) Service bracket elamps. These clamps are also of M.S. flat
or 50 mm x 6.5 mm and are used to fix the service bracket or pipe
with the wall. Such type of clamp is shown in Fig. 8.24.
18. Lightning Arrestors. Lighting arrestor is a device which
protect overhead lines and other electrical apparatus viz., trans-
former from overhead voltages and lightning. In Fig. 8.22 it will be
seen that positively charged cloud will produce negative potential
by electrostatic induction on the overhead line. This negative charge
will however be present right under the cloud and portion of the line
away from this point will be charged positively. This charge on the
line will not flow, because it is abound charge. The positive charge
on the far end will however flow to earth slowly throu g h insulators
ond metallic parts etc., thus leaving the negative charge on the line
directly under the cloud. Now assume that due to direct discharge
occurring between this cloud and passing by negative charge cloud
the charge in the cloud in question is neutralised, then the charge
on the iine is no more bound charge and is free to travel on both

directions in the form of waves. These travelling waves will be of
light magnitude (10 to 15 KV) and have steep wave front which can
damage the unprotected equipment connected to the line. These
waves are passed to the earth quickly through lightning arrestors.
The lines are protected from direct strokes of lightning by providing
ground wire of sufficient mechanical strength placed in a manner
62
shown in Figs. 8.7 and 8.8.
7/I/ELY
CH'ARGED CLOUD
TOWER
ZEAKA6 4- 7Z?
E4R7y
Static charging of the line due to a cloud.

Fig. 822
19. DifferentTypes of Lighting Arrestors. Followingtvpes
of lightning arrestors are used to protect the overhead lines from
travelling waves of steep wave front
1. Rod gap arrestor.
2. Sphere gap lightning arrestor.
3. Horn gap lightning arrestor.
4. Expulsion type arrestor
5. Impulse protective gap with electrolyte lightning arrestor.
6. Electrolytic type.
7. Lead oxide type.
8. Pellet type of lead peroxide type.
9. Thyrite type.
10. Valve type.
20. Miscellaneous Fittings. Following miscellaneous flt
tings are installed on the pole.
() Danger plate. On all lines above 6.6 KY, a danger plate
written in the language known to the local public and indicating the
voltage with danger sign is provided at 2.5 metres high above the
ground on each pole.
(ii) Anticliinbing Device, On overhead lines above 6.6 KV,

anticlimbing device made of barbed wire is provided on each pole.
This is done to avoid climbing of unauthorised persons on the pole.
(iii) Bird Guards. On metallic poles, the isulators are fitted on
the cross-arm brackets with wooden pieces of suitable size. These
wooden pieces are provided to avoid short-circuiting of two phases
or one phase and earth due to sitting of the birds on the pole.
21. Earthing of Overhead Lines. It has already been said
that the continues earth wire from the substation is run along the
line. This wire is solidly connected to the earth provided at the
substation and later on every sixth pole is earthed.
All metallic parts other than conductors shall be efficiently
earthed. Galvanised iron wire of 8 SWG or bigger size is used as
earthing conductor. The maximum continuity resistance of the
earth should not be more than 5 ohms.
10. Methods of earthing has been completely explained in chapter
22. Service Lines. As already said that the service lines are
tapped from the distribu t ors with water proof cable olsuitable size
and the oher rends of the water proof cable terminate in meter.
ITho erv line laid in 3ch a way is known as Overhead Service
Line.
Hr-use service brackets as shown in Fig. 8.23 are used. The

ho-se servke bracket are fixed with two clamps as shown in Fig.
8.24. Eye lamp is fixed on the pole on which pin-type insulators
are fixed. From the conductors and neutral are brought on these
trlsulators. Weather proof wire is tapped from these insulators and
caken upto the service pale. Bobins are used to keep the weather
proof span in tight position. From the insulators at the service pole
VIR or lead covered cable is taken upto meter.
Sometimes in building having height more than the distributor,
the service connection is given with angle iron projected bracket
fixed on the wall. B-type clamps are fixed on the bracket for
installing pin insulators on the bracket.
Underground cable ofsuitable size is also used to provide service

con nec' .n, if the consumer is willing to pay the cost.
Meters of suitable size are placed at about 165 cm. above the
floor level. The low tension meter can be single phase three-phase
three wire, three-phase four-wire of varying capacity depending
upon the requirement. In case of very high loads at high voltage,
L.T. meters of smaller rating with C.T. (current transformer) and

P.T. (Potential transformer) of desired ratings are used.
HOLE FOR /V5UL4TO
SQL T 16 mm. oi.
IL1! ___lID
30 M G.LVNISEO
/RC;V T
- 37•5 177177.1NTERN.Q 275 177

D/..
50 MM.
FL AT
50/77,77.26 25177177.

ClaDs fo r fxin 7 House
Service House Service ine Bracket
Bracket Fig. 5.23
Fig. 8.24
23. Comparison between overhead system and under-
ground system. Following are the adL'antages and disadoitages
of oterhead system oucr underground system.
Advantages:
(i) Repair. It is easy to repair the overhead line as compared
to underground cable.
(ii) Fault Iocation.The fa'fltin overhead lines can be detected
easily and quickly as compare(' to underground cable.
(iii) Initial cost. Overhead s ,,-stem has a lower cost t.;z' the
underground system.
(iu) Charng Current. Due to more spacing of the conduc-
tors, the charging current is less in overhead s y stem than the
underground cable.
IQ
256
WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTFNc
(v) Jointing.
Jointing it underground cable is difficult and
precise as compared to overhead conductors
Disadvantages.
(i) Maintenance Cost.
system is more than the undergroThe maintenance cost of overhead
in overhead lines.
und system as there are more faults
(ii) Safety.
Underground cables are buried in the ground and
therefore more safer to the public.
(iii) Appearance.
Overhead system produces a shabby
appearance, whereas underground cables are not visible.
(iv) Effect of lightning and thunderst
orm. Lightning and
thunderstorm produces effect on overhead system whereas these do
not produce any effect or underground cables.
(v) Effect of Surge. The surges are absorbed by the metallic
sheath of underground cable and as such produce no demaging
effect.
(vi) Accidents. There can be accidents by overhead lines,
whereas chances are remote in underground system.
Voltage drop.
The inductance in an overhead line is more
because of larger spacing of conductors, therefore more voltage drop
is there in an overhead line.
(i i) Interference to telephone
lines. The overhead lines will
interfere with the nearby telec
ommunication lines, where under-
ground cables do not have any effect on them.
24.
Tariffs. Consuiners can be classified as 'Good and "poor'.
consumers are those who take regular supplies during 24 Hours or
when the general demand is low. Poor consumers are those who
require supplies only at times of general maximum demand (M.D.)
Hence consumers must be charged according to their type of load,
as well as to the number of units they consume. The following tariffs
are available.
1. Maximum-demand tariffs. (2 part or 3 part M.D. tariffs)
(a) a FIXED charge based on the maximum power required.
(b) a MAXIMUM-DEMAND charge based on the M.D. made
in each month or year.
(c) A Unit charge based on the number of units used
2. Block Tariffs:
(a ) First block depending on the consumers' requirernens
(.J Second h1)c- dependjr on the demand and
(c) Third block or the lowest price encouraging long period

usage, giving incentive to improve Load Factor.
3. Special OFF PEAK tariffs:
This encourages the usage of electricity from 7 p.m. to 7 a.m.
4. Flat rate tariffs:
This is applied to domestic services. Here the charges are made
per unit of consumption at a rate determined from time to time.
5. TWO PART or ALL tariffs.
This is also applied to domestic services. Here the charges are
made fac rat—, per KWH plus a fl.ed charge per year related to
requirements.
6. Night and Day tariffs.
This is also applicable to domestic services. This encourages
large unit consumption during OFF - PEAK Hours.
A knowledge of the above is essential before the distribution
system is designed since the type of supply and the tariff to be
ap p fled will affect the metering arrangements, system of distribu-
tier: equipment and circuiting.
Protection for Domestic Installations
ER states that every consumer's instalation should be properly
eonvolled by a switch gear in an easily accessible position. The
switch gear shoild incoiporate.
(a) a Means of separating the supply in the event of excess
current.
(b) a Means of separating the supply in the event of dangerous
earth leakage.
(c) a Means of isolation.
The following is the Table given by lEE Regulations in the 13th
edition with regard to consumer's supply controls.
CONSUMER'S SUPPLY CONTROLS

System of Supply No of poles oftobebro- Position of operating
k.n by circuit breaker of coil of over load circuit
any type, or switch. breaker, or fuse.

2W, permanently and 2 In non-.earthed con-

effectively earthed on ductor.
One pole

2W, not oerriment1v 2 In each Conductor.
and effect i vely earthed
on either oo!e
(Coned-.

CONSUMER'S SUPPLY CONTROLS

2W, neither pole n each Cunductor.
earthed but system
earthed at mid-point
3W, d.c. or single phase or 2 provided one poli In each outer conductor
a.c. )roken in each oute
onductor
3W, 3 phase a.c. In non earthed con-
ductor of at least two
phases for ckt. breaker
or each phase for fuses.
4W, 3 phase a.c or 3 provided one poi In each phase conduc-
s broken ri each phas tor.
:onductr.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages of aluminium as a coflductor?
2. How many types of insulators are there? Of what material these
are made? -
3. Explain where the following are used
(i) Pin-type Insulator
(ii) Suspension type insulator
(iii) Stay insulator
4. What are the advantages of pin-type insulators and why shackle
insulators are not used for high voltage?
5. How the size of conductor is expressed?
6. Explain why lightning arrestor is used on overhead lines.
7. How many types of lightning arrestor are there?
8. Why stay or guy is used ?
9. Explain the various parts of stay guy set?
10. What are the most common types of stays?
11. What should be the vertical clearance of the conductor above the
building and horizontal clearance from the building?
12. Why flying, foot stays and stubs are used?
13. How service connections to the conjmerz are given from the
distributor?
14. Why poles of overhead lines are earthed?
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of overhead system
over urderground system?
16. In how many different ways service connection is given?

17. How the conductors are arranged in an overhead line?
I.S. Compare D.C. endA.C. system ofsupiy.
19. Explain why it is necessary to transmit the electrical power?
20. What are the essential components of an overhead line?
21. Explain about different types of tariffs.
9'
Underground Cables and Installation
I.
Material 4. Characte ristics
ofcables and Their App1jcatj0of some Insulating materials in Cables. 5. Different types
6. U ndergroundcl
Cables. S. 3 7. General Information about
TYPes of 3-phase Cables. 9. Cable lang. 10. Grading of Cables, 11.
Measurement of Insu lation resistanceof Cables. 12. Cable jointing. 13. Filling
rompoind in the sleeve. 14. Jointin g a multicore cable.
I. Introduction. Un
for tr ansmission and dergrou1id cables are being mostly utilised
dis t ribution of electrical energy. In
posh c olonies, the consumers desire service certain
gr ound cables because of the reason that such Connection
a c
by under-
onnection does not
spoil the beauty of their construction In addition, for certain loads
i:iz.
air-field thickly populated areas etc. it is necessary to use
ur. 3orground cable for distribution transmission and service con-
ni s. Aluminium c onductor underpound cables are being
in In used
dia. Thus the underground cable can be specified by
number
of cores, voltage they can withstand or type of insulation
2. Cable Insul
ation. The cables are usually classified
according to the type of insulation used. The type of insulation
be used must have the following properties to
(1)
It should have high specific resistance.
(2) It should be tough and flexible.
(3) It should not be hygroscopic
(4) It
should be capable of standing high temperatures without
much deterioration
(5) It should be non—inflammable
(6) It should not be attacked by acids or alkalies.
(7) It should not be capable of
Voltages. with standing high ru p
turing
261
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS
(8) It should have low viscosity at working temperature (solid

cable only)
(9) It should have low water absorption.
(10) It should have low permittivity.
(11)It should have high viscosity at impregnation temperature.
(12) It should have high mechanical strength.
(13)The insulation provided should be of such thickness that it
may give high degree of safety and reliability at the working
votge for which is designed.
Although it is not possible to have all the above-mentioned
qualities in one particular type of insulation, the selection of a
particular type of insulation to be used is dependent upon the
purpose for which the cable is required and qualities of the insu-
lation to be aimed at. The following are the :hief types of insulation
groups which can be used
(D Rubber.
(ii) Fibrous material, such as papc or jut etc.
( . if) V'lcanized bitumen.
(iv) Gutta percha
(v) Silk, cctton, enamel.
(i) Rubber. Rubber is the most commonly used insulation in
cables. Rubber has a dielectric constant between 2 and 3, dielectric
stress is 350 KV/cm. approximately, and specific resistance of
-tO 7 cilcm cube. It absorbs moisture slightly and the maximum safe
temperature is approximately 100°F. So the pure rubber cannot be
used as an insulation since it cannot withstand high temperatures
and cannot be up to rough usage, being too soft. Thus mostly the
rubber used as an insulation on wires consists of 20 to 40 per cent
of India rubber, the remainder being mineral matter such as zinc
oxide, red lead etc. ; also a little bit of sulphur is added. The method
of applying insulation is as given below.
First the rubber is washed and js then mixed with mineral
matters by means of working through heated rollers, until it is
plastic. Then the compound so formed is rolled out into thin sheets
and cut into strips. On small wires, the rubber compound is applied
by passing it through a die at the centre of which there is a copper
or aluminium conductor. For large wires the insulation is usually
applied parallel to the wire and is pressed hard into the ground
rollers. After the insulation is applied, it is vulcanized at a tem-
perature of 100°F. It is usually done by enclosing it in steel drums

262
WIRING, ESTIMATLNG AND COSTING
and introducing steam into it at a pressure of 25 lb. per square inch.

The process makes the sulphur to combine chemically with the
rubber, which changes the rubber from plastic state to firmness.
If
the rubber used in cables is of good quality and is kept dry
and cool,
longer life can be expected ; but when it is exposed to air itbecornes
brittle.
If vulcanized rubber is used as an insulation it becomes much
stronger, more durable, can withstand high temperatures and
remains more elastic than pure rubber. But the drawback in using
vulcanized rubber insulation is that it attacks copper. So before
using vulcanized rubber as an insulation, the copper conductor must
be tinned well. If the conductor is not tinned well, it will become
black or the vulcanized rubber insulation will change its colour
such cables should be rejected. Sometimes the tinned copper con-
ductor is given coating of pure rubber first as it retards the
blackening of tinned copper conductor or discoloration of rubber
insulation but does not fully prevent it. Sometimes vu]car.j:d
insulation is covered with one or two braids of cotton which are
thoroughly filled with weather proof compound
(ii) Paper. The paper insulation in power cable has oimat
superseded the rubber insulation. The foremostrt
l a lôri ofthis is that
it is quite cheap and has a low capacitance and high dielectric
strength. It is hygroscopic and its specific resSt.0 c is of the ord-
of 10 1cin, cube but it much depends upon its dryness, a
small
amount of moisture lowers its insulation resistance So before usin
paper as an insulation, it is impregnated in an insulating oil. The
maximum safe temperatures of paper-insulates cable is 200°F
approx. The paper-insulated cables should never be left unsealed,
or its ends should temporarily be covered with wax or tar.
The compound usually used for the impregnation purposes is a
high grade mineral oil mixed with resin, the actual proportions 01
oil and resin depending upon the particular manufacturer.
Paper insulated cables are used for conveying large blocks of
power in transmission and distribution and particularly for distri-
bution at low voltage in congested areas where the joints are to be
provided only at the terminal apparatus or where thejoints are rare,
owing to cheapness and durability over V.I.R. cables.
(iii) Vulcanized Bitumen. It is much cheaper than rubber. It
resists corrosion due to gases, fumes and water. Its specific
resistance is 1 x 1014 per cm. cube. it is not a f
fected by moisture, The
main drawback ofit is that it cannot withstand temperatures more
than 120°F. And
after this temperature it becomes soft and the cable
conductors sink down and thus there will be every danger of short
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND 1iSTALfX1IONS 263
circuit. Only vulcanized bitumen has got such properties. If natural

bitumen is used, it is quickly softened by alkaline water and coal
gas.
Another important point which is worth mentioning is that it
is not attacked by rats.
(iv) Varnished Cambric (or Empire tape). When a cotton cloth
is impregnated and coated with varnish, it is known as Empira tape.
It has very smooth surface. The cambric is lapped in the form of tape
on to the conductor and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jolly
compound to give easy sliding of the surfaces. Such cables require
protective covering like lead sheath because this insulating material
is hygroscopic. Its dielectric constant is 2.5 to 3.8. Such cables do
not require scaling.
(v) Polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.) This is one of the synthetic
compounds. For obtaining this material as a cable dielectric or
sheathing, it is processed with certain materials known as plasti-
cizer and its type will depend upon the use of finished product as
P.V.C. It is inert to oxygen, oils and to many alkalies and acids and
t}erefore its use preferred over V.I.R. in extreme environments,
such as in cement or chemical factory. The mechanical properties
1 LC. elasticity) of P.V.C. are not so good as those of rubber. P.V.C.
nsulated cables are mostly used for low and medium voltage
domestic and industrial lights and power installations in these days.
(ti) Gutta percha. It is much similar to rubber, but it becomes
soft at about 150°F. Its resistance/cm. cube is 6 to 25 x 10 6 ohm. It
becomes brittle in air. It does not absorb moisture. It cannot with-
stand even medium voltages. It is mostly used for submarine cables
for telegraphic or telephone purposes. The jointing of gutta-percha
cables is a special art.
(vii) Silk and Cotton. This insulation is used on conductors
required for low voltage. The conductor may . have a singte layer or
double layer covering according to the type of work for which the
wires are required. Mostly cotton or silk covered wires are used for
instrument and motor winding.
(viii) Enamel insulation. Again the enamelled wires are used for
similar purpose as silk and cotton, but enamel is cheaper than cotton
or silk although it is more liable to crack.
(ix) Asbestos insulation. It is fire-proof and has a specific
resistance of 1.6 x iü 1Vcm. cube but it absorbs moisture. Moreover
it will act as a wick for oil in case of switchboard fires.

264
WIPING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
-
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C
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C - I
C)
C .- • .-' -•I-
-
CL C)
' 2 -J
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CC)
0 C• -
CC.
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a z •E
C) - - •
— C-
CC
• OC ' Cr
C)C)
.5 •
o
C)
C
- -
•F4 -e
ba p..
8D
C-Jo . --J-'0 C
, C_I r ,, = C -
- -- ••_• C
C) 0
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x El 0 0
—
•JC)C C)_I
E E-
C: C
x
- C
C C- 0 C cc
CC o'j k. •'CCL C ,— CC) CC
00
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C C,
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m -
° o 1
—
b
Q
C)
>
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C
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0
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C C)

C) C) V
C, -C)
C C
0
C: _C) -
bc
C) Cl
C C
41 — C,
C ft
a C-,
C)
C
I-
0 SC
0<,, 0S UC O
0 I-
C-,
> > .
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7: ft
Ii C
ft C, C 'r CC
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C C 0
C >
• 5C) 0 0 0
C
c5 'C.
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ci 0 0
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C C.
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C'— 0 .0 C
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UND RGROUND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS 265
I•• t
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. :'••
E - &
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as
tC$ •'
.c. C
-C
c0. •-E --i
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5. Different types of Cables and Their Applications.
SI. Name of cable 1 S I Voltage

No. Applicai ion
—s, d. Rating
1. Rubber insulated 434-1954 upto 600 V Power
solid and fle xi ble and
Ligh ti ng
2. PVC insulated 694-1964 250/440 V -do-
cables and Flexible part. 11 650/1100 V
cords. (sheathed and
unsheathed)
3. Polythene insulated
cables, sheathed 1596 & -do-
with PVC,
-do-
Polythen insuleted, 3035-1964
taped, Braided
4. Wire Armoured 3961-1967 upto 11 KV IMines.

paper Insulated
5 Cable, nnd Flexible 693-1945 upto 4KV Chemical Forti-

cords jsu1ated with user
varnished cambric plants,
cement factories,
and heat res1stig.
fibre glass textile machines,
heating cham-
6. Trailing cables bers Hot plates
11. 4817-198 u to V nes
^
1, 1^
2. 2593-1964
3. 69l—j96
7. Silicone Rubber (S 434-1964 u p to 1000 V Large power

or Ethylene Pr 3961-1697
plene (EP) insulati
cables and flexib
cords
8. Mineral insulati upto 600 V Power

:ables and
Lighting
9. rmoured PV 3961-1967 u p to 1100 Small
nsulated cables power
transmission
10. urn in i urn 3961-1967 upto 22 Ky Medium Power
^
I sheathed cables ran5mjSSofl
(Contd.)
IJNDERGRO!JND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS 27
SL Name of cable IS I Voltage Application

No.. sid. Rating
ii. Lead or Lead alloy 3961-1967 u?to33KV -do-
sheathed cable
12. Vulcanised India 3961-1964 1 upto 600 V Small pOwr and

Rubber (VIR) 111ghting.
13. Tough Rubber 434-1964 upto600V upto 2 11P &

Sheathed (TRS) part I & II Lighting upto a
few KW
14. Flame proof com- 3035-1964 upto 6.6 KV Mines, chemical
pound, High speed plants, Refrac-
oil soaked (HSOS) tiry Kilns,
cable. Asbestos Cov- Ovens, carbon
ered Heat ac lamps, Heat-
resistance, Flame ing chambers,
proof cable. etc.
6. Underground cables. The power from the generating sta-

tions can be transmitted either by overhead lines or by cables placed
underground. Although underground system is costlier and
maintenance is dirncult, still the system of transmitting the power
with cables is preferred in thickly populated areas and in cities. The
cables are usually classified according to the voltage for which they
are manufactured. According to the voltage they can be ciassd
(1) L.T. (Low Tension Cables) up to 1000 volts.
(2) lIT. (High Tension Cables) up to 22 kv.
(3) S.T. (Super Tension Cables) from 22,000 volts to 33,00'.i
volts.
(4) E.H.T. cables from 33,000 to 66,000 volts
(5)Oil-fiiledand Pressureand Gas PressureCables for6,000
volts to 132,000 volts.
The general construction of the cables is given below
(a) Core. All cables have one centre core or a number of cores,
of stranded copper conductors having highest conductivity. Gen-
erally there are one, two, three, three and half or four cores.
(b) Insulation. The different insulations used to insulate the
conductors are paper, varnished cambric and vulcanized bitumen
for low voltages. But mostly impregnated paper is used which is an
excellent insulating material. When varnished cambric is used as a
(c) Metallic Sheath. A metallic sheath is provided over the

insulation so as to prevent the entry of the moisture into theinsu-
lating material. The metallic sheath is usuali ) Or ac
(d) Bedding. Over the metallic sheath comes a la y er ofbedding,
which consists of paper tape compounded with a fibrous material.
Also sometimes, jute strands or hessian tape (Strong coarse cloth
p cc jute) is also used for bedding. The purpose of providir.g
the bedding is to protect the metallic sheath from mechanical injury
from the armouring.
(e) Armouring. Armouring is provided to avoid mechanical
injury to the cable and it consists of providing one or two layers of
galvanised steel wires or two layers of steel tape.
(I) Serving. Over and above armouring fibrous materia. =
again provided which is similar to that of bedding but is called as
serving.
7. General Information about Cables
(a) Core Identification:
Cores are identified by colour of PVC insulation
(1) 1 core - Red, Black, Yellow, Blue.
(2) 2 core - Red a n d Black.
(3) 3 core - Red, Yellow, Blue.
(4) 3 core - Reduced neutral core is black.
(5) 4 core - Red, Yellow, Blue and Black.

(6) 5 core - Red, Yellow, Blue, Black & Grey.
(7) 6 core & above - Two adjacent cores (counting direction),
in each layer. Blue & Yellow - remaining cores Grey.
(b) Cables Code:
The following code letters are used for designation of cables
A - Aluminium conductor (if the type does NOT contain
the letter 'A' in thebeginning, then the cable is copper
conductor.
Y - At first or second place in type designation, it stands
for PVC insulation.
W - Steel round wire armour.
WW - Steel double round wire armour.
FF - Steel Double Flat strip armour.
Y -_ When last, in type designation, it stands for PVC
outer sheath.
1fl - Flat cables, sheathed.
UNDERGROUND CABL .ND INSTALLATIONS 29
8. Types of 3-phase cables. The following are the types of

3-phase cables.
(1) Belted Cables. Fig. 9.1 represents the 3-core belted cables
in which case each of the conductor is insulated from the other with
impregnated paper. Surrounding the three conductors is again
provided a belt of paper and the intersticks between them is filled
with fibrous insulating material. In such cables each core may have
conductors of different diameters so arranged as to form a sector
shape in order to avoid the undue wastes space in cable. Over-belt
is provided over a metallic sheath than a layer of braiding,
armouring and finally serving. Such type of cables are used upto
11000 volts. JUTE OR HEM 'AW A r i•wr TØP
PER SkEATN
APE
ARMOURING
JUTE C' H5A Lt SfAJ,d

WE -
Belted tybe c25/e
Pig. 9.1
(2) Super Tension Cables. The belted type constructed cable

is not suitable for the voltages above 22 K because of development
of both the radial and tangential stresses. The tangential stresses
act along the insulation. The dielectric strength of the impregnate
paper is much higher across the layers than along the layers. T}-.e
leakage current on account of tangential stresses along t.e
impregnated paper insulation causes power loss at the centre filling
and local heating resulting in breakdown at any moment. FurtL
owing to non-hornogenity of di e lectric r hlted constr,:tin wh

27
'
cables are loaded t!oaa rcrtion o the dielectric are

stressed less whereas some portions are over stressed resulting in
formation of vacuous spaces and voids. These vacuous spaces are
ionised when voltage is applied and ultimately deteriorate the cable
insulation. The above drawbacks have been overcome in the
screened cables where leakage currents are conducted to earth
through metallic sheaths.
(a) H-Type Cable (Fig. 9.2). The H-Type of cable has of belt
insulation, each of the conductor is insulated with paper to the
desired thickness and over this is provided a layer of metallized
paper, perforated to facilitate the process of impregnation. The
fibrous material in the centre and along the filler spaces gives the
round shape to the cable. Over this comes the copper woven tape so
that the lead sheath, the binder of the metallized foil, are all at earth
potential. Then layers of braiding, armouring and serving are pro-
vided as in the previous case. These cables an used upto 66000 volts.
CONDUCTOR
I /._SEM/CONDU
PAPER
METALL/SE,
V PA PER SCREE/
PA PER
INSULATION
LEAO SHEATH
-. COPRCSON
/ PROTECTION
SPVIN
-, JUTS WAR-l1NG
B ECDING
DOUBLE STEEL
TAPE ARMQUR,NG
Fg 9.2 H-Type Cable.
(h) S. L. p cables (Fig. 9.3). in this type of cables each core
is first i:isulated with an impregnated paper and then each of them,
is sepa'-tely lead sheathed. Now the three cores are just equivalent
to th i c separate caHes, each having its own lead sheath. The three
cables are laid up with fillers, armoured and served overall with
imPregnated hessian tape as usual. The surrounding of all the three
cores are provided with lead sheaths.
The advantages of S.L. type cables over
H-type cables are:
(i) Owing to no overall lead sheath, bending of cable becomes
possible.
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND IITJILL.AT1ONS 271
Fig. 9.3 &L type cable.
(z; owing to el'minationoffider spaces containing co:n1icuii,

there is less tendency for oil drzixge on hilly routes.
The drawback cfS.L. type cable is that the manufacturing i
difficult on account cfthinnerlead sheaths to be used in this cable.
!HPR6NAT(D
PAPER 'NULA.
-
hOW jrEs$.
P'RELYP/.T)IAL
PAP-'R 514EA
IMPEC,NAT LEAD SIJEATU
LJ.VfA, T4p1 O F A41 CORE
5EPARATa
JUTE FILL fM
COMuk
IIE,iS/4N 7l
5£ OOi.ij
57frL WIRE.
ARMOQ
C OMPO/
HESSL4N TA!
OVER ROLL
c-.j' Type
T511
Pig .4.
-19
S.L. type cables can be u.ed upto 66 K V
(c) H.S.L. Cable (Fig. .
4). Such a caes is a combination of
H-type and S.L. type cables in which each conductor is insulated,
sheathed with metallized paper and is then lead sheathed. The
three cores are than laid up and provided with filler, braided,
armoured and finally served.
In addition to the above types of cables there are oil-filled cables.
Advantages of screened types of cables over Belted type
cables
(i) Possibility of core to core faults is reduced to some extent
in the metal sheathed core cable on account of having a greater core
to core thickness for a given overall diameter than a plain cable.
(ii) Electric stresses are uniformly radial in all sections of the
dielectric to be used in the metal sheathed core cable.
(iii) Possibility of formation of voids within the electric field is
not there as there is no warming or packing in the electric field and
dielectric subjected to electric stress is only paper which is quite
home g n us.
(iv) The current carrying capacity of the cables in increased
because the metal sheaths help in dissipation of heat.
Extra High Tension Cables.
To overcome the drawbacks of belted cables and super tension
cables, the manufacturing of extra High Tension Cables in done.
Such cables meet the demand for 132 KV and above. In these cables,
voids have been eliminated by increasing the pressure of the com-
pound and that is why these cables are also known as Pressure
Cables. These are of two types
(a) Oil Filled cables (b) gas pressure or compression cables.
(a) Oil Filled Cables. A single core oil filled cable is shown in
the Fig. In this cable, a channel is formed at thecentre of the core
by stranding the conductor wire around a hollow cylindrical steel
spiral. The channel is filled with thin oil by means of oil reservoirs
and feeding tanks, placed about every 600 metres along its length
and maintained at a pressure, not below atmospheric one at any
point along the cable. The oil used is the light mineral oil of low
viscosity as used for initial impregnation. The system is designed
in such a way that when the oil gets expanded due to increase in

UNDERGROUND CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS 273
temperature of cable, the extra oil is collected in the external res-

ervoir, the same is sent back during contraction when the temper-
ature falls down during light load conditions. Such cables are known
as single core conductor channel cables.
SERVING
LEAD SHEATH
BRASS TAPE
ARMOUR
PER INSULATION
LCO NOUCTOR
Single core conductor channel oil filled cable.
Fig. 9.5
Disadvantages
• It has complicated system of jointing as to the fact that the
channel is at middle of the cable and is at full voltage with respect
to earth.
Advantage
It is advantageous from the point of view of potential gradient
due to larger diameter of conductor and its hallow construction.
The other type of single core oil filled cable is sheath channel
cable. In this type of cables, the oil channel are produced either by
grooving the sheath or by arranging spaces between the dielectric
and lead sheath. In this cable, since the channels are at earth
potential, so system of joints and installation are simpler.
,-BEDDING
LEAD SHEATH
PAPER
-CONDUCTOR
INSULATION
3ROQVED
SHEATH 20km ....,
- T II
PAPER
INSULATION
DUCTS
"SERVING
Single core sheath channel Three core Filler space channel
oil filled cable oil Filled cable
Fig. 9.6 Fig. 9.7
In 3 core oil filled cables, the oil ducts are accommodated in the
hollow filler spaces. The fillers are made of perforated metal ribbon
tubing and are at earth potential. At the time of jointing the cable,
great care is to be taken.
274
Single core oil filled cables can be used upto 1,32000 volts and
three core oil filled cables can be used upto 66000 volts
Advantages of oil filled cables
(i) Due to reduction in the thickness of dielectric to be used,
the cable can be ma
nufactured smaller in size and in reduced weight.
(ii) There is no oxidation, formation of voids and no ionisation.
(iii) There is possibility of increased
service. temp erature range in
(iv) It has perfect i m p regnation than others
(v) Due to reduction in thickness of dielectric to be used, the
cable has smaller thermal resisance
(vi) There is possbiitv uf imp
regnation even after sheathing
(vii) The cable can bear more stresses.
cviii) Fault can be located easily due to leakage o
f oil, ifañywhere
Disadvantages of oil Filled Cables
(1) The cable is more costly than that of others.
(ii) Maintenance of the cables is difficult.
(iii) Laying of cable is complicated
(b) Gas Pressure Cables
These are of two types:
(i) External Pressure cable
(ii) Gas Filled cables
(i) External Pressure Cables.
When the oil filled type cables
are developed for the highest voltages they are known as external
pressure cables. In such a cable the pressure is applied exterijv
and raised to such an tent that no ion i
sation can take place. Due
to increased pressure in the cable, the radial compression tend to
close any voids. The power factor of such a cable is also improver.
The external pressure cables are similar in Construction to that
of ordinary solid type except it is triangular instead of 75% circular.
in section. The triangular secton reduces the weight and gives low
thermal resistance. The lead sheath acts as a pressure membrane.
The cable is armoured with a thin metal tape so that the formation
of any abnormal ties over its surface is avoided. The cable is laid in
a steel pipe of some larger section. The pipe is filled with nitrogen
at a atmospheric pressure from 12 to 15 which continuallycom-
pressed the cable radially from outside and an y
voids etc. if any, are
closed. To avoid corrosion effect on the pipes, they are coated wiLl-i
a special p aint and it is further p
rotected with an i m p regnated felt.
External Pressure Cables

Fig. 9.8
Such cables can carry 1.5 times the load current, double the
operating voltage than that of a normal cable and thus transmit 3
times power. The steel pipes provide mechanical protection to the
cables. The nitrogen in steel pipes help in quenching any flame. The
maximum potential gradient is 10 KVIrnm. and the dielectric power
factor at 15°C is 0.6% The disadvantage of these cables is that they
are costly one.
(ii) Internal Pressure Cables.These are of 3 types.
(a) High pressure gas filled cables
(b) Gas cushion cables
(c) Impregnated pressure cables.
In high pressure cables, spaces are provided in the dielectric
itself for the gas like nitrogen at a atmospheric pressure of about
12 for super voltage cables and about 6 atmospheric pressure for
extra high tension cables. Pressure is retained by means of a lead
sheath in a single core cables, having a diametral clearance of about
0.63 mm.
In case of multi-core cables, this clearance is not essential, the
filler spaces and strands providing a sufficientlylow resistance path
for the flow of gas.
In gas cushion cable, screened space is provided all along the
length of cable, in between the lead sheath and the dielectric. The
inert gas is stored at various points along the run of a cable. This
facilitates the jointing of cable without loosing gas from the entire
cable. No arrangement is required for the transmission of pressure
to the cables from outside. So the cable is a complete unit with its
own armouring, and no external pipe protection is required.
276
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTIN
Impre gnated pr
essure cable is similar to solid cable except tha-
such a cable consists of a mass.impreated
this is maintained under a atmosphec p a p er dielectijc an
Nitrogen Special p ressure or 14 by means
reinf 0
orcement
tapes to cater for the large hoop is
andprovided in the form of rnetafli
longi tudinal stresses set up.
The a
dvantages of the internal pressure cables
(1) are
The cable can be used for vertical run thout
dimage with suitable design. any fear ot-
(2)
Due to increase pressure, there is an
Power factor of the cable dieleeti-je imp vement in the
(3) There is no need
of wiring any extera! acc essories.
9. Cable L
route Should be su aying. Before laying cable under the giound its
rveyed and the p
etc. Should be ascertained osition of water mains or drains
The cable to be buried underOd must have the follorrg

properties
(1) The moisture of the soil should not enter the core of the
cable.
2) It must have high insulation resistanc
IT
,
,
Method for laying the cable
Fig. 9.9
(3) It should be able to withstand the heat
of current p roduced due to flow
(4)
It Should not be capable of being damaged while handling
or layingused.
usually in the ground; so due to this reason armoured cables are
(5) It should be sufciently flexible.
(6) It Should not be bulky.
(7) It should not be costly.
271
UNDERGROUN D CABLES AND INSTALLATIONS
The fllowing are the different methods of laying the cable

underground:
(1) Cables buried directly underground. For cable laying a
trench of 112 in. wide and 1 m. deep is made throughout the route
ofthe cable ;the trench must be of uniform depth and the cable must
rest on the evea and solid ground. Abed of sand about 5 cm. thick
is made under the cable to avoid the clay underneath attacking and
soft beddings. Then the cable is covered with more sand to a height
of about 15 cm., care being taken that no sharp stone should come
to protect the cable from mechanical injury when somebody digs
near about the cable route. Whenever the pick-axe of the digger
strikes against the brick, he gets a warning of being careful so as
not to damage anything below.
If two or three cables are to follow the same route, they may be
put in the same trench but they must be separated as far apart as
possible to minimize the mutual heating effect. They should not be
allowed to cross each other and their protection must be ?reserved.
Great care must be taken in stretching the cable to avoid any
injury to it. The cable drum is put on two wheels of axle. The wheel
diameters are usually half metre more than that of drum and the
ax1'iT passed thro':gh 'he drum.The cable is stretched by Wheeling
the drum near the trench. Another way of stretching the cable is by
means of bodily lifting it on men's shoulders loop by loop, and the
drum is so turned that the cable should come out for the top of the
drum.
(ii) Solid system of laying the cable. In this system the trench
all along the route is made as in the direct laying system. Then the
troughs of china clay are placed in a row and the cable is laid out in
these troughs. The troughs are then filled with bitumen compound
and are covered with slabs when the bitumen is still hot and in a
liquid state. When the compound solidifies, it seals the cable
throughout its length.
10. Grading of cables. Ithas been noted that in a single core
cable, the electrostatic stress is maximum at the surface of the
conductor and decreases towards the sheath. The maximum voltage
which ran be safely applied to a cable having homogeneous insu-
lation is limited by the electrostatic stress of the surface of the
condi.ictor. If a dielectric of high strength is used in the cable, there
is no doubt that it will be useful just over the conductor where the
stress is maximum bt as we go away from the surface of the con-
ductor, the value of dielectric stress decreases. In this way, the
excessive dielectric will be used and it will be expensive one. If by

278
WIRING, E
STIMATING AND COSTIN(
ka
I- 0
"•
' Ii NO
H
c
C
-
• c Q..
CC
'-A
some means, the stress maybe distributed that its value in the outer
layers of the dielectric is increased without increasing the stress
near the conductor, insulation of less thickness will be required for
any given working voltage and an import economy is effected.
Thus the process of achieving uniformity in dielectric
stress is known as grading of cables.
There are two methods of grading
(i) Capacitance grading.
(ii) Intersheath grading.
(iii) Capacitance grading. By applying this method to the cable
grading, the uniformity in dielectric stress is achieved by using
various layers of different dielectrics in such a way that the per-
mittivity, K, of any layer is inversely proportional to its radius or
distance from the centre i.e.
or Kx = constant
Thus we obseive that if such a condition is achieved, the value
of dielectric stress of any point is constant and is independent of
distance from the centre, and the grading will be ideal one. But it
is not possible to use infinite number of dielectrics for a single cable
and in practice two or three dielectrics are used in such a way that
the permittivity of the dielectric near the core has got highest value
and then it decreases and finally it has got minimum value in the
outer most layer.
The advantage of this t y pe of grading is that if the overall
diameter is same for a non-graded and graded cable, then the per
missible safe potential of the cable is increased i.e. for the same
permissible safe potential, the size of the graded cable wilibe smaller
than that of the non-graded cable.
(ii) Inters heath grading. A homogeneous dielectric is used in
this method of cable grading. The dielectric is divided into various
layers, placing suitably the metallic intersheaths. These metallic
intersheaths are held at certain potential, which are in between
the tore potential and the earth potential. There is thus a definite
potential difference between the inner and outer layer-of earth
sheath, so that each sheath can be treated like a homogeneous single
core cable.
The modern trend is to avoid grading as far possible and ernplo
oil 61led or gas pressure cables because with the capacitance
280
WIRING,
ESTIMAG AND COST!Nc
grading, there are only few high iirade insulating materials of'
reasonable cost and with inter sheath grading, there is possibility
of damaging to the intersheath the time of
transp ortation and'
installation The heat looses are also there due to charging currents.
ll .Measu.rement of I
nsulation Resistance of Cables
1. Gal vanometer method. To
apply this method to measure the
insulation resistance of the cables, a very sensitive
high resistance i.e. galvanometer of
of 1000 ohm or more is connected in series with
the resistance to be measured and to a battery supply. The deflection
on the galv
under me anometer dial reads the insulation resistance of the cable
asurement. This method of measuring the insulation
resistance of the cable is not precise. This method is only sufficient
to indicate whether the insulation is faulty or otherwise
2. B) Insulation Testing megger.
The adequate and accurate
method of testing the insulation resistance of the cables is with the
help of megger. It carries two terminals marked E
minal L is connected to the core of the cable and and L. The ter-
terminal
connected to earth terminal. Now the handle ofthe meggeris rotatedis
'E'
at uniform speed, then there will be deflection of the pointer on the
calibrated dial of the megger. This is the direct reading of insulation
rejstance of the cable between core and earth.
l2. Cable Jointing. The cable jointing is the work of a highly
skilled man, snce the successful working of the cable depends
the quality of the joint made. All joints in the cables mustupon
mechan be
ically and electrically perfect as imperfect joints are the
source of weakness and danger. The cable jointing can be divided
into following heads
(a) Preparation of the ends of the cable.
required for cable jointing and their equipmenWhen all the materials
t is ready, the seal of
the cable shcu!d be broken. Remove the lead sheath only two-thirds
of its thickness for a length of about iS cm. (about 4 cm.
than the half length of the sleeve of the joint) by means ofgreater
a back
knife and hammer. Care should be taken to make a slanting cut in
the lead sheath so that the core insulation may not be damaged.
After this operation, bare the C
onductor for a length of about
0.625 cm. more than the half length of the sleeve and the bare
stranded conductor should he cleaned with niaptha. The remaining
length of the cable from which 2/3rd t
protected f hickness of lead is removed is
i.e. 3 cm
stranded end of the co pprox.) with the help of a tape. Then
nductor is secured with the help of two turnsthe
of binding wire, also near the end of the of cut the cable is secured
with afew turns of tinned copper binding wire. Now remove the first
binding wire made solder it either with the help of a soldering iron
or by pouring molten solder from one ladle to another. For such
soldering, powdered resin may be used as flux.
(b) Making sleeve for the joint. For making the sleeve for the
joint, the conductors are made to butt each other in the sleeve and
are soldered. The sleeve usually is made from a sheet of copper,
which is cleaned thoroughly and is bent to form a split tube. Two
holes of about 1.25 cm. diameter are drilled from each end of the
tube. Then a layer of pure tallow is applied on the inside and outside
of the tube. Now a layer of solder is applied on the inside and outside
of the sleeve, first by rolling in it powdered resin and then dipping
it in molten solder. The excess of the solder on the sleeve is usually
removed by means of pulling a piece of rag through the sleeve when
hot.
(c) Jointing. Before the actual process ofjointing starts, a lead
pipe about 20 cm. long is taken to cover the jointing copper sleeve
and a hole of 0.5 cm. dia. is made which is called the filling hole.
Then beat up the lead so that a lip is formed at the top of the hole.
Drill two holes more, one at each end so as to act as air vents. Clean
the ends of the lead pipe and scrap outer edges slightly. If it is not
done, the joint will not take solder. Now thoroughly clean the lead
sheath on each end of the cable and pass this lead pipe on one end
of the cable.
Now insert the prepared ends of the copper or aluminium
conductors of the cable into the copper sleeve. It is necessary that
this sleeve should be a close fit over the conductors, and conductors
should be placed so as to butt each other. Pour molten solder over
the split copper sleeve from a small ladle and keep another ladle
below the joint to catch the drops of the solder. The excess of the
molten solder should be wiped off. Care must be taken that the joint
is in a horizontal position. It should be remembered that the jointing
should not take more than half a minute otherwise the insulation of
the cable will be spoiled.
(d) Insulating the joint. The method of insulating rubber
insulated cables and paper insulated cables is different.. For insu-
lated rubber cable, India rubber tape is used with the help of rubber
solution which is available either in collapsible tubes Or in tins.
Before the rubber tape is provided over the joint, it is necessary to
checkup the rubber insulation on the cable ; if it is damaged during
the soldering operation, it mustbe cutaway. Also bare the insulation
for about 3 cm. on each side of the joint. Clean the insulation by
282
WNG, ESTIMATING AND CCSTING
scraping so that no dust or threads etc, are left out. The rubc:
insulation on the cable now should be tapered by means of curved
scissors for about 1.5 cm. on each side.
• Now just beyond the point cf taper, start providing tape on the
bare conductors and copper sleeve. Care should be taken not to use
rubber solution for the fi rst layer, i.e. rubber solution should not come
in contact with copper conductor. After first layer the second layer
is provided, so that this layer overlaps the previous one for half of
its width ; over the first layer, apply a small quantity of rubber
solution and the serving of this tape now should be continued (only
after the conductor is covered with rubber tape) upto the tapered
portion of the rubber insulation. The serving of the tape should be
continued until the insulation provided is of so much thickness that
it comes up to the level of the rubber insulation with continued use
of rubber solution on both sides of the tape. The last two layers
should be contihued beyond the start of tapered rubber insulation
for about 1.25 cm. For insulating the joint, care should be taken that
the work must be clean and the rubber solution should be sparingly
used. The cable insulation should be kept tapered only for the
minimum period and in no case dirt or dust should come in contact
with it.
For insulation of paper-insulated cabie joints, impregnated

cotton tape; usually available in tins, is used. Before such tapes are
used, they are kept in a hot solution of sleeve compound at a tem-
perature of about 230°F, but in no case the tape should come in
contact with the container vessel. The impregnated tape should be
removed from the compound only when it has sufficiently cooled.
The applied tape should be drawn as tightly over thejoint as possible
in order to exclude air, and moreover each lap should overlap the
preceding one by half its width. In case of high voltage cables, (not
in case of low voltage ad medium voltage cables) after the insulation
is provided over the conductor,the core insulation is removed in a
tapered fashion for a length of cm. to 7 5 cm. depending upon the
voltage. This is obtained thus Give a turn on the cable with the
help of a copper wire and remove the paper insulation, and now give
the turn at a distance of about 0.6 cm. from the previous joint
(moving towards the end of the cable) and again remove the paper
insulation up to this point and soon. Now thejoint should be covered
with an impregnated cotton tape; the-thickness of the cotton tape
provided should vary from 1 to 2 times that of the paper insulation.
The tape should be tapered to tape 1.25 cm. beyond the lead sleeve.
UNDERGROUND CABLES AND IINSTALL\TIONS 283
(e) Jointing of lead sleeve. Aer the conductors have been

soldered and an insulation is provc.'d over them, it is necessary to
protect this insulation against chancatir'iury and from the effect
of atmosphere. Such protection is usually provided by slipping a
lead sleeve over the joint and filling it with a compound. This sleeve
is the same one which has been mentioned earlier and slipped over
the cable before the conductors are soldered. Assuming that the lead
sleeve and the lead over the cable have been well cleaned or scraped,
the following are two methods of jointing the sleeve with the lead
sheath on the cable
(i) Soldered joint.
(ii) Amalgaline plumbing.
(1) Soldered joint. Slip the lead sleeve over the insulated joint
and dress down its ends over the cable sheath. Insert cotton waste
into the joints near the ends. Light up a blow lamp and adjust its
flame about 5 cm. long. Warm up the lead on the sleeve and on the
cable, taking care that only the tip of the flame should touch the
lead and to heat the cable only at one point. Now bring the solder
near the cable joint and apply flame on the solder only, so that it is
laid first roughly over the joint in the form of lumps. Now heat the
joint by moving the flame round the cable. Care 'lculd be taken t(-
solder the edges properly. In order to check whether any pin-holes
are left or not while the joint is warm apply tallow or a solution of
glycerine and soft soap solution. Thus any pin-hole left is soldered
properly.
Similarly the other end of the sleeve is soldered.
(ii) Ainaigaline plumbing. In this method the lead on the sleeve
and the cable are properly cleaned and the ribbon of amalgaline
wrapped round the lead sheath of the cable. Then the lead in the
sleeve is dressed down so that it tightly fits over the ribbon. Now
apply heat by means of a blow lamp until the ribbon melts and at
the same time the lead sheath of the cable and sleeve melts and ran
together to form a solid joint. Such a method is quicker and neater.
13. Filling Compound in the Sleeve. The compound to be
filled in is heated in a pan or a ladle, taking care not to overheat. If
it is overheated the insulating properties of the compound will
deteriorate. So the compound should be heated up to a particular
temperatures which varies according to the composition of the
compound and a thermometer should be used for notng the tem-
perature. In general the compound should not he heated beyond
300°F.
When the compound is melted, the iad sleeve is warmed up
284
taking care not to overheat it, otherwise the solder at the ends will
be melted and the Joint will be weakened. The warming of it is
necessary, otherwise the poured compound
will solidify and thus
prevent the complete compounding of the joint.
Pour the mcten cornpoun in t
o the lip hole of the sleeve until
it comes out of the vent holes of the sleeve. Allow the sleeve to cool
down and then pour more compound to allow for shrinkage. Seal
the filling by means of soldering a lead cover over it, while the air
vents should be soldered with drops of solder.
14. Jointing a Multicore Cable. For multi-core cables also
the tapered lead sleeve joints are the best, since approximates to
the actual construction of the cable. But such a method is quite
expensive and takes more time, so such joint are not justified for
low voltage and medium voltage cables. For such cables, the con-
ductor joints so made (without lead sleeve) can well be insulated
and protected in a cast box which is filled with an insulating
compound. The method of making a straight joint for 3,500 V.3-core
paper cable is as explained below
Jointir.gofa multi-core cable

Fig. 9.11
(1) Mark the cutting points, giving an allowance of 2.5 cm. for
overlap. -
(2) Bind the armouring of the cable with a 16 S.W.G. bindjn
wire giving about 6 or 7 turns as a distance of about 20 cm. frorr
either end of the cable and remove the ar
mouring of the cable up tc
this point with a triangular file.
(3) Remove the lead sheath up to a length of 18 cm.
(4) Remove paper insulation and bare the conductor for a length
of about 25 cm.
(5)
Protect the exposed paper insulation from moisture and
solder etc. with the help of an impregnated cotton tape.
(6) Twist the conductor ends and insert the two conductors ih
a tinned brass conriectorso thatboth the conductors meet each other.
(7) Solder perforated tinned capper bonding strips before sol-
dering brighten the lead sheath under the bonding strip.
(8) Over the lead sheath at the point shown, bind the con.-
pounded canvas tape until the overall diameter is slightly more than
UNDERGROUND CA S ES AND INSTALLATIONS 285
the internal diame.er of the inner gland. For proper adhesion each
turn is warmed up with blow lamp.
(9) At the points, where both the cables are to be gripped, clean
the armouring of each cable and bind with lead strip 1.5 mm. thick
until the overall diameter is slightly more than the internal diam-
eter of the armourclamp.
(10) The three cores joined together should be separated with
the help of porcelain spreader which must be quite dry. For this
purpose before use, it is immersed in a hot compound.
(11) Place the bottom half of the box under the joint so made
and provide the armour clamp as shown and bolt it to the cable. The
inside of the clamp must be well cleaned in order to ensure better
electrical contact.
(12) With the stud, connect the lead bonding strip to the box.
(13) Warm thebottom haifofthe box with filling compound and
while the compound is hot, place the upper half of the box over it
and provide a bolt.
(14) Remove t1e manhole and heat up the box from outside and
fill it up with the compound.
(15) Remove t1e filling plugs of the glands and provide seaing
compound over thi glands.
(16) Allow the joint to cool down, and after the contraction of
the insulating compound, provide more quantity of it.
(1) After theoritraction is complete, fill the groove shown with
the sealing compnd and replace the manhole. Before replacing
the manhole, sealing compound houid be provided there.
(18) All the enings should be sealed with the sealing com-
pound.
The Fig. represents a two core Tjoint

Fig. 9.12
286
(19) When the job is completed it should be painted black with

bitumen paint, in a
ddiLion several metres of cable on both ends of
the joint are coated with bitumen paint.
Typical Questions
1.
properties What is tie use of under ground cables ? Explain about the
which the insulation of underground cable possess?
2. What type of insulating material are mostly used for under
ground cables? Explain about them.
3. Explain about the general Construction of underground cable.
How are the cables classified according to Voltage?
4. What are the types of 3 phases cables?
Explain about them with their diagrams.
5. What points are taken into consideration at the time of laying
under ground cables ?
6.
What methods are adopted for laying of cables under ground ?
E\plan about them.
7.
tvp cahesWhat
?
are the advantages of screened types of cables over belted
8. \Vh0, are the advantages and di s

a dvantages of oil filled cables?
- L \Yna do y ou understand by g
radingofcabj0 5 ?Explain about the
differert rrethods of grading ?
10. What methods are adopted to measure the insulation resistance
of under ground cables ?
11. Describe about the cables jointing.
12. Explain about the straight joint for 3900 V, 3-core paper cable.
Electric Earthing and Shock
1. Introductioo. 2. Neutral Wire. 3. Why grounding is required. 4. Comparison
between Neutral and Earth Wire. 5. Fire hazards from electricity. 6Why fuse is not
used in the neutral. 7. Connection with earth. 8.Value of earth resistance and factors
on which it is dependent. 9. Methods of earthing. 10. Definitions. 11. Points to
remember while earthing. 12. Earth Leakage circuit Breaker System. 13. Electric
Shock 14. Cure of shocks. 15. Artificial respiration. 16. Precautions against shock.
1. Introduction. The meaning of the term earthing or

grounding is to connect the electrical equipment to the general mass
of earth by wire of negligible resistance. This brings the body of the
electrical equipment to zero potentici and thus v/ill avoid the shck
to the operator. The neutral of the supply system is also solidly
earthed to ensure its potential equal to zero. According to Indian
Electricity Rules, "the earthed or connected with earth means con-
nected with the general mass ofthe earth in such manner as to ensure
at all t'nes an immediate discharge of energy without danger.
2. Neutral Wire. In India the general distribution is by means
ofA.C. 3-phase 4-wire distributors. The potential between any two
phases is 440 V and the potential between any of the three-phases
and the fourth-wire known as neutral is 230 V, and this neutral is
connected to the junction of the three-,phases at the generating end.
The neutral wire is always grounded at the generating station. The
residential electrical appliances such as lamp, radio, heater, iror
etc., all operate at 230 V, so for the residential wiring, one of the
outer phases and neutral are brought into the house. If the con-
sumer's load is quite high, then all the three-phases and neutral are
brought in, but the appliances are connected between a pt ,.ase and
a neutral and whole of the load is equally distributed on all the
phases. -
3. Why grounding is required. Let an electrical apparatus
of resistance R be connected across the supply mains and let it be
not earthed as shown in Fig. 10.1. Let us assume that the potential
between the live wire and neutral is V. If the insulation resistance
—20
288
WrNC, E STLMATING AND COSTThC
between the electrical element Of '!he apparatus and its metal case
be fl, and resistance of the body of person, who happens to touch
the apparatus be R,
lithe person who touches the apparatus
standing on the earth, then the current from the supply main will
have an alternative path through the insulation resistanceR of the
electrical apparatus resistance R 6 of the body to earth, and finally
through the earth resistance R to the neutral of the supply. The
electrical circuit for the above is shown in Fig. 10.2. The current
in the second shunt path depends upon the insulation resistanceR 1b
R, R and the applied voltage V. However, mostly it is dependent
upon R, since it varies from infinity when the insulation is quite
sound and zero ohms when there is a dead short circuit between the
element and the metal case respectively. No current will pass
through alternative circuit, if the insulator resistance is infinity.
METAL C45E OP THE

c&51
ELECTP/C APAP,,.
An unearthed apparatus being touched by a person standing on

the ground or earth.
Fig. 10.1
ELECTRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK
289
Rb
Electric circuit at the time of getting a shock

Fig. 10.2
When the apparatus is sound
R i soc ..(10.l)
16 oc+R6+R0 ...(l0.2)
Hence no current passes through the body and no shock is

experienced by the person.
When the insulation of the element becomes defective, the

i11iaLior. resiitnce of the apparatus will approach zero, and then
the value ofI -ill be much dependent upon the resistance R 6 of the
body and it may be quite sufficient to give a fatal shock tc the person.
In this case,
V
(10.3)
IVRI'Pi
L
c
2 ra
Re Re,
(a) (b)
Illustrating an earthed Electric circuit when the apparatus
apparatus. is earthed.
Fig. 10.3
Now let the metal case be earthed as shown in Fig. 10.3 (a). Fig.
10.3 (b) represents the electrical circuit when any person standing
on the earth t ouches -the apparatus.
290
WUflG, ESTIMAT[NG AND COSTING
Again the leakage current will largeiy be determined by the

resistance R ; when the I
nsulation ofthe element is sound, the value
of R j will be very high and
the leakage current I will be almost
negligible. When the insulation deteriorates the value
of R,
approaches zero ; the value of the leakage current no doubt will be
quite sufflcientto give a fatal shock, but at junction A
before it passes
through the body, it divides into two paths open for it, one through
the body offering resistance R b
resistances R 1 which is negligible. and the other through the earth
The resistance R 1 comprises
the resistance of of
the earth electrode and resistance of the general
mass of earth which is dcnoted as 1?. AsR 6
and re parallel, the
effective resistance will be approximately equal to
R.
Thus the equivalent resistance of
the alternative path will be
R = R.+ --_--
l/R, + I/R b -
R, x
P, --:-
...(10.4)
L'i view of Eqn. (10.4),
V
/ &
..:(10.5)
The current for which value has been arrived at in Eqn. (10.5)
will be divided in two parts at junction A. If
the value of the current
through the body and earth be I and
'd which adjust themselves in
the inverse ratio of their resistance, then.
/b
Ac
R 1 +R R 1 ...(I0.6)
and
R,1± R ...(I0.7)
Since the maximum value R., is of the order of 5 ohms,

(according to I.S.I. Specifications) R
under worst condition will be
1,000 ohms, thus current 'd
will be much more than that of 1. and
this current will not be sufficient to cause any shock.
The value of the leakage current I will be sufficiently high t
cause the fuse in the circuit to melt and thus will help to isolate he
clectricil appliance from the supply mains.
ELECTRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK 291
It will be observed from the above that the effective isolation of

the plant from the supply mains depend upon the earth resistance
comprising the resistance of earth electrodes and the resistance of
general mass ofthe earth in between these two points. If due to some
reasons, the earth resistances rise above the safe limits, it will cause
the current through the body to increase to thus the possibility of the
shock further increases. Hence the arrangement is not fool-proof.
In order to make the arrangement absolutely safe from shock
point of view, an alternative arrangement is to run an earth wire
between the electrical apparatus to be protected and the neutral of
the source of supply called a bonding connection, as shown in Fig.
10.4 (b). When any person touches te .: case of the electrical
apparatus, the circuit reduces as shown in Fig. 10.4 (b).
L Switch Fuse 1 1
fliustrating an earthed appa- Equivalent electrical circuit

ratus and bonding connection of Fig. 10.3 (b)
(t) (b)
Fig. 10.4
Thus it will provide an alternative low resistance path to the-
neutral. The salient features of the bonding must be:
(i) the earth wire acting as a bonding connection must be of
sufficient cross-section to carry the fault current under
worst conditions
(ii) the bonding must be continuous from the appliance to be
protected to the neutral of the source;
(iii) the resistance of the bonding must be very low
(iv) the bonding wire must be strong enough so that it cannot
be broken easily at any point;
(v) the connection of the bonding wire must be perfect at both
ends;
(vi) all bonding connection should be protected against corro-
sion.
292
4. Comparison Between Netural and Earth Wire:

S. No. Neutral Wire Earth Wire
It is directly connected to the It may be directly connected to
neutral point of the supply the neutral point to supply
system. system.
2. It serves as a return conductor. I t May carry current only jncase
of fault.
3 Its potential at some point may It is supposed to be at zero
be substantially far from zero, potential. It is not mounted on
It is therefore insulated from any insulator and is in direct
the pole on which it is sup- metalic contact with the sup-
ported. In this case, the insu- port metals work.
lator is smaller in size than the
one supporting the phase
conductors.
4 It may notbe connected to earth It must be connected to earth at
at an intermediate point in the least at 3 places in a Km or at 4
line, places an a mile.
5. Fire Hazards from Electricit y .
Whenever there is a
breakdown of insulation over the wires it is always accompanied by
generation ofheat and increase of temperature near about the fault.
If there is a faulty earth and there is no isolation of circuit due to
fault current, then the fault persists which
further increases the
temperature of the surrounding and if the temperature eaches
ig'tfon point, the insulation starts burning, and fire breaks out.
1I;- tQ avoid the Fire hazard earthing or bonding isanecessity.
6. Why the fuse is not used in
the neutral. According to
Indian Electricity Rule 32 clause 2, no cut-out, link or switch other
than a linked switch arranged to operate simultaneously on the
earLhed or earthed neutral conductor and live condutors shall be
inserted or remain inserted in any earthed or earthed neutral
conductor ofa two-wire system or in any earthed orearthed neutral
conductor of a multi-wire system or in any conductor connected
thereto with the following exceptions
(a) A link for testing purpose, or
(h) A switch for use in controlling a generator or transformer.
In order to prove it, let a fuse be inserted in the neutral of the
supply as shown in Fi g . 10.5 and let the metallic body of the electric
appliance be earthed to avoid electric shock. Let the insulation of
the appliance deteriorate and there is a leakage current and this
makes the fuse in the neutral to melt first. But as soon as the
some-one touches the electric appliance in order to know what has
happened, he will complete the circuit through his body to earth
and source and thus will get a severe shock since it is still not
disconnected from the live mains.
Hence for safety reasons, a fuse should never be used in the
neutral.
Fig. 10.5 -
7. Connection with Earth. (i) According to Indian Electricity

Rule 61, the following provisions shall apply to the connection with
earth of s y stem at low voltage in cases where the voltage normally
exceeds 125 volts and of the systems at medium voltage (a) T'.e
neutral condutor of a 3-phase four-wire syster and the middle
conductor of a two phase 3-wire system shall be earthed by not less
than two separate and distinct connections with earth both at the
generating station and at a the substations. It may also be earthed
at one or more points along the distribution system or service line in
addition to any connection with earth which may be at the consumer's
premises.
(b) The frame of every generator, stationary motor and so far
as is practicable, portable motor, and the metallic parts (not intended
as conductors) of all transformers and any other apparatus used for
regulating or controlling energy and all medium voltage energy
consuming apparatus shalt be earthed by the owner by two separate
and distinct connection with earth.
(c) All metallic coverings containing electric supply wires,
294
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTIN-
metallic apparatus viz., iron clad switches,

down rod of fan, w di stribution fuse board— .
ater-tight switches etc. should be earthed. Ii
addition to running earth conductor, the main switch board a
consumers premises should be earthed with an earth electrode.
(d) All apparatus viz,
refrigerator, energy meters, cooking
range, oven, electric heaters, press etc. should be earthed,
(e) In an underg-round cable, metallic sheath should be earthe
by two separate and distinct connection with the earth.
(f) Iron clamps, brackets, steel poles, steel tower stay wires o
a distribution and transmission system should be earthed.
(g) No earth connection is made to that gas pipe.
-
(h) In case of d.c. supply, the middle conductor should b
earthed at the generating Stations.
8. Values of earth electrode resistance and factors
which it is dependent:
The earth resistance is dependent upon many factors as
detailed below and as such its value can vary
(a) Material of electrodes and earth wire.
(b) Size of electrode and earth wire.
(c) Temperature of the soil.
(dj Moisture of the soil.
(e) Depth to which it is embedded.
(/) quantity of coal and charcoal in the earth electrode pit.
Maximum value beyond which the earth electrode resistance
should not be increased is 5 ohms. However for better performance
at power house and su bstation its value should be 0.5 ohm and 1.00
ohm r espectively. Water is poured in the earth pit containing
electrode to improve the resistance.
9. Methods of Earthing. There are three methods of earthing.
1. Earthing through a water main.
Before making an earthing
connection to the water main, it must be ascertained that
throughout C. I. pipes have been used, otherwise if the cement
concrete pipes have been used, the earthing will not be effective.
When making an earthing connection, care must be taken to limit
the contact resistance to the minimum. For that purpose properly
designed earthing clamp should be used. The stranded copper lead
is fanned out and is soldered to make it solid. Then the lead strip is
bent round the pipe so that it may be seated properly over the pipe.
The surface of the pipe is cleaned properly, and all traces orgreas
ELECTRIC FARTI4ING AND SHOCK
placed the clamp. In between the

clamp and pipe i inserted the lead and is tightened with the screws
shown in Fig. 10.6.
7ed Out
'Y.'"_
Soldered SO/Id
traded Coppe'-. 1116
Representing earth connection with water main.

Fig. 10.6
TLs method is ;ov;ever not popular as water means are of
concrete or cement.
(2) Pipe Earthing. If the water-pipe cannot be used as an earth,
a galvanised iron pipe of approved length and diameter can be used.
The size of the pipe depends upon (a) the current to be carried, (b)
the type of soil. According to I.S.I. Standard No. 732-1963 the
galvanizd iron pipe shall not be less than 38.1 mm. diameter and 2
in, long for ordinary soil but if the soil is dry and rocky, the length
of the pipe should be increased to 2.75 m.
The pipe is placed upright as shown in Fig. 10.7, and must be
placed in a permanently wet ground. The depth at which the pipe
should be buried depend on the condition of the ground moisture.
According to Indian Standard, the pipe should be placed at a depth
of 4.75 m. ; it can be less if the soil provides sufficient moisture
earlier. The pipe at the bottom should be surrounded by broken
pieces of coke or charcoal for a distance of about 15 cm. around the
pipe. The coke increases the effective areas of the earth practically
to the outside of the coke bed. -.
Impregnating the coke with salt decreases the earth resistance.
Generally alternate layers of salt and coke are used for best results
as represented in Fig. 10.7. In India in summer season the moisture
in the soil will decrease to a large extent which will increase the
296
Cost Iron Cover
W
Wre Mesh
6' (,
I9m Did ()
Cm.
.12mm flak
.-.-
of
Fig. 10.7 Pipe earthing

earth resistance. So in order to have an effective earth, whenever
needed, 3 to 4 bucketsof water should be put into the funnel con-
nected to the main G. I. pipe through 19 mm. dia. pipe.
The earth lead used must beG. I. wireorO. I. strip

(not of copper)
of sufficient cross-sectional area to carry fault current safely. (It
should not be less than electrical equivalent of copper conductor of
12.97 sq. mm (8 SWG) cross-sectional area. The earth wire from the
G.I.pipe of 19 mm dia. should be carried in a G.I. pipe of dia. 12.7
mm. at a depth of about 60 cm. below the ground. Further when the

ECRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK 297
earth ja
wire is carried over from one machine to the other, it should
be well protected from mechanical injury, by carrying the earth
a recessed portion.
Plate Eart?iing.The earth connection can again be provided
with the help of a copper plate or a G.I. plate. When G.I. plate is
used it should not be of less than 60 cm. x 60 cm. x 6.35 mm while
for copper plate these dimensions may be 60 cm. x 60 cm. x 3.18
mm. However, the use of the copper plate in these days, is limited.
Cast I,o., (-"er
copper Wra for Ccer Pct

& 6! Wt 1r 61
' 6re
61
1 /271
95 mm Dja Fpe
6.! PIP"
Dia
a-..
I
-

Hi
OrCi aja..e
::at
H (b
(1
Fig. 10.8 Plate earthing
The plate is kept with its face vertical at a depth of 3 in. (10 ft.)
and is so arranged that it is embedded in an alternate layer of coke
and salt for a minimum thickness of about 15 cm. in case earthing
is done by copper plate and in coke layers of 15 cm. if it is done with
G. I. plate. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earthplate with
the help of bolt nut and washer, the details of which are shown in
Fig. 10.8(b). It should be remembered that the nuts and bolts must
be of copper for copper plate and should be of galvanized iron for
galvanized plate. The other details of plate earthing are same as
that ofG.l. pipe earthing.
298
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTEr-
10. Definitions.
(1) Earth Electrode. The conductor
e mbedded in the grow—
for the purpose of rnak ng connection with the general mass of ear
is known as earth electrode and the wire which connects overhe
earth wire (or any other equipment to be earthed) with ear
electrode is known as earthing lead.
Where available underground water pipes or lead sheathed a—
steel armoured cables should not be used as earth electrodes. The
are prohibited by ISI, vide IS 732-1963 (Revised)
"Sprinkler pipes or conveying gas, water or flammable liqui
conduit, metallic enclosures of cables, conductors and Iightnii-
protection system, shall not be used as a means of earthing =
installation, or even as a link in earthing system."
The reason is, the water pipes are not usually in direct conta
with earth, particularly if no-conducting joining have been us
between section of water main. The same is the case with lead shea
or steel armouring of cables.
There are 3 types of artificial electrodes, following ti
specifications of ISS.
(1) Driven Electrodes i.e. pipe or rode electrodes,
(it) Strip electr dc
(iii) Plate electrodes.
(ii) Driven Electrodes The electrode is made of metal rod
pipe having a clean surface line, not cjvered by any poor
conducting material such a paint or enamel. Rod electrodes ofste
or iron shall have a minimum dia. of 16 mm and those of copper
at least 12.5mm dia. Pipe electrodes shall not be less than 38m
internal dia-meter if made of iron or steel, (galvanised,) The lengt
of this electrodes shall be not less than 2.5m. The electrodes sha-
normally be driven to a depth of at least 1.25 metres. But if rock
encountered they may be burned in a horizontal trench and sha
be not less than 2.5m. in length.
(iii) Strip Electrodes. These consist of copper strips, n
smaller than 25mm x 1.6mm in cross section of bare COPPE
conductor not less than 3mm 2 in section. They are burned i
horizontal trenches, not less than 2.5m deep. The length shall b
such as to give required earth resistance.
(iv) Plate Electrodes. A plate of copper or galvanised iron c
(0.6 x 0.6 x 0.006 m for iron OR 0.6 x 0.6 x 0.003 m. copper) is burrie
with its face vertical iri an alternate layer of coke and salt for
minimum thickness of about 15cm. The earthing lead is enclosed i
a G.I. pipe of 12.7 mm dia and is bolted to the earth plate with th
help of bolt, nut and washer.
Earch conductivity is electraly'ic in nure anu is affected by

moisture content of the soil and its chemical composition. Therefore
electrodes shall use as far as possible, practicable, be embedded
below permanent moisture level. Een then the earth resistance
may increase appreciably during summer when the moisture in the
soil decreases considerably. Arrangement, must therefore be made
to keep the electrode wet, even during such periods by pouring 3 to
4 buckets of water into the sump once for every few days. Further
to reduce the soil resistivity, some common salt is dissolved in the
moisture by packing it all around the electrode.
The electrode material does not affect earth resistance and so
a material which can resist corrosion is to be chosen. For a.c. circuits,
zinc coated iron electrodes should normally be used, as the price of
copper is very high. But in d.c. system, the electrolytic electrodes
are generally used.
For a low protective fault current, pipe electrodes are used. For
a large protective fault current, plate electrodes are used.
(v) Earthing lead or the main earthing conductor. The
wire connecting the earth electrode with the main switch board or
• with the continuous earth wire run along the distribution,
I or the servie line s ncwn as ar'hing lead or the
main earthing conductor.
(t.'i) Sub-main earthing conductor. The earth wire v.hich
runs between the main vjtc 1 board to the distribution board or
other words along the sub-mains is known as sub-main earthing
conductor.
i.uii) Earthing continuity conductor. The wire running
between the distribution board and various plugs and appliances is
known as earth continuit, conductor.
11. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker System
In this system, the parts of an electrical installation to be
protected even from leakage of very low current, are connected to
an earth electrode through the coil of an earth leakage circuit
breaker, which controls the supply to that part of the installation,
in addition to the already earthed equipment. As shown in the fig.
it provides the means ofdis:onnectng the faulty circuit at a current
level of about 30 miili-amps which is only a fraction of the normal
full load current, and is the most effective methodofprot'ctiOfl. This
method is especially recommendtd for ir,stallations of high earth
resistance. The trip circuit breaker ma y be provided v;ith time lag
feature to allow the ope1ation of the protective devices protecting
individual circuit.
300
WIRING ESTLMATING AND COSTLNC
NEUTRAL
-
py
OP
MA IN S TCH
RESISTOR
KEY I
I:; INSULATED
LEAD
J
EAR 7- H F
WIRE
L
Ll LAETO BE
Fig. 10.9 Shows

the Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker System
12. Points to remember while providing earthing.
Following points should be remembered while providing
earthing to an i
nstallation and premises Various details giv
per I.S. s p ecification are en as
(i) Distance The distance of the electrode from the
installation at the premises should be more than 1.5 metre.
(ii) Cro ss-section
of the earthing lead. It should never be
less than half the cross-section c f
selection should be made in such ' the mains wire or conductor. The
a way that even in worst condition
it shall not fuse out. The minimum size of the earthing lead should
not be less than electrical equivalent of copper
(12.97 sq. mm c r c onductor of SWG
oss-section). The sizes of earthing lead for various
loads and installations are given in Table 10.1
(iii) Cross-section of the earth Continuity
con ductor. The
size of the earth Continuity conductr should not be less than 14
SWG (2.894 . sq. mrn
(iv) Electrode. As already discussed, the earthing can be done
either with plate or pipc eIectrodi I
tshould be remembered that the

301
ELECTRIC EARTHING AND SHOCK
material for earth electrode and earth lead should be same and the
electrode should always be placed in vertc :l position. The size of the
plate earth electrode for various loads and insulation should be in
accordance with the details given in Table 10.1.
(u) Earth resistance. The earth resistance of any earthing

should not be more than 5 ohms. As already said that for better
performance at power house and sub-stations or for high horse
power motor beyond 100 H.P. the earth resistance should be upto
0.5 ohm and 1 ohm respectively.
Table 10.1
Type of loads and Size of the earth lead I Size of the earth
installation electrode
-J
Copper I G.1. Wire
SWG Area inSWG Area in
sq. mm sq. mm Copper i G.I.
Consumers S 12.97 8 12.97 o0cm.x 6Ocm.x
residential 60cm x 60cm. x
premises 3.18 mm 6.35 mn
Pole earthing of-do . -do. S 12.97 -do . -do-
transmission or
distribution lines
Industrial loads -do- -do- 8 12.97 -do- .do-
upto 10 HP
Industrial loads -do- -do- 6 - 18.68 -do- -do-
between 10 HP to
15 HP
Industrial loads 6 18.68 2 38.60 -do- 9cm.x
between 15 HP to I 90cm. x
30 HP 6.35 mm
Industrial loads 4 27.27 not used 90cm.x Not used
betWeen 30 HP tol cm. x
50 HP 16.35 mm
Industrial loads (i) 2 38.60 not used -do- Not used
between 50 HP to (iL)copp 12.7mm
100 HP er strip 2.54mm
Industrial loads copper 25.4mm rot 1 used -do- L
above 100 HP strip 2.54mm
PowerHouses and copper 25.4mm not used -do- -
sub-stations strip 2.54mm --d
The resistance of earth is dependent upon area of electrode in

contact with the general mass of earth, the quantity of earth, coal
and salt.
302
The resistance of an existing earth can be increased by Pouring

water for G.I. plate earthing, salted water for copper plate earthing
or by replacing the coke and salt.
The low earthing resistance can be obtained by increasing the
cross-sectional area of electrodes and this can be achieved by
connecting a number of electrodes in parallel.
13. Electric Shock.
The effect of electric shock may be death—.
(1) due to fibrillation of heart. i.e., damaging the heart to small
pieces causing the stopping of breathing
(2) due to stopping of breathing action caused by blockade in
the nervous system causing respiration
(3) due to local overheating or burning of the body.
The fibrillation of the heart is the most serious cause of death
and there is no cure, although there is Possibility of rescuing a man
who has suffered by the latter two causes. The seriousness of the
electric shock is de p
endent upon the following factors
(i) The Current Strength ,
It has been experienced that in
alternating currents of low frequency the current between 1 MA
and 8 mA are j.ist bearable, but currents between 8 mA and 15 mA
give a paafui shock whch sometimes contract muscle 3
leakage current is between 20 mA ad 50 mA and it passes too. If the
through
chest it may stop breathing and currents between 100 mAand 200
mA may cause fibrillation of heart. Current beyond 200 mA will
cause bu r
n, and if it passes through heart even, it will not cause
fibrillation but may stop breathing temporarily.
Thus it is seen that it is the current which
giv es shock although
it depends upon the voltage. The leakage current is given
F
I=
where E is the supply voltage and R
is the body resistance.
The body resistance is different 'under different conditions.
When the body is dry, its resistance varies between 70,000 n and
100,000 Q per sq. cm . (the sl:in resistance is high while the internal -
resistan is lo), but when the body is wet, its resistance reduces
to between 700 Q and 1,000 Q per sq. cm
. The average effective
resistance of the body may be taken as 50,000 Q when dry and 1,000
Q when wet. The high voltage causing currents beyond 200 mA
punctures the outer skin causing burns. Table 10.2 gives the results
of shock under different Conditions and under different voltages.
Hence it is concluded that when body is wet 100 V supply is as
dangerous as 10000 V when the body is dry.
ELECTRIC FARTH ING AND SHOM 303
( j ) The frequency ofcurnzts. The lower the frequency, the more

dangerous is the shock, andt:direct current shock is the most severe.
(iii) The path taken bytbcurrent through the body. If the path
of the leakage current is Wi thout involving the chest or heart,
survival is possible but then are severe burns on the parts of the
body involved in the shock ending upon the value of the current.
Table 10.2
Condit Electric re
ion of szstanceo/ bo y 500V 10,000 V
body the body
ohms Current I Current Current
A zFect A I A Effect
Totally 1,000 0.1 Cin 0.5 A B 10 Severe
wet and probable burns;
1 itht I death may
survive
Neither 5,000 0.02 1Xv 5urnsl 0.1 2 Severe
wet not o ijury; death; burns;
dry pail slight
burns vive
Dry 100,000 0.003 Vligh coo: Light 0.1 ue
sh; oaF shock, no de'ayth;
I lburns sli ht
14. Cure of Shocks. Innost of the cases the electric shock due
to accidents is momentarvand the contact with the live wire is
imperfect, in such cases breh stops momentarily. But ifdue to the
shock the victim becomesnscious, stops breathing and his heart
still beats, the most urgetand immediate cure for this victim is
that should be given irnm-ate artificial respiration in the manner
detailed on next pages be, and it should be continued until the
victim starts breathing nos'nally. It should be borne in mind that if
the artificial respiration ispped just after the victim recovers, he
is liable to become unconus again. In some cases the artificial
respiration is to be contimi for 6 to S hours.
If due to shock the hearistops beating it means that fibrillation
of the heart has occuredas1 death is certain.
15. Artificial Respiution. At the time of accident due to
electric shock, proceed asfdlows
(i) When anyone getsa shock, the first and foremost duty of
the observer is toreak the contact of the live mains and
body eTher by swithing off the main supply, or the body
should be rclledavay with a dr y wooden stick. If stick
—21

etc. is not at hand, a dry piece of cloth should be used to

detach the body from the live mains, or if that is also not
available the loose cloth such as coat or shirt of the victiiîi
should be pulled with care without touching his body.
(ii) See, if the operator's clothes are smouldering ; if so,
extinguish the sparks etc.
(iii) Check up if the patient is breathing or not : if he is not
breathing, immediately start artificial respiration as
detailed below until medical aid arrives—
Lay the patient so that no pressure on the ourns of the patient
is applied. There are two methods of laying the patient for artificial
respiration:
Method 1. Lay the patient as represented in Fig. 10.10. Kneel
over the patient's back, and place both the hands on the patient's
thin portion of the back near the lowest rib in such a manner that
the fingers remain spread on the sides and the two thumbs almost
touch each other and are parallel to spine. Now press gradually, and
slowly for about 3 seconds by leaning forward your hands as shown
in 10.10 Fig. Th: ptiPrit shold be kept warm.
Fig. 10.10. Artificial respiration
Now relax the pressure slowly and come to the oriinal kneeling
position for about twe seconds as represented in Fig. 10.9. Repeat
the process for about 12 to 15 times in a minute. It expands and
contracts the patient's lungs so as to initiate breathing. The process
should be continued with great patience and in so case violence
should be used.

Method 2. When the patient has got burns etc. on his chest or
anywhere on front side, then the patient must definitely not be laid
as in Fig. 10. 11, instead lay him as shown in Fig. 10.12 with a pillow
or rolled coat under his shoulders. The clothes of the patient must
be loosened before starting the process of artificial respiration.
Artific i al respiration
Fig. 10.11
(a) Hold the patient just below the elbows and draw his hands
over his head until they are horizontal, keep them in that position
for about two seconds. Now bring the patient's hands on to his siIes
kneeling over the patient's hands so as to compress them down as
represented in Fig. 10.12. After 2 seconds repeat the process again.
Artificial respiration
Fig. 10.12
306
WIRING. ESTIMATING AND COSTING
(h) If the operator has got burns cnly, the burns should be
dressed properly ; oil should never be used on the burns. After the
patient's burns have been dressed properly, he may look cheerful
and quite all right. It is important to note that one who has received
electric shock is liable to get an attack of h yp
orstatjc pneumonia.
So it is necessary to keep him warm for at least one day.
16. Precautions against Shock. It is always necessary to
observe the following precautions against shock, since prevention
is better than cure
(1) Try to avoid work on live mains which should be switched
off before working.
(2) If it is not possible to switch off the mains, be sure before
working that your hands r feet are not wet and i
rubber shoes. nsulated with
(3) In order to rescue a person who has got an electric shock if
there is no other insulator available for rescuing, useyour feet rather
than hands, wearing the rebber shoes or P.V.C. shoes.
(4) When working on high voltages, be sure that the floor is not
conductor. Concrete floors are dan gerously conductive.
(5) When working on high voltage, try to keep your left hand
in the pocket i.e. avoid your left hand to get in contact with an
y live
conductor orme tall ic causing of an apparatus or metal pole or cross
arms.
(6) Do not work in such a place where your head is liable to
touch the live mains before making the circuit dead.
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. Why earthing is done?
2. Why fuse is not used in the neutral?
3. What are the various points which are to be earthed in accordance
with Indian Electricity Rule !
4. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Earth lead (ii) Electrode
(iii) Earth Continuity conductor (iv)
Sub-main earthing conductor
5. What are the various points to
be remembered while earthing?
6. What are the values of earth resistance?
7. What are factors on which earth resistance depend?
8. What are the various methods of earthing ? Explain one of the
method with sketch.
9. Recommend type of earthing for residential accommodation.
10. What should be the size of conductor and plate ejectr
recommended for earthing at various places?
11. What do you understand by the phenomena of"Electi-jc Shock"?
12. How a person who has suffered an electric shock is to be cured.
13. Suggest various precautions required to be taken to avoid electric
shock to a worker.
14. Write down the specifications for:
(a) Plate electrode (b) Pipe electrode
(c) Earth lead (d) Barth conductor
11
Power Stations and Substations
1. Thermal Power Stations. 2. Hydro Electric Power Stations. 3. Diesel Power Ste.
tioüs. 4. Nuclear Power Stations. 5, The Gas Turbine Power Plant.
Substations 1. Introduction. 2. Ciassication of Substations. 3. Transformer. 4.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Out-door Substations as Compared to Indoor
Substations. 5.Design of substation. 6. Main connection Schemes. 7. Graphical
symbols for various types ofApparatus and Circuit elements on Substation. S. Main
Connection diagrams showing the arrangements of various typical connections and
of the simple substation scheme. 9. Insulators. 10. Substation Auxiliaries Supply.
11. Complete Bus BarArrangementa on High and Low Voltage side for a 5L.8titions
12.RingMain system 13. CrruitBreaker 14. Circuit Breaker Contacts. 15. }luhi -igs.
16. Oil Circuit Breaker 17. Description of Oil Circuit Breaker 18. Ccr.necti fla-
PowerStation. Electric power stations are classified according

to the kind of energy used by the prime-movers and named a:
1. Thermal Power Stations. In thermal power btations, the
heat of combustion of coal is utilized by the boilers to produce steam
at a high pressure and temperature. This steam is used in dn mg
the steam turbines or sometimes the steam engines coupl3 to
gencrators which produce the electric power. The fuel used in the
boilers is mainly bituminous coal but in case of emergency some
heavy oil can be used for the fuel.
The thermal plant is preferred where the generation of large
electric power is required and where the financial, climatic and
geographical conditions do not permit the installation of hydro-
electric power stations.
Its operating cost in about Rs. 100 per kW of installed capacity
and Rs. 0.04 per unit generated.
The advantages and disadvantages of thermal planth are given
below
Advantages (i) Fuel used is cheaper (ii) Less space is required
in comparison with that ofhydroelectric plants (iii) cheaper in initial
cost than other power stations. (iv) Its cost varies from Rs. 800 to
Rs. 1,000 per kW of installed capacity (v) Cheaper in production cost
thin that ofdisl nnwr 02tinns (vfl Such niants cnn hp. insthllpd

at any place whereas hydra-electric plants can be developed only at

the source of water power. (vii) Such plants can be located near the
load centres, whereas the hydro-electric plants to be installed at
source of power which is usually isolated from urban areas.
Disadvantages. (i) Costlier in running cost than that of
hydro-electric power plants. (ii) Atmosphere is polluted by fumes
and residues.
Schematic arrangement of a modern coal fed power-plant. The
entire arrangement, may be divided into 4 main circuits namely (i)
fuel nnd ash circuit (ii) a flue gases circuit (iii) feed water and
steam circuit and (iv) coo;ng water circuit.
(i) Fuel and AshCircuit. Coal is delivered from the supply
points to the storage site by road, rail or water. By road, coal is
transported in trucks and for small stations such inland transport
may be enough. Where power plants are situated close to a water
-
.1
JE
LAT
EHE
FLUE O AS ES
E .AE jj_l_
TANSFCME
AN VA .E
SUEP L-
hE4IEC 5E -
Con d en s
PJSTEA
P UNP
CO EN-1
, P'I'ts e^SE
1,
IAZU' AT
RIVER OR CANAL
Fig. 11.1. The Schematic Arrangement of a Modem Coal Fed Plant.

way, such as a canal, river or sea, transportation is done by boat or
ship. However, in most cases transportation of coal by rail, road is
the most common. In the case of small power plants, the quantity
of coal being small, manual unloading from rail car may be used but
for large power station the u.nloadingfrom the railway siding is done
with the help of wagon tipplers and then the coal is conveyed to the
coal handling plant. The coal having been good enough to be burnt
into boilers is taken into the boiler bunkers by means of bucket
coveyers. The coal is thus stored inthe bunkers from, where it falls
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 309
into the hoppers by gravity and finally the requisite quantity of coal
either goes on falling directly on the grate, or where the coal
spreaders are provided, coal is spread in the grate up to the rear
end. When use of spreaders is made, most of the coal burns in air
and remaining falls at the rear end of the grate. Any unburnt coal
particles in the middle of the grate are collected in a pipe and are
again refired by cinder-refiring fan. The grate in such types of
boilers, where use of spreaders is made, moves from rear end to front
end, and without spreaders, the movement of the grate is from front
to rear end. Combustion is controlled by controlling the grate speed,
quantity of coal entering the grate, the damper openings. The ash
is collected after complete combustion of fuel at the back of the boiler
and is removed to the ash storage by means of scrap conveyors. -
(ii) Air and Flue Gas Circuit. Air is drawn from the atmosphere
by a forced draught fan through the air preheater, in which it is
heated by the heat of flue-gases passing to chimney, and then
admitted to the furnaces. The flue-gases after passing around boiler
tubes and superheater tubes are drawn by the induced draught fan
through economiser and air pre-heater and finally exhausted to the
atmosphere through chimney.
(iii) Feed Water and Steam Circuit. The condensed water is

extracted from the condenser by the condensate pump and is tlmr,
forced to the high pressure feed water heater, where its temperatuo
is raised b y the heat from bled steam. The feed water is now pumped
to high pressure water heater, where it gets heated by the heat from
bled steam extracted at suitable point of steam turbine. It is then
pumped into boiler through economiser, in which it is further heated
by the heat of flue gases. In boiler, water is converted into high
pressure oteam, which is wet. Wet steam is passed through super-
heater, where it is further superheated, and then supplied to the
steam turbine through the main valve. After giving out its heat
energy to the turbine, it is exhausted to the condenser where its
latent heat is extracted and steam is converted into feed water. At
one or more stages, a quantity of steam is bled or withdrawn for
heating of feed water. Making up water for boiler is taken through
the evaporator, where it is heated by low pressure steam extracted
at suitable point of turbine.
(iv) Cooling Water Circuit. Cooling water is supplied from a
river, canal, or lake or cooling towers through screens to remove
the matter, that might choke the condenser tubes. It is circulated
through the condenser for condensing the steam and finally dis-
charged to the suitable position near the source of supply. During
the passage, its temperature rises and in the case of cooling towers
the heat must be extracted before the water is again pumped to the
condenser. A low pressure in the condenser is maintained with the
circulation of cooling water to the condenser.
Factors Influencing the Choice of Site For Thermal Plants. The
following factors should be considered while selecting a site for
steam power station for economical and efficient generation
(i) Nearness to the load centre. The power station should be as
near as possible to the centre of the load to reduce the transmission
cost and losses. This factor is most important when d.c. supply
system is adopted. Howver, in case of ac. supply system where
transformation of energy from lower voltage to higher voltage and
vk'e-versa is possible, power station can be erected at places other
than that of centre of load provided other conditions are favourable.
(ii) Supply of water. The power station should be near
6
source of water. Since large quantity of cooling water (500 tonnes
the
of cooling water for every tonne of coal burnt) is required far the
condenser.
(iii) Supply of Fuels. The power station should be near to the
coal mines if possible to reduce the transportation cost of fuel.
(iv) Transportation Facilities.The facilities like railway station
must be available for transportation of heavy equipment anct fuels.
(v) Cost of land. Land should be available at a reasonable price.
(vi) Type of land. Soil of land should be very stiff to bear the
weight of th6 large building and heavy machinery.
(vii) Available area. Sufficient area must be available to keep
the land in reserve for future expansions.
(viii) Distance from populated area. The site for the power station
should be away from the populated area so that there may be no
effect of pulverised fuel, residues and fumes on the population.
All the factors given above make us to select the site for the
thermal power station away from the towns. New-a-days more
importance is given to the facilities for generation than those of
distribution and a site for steam power station neaqr by river side,
where ample water is available, no pollution of atmosphere occurs
and fuel can be transported easily, is an ideal choice.
Constitutents of Steam Power Station and Layout. The
important parts and auxiliaries of steam power stations are dis-
cussed below
(i) Steam Generating Equipments.
(a) Boilers. Steam boilers used in steam plants are of two types
namely fire tube and water tube. In fire tube boilers, the tubes
containing hot gases of combustion inside are Surrounded with
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS311
while in water tube boiler, the water is inside the tubes and hot
gases outside the tubes. Fire tube boilers use is limited to low cost,
small size and low pressure (to about 10 kg/cm 2 ) plants. For central
steam plants of large capacity, water tube boilers are usually used.
The water tube boilers have following advantages over fire tube
boilers.
1. It has high evaporative capacity due to having a large
heating surface
2. Owing to rapid and uniform circulation of water in tubes,
it has better heat transfer to the mass of water and better efficiencY.
3. It has high working pressure due to small size of drum.
4. Owing to large ratio of heating surface to water volume, it
has quick raising of steam.
5. It has got safety in operation.
6. It occupies less space.
7. Overall control is better.
S Easy removal of scale from inside the tubes.
Fire tube boilers for low pressure are cheaper and capable of
nieting large fluctuation in steam demands due to greater cater
crge n tho anm.
The design of boiler depends upon weight, height, portability,
safet y , bulk, character of operating labour life, efficiency and cost.
The boilers may be straight or bent tube of diameter ranging from
25 mm to 100 mm; longitudinal or cross drum, horizontal, vertical
or inclined tube, forced or natural circulation, single or multi-drum,
sectional or box header, cross or parallel baffles, marine or sta-
tionary. Header boilers, using straight tubes are superseded by
curved-tube drum type. Natural circulation (by density difference)
of water is used with pressure upto 175 kgicm 2 . Pumps giving
controlled circulation, are often preferred on design delivering more
than 3,40,000 kgm of steam per hour at pressures above 100 kg'cm2.
(b) Boiler Furnaces-. The construction of boiler furnace varies
fromplain refractory walls to completely water cooled walls,
depending upon characteristics of fuel used and ash produced, firing
methods, nature of load demand, combustion space required, excess
air used, operating temperature, initial and operating cost. Water
walls are built of tubes of diameter from 25 mm to 100 mm variously
spaced, with or without fins or studs, and bare cr,witla different
thickness of moldable refractory on the inner face. Heat transfer
rates run from 50,000 to 150,000 B. Th. U. per holr cubic ft. of
surface. To meet these requirements of heat transmission, circu-
lation on the water side should be adequate, obtained by convection
or b y pumps. Air cooled walls are no more preferred. Surrounding
312 VLUNG, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
the furnace, and the rest of the boiler, is the insulated casing which
may be finished in plastic or with a sheet-metal sheath. The boiler
is supported on its own structural steel with provision for expansion.
There are two methods offiring coal in boiler furnaces i.e. hand
firing and mechanical firing. Hand firing of coal is limited to small
or transient services (less than 4,500 kg of ream p€r 1cur where
the inefficiency of poor combustion control is acceptable. Stokers
give mechanical feeding of coal. Mechanical stoker receive fuel by
gravity, carry it to the furnace for combustion and after combustion,
discharge the ash at the appropriate point. The advantages of stoker
or mechanical firing over hand firing are given below:
(i) There is uniform feeding of fuel into the furnace.
(ii) There is better regulation and efficient combustion due to
easy control of firing.
(iii) Lobour cost is less.
(i) There is a possibility of use of poor grades of coal due to
better control.
(v) Combustion capacity is more.
Mechanical stokers are of two types namely over feeo stokers
and under feed stokers. In the over feed stokers, the fresh fuel is
added to the top of the burning fuel bed while in the under feed
stokers the fre's' h fuel is introduced from below the burning fuel.
Underfeed tokers are suitable for cooking type coals and run with
fuel bed thicknesses upto 60 cm. Travelling orhain grate stokers
are used for burning middle-western bituminous coals with fuel beds
less than 15 cm in thickness and grate travel rates of 30 to 60 cm
per minute. Spreader stokers, with dumping or travelling grates,
are suitable for a wide variety of coals using thin fires (5 to 7 cm).
Solid fuels can be used in a powdered form and burn like oil and
gases. The coal is first dried usually by the flue gases and then
ground to a fine powder in pulverised mill. The pulverised fuel has
the following advantages.
(i) It enables the boilers to operate for longer period at maxi-
mum capacity
(ii) Steam can be raised rapidly.
(iii) There is possibility of high rates of combustion.
(iv) Quantity of air required for combustion is less.
(v) Efficiency can be increased if fuel and air are adjusted
accurately.
313
POWER
t ND SUBSTATIONS
STAT1OS
low grade.
(vi) Fuel used may be of
(vii) Ash removing troubles are not more.
However the pulverised fuels have the following disadvantages:
Initial and running costs of pulverisation plant are high.
(i)
Higher thermal losses in the flue gases are caused by higher
(ii)
combustion temperatures
(iii) There is a risk of explosion.
These consist of groups of
(c) Superheater and Re-heaters.
tubes made of special steel (carbon steel for steam temperature up
to 950°F, carbon -molybdenum steel for steam temperature of 1050°F
and stainless steel for steam temperature of 1200°F) with an outside
diameter from 25 mm to 64 mm. Tube bundle location and
arrangement, with counter current, an'or parallel flow is dictated
type of firing, required steam temperature, and steam-
I b
tomperature characteristic. Tbe superheater tubes are heated
the heat of ccibustiufl gases duag their passage from the furnace
to he chimney.
ldiant superheater5 ad
Superheat ers are of two types . (i superheater is located ia he
ronv000fl superleat r. diant L. po the
furnace between the f,rnace water-walls, absorbs heat from
ves droopir
radiation and
bu.ing fuel through
characteristics—the temperatra of superheat falls with the
increase in steam output. Convection superheater is located well
back in the boiler tube bank, receives its heat entirely from Cue
racteriStjc5_t
gases through convection and gives rising
temperature of super-heat increase with the increase in steam out
Desir ed
ut. Convection superheater3 are more commonly used.
p
control of characteristic is obtained by
(i) proportioning and locating surfaces in series.
using internal dampers on boiler gas side.
(ii)
(iii) temp. rating by vater or
supplementary burners. Heat transfer rates of 10 to 12
(iv)
B.T.U. per hour per square ft per degree temperature difference are
representative.
The steam is superheated to the highest economical, tempera-
ture not only to increase the efficiency but also to have following
advantages:
Owing to its high internal energy, there is reduction in
(0
requirement of steam quantity fr a given output of energy which
reduces the turbine size.
WIRING. EATING AND COG.
(ii)
Superheated steam being dry, turbine blades remain dry
so the mechanical re sistance to the
flow
which increases ta efficeiicy . ofstam
- over them is small
(iii)
There
to dryness is no or rosion and pitting at the turbine blades due
of steam.
(d) EconQmisers and Air
number of closely, p re-heaters 1 con sists of a large
spaced
diameter (about SO mm) co parallel tubes with thin walls and small
nnected by, headers or drums.
rate sometimes finned to increase the heat transfer The tubes
omiser and air p su rface Econ-
would p re-heater are used to recover a part of heat that
therwise be lost. These raise boiler efficiency lowering the
stack temperature and saving the fuel but involve extra cost of
in stallation and maintenance and additional
requ irement of floor
space. Either one or both may be used or they may
entirely, be omitted
Eco
nomisers recover heat from the flue gases by adding it
to the feed water on its way to the boiler, thus raising the temper-
ature of water usually without
ev
he sufficiently, pure which may notaporation
fo
The
feed water Should
Corrosion scales and cause internal
Air p
re-heaters recover the heat from the
it to the air suppijed for flue g ases by adding
co mbustion This raises the temperature
of the furnace gases, improves co
mbustion rites and efficiency ,
lowers the stack temperature thus theoyerLIl efficiency of the boilerand
is increasedr p reheaters are ofto types namely
re
generative types. The recuperative type uses a recup bank oferative and
straight
light gauge steel tubes 25 mm to 75 mm. in
the flue gases inside the tubes and di ameter usually with
air
types transfers the heat by using slowly outside The regenerative
of c o rrugated metal which moves r evoMng drum (1 or 2 m)
and cold air streams atr nately through the hot gas
(ii) Condensers . The con

densers
very low pressure at the exhaust are used
of turbines to to create a Suction at
P ermit expansion of
steam in the prime mover to a very low
efficiency is in creased The p ressure and thus the
con densers also
exhausted steam for use as feed water, airfaci and litate in removal of
gases from steam when passing through them. non-condensable
Con densers are of two types. Thejet
type Condensers which type and
surface type. Jet
mix up steam and circulating water, are
limited to small ir4 ustrjal
app lications (1,000 kW.), where best
vacuum are not required (50 mm. to 125 mm. Hg
con abs).
densers, as the steam mixes with Cooling water, so In jet type
used as feed water. So thejet type ca
c ondensers being low in nnot be
are not used in modern power plants Surface cost even
con densers in which
steam and cooling mediums are separated by a surface, prevail in

large installations for best vacuum (12 mm. to 50 mm. Hg. abs.) and
condensate must be conserved.
Surface condensers use welded steel plate for the shell with cast
iron water boxes. Horizontal tube banks using 25 mm. diameter
nonferrous tubes and tube sheets prevail. Tubes are generally rolled
at both ends with a slight bowing or with a joint in the shell for
expansion. Straight tubes, rolled at one end and with a packing
ferrule at the other end, are used. For fresh water, tubes sheets are
commonly Munt.z or Admiralty metal, while tubes are brass, copper,
arsenical copper or aluminium brass. Tubes support plates are of
copper bearing steel. Divided water boxes and water flow reversal
arrangements facilitate in cleaning and maintenance. The con-
denser is attached to turbine by
(a) direct bolting to turbine exhaust flange (up to 20 MW).
(b) direct bolting to turbine exhaust flange with spring sup-
ports under the condenser.
(c) Solid support of condenser with expansion joint between
the turbine and the condenser.
(1-ii) Prime-Mouers. Steam prime movers are either r2CiprOCat-
ing engines, or turbines. Due to reciprocating motion steam engines
have become obsolete n thele days and steam turbines are usually
used as p-,-,me mo.er.s. Steam turbines give high speed (1,800 t
5,000 r.p.m.), maximum size (275 MW), minimum floor space, hulk
in weight, maximum efficiencies (80%) in large sizes, suitability for
highest steam pressures (350 kg/cm, steam temperatures (1,200
vacua (12.7 mm. mercury). All large units (above 1,000 kWj are
steam turbines.
According to the action of steam on moving blades, the st-earn
turbines are of two types namely impulse and reaction types. These
two types differ in working. In impulse turbines, the steam expands
in nozzles only and when passing over the blades, its pressure
remains constant. Thejetpasses over several rings ofmovingblades
until its kinetic energy is expanded. In reaction type turbines, the
steam does not expand in nozzles but expands as it flows over the
blades, the blades will, therefore, act also as nozzles. The expansion
of steam as it flows over the blades is adiabatic, any friction losses
between the steam and blades are converted into heat, which, in
turn will reheat the steam. The effect of this is to dry or superheat
the steam as it flows over the blades.
The final velocit y of steam Will be extremely high if the steam
is expanded in a single nozzle from the boiler pressure down to the
316
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTJN(-
condenser pressure. If this jet is now passed over a single blade rinMm
and its kinetic energy is absorbed by this ring, it will be found tha-
the speed of this blade ring is too high for practical purpose. One o
the chief objects in steam turbines development has been to devis
of ove r coming this high speed of turbine wheels. No reduction gea
is required for the reaction type turbine because the speed beinj
relatively low.
The steam turbines used are of two types namely axial flow am
radial flow type according to the type of flow of steam. In axial flo'
type turbines, the steam flows over the blades in a direction paralle
to the axis of the wheel. In radial flow turbines, the blades are—
arranged radially so that the steam enters at the blade tip nearest—
the axis of the wheel and flows towards the circumference
be: The steam turbines ha ving horizontal shaft are used. These ma
(i) condensing or non-condensing.

(ii) single shaft or multiple shaft.
(iii) single or multiple cylinder.
(iL) single or double flow.
(v) extracting or non extracting.
(Li) controlled (automatic) or uncontrolled extraction.
(vii) reheat or non-reheat.
(viii) throttle or multiple nozzle governed.
(ix) constant or variable speed.
(x) single or double shell.
As regards the size of units to be installed, it depends upon—
several factors such as capital cost, spares required, load factor and
he peak load of the system.
(iv) Water Treatment Chamber. The boilers require clean and
soft water for their long lives. The water taken from a river or from"-
other source of supply is stored in storage tanks. Water is suckec-
from storage tanks by pumps, purified and softened by chemicah
and then delivered to the boilers by means of feed pumps.
(v) Control Room. In case of remote control, the control roorr,
houses all the necessary measuring instruments for each panel of
alternator and feeder, synchronising gear, protective gear, auto-
matic voltage regulator, co mmunication arrangement etc. A sepa-
rate battery room and a motor generator set or a rectifier is also
installed for supplying to make and trip circuit of switchgear. In
case of outdoor switchgear, normally compressed air is used for
operation.
-
cpx rT,,,.
H WATE,R P.M : I
I OFFICE I
I4 CH
yQD
&
lTRAS-
VCRWER
0 tJ
a
0
454 C-,
FAT At,O 10
rX
LII P
F'g. 11.2. The La y out of Thermal Power Station.

( jl Switch Yard. The switchvard houses tran mcrs, circuit
breakers and switches for connecting and disconnecting the tran
formers and circuit breakers. It also has lightning arrter for t
protection of the power station against lightning stroKes.
The supply to the bus-bars from alternators is taken thruu
transformers and circuit breakers of suitable ratings.
The power station over and above this requires workshop, store.
labour canteen, library and also residential accommodation for the
operating staff.
Example 1. A thermal station has an overall ef/ciency of2 IC/c
and 01kg of coal is htirnt per kWh of energy generated. Determine
Ma calorific value of coal.
(S.BT.E. Final Year. (Elec. Engg.) 1973 Supp.)
Solution. Heat produced by 0.7 kgm of coal
Output in heat LflitS=
4,095 k.
Overall efficiency 0.21
Since lkWh = 860 Ic. cais.

Heat produced by I kgm ol coil
= 5,850k. cais
=
Hence calorific val ,.I e of coal = 5,850 k cals/kgm, Ans.

18
Example 2. Determine (he thermal efficiency of q power station

and it coal bill per annum from the following data
Maximum demand 20,000 kW
Load factor 40%
Coat con,surnption 1.93 lb /unit generated
Boiler efficiency 85%
Turbine efficiency 90%
Price of 1 ton of coal Rs. 30
[AJI.I.E. Sec. B. NOV. 19651
Solution. Thermal efficiency of powri.tation
= Boiler efficiency x Turbine efficiency
= 0.85 x 0.9 = 0.765 or 76.5% Ans.
Units generated per annum = Maximum demand in kW. x load factor x 8,760
= 2O,cX)OXO.4X87607008X lO4kWh.
Coal consumption per annum = 7,008 x iOx 1.93

2,240 tons
7008x 104 x 1.93x30
Cc' 'Icojl/nrn =Rs. =Rs.18,1l,443 An
40
2. Hydro-electric Power Stations. For hydro-electric power
station; water collected in natural lakes and reservoirs at high
altaude is utilised or water maybe artificially stored by constructing
darns across flowing streams. The pressure head of water or kinetic
energy of water is utilised to drive the water turbines coupled to the
alternators which generates the electric power.
Dua to limited reserves of fuels and increasing demand of
eiectric power the hydro-electric power stations are becoming more
and more popular in these days. The hydro-electric power stations
are generally located in hilly areas, where dam can be built easily
and large reservoirs can be obtained.
The operating cost of hydro-electric power plant is about Rs. 200
per kW of insta!led capacity and Rs. 0.01 per unit generated.
The h y dro-e l ectric power stations have the following advan-
tages u isadvantages.
Advantages. (i) No fuel other than water is the source ofener'
required in it.
(ii) It can be put into service instantly
NO Cheapest in operation and maintenance.
POWEP STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 319
(j) -uch power stnticcl s have constant speed and hence con-
stant frequency as very acute governing is possible with water
turbines.
(v) No standby losses are there.
(vi) Such plants have got longer life.
(vii) It is very neat and clean plant as there is no smoke or ash.
(viii) Highly skilled engineers are required only at the time of
construction but later a few experienced persons will be sufficient.
(ix) In addition to generation of electric power such plants also
serve other purposes such as irrigation and flood control.
Disadvantages. (i) Large area is required for its installation.
(ii) It has very high construction cost.
(iii) Very longer period is required for its erection i.e. from 5 to
7 years.
([v) Transmission lines cost more.
(v) The power supply may be effected due to long dr y seasons.
Factors to be considered for the location of hydro-
electric power stations.
The following factors should be taken into consideration for the
location of hydroelectric power stations.
' such power stations should be built where there is ade-
(juate water available at good head or huge quantity of water is
flowing across a given point as generation ofeleetric power depends
upon the potential energy of water fall or kinetic energy c.fflowing
stream.
vii) Convenient accommodation for the erection of a-dam or
reservoir must be available because storage of water in a suitable
reservoir at a height or building of dam across the river is essential
in order to have continuous and perennial supply during the dry
season.
(iii) The reservoir must have a large catch mentarea to maintain
the level of water in the reservoir required in the dry season.
(iv) The land should be of reasonable cost and rock y to with-
stand the weight of large building and heavy machinery.
(v) Adequate transportation facilities -must be availahle
nearby.
(vi) There should be possibility of stream diversion at the time
of construction
E1ernenL f a Hydroelectric Plant. An hydro-electnc plant
consists ofa diversion dam, a conduit to carry the water to the water
-22
320
wheel, the powerhouse 4nd its equipment, and a tail race. The size,
location, and type of each of these essential elements depend upon
the topography and geological conditions and the amount of water
to be used. The height to which the dam is to be built is usually
limited by the extent of flowage damage. Pondage may have great
value, particularly for peak load power plants. The spillway section
ofthe dam must belong enough to pass safely the maximum amount
of water to be expected. Likewise the abutments and other short
structures must be built to withstand successfully the greatest
freshet conceivable on the river.
(i) Darns. The dam maybe either impounding (or non-overflow

type) or spillway (or flow type). In case of non-overflow type dams,
means are provided to release excess flow, by a separate spillway
section by regulating valves, or by large spillway gates. Non-
overflow type dams are earth dams, rock-fill dams, and high-
reservoir arch dams.
(ii) Spillway. This is constructed to act as a safety valve. It

discharges the overflow water to the down stream side when the
reservoir is full. These are generally constructed of concrete and
prc.vi.1ed with v,atr discharge opening shut off by metal control
gates. By changing the degree to which the gates are opened, the
discharge of the head water to the tail race can be regulated to
maintain the water level in the reservoir.
(iii) Intakes. It may consist of canals, flumes, pipe lines, and

pressure turthels with or without fore bays, which provide a small
amount o(reservoir capacity to take care ofvariations in load. When
long flow lines in close conduits are used and a forebay cannot be
constructed, surge tanks are usually provided to care for the fluc-
tuations in load.
- (iv) Penstocks. Penstocks are built of steel or reinforced con-

crete. Steel penstocks are almost always welded on the longitudinal
seam. The circumferential seam may be welded also. It is a closed
conduit which connects the forebay or surge tank to the scroll case
of the turbine. In case of medium head power plants, each unit is
usually provided with its own penstock. In case of high head plants,
a single penstock is frequently used, and branch connections are
provided at the lower end to supply two or more units. In long
penstocks great care is to be taken to protect the conduit against
water hammer. The thickness should be adequate to bear both the
normal hydrostatic pressure and also the sudden surges both above
and below normal caused by fluctuations in load and by emergency
con di!ons.
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS
321
(v) Values and Gates. In low head plants gates are needed at
the entrance to the turbine casing to close the flow of water for
inspection and repairs Individual hoist-operated gates are provided
in cases where frequent shutdowns are required and where the time
available for inspection is limited. Other plants use stop gates or
stop logs placed in sections by means of travelling crane. While using
medium or longer length penstocks or a common penstock for more
than one unit, it is necessary to install valves at or near the entrance
to the turbine casing. These are usually of the butterfly or pivot type
for low and medium heads.
(vi) Rocks. These are built up from long, flat bars set vertically
or nearly and spaced in accordance .vith the minimum width of water
passage through the turbine. The clear space between the bars
varies from 25 mm or 40 mm to 150 or 200 mm on very large
installations. These are used to prevent the ingress of floating and
other material to the turbine. In some cases where large diameter
turbines are used, the racks are omitted, but provision is made for
skimmer walls or booms to prevent ice and other material from
entering the unit.
- -'7
iKg
- I
IE
ir[Lr_
T - % I
L
'.t.
Fig. 11.3. The Hvdrn . Electrjc Schemes
(cji) Tail Race, The wtr after having done its usual'work
in
the turbine is discharged to the tail race which may lead it to the
same stream cr to another one
(viii) Draft Tubes
An air tight pipe of suitable diameter con
nectod to the runner outlet and conducting water down from the
wheel and discharging it under the suace of the water in t h e t at
322 WrnrNG, ESTEMATING AND COSTING
race is known as draft tube. It is provided to increase the head acting

on the water wheel.
(xi) Prime Mover or Water Turbines. According to the type of
flow of water, the water turbines used as prime movers in hydro-
electric power stations, are of four types, namely (i) axial flow tur-
bines having flow of water along thehaft axis such as propeller and
Kaplan turbine (ii) inward radial flow turbines having flow of water
along the radius such as Francis turbine (iii) t angentialfiow turbine
having flow of water along the tangential directions such as Pelton
wheel and (iv) mixed flov (radial inlet and axial cutlet) such as
Francis turbine. According to the action of water on moving blades,
water turbines are of two t y pes viz impulse and reaction type tur-
bines. In the impulse type turbine the entire pressure d water is
converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle and the jet thus formed
drives the wheel. Whereas in reaction type turbine, the water
pressure combined with its velocity, work on the runner.
According to the name of the originator water turbines are of
three types, L'2 Felton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine.
The Pelton Wheel. It is an impulse type turbine and is suitable
or high hean and low flow plants. It consists cf a rotor eq.iipped
with elliptical shaped buckets along the periphery of the turbine.
The rotor starts turning due to impact of the jet on the buckets. The
quantity of water discharged by the nozzle is controlled by con-
trolling the nozzle opening by means of needle placed in the tip of
nozzle. The movement of the needk is controlled by the governor.
Deflectors are used for control of speed in addition to the needle.
Francis Turbine. In these turbines water glides over the blades
of a turbine with a small and fairly constant velocity and exerts a
pressure varying from maximum at the top to a small value a tF.:
bottom. The water flows radially inward towards the centre. The
guide blades ofthe turbine are each pivoted about an axis in parallel
with the turbine axis so that quantity of water entering the turbine
may be regulated by turning them simultaneousy in one direction
or the other. It is a reaction type turbine and is suitable for low to
medium head and waterfiowplants. Itessentay consistsofguide
apparatus" consisting of an outer ring of stationary guide blades
Fixed to the casing of the turbine and an "inner ring" consisting of
rotatingblades forming a wheel era runner. Like Pelton wheel their
motion is automatically controlled by governors.
The full load efficiency of this type of turbine is about 92 per
cent. Francis type turbines can be constructed in vertical or hori-
zontal forms. The horizontal constructions are more accessible
and have higher speed but for large machines generally vertical
construction is preferred.
Kaplan Turbine. In this type of turbine the drawback of con-
siderahle loss at low loads due to rotary motion of water in Francis
turbine is overcome and uniform ernciency ataliloads is maintained.
It is also a reaction type turbine and has gate and governing
mechanism similar to that of a Francis turbine. The difference
between Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine is that in the former
runner, the water strikes the turbine blades axiall y wherea3 the
latter receives water radially. This type of turbine is suitable for low
head and large flow plants. Kaplan turbine gives high speed than
ordinary Francis turbines. The characteristic features of Kaplan
turbine is that the gate opening and blade angle are adjusted
simultaneously by the governing mechanism. Its efficiency is about
90 per cent at all loads.
Propeller Turbine. In these turbines, the blades are casted
integrally with the hub. It is an axial flow turbine and has got no
provision for changing the runner blade angles while the turbine is
in motion. Its efTciency is about 92 per cent at full load and drops
to 65 per cent at half full load.
Classification of Hydro-electric Plants.
On thebasisof operating head, Hydro-electric power plants may
be classified as (i) low head (ii) medium head, and (iii) high he:il
plants. Though there is no definite line of demarcation for low,
medium and high heads but the head below 60 metres is con sid
as low he, the head above 60 metres and below 300-metres is
considered ai medium head and the head above 300 metres is
considered as high head.
F 0F, ES 4Y
04 H
PENSTOCK POWER H05E wfT.li
S..'.
Fig. 11.4. ArrangorQnt Plant.

of Low head 11vdro-eectdc
In low head plants Kaplan turbines are used. In these plants a
pipe of large diameters and short lengths are required. Head being
low, and large quantity of water is required for a given output.
Structure of such plants is extensive and expensive. Generators
used in such plants are of low speed and large diameters.
W IRING, ES TIMATING ANt) COSTING
OPEN CHANNEL - -
POWER HOU
GROSS HEAD
STREAM DEE
TAIL
CACE
TUR B I NE 1 1 -7,
Fig. 11.5. The Medium Head Plant.
Medium head hIycJroEectrjc Plants. In such plants horizontal

shaft Francis turbines are used. The characteristic of medium head
plant may be either of high head or of low head plants according to
its working head nearer to high lead or low head.
If/glz hI&'ad Jf vdro . Elcctrjc Plants.

For the i nstallation of such
a site may be chosen,
where a stream descending a steep
Lit(-ral vnlle can be darnmd and a reservoir for storage of water
forne(j A pressure tunrd is constructed between reservoir to
ol--e hous 0
ti at the stat f penstock to carry water from reservoir
aive hous Surge tank (a tank open from the top) is built just
between the start of p
ertoek and the valve house so that the
.erity of water hammc . F rt0n p
of sudden closing of flxed gates of enstock can be reduced in case
s:ddn increase in derna , i L. sur g the water turbine \en there is
fr i whh the turbine can draw 'water e tank sees as a ready reservoir
consists of main sluice valves and tempor arily. The valve house
a utomatic isolating valves which
operate on bursting of p
to penstock enstock and cut off further supply of water
Penstocks are steel pipes and carry the water from the
valve house to the turbines
In such plants Pelton wheels or jet impulse turbines are

emplo y ed The g
enerators employed are of high speed and small
diameter. Penstocks are of large length and of comparatively
smaller Cross section.
Hy dro-plant Auxiliaries
The auxiliaries required for
electric plant are governor, cranes lubricating oil pumps, airhydro-
pressors, high pressure oil pumps for ge com-
nerator motor jacking
system, fans, cooling water pumps, drainage and
gate hoists, valves, battery charging units, CO de wateringpumps ,
2 cylinders etc. These
auxiliaries are generally electrically driven Water is used to cool
the bearings of the turbines and g
enerators
and is circulated through water pumps. Air and the transformer
co
a supply ofair under pressure for operation of mpressors maintain
gener atorbrakes and
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSFATIONS 325
other uses in the power station. Fans are used for ventilation of the
turbine and switchgear room or for cooling transformers. Oil pumps
iandie transformer oil through the cleaning and cooling system.
Cranes are used to lift heavy parts or replace them in position during
repairs. Water pumps are used for unwatering of turbine pits durir
repairs or inspection. Storage batteries are used to supply low
voltage d.c. power for switchgear control. These batteries are con-
stantly charged through a battery charging equipment using a
rectifier or motor generator set. Carbon-di-oxide cylinders and other
fire extinguishing equipment are used in case the fire breaks out.
The supply for the above auxiliaries is usually obtained from the
station transformer, which is installed solely for this purpose.
qESERVOIP(DAN
( DGE'\
I TANK
PE5SUP
HAPThEL VALVE HOUSE
PENS OCK
POWER HOUSE
Fig. 11.6. The System for High Head Plant.

Example LA h ydro-electric generating station is supplied fror
a reservoir of capacity 20 million cubic metres at a head of 180
metres. Calculate the total electrical energy generated in kWh if the
hydraulic efficienc y be 0.8 and the electrical efficiency 0.9.
(A.M.LE. Sec. B. Hydro-Power Engg. Nov., 1967)
Solution. Volume of water. V = 20 x 106 cubic metres
Weight of water available, \V = 20 x 106 x , 000 = 20 x 10 kgra
Head of water. H = I 80 metres

Total electrical energy generated
= W x H x TI, x fl
= 20 x iO x 180 x 0.8 x 0.9 kgrn

326
WIRING, ESTIMT[NC AN!) COSTING
A Nw-rn 0: j üu1 or \2U-secs
2,592x 10 9 x 9.81
=
1 , 000 x 3,600
7 O,63, 200 kWh Ans.

Example 2.
Determine the power that can be generated in a
hy d ro-station having an available head of 40 metres, a catchment
area of6 x lU sq. metres. The rainfall per annum is 1.5 metres. Given
that 65% of the total rainfall can be collected. Assume the following
efficiencies
Penstock 95%; turbine 85% and g enerator 90%
[S.B.T.E UP Final Year (Elec. Engg.) 19731

Solution. Cachmcnt area, A = 6x 10' m2
Annual rain fall, F = 1.5 metres
Volume of water available per aJlnu-r
r= A < F x
=6x103x1x 0 6 555> 1(
\Vh€e k is theyield factor to allow
forr unoff and loss byoperic
:nd is eq9a1 to 0.65
Weight of water available per annum,
=585x 1O'x 1000 kg]
585 x 10' kg (Since 1m 3 of water weighs 1 COO kg

Weight of water available per second
585 x 10'
W -18,57lkg
8760 x3.600
Head of water,H =4Ometres
Average power in kW = ____

1000
185 71x40X981x095x 0.85 x 0.9

1000
= 5340 Ans.
Example S. An hydra-electric station is supplied from a

catchment area of 150 square km with an annucl rainfall of 150 cm.
and effective head of 300 metres. Assume a yield factorof 5O'lc, overall
efficiency of 809c and a load factor of 40lc, calculate the available
con tiruouS power and the rating of the generator installed.
[D.T.E. Final Year. (Elec. Engg.) 19591
Solution.
Volume of water available per annum = Catchment area x rain fall
r 150x 10 6 x 1.5=225x106 m2
Volume of water utilised = Volume of water available x yield factor
=225Xl0'XO.5=2.5xl06m
106 x 1, COO kg
Weight of water utilised per annum, W = 112,5 x
= 112.5x IO kgrn
since 1m 2 of water weighs 1,CO0k
Head of water, H = 300 metres
Stored energy in catchment area = WI!

= 112.5 x 10'x 300kg-rn
= 3,375 x 10' 0 x 9.81 Joules or wart-secs
Total electrical energy available = stored energy x overall effici&y
=3,375 x 1 0 ,0 = 9 , gl xO.8ouleS or watt-se-CS
26,487 x 10° waft-secs
26,487 x lOb kWh

3,600 x 1, Ci
=73.6x lO'kWh
Total energy available
8,760
32
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COMING
Installed capacity of the plant = Average load 8,400

load factor 04
= 21,000 kW Ans..
3. Diesel Power Stations. Diesel power stations are installed
where supply of coal and water is not available in sufficient quantity
or where power is tobegenerated in small quantity or where standby
sets are required for continuity of supply such as in hospitals,
telephone exchanges, radio stations and cinemas. One or more
diesel engine driven generators may be installed in a medium size
power stations either to supply the peak loads for small duration or
for seasonal loads. These may be used for supplyirg power to aux-
iliaries in the event of failure of the main working units in a steam
plant. The advantages and disadvantages of diesel-electric power
stations are follows
Advantages. (i) Such plants are very simple in design and
installation.
(u) The efficienc y of such plants at part loads is not rcduce ' i so
much as that of a steam plant.
(iii) Such plants give good response to varying loads :ithotit
any difficulty.
(it') Such-plants occupy less space because of using minimum
auxiliaries.
(v) Low cost of building and civil engineering works.
(vi) The standby losses are less.
(vii) Less quantity of water required for cooling purpose.
(viii) Such plants can be started and put on load without wasting
any time.
(ix) The overall capital cost including installation per unit of
installed capacity is lesser in comparison to steam plant.
(x) Being simpler in operation such plants requires lesser
operating and supervising staff as compared to that for steam
plants.
Disadvantages. (1) Due to high cost of diesel oil as fuel, the
operating cost is very high.
(ii) Maintenance and lubrication cost is also high in comparison
to other plants.
(iii) Diesel plants are unable to supply overloads continuously
whereas steam plants can work under 25 17c overload continuously.
(iv) These units cannot be constructed in lar ze because of

limited capacity.
Diesel Plant Elements. A diesel-electric power plant consists
of the engine proper and the auxiliary equipment as given below.
(i) Engine air intake system in.firg air filters, ducts,
supercharger (integral with the engine). The air required for com-
pression purposes in each cycle is supplied through the air filters to
prevent the dust particles from ingress to the cylinder.
(ii) Engine fuel system including fuel storage tanks, fuel
transfer pumps, strainers, heaters and connecting pipe work. The
fuel oil for the whole day is transferred to the all day tank by means
of transfer pump. The fuel is passed through the strain to remove
suspended impurities. From this tank the fuel oil is fired into the
engine through fuel filter and fuel injection pump.
(iii) Engine exhaust system including silencers and connecting
ducts. This system is provided to discharge the engine exhaust to
the atmosphere outside thebuilding. The exhaust manifold connects
the engine cylinder exhaust to the exhaust pipe provided with a
muffler in order to reduce pressure in the exhaust line and eliminate
most of the noise which may result if the waste gases are discharged
directly into the atmosphere. In case of diesel-electric, generating
units installed in steam plants, exhaust system also includes water
heaters and steam boilers to utilise the heat of waste gases.
(iv) Engine cooling system including cooling pumps towers or
spray ponds, water treatment or filtration plant and connecting pipe.
For cooling of engine cylinder, the cooling water is passed through
the jacket. The water used for cooling engine cylinder is softened
by water treatment or water filtration plant to avoid formation of
scales etc. in it. Hot well is provided in the surge tank to make a
provision of jacket water.
(v) Engine lubricating oil system including lubricating oil
pumps, oil tanks, filters, coolers, purifiers and connecting pipe work.
The lubricating oil is drawn from the sump by means of a pump and
is passed through a strainer and filter. Usually the lubricating oil
is hot when drawn from the sump, if it is not, it should be heated,
first before passing through the filters, to increase its viscosity and
make the filtration easy. The oil is then cooled through a heat
exchanger and then sent into engine.
(ui) Engine starting system including battery, starter, com-
pressed air supply etc.
Small sets are usually started manually by handles but for sets
330
WIRING EST IMATING AND COSTING
WY?KSHGO
&
LU
LOADING
BAY
0
LU Ili 417F , ' I,
LJ L
V) GLn
STORES
L_J /
.' .. z•.
COMPRESSORS
WATER COOLING ___
Pump =
HOT WELL WATER FUEL
OIL PUMP TO
COOLING STORAGE SERVICE
TOWERS TANKS O.H. TANKS
Fig. 11.7. The Layout of Diesel Plant
of large capacity say above 75 kW, tho compressed air is required
to be sent into the engine for starting purpose. Ba
can also be used for starting purposes. ttery driven motors
Example. A diesel Power station has fuel Consumption of 0.25

kg. per kWh, the calorific value o
Estimate the oerall eff-iciency offthe oil being 10,000 k.cals per kgm.
the power station.
Soutjo When output = 1 kWh = 860 K. cals
= fuel consumption per kWh output x calorfic value of fuel

0.25 x 10,000K. cis = 2,500K. cals
Overall efficiency = 860
input lOOX100=34.4%Ans.
4. Nuclear Power Stations. The nuclear power station has
been developed due to attention of scientists towards the peaceful
applications of atomic energy. The first atomic power plant was
commissioned in U.S.S.R. on June 27, 1954 and after that a number
of atomic power plants have been commissioned in many countries
like U.S.A., Canada, Great Britain, Japan and France. In our country
also two atomic power plants are working The first one is Tarapur
Atomic Power Station and the other is Rana Partap Atomic Power
in Rajasthan. The atomic energy commission has plans to generate
2,700 MW of electricity from nuclear power stations by 1978-79 To
generatestates.
various 2,700 MW some more stations have yet to be installed
in
According to the atomic energy commission the
gen eration from
the coal based station located with in 80 km of the coal mines is
cheaper than that from nuclear power plant. The most Suitable area
PC) V; Lit STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 331
for nuclear stations are Western U.P., Northern and Western

Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. According to experts of the atomic
erl. era corrmisnn power generation from 1,000 MW nuclear sta-
tion will be one paisalunit cheaper than the coal based power station.
A 1,000 MW power station will feed 560 crate units/year into the
system excluding the spinning and cold reserve. The saving in the
energy bill of nuclear power station will be Rs. 5.6 croes peryear.
The basic requirements for the location of a nuclear power
station (i) The adequate supply of water for cooling should be
available (ii) adequate land away from habitation (iii) Safety of the
area is essential from the danger of floods and (iv) accessibility of
site by rail and roads.
Fuel used. The main fuels used to produce the atomic energy
7
are Uranium (U), Thorium (Th ) and Plutonium (PU). It has
y
been estimated that uranium alone contains far more energ than
all the world's resources of coal and petroleum put together.
Fig. below shows a flow diagram of a nuclear power station.
BUS BARS -i-I IISOlATOR
-
\ EXCHANGER C8 ITT'
7
HEAT
STEAM 'ISOLATOR
AToMIc I t
Ho T
STEP-UP
TRANSFORMER
IN ALTERNATOR
EXHAUST STEAM
PUMPL-NDR
WATER
PUMP FEED
METAL
COLD
cCCQLG \TowER
RIVER OR CANAL
Fig. 11.8. System of Atomatic Power Station.
The above metals become unstable and transformed to metals
of lower atomic weights like silicon, nickel etc. by Fission Process.
The splitting of 1 kg of Uranium (U) atoms yields 25 x 10' kWh
in heat form, which when conveyed to gas turbine or steam turbine
through molten metal and heat exchanger results in about 6.5 X
lO
kWh of electrical energy. Thus energy obtained by fission of 1 kg of

32 IJNG, ESILMATINC, AND COST[NG
uranium is roughly equivalent. tw Jiat obtained by burning about

2,500 tonnes of high grade coal.
By Fission Process, in an atomic rca:tor, when the atoms of
Uranium or other similar metals of large atomic weight are broken
into metals of lower atomic weight, the tremendous amount of heat
energy produced is extracted by pumping fluid or molten metal like
iqnid sodium or gas through the pile. The heated metal or gas is
the allowed to exchange its heat to the heat exchanger by circulation.
in heat exchanger, the gas is heated or steam is generated which
are utilised to drive gas turbine or steam turbine coupled to an
alternator, thereby, generating electrical energy.
Characteristics of Nuclear F',ecr Planes. (i)These plants are
most economical in large capacity. The capital cost of such power
plants is Rs. 3,000 per kWexcluding the investment on fuel process,
which is about Rs. 500 per kW.
(ii) There is no transportat i ,' )-.l difficulty as the quantity of fuel
required is very small.
1w; The prmary distributu,n ccst is less because these plants
can be located near the load c-o.
(ic) Such plants are y e r L;scful to be employed as base load
p lants because the running cost is quite low and is independent of
ioading of the station though the capital cost is very high.
L') The oupot control is €-'termely flexible.
5. The Gas Turbine Power Plant. The gas turbine utilises
the heat developed by the combustion of gaseous and liquid fuels.
The principle is that a turbo-compressor compresses pure air or air
and gas to a high compression and then it is burnt in the combustion
chamber where combustion takes place at a constant pressure and
the products of combustion expands dQwn to atmospheric pressure
in the turbine. Gas turbine sizes varyfrom 40 to 30,000 M.
Advantages of gas Turbine Power Plant. 1. simplicity and
flexibility of design and installation, 2. compactness, 3. low initial
cost, 4. require small building space 5. require little cooling water.
6. The delivery and installation time for these power plants is much
less than for steam plants. 7. The gas turbines can be started quickly
and can be put to share full load within a few minutes. 8. Efficiency
can be improved considerably by using heat economy devices. 9.
Maintenance costs are lower than for diesel power plants. 10.
Petroleum distillate fuels are quite suitable though expensive. 11.
Natural gas is also a very suitable fuel and cheap as it is an ideal
source of power for gas turbines.
POWER€TATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS
of gas turbines in that

Disadvantages. 1. The main drawba ck
coal or heavy residual petroleum can not be easily used in the
combustion chamber and life ofthe chamber is considerably reduced
due to high temperature sodium-vanadium attack. 2. The fuel costs
in such plants are usually higher than in other plants.
It can be used for driving
Application of Gas Power Plants. (i)
generators and supplying peak loads in other types of power plants.
It can be used for supplying mechanical drive for auxiliaries
(ii)
(iii) It can be used for operating as combination plants with
conventional steam boilers.
A simple gas turbine
Elements of Simple Gas Turbine Plant.
plant consists of the reaction typenon-condensing turbine, a com-
pressor mounted on the same shaft or couped to the turbine, the
combustion chamber, generator coupled to turbine itself and
auxiliaries such as starting device, auxiliary lubrication pumps, oil
system, fuel system and the duct system etc. The air is sucked in
b y the compressor from the atmosphere and discharges it at high
pressure and temperature into the combustion chamber and burns
in the stream of air supplied from the compressor outlet. A pal f
the air is delivered ahead of the burning fuel to cool the very hot
about 3,000° F) and brings
combustion products (at temperature of
' t 1350F which is allowed to enter
them to a temperature ofabou blades.
the turbine without causing damage to the first few rows of
The gases ensuing are then expanded in the turbine resulting in
motion of rotor and finally discharged to the atmosphere at a tern-
about 1000°F. The power developed, in the turbine dae
perature of
to expansion of gases is sufficient to drive the compressor, generator
and auxiliaries.
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
AIR
OUTLET
jUEL 4
OIL __-1 COUPLING
C3JP.-NG Lj
TO R
CCMPRESSOP TURBINE
Fig. 11.9. The system for Gas Turbine Cycle.

The overall efficiency of such plants is very low (about 20) as
c). However, by
compared to that ofa diesel engir.e plant (about 35 7
using regenerator, intercooler and reheater, the efficiency of the
plant can be improved.
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334 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COMING
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POWER STATIONS AND S!JPST ' 335
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Regenerator is usually of shell and the tube construction. The

exhaust gases are made to flow inside the nest of tubes while air
flows outside the tubes in the shell in counterfiow and is heated up
by the heat given out b) the exhaust gases. Thus the regenerator
utilises the heat of exhaust gases to heat the compressed air before
it is sent to the combustion chamber which reduces the fuel
combustion of the plant and improves thermal efficiency of the cycle.
However, for short time operation such 'as peak loads, the cost of
regenerator may not justify its use in gas cycle. The inter cooler is
another heat exchanger which cools the partly compressed air to
reduce volume and increase density. Intercooling improves the
thermal efficiency, and reduces the size of turbine and compressor
for the given output. Reheater is used to reheat the gases after
partial expansion in the turbine so that its further expansion yields
more work.
Sub-Stations
1. Introduction. The sub-station maybe defined as assembly
of apparatus which transforms the characteristics of electrical
energy from one form to another, say for example, from alternating
current to direct current and from one voltage to another.
It has already been said that the a.c. electrical eiergy is gen-
erated at low voltage but for transmission the voltage is stepped up.
Similarly the consumers do not use high voltage and so the same
must be stepped down to low voltage. The stepping up and stepping
down of voltage is done in the sub-stations.
As already explained that it is economical to transmit electrical
energy in the form of alternating current. This form of energy is
converted into d.c. in the substation where required.
2. Classification of Substations. The substation can be
classified as follows:
(a) In accordance with the service. In accordance with the
service performed by them, the substations can be of following types:
(i) Static. In this type of substations static equipments to
change the characteristics of electrical energy are used. So in these
substations the voltage of the a.c. energy is changed.
(ii) Converting. In this type of substations the a.c. energy is
changed to d.c. form of energy.
(b) In accordance with the service voltage. Usually these
are alternating current substations. The various types are given
below:
(i) Extra high voltage transmission substation. In this subst-
338
ation, the voltage is transformed to extra-high voltage (above 66

1(V) for the purpose of transmission of electrical energy.
(ii) Distribution Substation. In this substation the voltage is
stepped down to low tension i.e. 400 volts for supplying the users.
(iii) Industrial Substation. The big industrial consumers, who
need bulk supply are fed at high voltage viz. 11 Ky
or 66 KV. The
voltage is stepped down at the substation installed in theirpremises.
These substations are known as industrial substations.
(iv) Substation for Power Factor Correction
. Due to line
inductance, the power factor at the end of the transmission line
decreases. To improve the power factor, it is necessary to install the
synchronous condensers at the end of the line. Sucii installations
are known as power factor correction substations.
(v) Frequency Changing Substation.
Sometimes for utilization
purposes, different frequencies are to be used than the normal
generation frequency. Such substations which convert frequency are
known as frequency changing substations
c) In accordance with mounting.
(i) Indoor Type Substations.
The substations consist ofa series
of open and enclosed chambers or compartments The main equip-
ments needed for this type of sub-station are arranged in these
compartments. The chamber space in which the equipment of any
one main bus bar connection is mounted, - as a whole, is called as a
cell, cubicle or compartment
Such Substations are usually erected for a voltage upto 11000

volts but can be erected for 33000 volts and 66000 volts. When the
surrounding atmosphere is contaminated with impurities suith as
metal corroding gases and fumes, conductive dust etc.
According to con struction, these types of sub-station are further
subdivided into:
(i) Substations of the integrally built type—In
which the
apparatus is installed on site. In these substations th2 cell struc-
tures are constructed with concrete or brick.
(ii) Substations of the composite built up t y
pe—In these sub-
stations, the assemblies and prefabricated parts are assembled on
site within a substations switchgear room. The compartments of
these sub station take form of metal cabinets or enclosures, each of
which contains the equipment of one main connection cell. Within
the cabinets or enclosures, an oil circuit breaker, a load interrupter
switch, one or more voltage transformers are mounted
POWER STATIOaAND SUBSTATIONS
339
(iii) Unit W factory fabricated substations and metal clad
switch Boards —in such type of substations, the equipments are
built in e l ectridengineei-jng workshops and are shifted to site of
installation fulpre-assembled. After in
stallation, only connections
to the incomingad outgoing power circuits are required to be made.
Cubicles for untype switch boards or substations take the form of
fully enclosed octal clad cabinets.
Metal clad wbicles designed with withdrawable trucks and
divided into nu,er of compartments are usually used.
/ND/CAT! pJ, )
ME Ti
& pR 'IAN/SM
CC MPA
MEN T
BUSBA PS
COMPARTMENT
'OMPAPTMENT
OR CURRENT T/R
NO CABLE SEALING
OXE$
11.I. The system of metal clad cubicles designed

with several compartrnets
The compartments in which the cubicle is divided are control
c ompartment indicating and metering instrument, protective
device cornparten, circuit, breaker and operating mechanjsni
compartment niri bus-bars compartment current transfcrmer3
cable sealing boxes compartment.
To prevent any possible opening or closing of the disconnecting
devices when the circuit breaker is closed, these cubicles are
designed with interlocks which prevent the truck from beingrolled
in or withdrawn when the circuit breaker is closed.
(ii) Out-doorSubstations
These are ofto types
(a) Pole. mJed Substations.
These types of substations are
erected for distribution of power in localities. Single stout poles or
H-pole and 4-pole structures with suitable platforms are used for
transformers of capacity upto 200 KVA. These substations are
cheapest, simple and smallest in size. All the equipment is of outdoor
type and mounted on the supporting structure of H.T. distribution
lines. Gang operating (G.O.) switch is used for switching "ON" and
'OFF of H.T. transmission line. H.T. fuse unit is installed for
protection of H.T. side. To control L.T. side iron clad low tension
switch with fuses of suitable capacity is installed. Lightning
arrestors are installed over the H.T. line to protectthe transformers
from the surges. The substations is earthed at two or more places.
The maintenance cost of substation is low and by using a large
number of such substations in a town, it is possible to lay the dis-
tributions at a lower cost. But owning to increase in number of
transformers, total KVA is increased, no-load losses increases and
the cost per KVA thus increased.
(b) Foundation Mounted Substation. These types of substa-
tions are used for primary and secondary transmission. Since
equipments required for such substations are veryheavy, therefore,
site selected for these substations must have a good access for heavy
tran2port. Owing to exposed bus-bars and other associated equip-
ment the clearances and the spacings are not only to be governed
by the operating voltage but also from the consideration of the
encroachment from outside.
The switchgear consists of circuit breakers of suitable type on
bo:h the-sides but now a days, the circuit breaker is dispersed on
the incoming side of the modem transformers from economy paint
of view. The isolating switches thus solve purpose.
3. Transformer. It is an essential part of a voltage conversion
substation. The transformer consists of two coils which are insulated
with each other and are placed on steel core. The steel core is made
of laminations. The steel cores with windings are placed in a con-
tainer. Insulating material viz, transformer oil is placed in the
container which provides insulation between the windings on the
core and the container. This oil also radiates out the heat of the
windings. For radiating the heat, tubes are provided along with two•
side of the container. The oil after heating expands and circulates
in the tubes and the container. When the hot oil is in the tubes, th
heat is radiated to the surroundings. The terminals of the windings
are brought out into porcelain-oil filled or condenser type bushings.
Transformer can be classified in various categories as below,
depending upon the type of core or type of cooling employed:
(a) In accordance with the type of core. Transformer can
POWER STATIONS AND SUBST T IONS 341
be of the following types in accordance with the type of core.

(i) Core-type transformer. In this type of transformer cylin-
drical coils wound on a rectangular core as shown in Fig. 11.11 are
USA
It will be seen that the low voltage winding is placed near the
cores, it is because of the fact that insulation between the core and
winding can be easily provided.
CORE
/1/6/I VOLTAGE
INSULATION
LOW VOL LOW VOLTAGE
FNS(/(A T/O,V
h?6H
VOL TAGE
Wit/DING
Fig. 11.11. Section of core-type transformer.

(ii) Shell-type transformer. In Fig. 11.12 the section of the core
and winding of a shell-type transformer is shown.
LOW VOL rAGE
81611 VOLTS
WINDING
SHELL TYPt
CORE
INSt/LA NON
Fig. 11.12. Section of a shell-type transformer.

(b) In accordance with type of cooling. Transformer can
beef the following types in accordance with type of cooling employed:
(i) Oil-filled Self-cooled. In this type of transformer, the
assembled windings after putting on the core are placed in the
coctainer. The container is filled with high quality insulating oil.
The oil radiates out heat to the surroundings. On its two sides pipes
C 42 - •-- • - s' . : S. SC
are provided to increase the dissipation area. Only this type ofcooling
is adopted for outdoor transformer.
(ii) Oil-filled Water-cooled. In this type of transformer, coils
through which cold water is circulated, are placed inside the con-
tainer in which oil is placed. The heat from oil is conveyed through
the water circulating in the coil.
(iii) Air Blast type. This type of cooling is adopted in high
voltage transformer of 33 KV or above. The transformer core and
windings are placed in a container which is open at two opposite
sides. The air is blown through it with the help of blower for cooling
purposes.
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Outdoor Substa-
tions as compared to Indoor Substations. The outdoor sub-
station has the following advantages:
(i) The constructional work needed is much smaller than the
indoor substation.
(ii) Less quantity of building material is needed.
(iii) Installation cost of switchgear is low.
(w) Adequate space betwe, r two adjoining equipment can be
-t
provided without incurring much cost.

(v) Erection can Le completed in much less time.
(i) Whole of the equipment can be viewed, which makes fault
location easier.
(vii) The extension of the scheme is easier, whenever needed.
Following are the disadvantages of the outdoor substations.
(i) The dirt and dust deposit on the contact switches and thus
the maintenance cost increases.
(ii) The chances of leakage increase during rainy and snow
falling seasons and thus the switching operation becomes
difficult.
(iii) The installation is not safe from unauthorised entry of a
person.
5. Design of Substation. When a substation is to be designed
the following procedure should be adopted
1. Prepare a single line diagram of main electric connections
showing bus-bar arrangement, circuit breakers and reactors.
2. Decide the layout of the switch gear keeping in view
capacity of substation, method of control, number of feeders, rei-
ability, safety, flexibility, simplicity, space needed and cost.
3. The individual circuit should be so designed that there is a

minimum amount of risk involved in its failure.
4. The layout should be such that it should be possible to
isolate any section during fault without affecting the service to the
healthy section.
5. It should be possible to have an easy and safe access for
maintenance and inspection for different equipments.
6. In order to avoid serious troubles fi em spreading one unit
to the other, partitions orbarriers should be provided between units.
7. Reactors may be used to limit the short circuit current, so
that rupturing capacity of the circuit breaker becomes adequate.
8. In order to avoid very large capacity circuit breakers, the
current per circuit should be limited to about 2,000 A-
9. An arrangement should be made for extinguishing fire.
10. The earth conductor should be of sufficient cross-sectional
area to carr y the fault current in severe conditions.
11. A proper and very efficient automatic electrical protective
gear should be used.
12. Power cables should b :eparated fro control coves.
switch room and
13. In order to avoid fire hazard, fire proof
cable room should be provided
oil ha.dl.ng
14. An adequate arrangement should he made for
6. Main Connection Schemes
In substations and switch gears, the electric power is rucelved
and distributd by means of main bus-bars to which the equipment
is connected according to some given main circuit scheme.
In the substations, special types of appiratus like isolators (or
disconnecting switches), circuit breakers, instrument transformers
etc. are used for interconnecting high voltage power line,;, (overhead
or cable), with the main bus-bars.
Connections may be divided as incoming (power feeder con-
nections), tie (lines interconnecting two substations or switchgear
installations, each of which is fed through its own incoming feeder
connection), outgoing (feeder connections for feeding other subse-
quent substations or switchgear installations), voltage transformers
(connections made in a given substation), voltage transformer
connections for control and metering).
The main connection diagram drawn for a substation shows the
arrangements of all the circuits with its main bus-bars.
344
For simplicity and to facilitate reading, all the electrical con-

nections of a substation can be shown byi s i
is understood ti I
ngle-line diagram. It
all Le phases are connected identically.
The main elements of the ins
tallations ; circuit breakers, iso-
lators, fuses, instrument transformers power transformers etc. are
shown by standard graphical sy
mbols on the single line diagrams,
7. Graphical S y
circuit elemen t s onmbols for various types of apparatus and
substation main co nnection diagram.
(a) Circuit Elements
Symbols
(i) Bus-bars
(ii) Electrical connection or bus-bars or wires. -

-
(iii) Earthing (connection to earth).
(iu) Apparatus terminal or terminal in

an instaflatjon /
(v) Cable termination
(vi) Current transformer with one core
(vii) Current transformer with two cores

(two secondary windings)
(t..'iji) Fuse
(ix) Fixed resistor
(x) Variable resistor with sliding contact

and no break in the circuit
(xi) Plug in connection in with
drawable contact
arrangements and in apparatus.
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATIONS 3.45
Circuit Elements Symbols
(xii) Lightning arrestor (general Symbol)
(xiii) Valve type lightning arrestor
(xiv) Gap fuse arrestor
Position
(b) Switching Apparatus
open closed
(i) Isolator (disconnecting switch)
(ii) Load-interrupter switch incorporating

with arc extinguishing device
(iii) Air circuit breaker with over current trip )\ CB ACB>

or release
(iv) High voltage circuit breaker (oil, air blast,

hard gas pLc.)
(v) Isolator with earthing knife mechanical

interlock
(c) Electric Machines and Transformers

(i) Three phase squirrel-cage induction
motor
06
346
. U
(ii) Three phase slip ring induction motor
(iii) D.C. Gnerar
U
(iv) Three phase synchronous generator
(u) Three phase Sync

hronous generator,
simplified representation
(Li) Single phase steel core transformer
$
(vii) Three phase steel core transformer with
star-delta connected windings ind
brought out neutral
i
(viii) Three-phase steel-core auto-

transformer with star connected wind -
ing '
(ix) Two single phase Voltage transformers

in Open delta (V) connections
69
4110*
(x) Three-phase three winding potential
transformer having two star connected
windings, each with therieutral brought
out and earth, and one winding con-
nected as an open delta.
347
1 c •. iie arA-igcmeflts
of various typical connections and of the simplest substation
schemes.
(i) Connection with isolator and fuse -
(ii) Connection with load interrupter switch

and fuse
\
(iii) Connection with bus isolator, circuit

breaker and line isolator
(iv) Connection with bus isolator, circuit

breaker and a line isolator having earthing \c
knives, the main connection also in cor-
porating a valve type lightning arrestor
connected through an isolator.
\
348 WIRING, ESTrM\T!NG AND COSTING
() Connections of typical forms of pc, ,-:r

transformers (11 KV)
C . 1 0 2)0 c1-------1'
kw
-- .-
I -
For Transformer
of Lower Ratings
RELAY
'•
OUTGOING
FEEDERS
(vi) For Transformer ci Higher Ratings
ft®E
CC REL A
n
TIME LAG RELAY
OUTGOING FEEDER OUTGOING FEEDER

INCOMING FEEDEQ-NO. I NO.2
ftii) Fig. shows Complete Single Line Main Connection Didgram

of An 11 KVSubstation.

9. (i) Insulators. The porcelain insulators used in substations

are of the post and bushing (through) type. They serve as supports
and insulation of the bus-bars.
A post insulator consists of porcelain body, cast iron cap and
flanged cast iron base, as shown in Fig. 11.13.
The hole in the cap is threaded so CAST IRON CAP
that the bus-bars are either bolted to .
the cap directly or fixed by means of a
bus-bar clamp. Post insulators are
available with round, oval and square
flanged bases and used for fixing with - FLANGED
one, two or four bolts. Each base has CAST IRON BASE
also an earthing bolt. Fig. 11.13. The post insulation
A bushing or through
-ROD insulator consists of porcelain-
WASHER shell body, upper and lower
locating washers used for fixing
MOUNTING
the position of bus bar or rod in
FLANGE the shell, and mounting flange
with holes drilled for fixing
POPM
bolts and supplied with an
stoo earthing bolt, as shown in Fig.
11.14.
Fig. 11.14. Shows hushing. For current rating above

2,000 A, the bushings are designed to allow the main bus-bars to be
passed through them directly.
Each phase of the bus-bars is coated with paint according to a
fixed colour code-red, yellow and blue to identify the phase of the
main bus-bars.
(ii) Conductors. The substation buses can be of the following
types
(a) rigid buses of solid conducicr or tubing.
(b) strain buses of cables.
They can be of copper or aluminium. The rigid type of buses are
most commonly used, for small substations they may be of 410 hard
drawn solid copper conductor ; but with higher capacities copper
tubes may be used. -
For the last 5 to 10 years the use of aluminium as an electric
conductor has been greatly accelerated. The advantages of
aluminium over copper are well known higher conductivity on
weight basis, lower cost for equal current-carrying capacity,
excellent corrosion resistance and eare of formability, These

advantages have given aluminium undisput ' nc
transmission systems. For proper reliable elec.. .onnectjon in
cases of aluminium buses, they can be coated with silver.
(iii) Isolators. An isolator or disconnecting switch is used to open
some given part of a power circuit after switching off the load by
means of a circuit breaker.
Thus isolators serve only for preventing the voltage from being
applied to some given section of the busbar in a switchgear instal-
lation or to one or another piece of apparatus in the installation.
In some cases isolators are used as-a circuit breaking device but
their use for this purpose is strictly limited by definite conditions,
such as the power rating of the given circuit.
There are two types of isolators.
(1) Single pole isolators and (2) Three pole isolators.
(iv) Circuit Breakers. Circuit breakers are installed to perform
the following duties
(1) To carry the full load current continuously.
(ii) To open and close the circuit on no load.
(iii) To make and break the normal operating current.
(iv) To make and break the short circuit currents ofmagni-
tude up to which it is designed for.
Circuit brokers of various types have been discussed in this
chapter ahead.
(v) Load-Interrupter Switches. The switches are designed and
used to close and open high voltage circuits under normal working
conditions (at normal load). The arc extinguishing device of the load
interrupter is made in the form of a split, moulded plastic chute
fitted with organic glass inserts. This chute surrounds the moving
knife of the arc extinguishing system. The stationary arcing contact
is located in the lower part of the chute.
When the switch is opened, the are drawn between the working
contact i t-. separated and acted upon by the high temperature of arc,
the walis of the organic material inserts generated gasses (mainly
hydrogen), which create a longitudinal blast serving to extinguish
the arc. Lever-arm manually operating mechanism are used for
closing and opening the load-interrupter switches.
(vi) Power Transformers. Power' transformers are used for
stepping up the voltage for transmission at generating stations and
for stepping down the voltage for further distribution at main step
down transformer substations. Usually naturally cooled, oil
immersed, known as ON type, two windings three phase trans-
formers are used 'ip to the rating of 10 MVA The transformers of
rating higher than 10 MVA are usually air blast cooled. For very
high rating, the forced oil, water cooling and air blast cooling are
used. The transformers used are provided with on load tap changer
for regulating the voltage.
The transformers are generally installed upon lengths of rails
fixed on concrete slabs having foundation 1 to I metres deep.
(vii) (a) Current Transformers (C.Ts). These instrument

transformers are connected in a.c. power circuits to feed the current
coils of indicating and metering instruments (ammeters, watt-
meters, watt-hour meters) and protective relays. Thus the CTs
broaden the limits of measurements and maintain a watch over the
curents flowing in the circuits and over the power loads. In high
voltage installations, CTs, also isolate the indicating and metering
instruments from high voltage. The current transformer basically
consists of an iron core on which the primary winding is usually
single turn winding and the number of turns on secondary winding
depending upon the power circuit current to be measured. The
primary is directly inserted in the power circuit (the circuit in which
current is to be measured) and to the secondary windingor windings,
the indicating and metering instruments and relays are connected.
When the rated current of CT flows through its primary winding a
current of amperes will appear in its secondary winding. The larger
the current to be measured, more the number of turns on secondary.
The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as
transformation ratio of the CT.
The current transformers are rated for rated voltage of the
insulation, the rated currents of the primary and secondary wind-
ings and the accuracy class. The accuracy class indicates the limit
ofthe error in percentage of the rated turns ratio of the given current
transformer. Current transformers are available in the accuracy
classes 0.5 ; 1; 3 and 10.
(b) Potential Transformers (PT's). The poterial transformers
are used for voltages above 380 volts to feed the potential coils of
indicating and metering instruments (volt meters, wattmeters,
watt-hour meters) and relays. These transformers make the ordi-
nary low vo1ge instruments suitable for measurement of high
voltage and isolate them from highvoltage.
14
The primary winding of the potential transformers is connected to

the main bus-bars of the swich gear in a ll' the secorr
windings is connected to various indicating and metering instru-
ments and relays also.
When the rated high voltage is applied to the primary of
P. T., the voltage of 110 volts appears across the secondary winding.
The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated secondary voltage
is known as turns or transformation ratio.
The potential transformers are rated for primary and secondary
rated voltages accuracy class, number of phases, system of cooling.
(viii) Indicating and Metering Instruments. (ammeters, volt-
metres, wattmetres, kWh metres) are installed in the substations
to control and maintain a watch over the currents flowing in the
circuits and over the power loads.
(ix) Carrier-Current Equipment. Such equipment is installed in
the substation for communication, relaying, telemetering or for
supervisory control. This equipment is suitably mounted in a room
known as carrier room and connected to the high voltage power
circuit. Sometimes the communication equipment is installed
adjacent to the breaker and connected above the breaker termins.
(x) Control Cables. The control cables and conduit system is
required for affecting automatic controls. The control system gen-
erally operates at 110 V or 220 V and the cables employed for this
purpose are multi-core cables having 10 or 37 or 61 conductors
according to requirement. For laying these cables, generally duct
are run from control room basement to centrally located junction
boths from where the conduits are run to the required points.
(xi) Air Break and Disconnect Switches. They are generally
manually operated, but can also be motorized if they are to be of
remote controlled type. The modern trend is to have automatic
sectionalizing switches.
The disconnect switches for 46 KV and below are generally of
single pale and have hook-stick operated mechanism, but they can
also be of group-operated mechanism. The 110 KV and higher
voltage disconnect switches are group-operated i.e. all the six poles
are operated with one handle.
However, it may be pointed that these air-break switches are
opened only after the circuit breaker had rnczde the circuit dead.
(xii) Protective Fuses and Relays. The fuses are very commonly
providedon the high voltage side alongwith the other protective
devices. It serves to protect the transformer from the system or it
can also be said that the fuse protects the system from transformer.
The relays are also used to protect the power system equipment
from damage against fault at any point en route.
(Xiii) Switch Boards. The switch board consists of meters, relay
and control equipment as illustrated in Fig. 11.15(a). The essential
meters are placed at the bottom. The control equipment is generally
half-way between top and bottom, so as to facilitate the operation
A control desk may also be provided as shown in Fig. 11.15 cbs.
CONTROL
OESA
SWITCH BOARD S,VIrCHBOA.RO

WITH CONTROL ogsx
(a)
Fig. 11.15
'the materials generally used tot switchboard panels are slate
and asbestos ebon y , although all steel switch boards can also b€
used only where voltage is not more than 11 KV.
(xiv) Control Room. All equipments such as switchboard, carrier
current equipment, batteries etc. are housed in the control room,
which generally also has a basementhatch way (2 m 1.5 m approx.)
left in the floor for facilitating the installation. Below the switch
board, a slot of about 10 cm. may be provided for control cables etc.
'Fig. 11.16 represents layout of the control room, which is about 10
cmx 7 m.The basement maybe used as a battery room, or for storage
etc.
10. Substation Auxiliaries Supply. In small unattended
substations only a small amount of power for electric lighting during
regular periods of inspection, maintenance and repair is reqdired.
In regional substations, the electric power is required for the
auxiliaries--the lighting circuits, air blast fans of power trans-
forme:s, battery charging sets, oil servicing facilities, compressor
units in case of air blast circuit breakers, ventilating fans of the
substation buildings, water supply and heating system equipmer.L
etc.

WIRING, ESTLMATING AND COSTING
In substations, incorporating synchronous condensers. t'h

supply is also required for the operation of auxilia,
the synchronous condensers.
In large substations it is wide practice to connect two trans-
formers to the 11 KV main bus-bars for supply of the auxiliaries at
a voltage of 400/230 V.
10,77
----
L:.IIriiiL I
CARRIER CURRi,v7
EQUIPMENT El
FUTURE
,-FUTURE
::::::
CONTRO4
SwIrCH ' ,Qa.SOT
STA/L TO
8ASEI4EI.T CABLES i
Fig. 11.16. Layout of the control room.

11. Complete Bus Bar Arrangements on High and Low
Voltage Side for a Substation. The static transformers can be
further subdivided into primary substations and substations of local
significance. The primary substation may form a part of national
Rid, it may operate at 400, or 220, or 110, or 66 KV on the H. T.
side, while it ma y have 66 or 33 or 11 KV on the L. T. side. The
sub-station of local significance may convert the 66 or 33 or I XV
voltage to 0.410.23 KV for local consumers.
In order to have thorough understanding, first single line dia-
grams are given for both high and low voltage sides (for two-phases
only) and in the next articles the bus bar arrangements are dealt
with in general.
Fig. 11.17 represents most simple connections for primary
substation having two step down transformers which are fed
through two sections of single bar, similarly there are two secons
oflow voltage bus bar. The two sections (both on high and low voltage
sides) can be connected together through sectionalizing circuit
breakers SCB 1 and SCB 2 ; in which case both the transformers can

POWER STATIONS AND LUBSTATIONS 355
be operated in paralleftr independently. The advantage of operating

the transformers independently is that in case of fault, the fault
current will be smaller.
/NCO/IiNG LINES
C B.
CIRCUIT SPEAKER
(SCS,)

flO OR
ItO *Y
&IS BAR
C li
i Y)
STEP DOP/tv
TRANS
.1
Sc2 ' c3kif.
SVS BAR
J —/
CM.
1
[J(1
Fig. 11.17. Single bus-bar arrangement of primary substation.
As the primary substations have key position. in a national

supply system, so, it is most important to ensure reliability ofsupply,
during normal as well as during severe weather conditions etc. Both
low and high voltage sides are provided with double bus bars as
shown in Fig. 11.18. Bus coupler breakers BC, and BC 2 are used in
order to transfer the load from one bus to other. With the help of
sectional izing circuit breakers SCB I and SCB 2 , the two transformers
can be operated in parallel, if required.

C,
(1$ COUPLE,'
r.'EAKEp
70 02 761 , c 8U&4,
LrJ
Cli.
STEP t'O.'/N
TRANSORME.'
'C2 C3.
--: • i_cd,
I I i 1 •••'—--'' 4 4 I
Ct_ 4tI ;i:'
C
Fig. 11.18. Double bus arrangement of primary substation.
12. Ring Main System. In this s y stem two or more power
houe.s are connected in a fashion as so'.-i in Fi g .11.19. The gen-
erateu supply at 400 V is taken to step-up substations.
The voltage is stepped up to 11 KV in these substations. Two

step-up substations are connected to various distribution (step
down) substations as shown in Fig. 11.19 through a ring main
system. The distribution and step-up substations are provided with
ring main T. off switch. The ring main T. off switch can be connected
to any of the two power houses and thus increase the reliability.
Even if there is a fault at any point in the cable, the distribution
substations can be fed. For example let there be a fault at points C
and D shown in Fig. 11.19. Distribution sub-station No. 1 and No.
2 can be fed from step-up substation B and distribution, substation
No. 3 can be fed from step-up sub-station A.
. 2<
I.- , Lu
..
II
11.19. 11 XV Ring main system

13. Circuit Breaker. Circuit breaker has the following
essential components
(a) Circuit breaker contacts, (c) Busbars and conductors,
(b) Bushings, (d) Instrument transf:rrners.
Busbars, conductors and instrument transformers have already
been discussed in art. 11 and 9. Circuit breaker contacts and
bushings are discussed in the following articles.
11. CircuT" 77., .
are required to carry normal as well as short circuit current. The
normal current should be carriedhy without any rise in temperature
of contacts and drop in voltage. To ensure that temperature does
not rise, the contacts are placed in oil, lithe contacts are place] in
o i l, the breaker is known as oil circuit breaker wherwise i is
known as air circuit breaker. Various types of contacts are shown
in Fig. 11.20.
MOVING CONTACT
E5L/.R
/ 7 -
->-: ffl'1' f_
&,ifT ST47I0WARY
& CONTACT .
Butt type contact RETAINING LEAF

CONTACT SLJ.Rc(s DEVICE SPRING
- FOR NORMAL LOADS
CONTACT
FIXED -=---'"TE) G
CONTACTS.. CONUCT
Tulip type contact Finger and weoge type contact

Pig. 11.20
15. Bushings. Bushings are used as an insulating material
around a high voltage conductor when the conductor is passed
through the metal sheath or the plate of the tank of the circuit
III
FL A 5/i -\ ¼ PLJNC TLjR.

1.
CONDUC T
(a) l.ridcor EuahingB

POWER STAT1OS AND SUBSTATIONS 359
TOP CAP
FILLER PLUG
O I L LEVEL
tN 3 , CA TUR
FL EXIBLE
CONNEC TION
riq
SPLIT
(LA KP5
4
•1 BüH/C16
FLANGE
J: \
(b) Outdoor Bushings

Fig. 11.21
breaker. Most common types ofbushings used for indoor and outdoor
purposes are shown in Fig. 11.21
16. Oil Circuit Breaker. In this type, contacts are placed in
oil. The oil prevents restriking of the arc after the current reaches
zero point of the cyclè.The oil moves into the zone of arc after the
current reaches zero point by the following actions:
:o
WIRING, EST' {ATING ANT)
-41..
orking on this priiple is
breaker. cU
(2)
By the pressure caused by the natural head ofthe oil,
breaker working on this p circuit
breaker. rinciple is known as self blast circuit
(3) By p
ressure earthed by the external forces, circuit
working on this principle are known as breakers
breakers Forced blast circuit
F ollowing are the advantages and
cuit breaker. disadv antages of the oil cir-
Advantages:
1.
The oil used (such as transformer oil) is a very good insulator
conductor, smaller clearance between live conductors and earth
and allows
2.
The cold oil is capable of entering into arc space and act as
an insulator when the arc current goes to zero.
3. The oil has a high dielectric strength.
4.
It absorbs
dissipating the heat energy of the arc as the oil has great heat
properties
5. The gases so formed by
deco mpos j t ;
energy have good Cooling properties on of oil caused by arc
Disadvantages:
1. It is inflammable
CURREJVTj
IN
TERMINAL ,'. OUT
ATE
LEVER
- X- V--
(a)
Fig. 11.22. Single break oil circuit breaker for
indoo r purposes.
POWER STATIONS AND SUBSTATiONS
3€ 1
TOP.CP *140 CONNECTION

?- P I
ORCELA N NSUt.J.TO
c cc o --
CONDENSER ULATO.f/(
MO AP
ARRESTER
(LIGHTNING CO1O I
PT ECTION)
( . MAIN OPRATGl
OPPtA1i
OIL I.
CO7*I M
PUtL ROD I
FIXED COPI(C_j_T.__IL__ l\\ I

MOVIN(, CONTACT I \ \ I
rUNSOLATOR IH
TANK LINING
U I
-= ---
Fig. 11.22. (b) Single break outdoor type circuit breaker
VE CRA/
yE ARM
hR CUSHON
OIL LEVEL
7== 7.- FIX, CONTACT

ARC
GAS BUBBLE
CONTC
I -EI---EE-Ei-I---Ei-- frioVIN
OIL TANK
Fig. 1123 (a). Double break oil circuit breaker for indoor purposes.
362
ESTIM'rmra A.ND COSTING
(b)
Fig. 11.23. Double break outdoor type circuit breaker.
2. It forms an explosive mixture with air.
3. Due to composition etc., the oil has to be kept clear and
requires maintenance
1 7 .Description of Oil Circuit
Breaker. In this type ofcircujt
breaker, a system of levers, toggles and rollers is utilised to close
the circuit breaker by raising the moving contacts against the action
of strong spring which open the contacts when the circuit breaker
is tripped mechanically or by action of relays and current trans-
formers.
These type :ircuit breaker have high rupturing capacity aiid

are designed for remote action by employing a solenoid coil or
pneumatic gear. The automatic losing gear is the best possible for
mineral oil free from alkali, acid and moisture.
Fig. 11.22 and 11.23(o) and (b) represent the various important.
parts of single break oil circuit breaker and double break oil circuit
breaker.
IAICOMIA,' CABLE EiVO
BOX P05/1/ON __
ME TER
VOL rME TEP
Two SWITCHES
FOR AMMETER
NO VOLTMETER
CALt
BOX
aliT-
6OING
Fig. 11.21. Side view of H.T. ii KV, 3-phase 3-wire oil circuit breaker.
Fig. 11.24 represents the general outlook of H.T. 11 KV oil
circuiL breaker. In Fig. 11.25 general outlook of H.T. 11 KV, HRC
fuse switch is represented.
feeder panel having
in Fig. 11.26, the general outlook of an L.T.
draw-out type incoming O.C.B. and many outgoing switches panel
has been shown.
zo
Lu -
-J C
I.-.
-

-. b
364
CIO
-a

Key Diagrams of Typical 33 K Substations.

The key diagramsof typical 33KV substations are given in Figs.
below
LJL.
L
= . >
' -a
1 •-• .0
0 •fl 7)
q 7)
0 S' nb
- J Offt
0
C Lj
—< = ------
'
A
cr.
—& —4,--1
2
zc 0- 0 >
-'
Ni -'--o-->4-
- -4
-4
r.i Type orfuse Copper tinned or lead or aluminium.

(b) Capacity in amperes :3 amps or 5 amps or 10 amps or
amos or 50 amos or 100 amps.
- 7''N7'i -----------------
N .IC
•-O- >--'.---,-
1- 2
9N 9 L %
--------- -- -
—---------------------------
- -
H
cc
L • - --- --- . :
Lo
0
L_-- -
N ;
0
cl
IL

366
•33vV0 SWITCH WITH -
33Kv
,--- 33KV u.O. S TH
33Kv FUSE WilT
33KVFL)SE UNIT
11
33111KV 5 M4/A
NO 1 TT?ANSFORMER
NO 2
/1KV 9US BNR NO I 11KV OUS8AP NO 2 2MVA CAP4C/,ORS
54 1 5 50t
NO.1234
NI.256 769
O(JTGQWG FEEDERS OUTGOING rEEDEPS
Fig. 11.29. The Key Diagram of Typical 33KV, 10 MVA Substation.

POWER STATONS AND SUBSTATIONS
TPPIh& .IP.E
I HYIZONT4.?U,4Tl
r4 FORMATION
1
T _
JUMPERS w-
r
:t 34kgJT
p41L 10-97,71
H 763,'
-
Ji -
JUMPERS
TR A N SFORMER
s q
H
=1i;5 , r "-^_
Fig. 11-31 -
25
:368
OUT GO ii
CABLE i CABLE FO
L.T. Line 3
No. I 2
55 Grin
Jumpers
I
Fig 11.32
POWER STATIONS AND SIJBSTATIO' 36
arm
27
W7 1 1 Iu1vI
-IMMIM112M. am.
I
H171
I,
IOperorg rod -
25mm Goh,pipe
j'
'ondl -rn Ioc.k'P9
orranqemehr
Steel pole
Fig. 1133
370
VIEWAT
STEAK
A RN
BARE
JUMPERS
WrTH
BEADS
NNEL
/NSUL4 75
JUMPERS
2134
'I
ANGLE -V
L
\f.
IRON
SP4ING I
--
LL
Fig. 11.34
371
POWER STATIONS ANDJBSTAT1ONS
.iPICAL QUESTIONS
I. What are differet types of power stations? Write the advantages
and disadvantages of each type of power stat;Ofl.
circuits, a modern coal fed power plant can be
2. In how many rr.zin
divided? Explain abouteach circuit and give the schematic arrangement
of the same.
3. What are the fxtors which influence the choice of site for thermal
plants and give the layout diagram?
constituents of steam power station.
4. Explain about the
5. Ex p lain about the Hydro-electric Power station and what are the
factors u ..,. onsidereA for the location of hydro-electric power station?
6. What are the ements of hydro-electric plant? Explain about them.

7. What are the tpes of water turbines? Explain about them.
S. Flow are the Hydroelectric plait classified ? Explain them with
diagrams.
9. What auxiliaries are used with a Hdru-electric plan:
i
?
r elements
10. Explain aboul the Diesel power station nod the
. Explain ai,t the nucleat power station and what are the basic
I'
requirements for the.ocation of a nuclear power station?
12 Explain abo' the characteristics of a Nuclear power plant.
13 Explain nbou the gas turbine power plant and their elments
14.Give the comarison chrt of each power plant.
Its
15. What do yøi understand by oil circuit brealcer.
description with the help of sketches?
What are theadvantages and disadvantages of oil circuit brea-r?
16.
17 Give the key diagram of two 11 K substations connected to
distribution substations through a nag man system. Poir,t ut vnnJ
equi p ment used in all substations connected through nag maln
18. Why ring main system is used?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the uutdsr sub-
19.
stations as compared to indoor substation?
20. What are thepoints to be considered while designing the substa-
tions?
Describe thevarious equipments required for (a) indoor substation
21.
and (h) outdoor substation.
pes of substations.
22. What are the various t y
23. Describe with sketch the arrangement of bus bar on high and low
voltage scale of sutation.
24. Explain the various parts of a circuit Breaker.
372
WIRrNG, ESTP{ATING AND COSTING
25. Explain about the connection scheme of substation.

26. D€scrjbe about the indoor and outdoor substations
27. Draw the diagrams for the following.
(a') Connection with isolator and fuse.
(b) Connection with bus-isolator, circuit breaker and line isolator.
(c) Con p ection of 11 KY power transformer.
(d) Single line diagram of 11 NV substation.
28. Explain about the design of substation.
29. What do you understand by tub-station auxiliaries supply?
30. Draw the main connections
(a) For Auxiliaries supply in 132/11 NV step down sub-station.
(b) Key diagram of typical 33KV, 3MVA'10 MVA substation.
(c) Lay out of a typical 66 K substation.
12
General Specifications
1. Introduction. 2. Generating act (diesel engine driven) 3. witches and O.C.B. 4.

L.T. O.C.B. indoor type with time limits fuse. 5. FIT. 11KV switch with fl.R.C.Fu5C3.
switch. 7. H.T. Feeder panel. 8. L.T. Feeder panel. 9.Tran301-IDer.
6. Ring main T. off
10. SpeciflcatiOfls for items of overhead lines 11. Poles or struts. 12. Pin Irulatcrs.
type Insulators. 15. Stay assembly 16. Stay wire. 17.
13. Shackle 1nslators. 14. Disc
Aluminium Conductor steel reinforced. 18. G.I. wire. 19. Specifications for items of
internal wiring. 20. V.I.R. Cable.21.Weather proof Cable. 22. Cord flexible.23.V.1
LC. Cable. 24. P.V.C. Cable. 25. T.R S. wire. 26. Fuse Board distribution. 27.Ener'
Meter. 28. Fuse wire. 29. Fuse Carrier. 30. Conduits. 31. Conduits Boxes.Metal
32.ScreWs.
Shades.
33. Tumbler Switch. 34. Water-' : -h'
6 Swatch. 35. Scckt outlet. 36.
Resc. 4). Main Switch. 41.
37. Glass Shades. 38. Lamp Holder. 39. Ceiling
Underground Cable (low tension). 42.
1 Introduction, It is voy es6entia1 to specify the items

requird correctly as otherse there is going to he confusfl while
commencing the work on completion of the initial fonnalities of
estimating and costing. In addition, until alLd unless the specifi-
drawn correctly, it is not possible to assess its correct
cations are
price.
Diesel engine
2. Generating sets (diesel engine driven).
driven generating sets are available with automatic excitation and
required automatic voltage
as well as with shunt field regulator. If
regulator is also provided for automatic control ofvoltage or, variOus
loads after the initial excitation is given by hand on no load. The
general specification of diesel engine generating sets are as under:
(1) Diesel Engine.

(a) B.H.P.-191 at 1,000 r.p.m.
Overload capacity: 12% for one hour after every 12 hours
(b)
working.
(c) No of cylinders 6
(d) No of strokes : 6
(e) Rotation : Anticlockwise
374
(J) Method of starting : Battery or Pneumatic

(ii) Alternator
(a) Rating: 160 RVA at 1,000 rpm. at 0.8 p.1
(b) Voltage :420 ± 5%
(C) No of phases : 3-phase 4-wire
(d) Cycles : 50
(e) Type of excitation : Hand excited
(J) Requirement of parallel operation : To be provided with
damper windings
(g) Coupling: Flexible coupling or Rigid coupling
The diesel engine and alternator as specified above are to be
mounted on a common base pla:e. The base plate supplied is to be
fabticated out of sheet steel and angle iron for the engine and
alternator. SuLEable foundation bolts for keeping the base plate in
posj'ion on the fu:ndation are to be pro L'ided. Furthersu itable engiae
alternator and coupling bolts to tight them on,fhe base plate should
-R- F' prooH-'L
(iii) Alterrator control paneL
(a) Totally et.:iosed sheet cubical type with door at the back
(b) Rus bars : Copper or aluminium of sufficient rating for the
above set
(c) Circuit breaker : Air circuit breaker complete with overload
and short circuit release
(d) Working voltage : 500 V
(e) Voltmeter: 0-500 V (moving iron.)
(I) Ammeter: 0-300 A (moving iron.)
(g) Other meter : kWh meter, KW meter, frequency meter,
power factor meter, moving coil ammeter for
exciter.
(e) Arrangement for synchronising and excitation : Set of
synchronising sockets and plug to be provided for parallel
operation of sets. Shunt field regulator with hand wheel
for varying the excitation also is to be provided.
S. Switches and 0. C. B. Specifications for various switches
and O.C.B. are given below:
375
GENERALSFIONS
4. L.T. G.J.2.
Indoor type with time limit Switch. L.T.
400 amps enclosed oil circuit breaker fitted with
(a) S. P. neutral link.
ib) 5 amps overload trips calibrated 1001200%.
(c) Time limit fuse totally enclosed.
(d) C.T. of rating 400/5 amps.
(e) Mechanical on and off handle with indicator.
. paper insulated
(I). Cable box suitable for 3core, 150 sq. mm
lead covered underground cable.
(g) 3 Nos. 500-Amp copper or aluminium bus-bars placed in a
metal clad enclosures.
5. H.T. 11KV Switch with H.R.C. Fuses. 11 KV A.C. metal
clad extensible automatic manually operated indoor oil fuse switch
unit of the tripping all phase type and breaking capacity 300 M.V.A.
with the following attachment
(a) Withdrawal fuse carrier complete with 3 Nos, 11KV suit
g capacity) oil tight striker-ablP.rtedHRC(ighupn
pin cartridges fuses.
(bi 3-300 Amps bus bars copper or aluminium, placed in a
metal clad chamber filled with compound.
(c) Mechanical off and on handle with indicator and padlocking
arrangement.
(d) Suitable oil level indicator.
. H.T. underground
(e) Two cable boxes for 3 core 25 sq. mm
PILCADSTA cable.
6. Ring Main T. off Switch. It should have the following
specifications.
H. T. 11 KV extensible type ring main T. off switch indoor type
comprises of one transformer control panel and 2 Nos. isolator panel
each fitted with:
(A) Transformer Control Panel. Consists of Automatic
manually operated oil fuse switch unit 300 Amps capacity having
following parts
(a) Withdra:al fuse carrier complete with 3 Nos H.R.C. oil
tight striker pin cartridges fuses.
(b) Three, 500 Amp bus bars, copper aluminium placed in a
metal clad chamber filled with compound.
376
WIRING E STIMATING AND COST!NG
(c) Mechanical on and off handle with
in dicator and padlocking
arrangement.
(d) Suitable oil level indicator.
(e) Two cable boxes each suitable for 25 mm
2 PILCADST
HT underground cable.
(B) Isolator pannel 2 No g . for each unit.
of the following: It should comprise
(a) Metal clad non automatic type load breaking, fault making
oil immersed isolator assisted with spring.
(b) Three 500 Amp bus bars of copper or aluminium placed in
a metal clad chamber filled with compound
(c) Mechanical o p erati ng h andle
devices to bring it in the
positions—On Off, Earth and Test.
(d) One no. cable box suitable for 25 mm2
underground cable.
P1L CADSTA, H.T.
7. H.T. Feeder Panel. It can be specified as under:
(a) Type : Indoor.
(b) System :..l I KV, 50 cycles, 3-phase ;
3-vrire.
(c) Incoming panel with following accessories attachment
(i) Vertical dropdown drawout free handle mechanism oil
circuit breaker capacity 40 amps.
(ii) 3 Nos. of 5 amps. overload trips calibrated 100/200%.
(iii) 3 Nos. of time limit fuses.
(iv) 3 Nos. of cur-rent transformer ratio 40/5 amps accuracy.
(v) Voltmeter: 0-15 KY.
(vi) Ammeter: 0-40 amps.
(vii) Rotary selector switch.
(viii) 3-phase draw-out type oil immersed potential transformer
ratio 1 1,000V/110v with H.V. and L.V. fuses.
(ix) Cable Box indoor type suitable for 3-core PILCADSTA 50
sq. mm U/G cable.
(x) Metal clad air insulated 3 Nos. bus bars suitable for working
voltage 11 KY, capacity 50 amps.
(d) 3 Nos. outgoing panne] each with following accessories
attachment.
(1) Vertical dropdown drawout free handle mechanism oil
circuit breaker, capacity 40 amp.
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS 377
(ii) 3 Nos. of 5 amps. overload trips calibrated 100/200%.

(iii) 3 Nos. of time limit fuses.
(iv) 3 Nos. of current transformer ratio 40/5 amps accuracy.
(v) Ammeter 0-44 amps.
(vi) Rotary selector switch.
(vii) Cable box indoor type suitable, for 3-core PILCADSTA 25
sq. mm U/G cable.
(viii) Metal clad air insulated 3 Nos. bus-bars suitable for
working voltage 11 KV, capacity 50 amps.
8. L.T. Feeder Panel. It can be specified as under:
Metal clad indoor floor mounting type L. T. distribution board
su it able for operation on 3-phase, 4-wire 50 cls 400/440 volts. The
panel should be equipped with the following
a) Bus bars. It should consist of:
(i) 3 Nos. bas-bars capacity 200 amps and mounted on porce-
lain support. -
(ii) 1 No. bus bar capacity 100 amps and mounted on porcelain
sup t.
(b) Incoming. It should consist of:
G) 200 amps, 4001440 volts tripple pole, trip fuse, horizontal
draw-out type oil circuit breaker with rupturing capacity
as 10 MVA.
(ii) 3 Nos. of current transformers operated oil dash pot time
lags system for over load trips.
(iii) 1 No. of neutral link.
(w) 1 No. of under-voltage release.
(v) 1 No. mechanical on-off indicator.
(vi) 1 No. trip lever for emergency.
(vii) 1 No. ammeter 0-300 amps with selector switch.
(viii) 3 Ns. of current transformers ratio 200/5 Amps.
(ix) 1 No. voltmeter 0-500 V with selector switch and protective
fuse.
(x) 1 cable box indoor type suitable for PILC 3core 75 sq. mm
underground cable.
(c) 3 Nos. outgoing. Each should consists of:

378 \VTN' T S'l Y i" AD CO
(i) 3 Nos. ofironclad tripple pole and neutral link H. R. C.

use switch units, complete with H. R. C. fuse.
(ii) 1 No. ammeter 0-200 Amps with selector switch.
(iii) 3 Nos. of current transformers ratio 100/5 Amps.
(iv) 1 Cable box indoor type suitable for PILC, 3 core 185 sq.,
mm underground cable.
9. Transformers. The step-up transformer is used for step-
ping up the voltage after generation for the purpose of transmission
upto the distribution substation. At the distribution substation, the
voltage is again stepped down to 400 V. The step-up transformer
can be specified as udner
Capacity :300 KVA.
(a) Type of transformer : Indoor or outdoor.
(b) Type of cooling: Natural oil cooled, or oil-filled water cooled
or air Blast type (for 33 KV or above).
(c) Type of core : Shell or core.
Y) T ype of wiring: Double wound or autowound
(e) No. of phases and neutral.
- (i) L. V. Side : 3 phases with neutral'; for step-down trans-
former or 3-phase only for step-up transforpe
(ii) H. V. Side :3 phases only.
(.1) Voltage: between phases on
(i) H. V. Side :11 Ky.
(ii) L. V. Side : 0.4 Ky.
(g) Vector Group : Dy-11
(h) Tapping on H. V. side or on L.V. side
depending upon if the transformer 2%, ±5%, ±7% is
step-up or stepdown
(j) Permissible temp. side of the core: 50°C
k) Permissible temp. side of the oil :45°C
(in) Efficiency at 0.8 p.f.
(i) At full load = 99% or 98.2%
(ii) At I load = 99.2% or 98.4%

379
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
(n) Iron losses : 700 watts.

(o) Copper loss at full load : 4050 watts.
(p) Regulation at 0.8 p.f. 3.88%
(q) Cable joints an H. V. side : Should be in a position to
accommodate PIILCAIJSTA H. T. U/G cable 25 sq. mm .
(r) Cable joint on L. V. Side : Should be in a position to
accommodate L. T. U/G PILC cable 150 sq. mm .
10. Specifications for Items of Overhead Lines. Various
items specified below
11. Poles or struts. The poles can be of wood, R.C.C. or steel
tubular. The length of the struts should be 8.55 metres.
These can be specified as under:
(A) Wooden Poles or Struts
() Girth of butt: 61 cm. or 76 cm.
(b) Girth of tip : 38 cm. or 53 cm.
(c) Length : 8.55 metres or 9.15 metres or 11 metres.
(B) Reinforced Concerte Pole Struts.
(a) Section at bottom :22.86cm. x22.86 cm. or 30.50 cm 30.50
cm.
tb) Length: 8.55 metres or 9.15 metres or 11 metres.
(C) Steel Tubular Poles/Struts The steel tubular po!e'struts
should be of cast iron one piece with base flanges and bolts and nuts,
the length should be 8.55 metres or 9.15 metres or 11 metres.
12. Pin Insulators. The pin insulators should be made of
porcelain vitreous, white or brown with mild steel galvanized
spindle, with galvanized iron nut and washer. Its dimensions for
various voltages should be as shown in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1
Size of galvanised
Working I In.sulatr size in m'v'- mild steel spindle in
Voltage
Maxim urn Dia. of Top
Height dia. Dia. ofgroou€ shankcordon
Ithread
Side Top
500 V 63.50 57.15 9.52 15.885 15,885
1100 V 82.55 69.85 15.885 15.885 35.885 15.885
3,300 V 8255 8552 15.885 15885 28.575 19.05
6,600 V 131.70 1).85 19.05 19.05 22.575 19.05
1.000 V 168.5 146.06 19.05 19.05 22.515 19.05

380 WIRING, E STIMATING AND COSTING
13. Shackle Insulators. The shackle insulator Should be

made of porcelain vitreous, white or brown including galv
anised
mild steel straps (2 Nos.) and bolt. Its dimensions for various
voltages should be as shown in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2
Working Size of shackle insulator7
Pressure Size ofgaluani3ed steel
Urapsand bolts in mm.
Height
Maxiazurn Dia.of
dia. !groove for
Section of
s:rQp
fño
bolt
I
conductor
500 V 5239 6350 635
1,100 V 25.40 x 1.60 9.52
78.21 14-29 31.75 x 3.18
3,300 V 106.36 I 25.40 12.70
6,600 V 41.36 x 4.80 19.05
139.70 127.00 I 12.70
11,000 V 152.40 J 127.00 I 16.00

38.10 x 4.80
38.10 x 4.80
19.05
19.05
14. Disc type Insulators. Disc type insulators are made of
porcelain, vitreous white or brown in colour and each disc of size
152.40 mm dia. should be in a position to withstand 11,000 volts.
The no. of disc used depends upon the working voltage. These car
be specified as tinder
Working voltage: 11 KV or 33 KIV
Dia. of disc 152.40 mm
No. of discs : 1 or 3
Other fittings : Equipped with tension clamps.
15. Stay Assembly. It can be Specified as under:
(a) Stay bow.
(j)Dia. of rod :15 mm
(ii) Length :37.5 cm.
(b) Stay plate.
(i) Cross-section : 22.5 cm x 22.5 cm or 30 cm x 30 cm
(ii) Thickness of the plate :6.5 mm
(c) Stay or Anchor rcxl
(i) Dia. of rod: 16 mm or 19 mm
(ii) Length :60 cm.
One end of the stay rod should be threaded and have a suitable
bolt and the other end should be joined with the stay plate by means
of forged head as shown in Fig. 8.18.

(d) Stay Insulator. It should be made of porcelain viterous

white or brown and should be specified as follows
(a) Size :7.62 cm. x 3.81 cm. or 10.8 cm. x 5.72 cm.
(b) Working load : 900 kg. or 1360 kg.
16. Stay Wire. The stay wire should be ofgalvanied iron and
should have 7 strands either 61 G.I wire 8 S. W. G. or of 10 S. W.G.
17. Aluminium Conductor Steel Rod. The aluminium
conductor is to be specifed by number of aluminium and steel
strands and their diameter in mm. The various sizes are indicated
inTable8.3. These condu.ors also have trade name. Few important
sizes and trade names are given in Ta'jle 12 3.
Table 12.3
Method of Method ofspec.
Stranding no. and were dia. ecifving by fyig 5y trd
size I narre
Alumnum I - Steel
No. a. Tho
Rim inch I No. MM. L,.cl.
Squirrel
0 2.11 0. C S3 1 2.11 0.083 6/1 x .083
6/1 x .102 Weasel.
6 2.59 0.102 I 2.59 0.102
6 3.00 0.118 1 3.00 0.118 6/1 x .118 Fer,ot
6 3.35 0.132 1 3.35 0.132 6/1 x .132 Rabbit
6 3.66 0.144 1 3.66 0.144 6/1 x .144 Mink
6 3.99 0.157 1 3.99 0.157 6/1 x .157 Beaver
Other
6 4.19 0.166 1 4.19 0.166 6/1 x .166
26 2.54 0.100 1 2.54 0.100 26/7 x .100 Coyote
30 3.00 0.118 7 3.00 0.118 3017 x .118 Panther
18. G. 1. Wire. G.I. wire SWG No. 8 or 10 are used in overhead

transmission and distribution lines for earth wire. This can be
specified as under:
Gauge SWG 8 or 10
Weight per 100 metre length: 11.40 kg. or 6.00 kg.
19. Specifications for items of Internal Wiring. Various
items of internal wiring are specified as under:
20. V.I.R. Wires. V.L.R. wires have high conductivity con
ductor, single strand of aluminium, irsulated %'.th vulcanised
rubber, tappcd. braided and compounded to conform I.S.I.
specifications. These wires can be specified as under
(a) Type ofinsulatiot'i : V.I.R.
382
WJiNO, JSTfMAT]N .4) COSTING
(b) Voltage grading: 250 V or 660 V

(c) No. of cores Single or twin core.
(d) Metal : Aluminium
(e) Size : 1 sq. mm, 1.5 sq mm, 2 sq mm, or 3 sq mm or 4 sq.
mm or 6 sq. mm or 10 sq. mm or 15 sq. mm or 20 sq. mm
or 25 sq. mm .
21. Weather Proof Cables. Weather proof cables have high
conductivity, single strand of'aluminium conductor, insulated with
vulcanised rubber tapped, braided and weather resisted com-
pounded.
These cables are either twin core or single core and are ofvarious
sizes. 'These can be specified as under
(a) Type of insulation : V.I.R.
(b) Voltage grading: 250 V or 660 V.
(c) No. of cores : Single or twin.
( Metal : Aluminium
k t, Size: 1 sq. mm or 1.5 sq. mm or 2 sq. mm 3 sq mm or
sq. lnrri or 6 sq... 0; or 10 s. mm or 15 sq. mm or 20
s... Him.
22. Cord Flexible. Flexible cords,
have hif onductivitv
strns- copper wire insulated with vulcanjs rubber and
shs.cth tough rubber.These Cords are avaiahle in twin core.
These cords can be specified as under
(a) Type of insulation : Flexible.
(b) Voltage grading: 250 V.
(c) No. of cores : twin.
(di Metal : aluminium/Copper
(e) Size : 0.4 sq, mm or 0.6 sq. mm , 1 sq. mm
2 sq. mm , 3
SQ. mm
or 4 sq. mm .
23. V.I.R. L. C. Cable. These cabes have high conductivity
conductor, single strand of aluminium insulated with vulcanised
rubber, tapped, braided and covered with lead. These are twin core
cables 50 v or 660 V grade and various sizes available are as for
w,res These wires can be specified in similar fashion as V.I.R.
wire except for insulation.
24. P.V.C. Cable. The alumiHum conductors ofs;;ch cable are
covered by polyven )-1 compounded insulation. These are available
in 25() V or 660 V grade and are either single or twin core. The
-, r \ 7 .I.R. wires. These wires can be

specified in similar fashion as VI.R. wires except for insulation.
25. T.R.S. Wires. These cables have high conductivity single
strand of aluminium conductor, insulated with vulcanised rubber
tapped, braided and weather and sheathed with tough rubber.
These cables are either twin core or single core and are of various
sizes as for V.I.R. wires. Except for insulation, these wires can be
specified in a similar fashion as V.I.R. wires.
26. Fuse Board Distribution. The fuseboard should be made
of hardwood or metal clad with hinged front vitreous fuse bases and
carriers mounted on frame. It can be specified as follows
(a) Rating: 15 amps or 20 amps or 25 amps etc.
(b) No. of phases: Single pole or double pole or three pole.
(c) Arrangement of neutral : Neutral link.
(d) Nos. of circuits: 2-way or 3-way or 4-way or 6-wa y or 8-way.
(e) Working voltage : 250 . V or 500 V.
(f, Tpe of fittings : Flame proof or wooden.
27. Energy Meter: A.C. ere-' meter can e induction tyc.
single-phase, three-phase or three-phase 4-wire. These can be
specifled as follows
(a) Working voltage : 230 V or 400 V or 6.6 KV or 11 KV.
(b) No. of phases : Single phase or three-phase, three-wire or
three-phase four-wire.
(c) R.P.M. : 450 or 600 or 900 or 1000 or 1200 etc.
(d) Rating: 5 amps or 10 amps or 20 amps or 25 amps or 50
amps or 100 amps or 500 amps.
(e) Any other attachment
(i) P.T. of suitable size for high voltage energy meter.
(ii) C.T. for suitable size meters having rating more than
100 amps. -
28. Fuse Wire. The fuse wire to be inserted should be in
accordance with I.E. Regulations. It may be of copper tinned, lead
oi aluminium. The fuse wire has been already ois,.ussd in a sep-
arate chapter in details. The fuse wire is to be specified as under
(a) Type of fuse: Copper-tinned or lead or aluminium.
(b) Ca-)ac in amperes : 3 amps or 5 amps or 10 amps or 20
amps or 50 amps or 100 amps.
-26
3c4
29. Fuse .Jamer. .me fuse carrier has ai eadyeen discussed

in a separate chapter. It is made of ceramic which is ignitable under
normal condition. The fuse carrier may be specified as under:
(a) Working voltage : 3 amps or 5 amps or 10 amps or 20 amps
or 50 amps. or 100 amps.
30. Conduits. The conduit should be black or silver enamelled
or galvanised with screwed from right hand thread. The conduit
can be specified as under:
(a) Material : Welded or solid drawn steel.
(b) Type of painting: Black or silver enamelled or galvanised.
(c) Size :15 mmor2Qmmor25mmor3Ommor35mm
(d) Gauge: 16 S.W.G.
.31. Conduit Boxes. These should be of malleable cast iron and
draw in-type. These can be specified as under:
(a) Size : Suitable for conduit size 15 mm or 20 mm or 25 mm
or 30 mm or 35 mm.
(b) Material : Malleable cast iron.
(c) Size of tapping: 31.75 mm.
32. Screws. The screws of any size should be of brass.
33. Tumbler Switch. Can be specified as under:
(a) Material : Backelite.
(b) Capacity : 5 amps or 15 amps.
(c) Working voltage : 250 V.
(d) Other important requirements:
(i) The holes at the base of switch should he filled with
hygroscopic insulating compound. This compound
should remain hard even at 75°C.
(ii) Switch cover should comply with I.S. 1087 of 1957.
(iii) Operating dollies should be made orinsulating material
• and of sufficient strength.
34. Water-tight Switch. This can be specified as under:
(a) Capacity : 5 amps or 15 amps.
(b) Base : The base should be of galvanised cast iron or mal-
leable iron.
(c) Cover: Should be of cast iron or malleable iron and should
be provided with rubber washer.
(d) Working voltage : 250 V.

35. Socket Outlet. It can be specified as under:

(a) Capacity: 5 amps or 15 amps.
(b) Working voltage: 250 V.
(c) Bottom material : The bottom should be made o 'f white.
(d) Well glazed, non-absorbent vitreous porcelain with
recessed back for proper seating.
(e) Contacts : The contacts should be made of brass.
(1) Cover: The cover should be ofbackelite having minium 3.2
mm thickness.
36. Metal Shades. These can be specified as under:
(a) Shape : Conical
(b) Metal: Enamelled iron.
(c) Dia. or holes : (i) 28.58 mm. (ii) 254 mm or 300 mm.
37. Glass Shades. These can be specified as under
(ci) Shape : Conical
(b) Metal : Opal glass
(c) Dia. of holes (i) 28.58 min (ii) 254 mm.
38. Lamp holders. These can be specified as under:
(ci) Type : Pendent or Bracket or Batten.
(b) Material : Brass or Backelite.
39. Ceiling R_-se. Thes e can be specified as under:
(a) Material : Backelite.
(b) Material of terminals : Brass, the contact should be sepa-
rated with porcelain or backelite.
(c) Type : 2-way or 3-way.
40. Main Switch. These can be specified as under:
(a) Capacity : 15 amps or 30 amps or 60 amps or 100 amps or
200 amps.
(b) Working voltage: 230 V or 400 V.
(c) No. or phases : Single phase or three-phase four-wire.
(d) Arrangement of neutral : Neutral link.
(e) Operating handle : Should be of sufficient strength and
controlled by spring.
(1) Fuse base or carrier : The base should be of high grade
vitreous porcelain.
386 fliN" iSTIMATING AND COSTING
41. Underground Cables (Low Tension.) These cables

should confirm to I.S. 692-1957 and these can be specified as
Insulator and Conductor : Paper insulated lead alloy sheathed
and served with aluminium conductor.
Grading : 660 Ats or 1,100 volts
No. of Cores : Two or three or four or three and half cores.
Size: 25 sq. mm . or 35 sq. mm , 50 sq. mm , 95 sq. mm or 185
sq. mm or 300 sq. mm or 500 sq. mm .
Note :-It should be noted that three and half-core cables are not
being manufactured for sLes below 50 sq. mm., therefore for cables
below 50 sq. mm four-core c.ablesare used. Three and half-core cables
are used for sizes above 50 sq. m;n.
42. Underground Cable (High Tension). These cables
should confirm to IS-692-1957 and these can be specified as udner:
Insulation : Paper insulated lead alloy sheathed dcuble steel
tape armoured and served with aluminium conductor.
Grading: 6.6 KV or 11 KV or 33 KV.
No. of Cores : Three.
Size : 25 sq. mm or 35 sq. mm or 56 sq. mm or 185 so. mm or
225 sq. mm or 300 sq mm.
42. BOxes, Cable Jointing (Low and-Medium and High
Tension): Cables boxes are of various types as given below:
(i) End dividing
(a) Indoor
(b) Outdoor
(ii) Straight through type
(iii) Tee type.
The cable bo.es should be specified as under:
Type : End, dividing (indoor or outdoor) or straight through or Tee
type.
Working voltage: 400 Volts or 6.6 KV or 11 K y , or 33 Ky
Size, insulation and : Suitable for PILC or PILCADSTA three or
cores of cable three and half or four-core cables of required
size.

GENERAL SPECWICATIONS 381
TYPICAL QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term specifications'?
2. What are the various £quipments used in a substation ? Specify
any of the equipment.
3. Draw out the specifications of a 0.4111 KV transformer 300 KVA
capacity.
4. Draw out the specifications of a diesel generating set.
5. It is required to procure a L.T. feeder panel, capacity 400 Amp.
for four outgoing feeders each ofcapcity 200 Amps. Chalk out the
specifications for the same.
6. Chalk out the specifications for L.T. and H.T. underground cable.
7. How would you specify (a) stay assembly and (b) A.C.S.R.
8. Write down the specifications of a main switch to control consumer
two-wire mains for his connected light and fan load of 1kW at
230 V.
9. Write down briefspecifications ofa switch for controlling 100 watts
230 volts lamp in cleat wiring.
10. How would you specify (a) Energy Meter (5) Fuse wire (c) Cond.nt
(d) Metal shades.
11. Write down brief specifications of the following material
(a) Earth plate required for earthing LI. lines.
(b) 5 Amp plug used in concealed conduit.
(c) 500 Amp 3-phase A.C. kWh meter 400 volts for use in a fac-
tory.
(d) V.I.R. wire used in domestic purposes.
12. Wrte down brief specifications for
(a) Insulator for 11KV.
(b) Stay rod.
13. Write down brief specifications for
(i) Tansfbrmer.
(ii) Generator.
(iii) Energy meter for domestic use.
(iv) Switch.
14. Writedown brief specifications for:
(a) Earthing material for grounding a small workshop.
(b) Stay Insulator for L.T. lines.
(c) Insulator for 11 KV line.
(d) Lighting arrestors for 11 KV line.
(e) Circuit breaker for L.T. line.
1)
Measurement of Earth Resistance
and Testing of Installations
1. Measurement of earth resistance,
2. Two Po int method. 3. Three point method.
Fall of potential method. 5. Direct measurement 4.
installation 7. Insulation resistance of of earth resistance. 6. Testing
of
the complete installation to earth. 8. Testing
of insulation resistance between conductors
switch. 10. Testing of earth continuity path. 9. Testing of polarity of the single polo
1. Measurement of Earth Resistance.

Before the mea-
surement of this resistance is discussed, it is necessary to know its
nature. By making an earth connection of the appliance we mean
its connection with the mass of earth. As explained earlier, its
resistance shoud be low, so that the fault current through earth is
high. The earth resistance comprises of the following
(i) The resistance of the earth wire between the earthed point
on the appliance and the earth electrode.
(ii) The contact resistance between earthed electrode and the
soil immediately around the electrode.
(iii) The resistance of the earth to
fl ow of fault current
The resistance of the earth wire in (i) can be easily measured,
'E ,-/h EIecfro.' while it has been investigated that
the contact resistance as in (ii) is
very-very low and may be neglected.
We are much concerned about the
resistance of earth to flow of fault
Current.
In order to know its nature,

consider an electrode shown in Fig.
13.1. Leta fault curent H ow to the
earthed electrode and assume that
Fig. 13.1
the return electrode is Ion awa y .
The fault current will flow Formal

E.'.UPE'ENTOFEART}{RESSTkNCE
in all directions from the hemisphere of radius R 1 . The resistance

to flow will consist of a number of hemispherical bowls in series as
shown by dotted.
Consider a hemispherical bowl at radius x and let its thickness
be dx.
Let p be the specific resistance of the soil.
The resistance of the hemispherical bowl
= P_dX ...(13.1)
2 tx2
If the other electrode is at a radius R,, the earth resistance,
R - -- _±r
- J, 2itx 2 2u)
...(13.2)
- 2-c R 2 R1 ) 2tR 1 R2)
11 R, =o (13.3)
Then, R_ = — .. (13.4)
It will be observed that the resistance of the bcdy of the earth

extending to hflnity is given by the above simple expression. Fig.
13.2 represents a curve for earth resistance for different values of
R.,.
From equations (13.2) and (13.
R (i 1"l
- —1? ---
J?, R1 F?)
R
I
R2
From above equation, it will
be observed that if R 1 is 1 metre
and R 2 is 10 meter,
Then, - = 1-0.1 ''2 /eL'e
=0.9 ...(13.5) Curve of earth resstace

i.e.resistance will be9O per cent Fig. 13.2
of the infinite resistance. The following table gives the percentage
resistance for different values of R2
390
Value of R 2 in pn.tre
resistance
10 90
20 95
40 97.5
50 98
100 99
In practice it is quite sufficient to measure 98 per cent of the
resistance. The following are the practical methods of determining
the earth resistance
(a) Two point method.
(b) Three point method.
(c) The fall of potential method.
(d) Direct measurement with earth testing instruments
2. Two Point Method.
This method is use-
'LI tJ
ful when an other elec-
trode of known
resistance or of
negligible resistance is
n'oilable In Fig. 13 3,
A is the earthele
ctrode
whose earth resistance
is required and B is
another electrode of
Earth resisanc-2 .pcint method known resistance. For
measurement a known
Fig. 13.3
value of the current I is
allowed to flow and the potential E between the two electrodes is
E
measured Then gives the combined, resistance of the two elec-
trodes A and B.
Thus the resistance of electrode A
= Measured Resistance (Resis- ...(13.6)
tance of electrode B
If resistance of electrode .8 is negligible then Eqn. (13.6) can be
rewritten as,
Resistance of electrode A = Measured Resistance
...(13.7)
The following precautions should be observed for this test
(1) In order to reduce the polarization effect, only alternating
current should be used.
MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE
(2) The distance between the two electrodes should be suffi-

ciently large in order that the resistance area of each be reasonably
independent.
It may also be noted that the straydirect or alternating currents
already flowing in the earth will affect the result.
Generally this method is not used.
3. Three-point Method.
In this method two auxiliary electrodes B and C are used and
it is not necessary that their resistance be known. Three electrodes
are placed at the corner of a triangle. The resistance between each
pair of electrodes is measured. R 1 is the resistance of electrodes A
and B, R 2 is that of electrodes B and C, while R 3 that of electrodes
A and C.
Then resistance R of electrode A is given as
R1+ R3-R2
..3.8)
2
Again in this method it is necessary that
(1) Alternating current should be used
(ii) The distance between electrode should be sufficicnty large
so that their resistance areas be quite independent.
(iii) The resistance of three electrodes must be of the same order
Fig. 13.4 Earth resistance-3-poi;-it method
4. Fall of Potential Method.

In this method again the two auxiliary electrodes are used,
which are not placed at the corners of a triangle as in a 3-point

392
WIRING EST LMATING AND COSTING
hut
ShrjnF-
OW
line as
An alternatin current of
I
amperes is passed through the
electrode A and
Cand JB
tial between electrodes the Poten-
A and B is A
measured Then the resjstaflceR
ofelectrodeA is given as
R
.. .(i3.9) Fajlof PotenGalmethod
The resistance of electrodes

B and C
does not influence the
•1 result The ele ctrodesC
be p laced at a
su
tance from A, fficient dis
X so that the
/ Y resistance area ofA and Care
quite independent In order to
P know wh ether the ele
has been so p laced or ctrode
not, the
electrode c is p
laced at any
distance and the earth
o resistance is measured by
Placing electrode B at differ
iSrr en Points between A
and C
Easth TCSjs ,ance and a cue of resjsflce
Fig. 13.6 along Y-axis is obtained as
Shown in Fig. 13.6 If the
curve similar to that of curve
of electrodes A and C Q is ob tained, it shows that the areas
independent a are not indep
curve similar to endent and if the areas are
r esistance can be P wi ll be obtained and the earth
de termined by
between vertical lines X and Placing electrode E anywhere
Yi.e.,
for horizontal P o sition.
5. Direct Measment of Earth
Earth
Resistance The Megger
It alsoTester works
requires on the fall ofpotentjJ method explained
temporary earlier.
instrument is so cu
by stray alte desi gned that rrent
the r and potential electrodes The
rnating or direct current eadings
nor ale not aecd either
e.m.f., and it giv by electro
es resistance directly without cal jc back of
M cul ations
The egger Earth Tester is
es sentially a direct reading ohm
meter and a hand driven generator -
current The w hich
Ohm Supplies the testing
'I p otential coil)
mou meter consists of two coils (current coil and
axle The current coil nted at a fixed angle to each other on a common
c arries current
propo rtional to the current
MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE
flowing in the test circuit, while the potential coil carries current
proportional to the potential
across the resistance under test.
Thus the potential coil acts as a
voltmeter in the fall of potential
method while current coil acts as
an ammeter in that experiment.
Since the deflection of the needle
is proportional to the ratio of the
current in the two coils, it gives
resistance directly.
The hand operated genera-
tor produces the direct current,
but to eliminate the effect of
electrolytic e.m.f. as said earlier,
cH
it is necessary to pass alternating
current through the coil, so to 1
CP p, (j
change the D.C. into an alter- Ilk
nating supply, a rotary current
reverser is mounted on the same
shaft of the generator. The
c
alternating current in the ccii
will produce an alternating drop 4L-
in the COIl but potential to be Megger Tester Circu i t containing direct
applied across the moving coil cur-rent shown bV full 1ines,Crcuit con-
must be direct because the uining A.C. current shown b y dotid
ohmmeter is a moving coil lines.
instrument working on D.C. Fig. 13.7
alone, so for changing the alternating drop into the direct drop, a
synchronous rotary rectifier is also attached as shown in Fig. 13.7.
Although the instrument is immune to stray currents, yet while
taking readings, sometimes it will be observed that the needle
vibrates; this happens only at the instantwhen the stray alternating
current has the same frequency as the frequency generated. For
such occasions either increase the speed of the generator a little or
lower its speed.
Method of Use. For measurement of earth resistance, two
spikes acting as current and potential electrodes are driven into the
ground at a distance of 25 m and 12.5 m from earth electrode under
test and are connected to terminals C 2 and P 2 respectively. P 1 and
C 1 terminals of the meter are shorted and are connected to the earth
electrode under test.
The megger is placed on a horizontal firm stand free from the
surrounding magnetic field. The range switch is set at the required
WIRING ES1'Th{ATING AND COSTfl
Position. The handle is then turned at a
s lightly higher than the
rated
or speed and the reading of the ncedle deflection
three is noted. Two-
r eadings are taken by Placing
cther P o sitions keeping the the electrodes (spikes) at
distance same as for the
The average of these readings is the earth r first reading.
6. esistance.
Rules No.Testing ofinstallation
47 of 1956, before co According to Indian Electricity
to an existing ins mpleting an ins tallation oran addition
tallation is put into service the following tests
shall be complied with
7. Insulation r esistance of the Complete
earth. The aim ofthjs test is to know whether the wires ins tallation to
used in the
system are quite Sound to avoid current leakage. The voltage used
for insulation resistance tests must be a D. C. voltage not less than
twice that to which the circuit will normally be
necessarily e su bjected, but not
Conveniently xceeding
be used. soo V. A 500 V testing set, the "Megger" may
DI.c7R1,'TO BOARD WITH
FUSES fJ TACT
Ff 7 , r- -------
SJVfTC,/ES ON
- XAMWN
Insulation resistance of the complete installation to earth
should be taken with all lamps in on posjtjo
Fig. 13.8
inst Before making an insulation resistance test of the complete

allation all fuse links are provided all lamps are put in position
all switches are made
Shorted as shown on. The live wire and the neutral wire are
and con
and earth terminal ofrnegger nected
is coto the line terminal of the megger
con nnectedelectrode
to either earth Continuity
ductor or directly to the earth as shg.
The measured r esistance for
than sa2isfacto,.y Wiring own?nu.s t
is Fi 1 3.8.
not be less
50 megohms
number or outlets (points + switches)
MEATTEENT OF EMTh RESISTANCE 395
At is desirable that f o r complete installation, the value of

resistance measured should not be more than 1 megohm.
The value of 50 can, however, be f.irther-reduced to 12 for
installations using P.V.C. Insulated cables.
The control rheostats, heating and power appliances, and
electric signs, may, if desired, be disconnected from the above test,
in which case the insulation resistance between the case or the
frame-work and all live parts ofeach appliance shall not be lessthan
that specified in the appropriate Indian Standard, or where there
is no such standard, it should not he less than megohm.
8. Testing of Insulation Resistance between Conduc-

tors. For this test use the circuit of Fig. 13.9 which shows that all
switches are made on while all the lamps are removed from holders,
i.e. for such an insulation test, the positive conductor of the circuit
isconnected to live and the negative conductor is connected to earth
terminals respectively as shon in Fig. 13.9.
I I
)SE

E.4 1 5?i17I1E /N
(w PQjJT/0/.1
I MAIN
J i4'TCH
/t/ OP PCS/T/';,V
LIVE
,l1E6GE' TERY/A..
Testing of insulation rosistance bctwcn conductor

Fig. 13.9
The insulation resistance between the two conductors thus
measured with megger should not be less than 50 megohms divided
by the number of outlets (points + switch), but need not be more
than 1 megohm. If P.V.C. Wires are used the value should be 12
divided by the number of outlets.
9. Testing of polarity of the single pole switches. As has

396
WIRING ESTIMATING
AND COSTING
already
the been explained the switch Should always be placed only in
p ositive side or live wire only
dead when the switch is to make the lamp holder quite
in the live madc other . f t hh
directly, the mechanic is liable to get a shock.
For testing that all the swatches are correctly
lamps removed from the holders and the test is made con nected the
lamp,isthe one end of which is earthed, and the other end wofith
lamp
a test
the test
co
nnected through a lead to switch ; if the lamp lights, the
switch is correctly i
that the switch has nserted and if the lamp does not light it means
not been
c orrectly inserted
NEUTRAL
---- LIVE w,
MEUTR4L
L441p 116H7
LAMP DOES
NOT 1.1 GH
Polarity test
Fig. 13.10
10. Testing of Earth Continuity
Path. If the
any wires breaks down, the leakage current 11i nsulation
of the is
the Wing
of
start and if
in metallic conduits they
Will star t
ving shockofuntil
and unless they are earthed Properly. There is a Possibility the
conduit
intr joints to be separated or become loose which results in an
oduction of high resistance in the earth path. For the earth
continuity test, the resistance of the Conduit at the extreme end is
measured from the earthing electrode with the help of method
already explained in article 5. In accordance with I.S. specification
732-1963 the total resistance of the conduit from the earthing point
to any other posit ion should not be more than 1 ohm.
ESUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTNCE 397
TYPTCAL QUESTIONS
1. Why is it necessary to measure the earth resstnnce? Explain any
method for measuring the same.
2. Explain the method of measuring earth resistance with a megger.
3. What are the various tests reqaired to be performed on any
insta1laton.
4. How would you test the insulation resistance between conductors
and insulation resistance to earth.
5. What is the permissible limit for
(a) Earth resistance.
(b) Insulation resistance between conductors.
(c) Insulation resistance of installation with earth.

14
Estimati ng and Con
ductor Size
Calculations For Internal Wiring,
H.T. & L. . O verhead Lines and
Underg,.o%tfld Cables
I.
rates and estimating data.
capacity 7. Voltage 5. Detcrmjnato
of conductor size
8. Minimum 6. Cuent ca.ing
for ntea] domestic wing pe js g jb10 size. 9.
. 10. Co nductor Conductorsjzecaij
ll.Cuaductorsieii size cal culation for underground cable.
A.C.S.R
1. Estimating Estirnajg
ties
ite means to determine the quantj
c th. required to execute ajob and to assess the cost
arrvrj scfion
at during
The estimator keeping in ew the
initial Planning, chalk out a list of items
ua1ti tic s The cost i determined by him by and
ar d shedue of labour rates. CO nsulting the price
an estinatere es. various steps
s to fo
(1) Chalk out a list of items and
quantities required.
Consult the rate catalou 35
for Pricing the v
i.h As arious items.
the exact number of w
thejob and acr C orkmen requi red tocompCte
the i onsulting the schedule OflUhour rates add
abourcst to the estimate under preparj6 It Should
be noted that number of workmen required is dependent
upon the time limit fixed to complete the service
(it) Add supervision charges and executhr's profit
( L In case of Govt. org2njsj0
.xecuted by the con tractor, the where the work is to be
t enders are fl
rrectly specifying the description of each oated
item, only after
to avoid
any misunderstanding while execution.
ra
2. Pe Cataiogue
is in the form of a booklet in which
ter;r,s
iicated The Price cat
alogue is required
ESTIMATING AND CONDUCTORS SIZE CALCULATIONS 399
to be amended as and when there is variation in the market. A

specimen of price catalogue is given in Appendix A at the end of this
book.
3. Schedule of labour rates. It is also in the form of booklet
indicating the labour rates and is given in Appendix Bat the end of
the book. Sometime lump sum labour charge as 20% of material
cost are added. This is usually done in case of big works costing over
one lakh.
4. Schedule of Rates and Estimating Data. Almost all the
Govt. departments have published schedule of rates or estimating
data to facilitate the process of estimating. In these schedules or
data, the estimated cost including labour charges for per metre run
of wiring overhead lines etc. with various sizes of wire, aluminium
conductor, pole etc. are given. With the help of such a document,
only overhead charges viz, supervision, departmental charges etc.
are required to be added after working the cost of the any services.
5. Determination of Conductor Size. Before making an
estimate it is necessary to find out the size of wire, cable ornlu-
niinum conductor. The following essential points are to he con-
sidered while calculating the size
to) Current carrying capacity.
(b) Voltage drop.
(c) Minimum permissible size.
These have been discussed separately in the following arc1e5.
. Current Carrying Capacity. As has been discussed
earlier that in any circuit the value of the current will-be mcre as
compared to sub-circuits. In sub-circuits as the load decreases, the
current is also reduced. Thus it is very necessary to divide the
services into groups in accordance with the amount of current which
will flow through them. Afterwards, size of wire in each group is
determined.
7. Voltage drop. As is known to the readers that the voltage
drop is there as when the current flows through the wiring and the
same should be as low as permissible and economical. The voltage
drop can be determined by Ohm's low, As the resistance is inversely
proportional to area, so the voltage drop will be less if the area of
wire is more.
S. Minimum Permissible Size. Due to mechanical reason;
the minimum permissible size of wires U/G cables and conductors
should be as f'llows
27
400
(a) Wire. The area of aluminium wire should not be less than
1.5 sq. mm and its single strand shcul'i not F'e less than 1.40 mm
diameter.
(b) U/G Cable. -The area of conductor for two core cable should
not be less than 6 sq. rrim and for three and four cores, it should not
be less than 25 sq. mm . The area of conductor for three and half
cores cable should be 50 sq. mm or more.
A. C. S. R. The size ofA.C. S. R. should not be less than 6/.083
inch or 6/1 x.211 mm having total area of cross-section as 20.71 sq.
mm .
9. Conductor Size Calculation for Internal Domestic
Wiring. The important point to be considered is the current carrying
capacity, the voltage drop is usually of very small magnitude and
will not have much effect for small domestic wiring. For multisto-
reyed buildings, factories and industries, the voltage drop is
required to be ascertained. If the voltage drop is much, the
house-hold appliance and motors will not work.
It should be noted that the maximum voltage drop should not
be more than as given below:
W) Lighting Circuit. In any circuit:
(i) at 200 volt supply, voltage drop should not be more than
5V;
(ii) at 210 volts supply voltage drop should not be more than
5.1 volts;
(iii) at 220 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more than
5.4 volts
(iv) at 30 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more than
5.6 volts
(v) at 240 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more than
5.8 volts
(vi) at 250 volts supply, voltage drop should not be more than
6.0 volts.
From the above it will be seen that the permissible voltage drop
in a lighting into circuit is 2% of the supply voltage plus one volt.
(b) Industrial loads. The maximum voltage drop at the extreme
end equipment or motor should not be more than 5% of the declared
supply voltage.
In tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3 various sizes of wires, current
rating and - voltage drop if loaded fully are given. Considering the

AND CONDUCTCP..SZE CALCULATIONS
load in amperes and voltage drop, suitable size of wire with required
insulation is selected. In a similar fashion flexible cord is selected
from table 14.4. It should be noted that the sum of the voltage drop
in the wiring and flexible cord should be within permissible limit
as given above.
Table 14.1
Current ratings and voltage drop for vulcanised rubber
PVC or polythene insulated or tough Rubber PVC lead
sheathed single core aluminium wires or cables
Size of 2 Cables dc. or 3 or 4 cables of bal . 4 Cables d.c.
Conductor Single-phase_ac. anc'd-phczse
Normal Number Appro.r. Approxi. Approx.
area sq. and Current length Current length of Current length of
mm. diameter rating in of run rating in run for i rating in run for I
of wire in amperes for vail- amperes volt drop amperes volt drop
mm. drop in in metres in metres
metres
1.5 1/140 10 2.3 9 2.9 9 2.5
2.5 1/1.80 15 2.5 12 3.6 11 3.4
4.0 112.24 20 2.9 17 3.9 15 4.1
6.0 1/2.80 27 3.4 24 4.3 21 4.3
10.0 1/3.55 34 4,3 31 5.4 27 5.4
16.0 7/1.70 43 5.4 38 7.0 1 35
25.0 7/2.24 59 6.8 54 8.5 I 4 8.5
35.0 7/2.50 69 1.2 62 9.3 55 9.0
50.0 7/3.01 91 7.9 82 10.1 59 10.0
19/1.801
Table 14.2
Current ratings and voltage drop for vulcanised rubber,
P. V. C. Or polythene insulated or tough rubber, PVC lead
sheathed twin, three or four cores aluminium wires or
cables.
Size of conductor - One twin core cable D. C. or One 3 core or 4-core
single phase A. C. cable balanced three
phase
Nominal Number rox, length of run App. length
areas in and Current of! volt drop Current of run for
8q. mm diameter rating in rating in one volt
of wtres Amperes Amperes drop in
in mm.. metres
D. C. A. C.
metres metres

1/1.40 I 10 2.3 2.3 7 3.7
1/1.80 15 2.5 2.5 11 3.9
(Could.

402
Size of Ljn core cable D. C. or On 3 core or 4-core

Co nd uct or
ingle phase A. C. cable balanced three
pse
Nominal Number Approx length of run
areas in and Current App. length
of I volt drop
sq. mm diameter rating jn Current of run for
of wires Amperes rating in one volt
in mm. Amper es drop in
metres
D.C. AC.
metres metres
4.0 1/2.24 20 2.9 2.9 14 4.8
6.0 1/2.80 27 3.4
10.0 3.4 19 5.5
1/3.55 34 4.2 4.2 24 6.8
1/1.70 43 I 5.3
25.0 7/2.24 30 8.7
59 I 6.6 6.6 49
35.0 7/2.50 I 10.8
69 7.1 7.1 48
50.0 7/3.001 11.7
91 7.7 7.7 62
19/1.80] 13.1
70.0 19/2.24 118 9.0
95.0 8.8 82 14.7
1912.50 135 9.8 9.5
120.0 1 37/2.06J_1 94 157.
10.8 I 10.3 114 16 8
Table 14.3
Wattage loading at unity p.1. on small P.V.C. aluminium

conductor two single core wires or one twin core wire.
Size of conduct or
Wattage loading on circuit Current voltage
voltage rating drop per
100
metres
run with
current as
indicated
f.omnaj Number 200 V 230V 1 250V
area and
diameter
sq. mm mm. Watts Watts Volts
1.5 1/1.40 2,000 2,300
2.5 2,500 10 4.11
1/1.80 3,000 3,450 3,750 15
4.0 1/2.24 3.73
4,000 4,600 5,000 20 324
6.0 112.80 5,400 6,210
10 6,750 27 2.71
I
113.55 6,800 7,820 8,500 34
16 7/1.70 8.600 2.17
9860 10.750 43 1.74
(ConkL)

ES1MATING AND COXDUCTOP.S SIZE CALCULATIONS 403
Approz
Size of conductor Wattage loading on circuit ' Current uoltcWe
t'oltage rating drop per
100
metres
run with
CuJTe7U as
indicated
Nominal Number 200 V 230V I 250V
area and -
diameter

sq. rnrr mm. Watts Wczt:s Watts Volt,

25 7/2.24 10,800 13,570 14,750 59 1.38
35 7/2.50 13,800 15,870 17,250 69 1.29
80 7/3.00 18,200 20,930 22,750 91 1.21
19/1.80
Table 14.4
Current ratings, voltage drop and mechanical strength of
flexible cord of copper conductor.
Number Approx. Maximum Current Approx. Max. permi
and diame ouerall allowable rating twin Voltage asible
ter diameter resistance or three or dropper 10 weigh 3Lzp-
at 20"C for four core metre run portez v
tinned cord twin
wires flexible
cord
mm. mm. ohm/km Amps Volts kg.
1t'.1'3 0.86 45.95 3 4 1.4
16/.200 0.95 37.46 4 3.3 1.5
23/.193 1.17 27.97 6 3.6 2.3
241.200 1.24 24.97 7 3.7 2.5
32/.200 1.31 18.73 11 4.5 4.5
40/.193 1.45 16.08 13 4.6 4.5
48/.200 1.64 12.49 15 4.0 4.5
70/.193 1.93 9.91 18 3.6 4.5
80/.200 2.08 7.49 20 3.2 4.5
116/.193 2.34 5.85 24 3.0 4.5
128/.200 2.64 4.72 29 3.0 4.5
162/.200 3.05 3.97 31 2.6 4.5
Example 1. The main circuit wire in a house is required toccrry

a curr€n t of 45 amperes when connected to single phase a.c. supply.
Deterrni,e the size of the wire ifthe length of the circuit is 40 metres.
J
404
WIRING, ESTLMATThG AND COSTING
Solution.
Assuming the declared voltage as 230 V, permissible voltage
drop= 2x230 +l=5.v
Referring to Table 14.1 if the size of conductor selected is 25.0 sq.

mm which can carry 59 amperes, the voltage drop at 59 amperes
rating will be
Voltage drop at 59 amps current rating
40
Voltage drop at45amps 40 45
=4.46V
which is within permissible limit.
Thus the wire having size as 25 sq. mm (7/2.24) is suitable.
Example 2. A room is to be wired for single phase ac. supply
directly taken from mains which has declared voltage of 200 volts.
The length of the wire from the main switch to sight and plug points
is 30 metres. lithe wire is to carry 5 amps d.termine the size of
con'uctor.
Solution.
Permissible voltage drop = 200 x 2 + 1 = 5 volts
Referring to Table 14.1 minimum size ofwire 1.5 sq. mm (111.40)

should be in a position to carry 5 amps safely.
Now it will be seen that there will be a drop of 1 volt after every
2.3 metres for 10 amperes loading.
Voltage drop at 10 amps - 3°
Voltage drop atsamps 305

=23xö
—6.52 V
Hence this is not suitable.
Now considering the next higher size 2.5 sq. mm (111. 80) wire
and consulting Table 14.1

30
Voltage &op at 13 amps =
Ts-
30
Voltage drop at 15 amps = x = 4 V
which is within permissible limit.

This wire having size 2.5 sq. mm (1/1.80)is suitable.
Example 3. A three-phase 3-wire connection is to be given to a
promises in which an electric motor of 50 H.P. is to be installed. 40
metres of wire run from the main switch is required for this purpose.
Determine the size of the wire to be used if the available voltage is
400 volts.
Solution. Assuming p.f. as 0.8,
- 50 x 746 = 67.30 amps.
Current drawn by the motor
fx400x0.8
If 3-core cable is used, then on referring Table 14.2, it will be
seen from Table 14.2 that 70 sq. mm (19/2.24) PVC cable will be in
i position to carry the motor current safely.
The permissible voltage drop 20 vOlts
40
Voltage drop at 82 Amp. - 14.7
40 67.30
Voltage drop at 67.30 V.
As the drop is within permissible limits, hence 3-core PVC

cable size 70 sq. mm (19/2.24) is suitable.
10. Conductor size calculation for underground cable
While determining the size of underground cable, tiè following
factors are to be considered.
(i) Current carrying capacity of the cable.
(ii) The voltage drop which should not be more then 12.5% and
5% for transmission and distribution system respectively. This drop
should be for the complete system i.e. in case the transmission or
distribution is done by both U/G cable and overhead lines then the
maximum permissible drop at the tail end of the feeder should be
less than 5%. For internal wiring, if these cables are used then the
voltage drop should be as given in article 9.
40
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTBG
Current ratings of various types of cables are given in Tables

14.5 to 14.10. In Table 14.11 the resistance of various sizes of
insulated cable is given. This will assist the students to determine
the voltage drop.
Tables 14.12 and 14.13 indicate the current ratings ofA.C. and
D.C. motors respectively.
Example 4. Determine the size of underground cable to be laid
for transmitting electrical energy at 11 "from the substation to the
distribution substation at a distance of 500 metres of capacity 300
KVA.
Solution.
Voltage = 11 KV
KVA =300
Cent = 300 x 1, (XX) = 15.82 amps.
11 1,000
Allowing 20% overload the currcnt will be
= 1.20 x 15.82= 18.984 Amps.

From Table 14.7, it will be seen that 3-core P.I.L.C. 25 sq. mm
underground cable is suitable for the load. Again referring to table
it will be seen that the resistance of this cable is 1.102 ohms per km.
Resistance of 500 metre length - 1. 102 x 500

1000
= 0.551 ohm
Voltage drop ='JixfxR
= 43 X 18.984 x 0.551 = 18.120 volts
which-is within the permissible limits
Hence P.I.L.C. 3 core, 25 sq. mm and underjd cable
is suitable.
Example. 5.A 33 KVsubstation is to be Connected to cm ii KY
stepdown substation which is at a distance of 1.5 km by c under-
ground cable. If the size ofthe transformer in the stepdown substation
is 500 KVA, determine the size of the cable.
ESTIMATING AND CONDUCTORS SiZE CALCULATIONS 407
Solution.
Voltage = 33 KV
KVA =500
500x1,000 =S.75Amps
Current =
V1x33 x 1, 000
Allowing 20% overload, the current will be
= 1.20 x 8.75 = 10.5 Amps

Referring to Table 14.10, P.I.L.C., 3-core, 23 KV, 70 sq. mm
underground cable is suitable. Again from table 14.11, it will be seen
that this cable has a resistance of 0.4068 ohm per km.
Resistance of 1.5 km length of cable = 1.5 x 0.4068 = 0.6102
ohm
Hence the voltage drop = \ X 0.6102 x 10.5 11.09 Volts
which is u'ithin the permissible limits.
Hence P.LLC, 3-core 33 Ky , 70 sq. mm . underground
cable is suitable.
Example 6. An underground cable is to be connected to a
multisioreved building with the feeding substation at a dis:ance of
2 km. The connected load is 500KW at 400 volts at a diversity factor
ofO. 7andp.f as 0.8. Suggest ifthe building can be directly con nec:ed
by a L.T. feeder from the substation.
Solution.
Voltage = 400 V
Connected load 500 KW.
Actual load = diversity factor x connected load
= 0.7 x 500 = 350 kW
350x1000 =631.7
Current, I
\x400x0.8-
Refer to Table 14.5, it will be seen that P.I.L.C. 1100 V, single
core cable of size 625 sq. mm is suitable. Now, from Table 14, 11, the
resistance of this cable is 0.04645 ohm for a km.
Hence, resistance of 2 km length=2 x 0.04645.
= 0.0929 ohm
Further, voltage drop = 'Jix I > < R
= '.J1x631.7x0.0929= 101.6vclt'
which is much more than the permissible limits.

408
WIRING EST
IMATING AND COSTING
flonco it is: not pod to
onnect the YFtem with a L.T.
uIiderUfld feeder duj the creasons (1) high
excess of voltage drop. It is ad cost and (ii)
visable
and a substation near the building. to go for 111W supply
Table 14.5
Current Rating as per!. S. S. 692-1965 in amperes for alu-

minium conductor paper insulated mass
imp regnated lead
covered llOOV underground cable.
Current - ling for cable

Nom Number Currit Rating,-Current ra laid in aj,
mal and size cables laid in Ri-ound t ing for cable
area of z'irrs laid in ductj
in in mm
q.
in 'TI.
Single Three SgJ
I ore Twin I c'.d Three Single —J--T3J;
core Ttci.n and
Unar. cure flu2ti unar core Twin and
_j_u red core multi unar. core
core multi
4._core floured Core
6 ( 1/2.80 50 57 48 42 44 40 56 48 40
10 1/3.55 70 74 62 56 60 51 72 66 56
16 j 7/1.70 90 96 81 76 80 68 94 88 72
25 7/2.24 115 122 107 98 108 90 124 117 97
35 7/5.50 138 147 128 116 130 105 151 141 119
50 1 19/1.80 172 180 158 140 159 128 184 177 150
70 j19/2.24 208 219 192 170 190 156 227 220 182
244
1 19/2.50 262 224 198 224 184 272 258 24
120 j37/2.06 278 302 257 222 254 211 1 312 298 58
150 I 37 /' 2 4 316 346 296 249 287 243 358 339 00
185 f37/250 359 398 336 279 323 278 j412 387 4 8
240 1 37 / 3.00 430 485 413 335 340 520 492 37
300 1 6112.50 466 536 438 358 422 36-4 570 524 75
400 j6113.00 553 618 513 412 515 615 45
I - 445
500 18112.80595
- - 490 -

EST[MAT{NG AND CO, CTORS SIZE CALCULATIONS 409
Table 14.6
Current rating in amperes as per I. S. S. 692-1965 for alu-
minium conductor paper insulated mass impregnated lead
covered 3.3 KY. and 6.6 KY underground cables
Current rating Current rating for Current rating for cable8

Nominal Numbe for cables laid in cables laid in in air
area inr and ground ducts
sq. mm . Size of
Wires
in mm.
Single a or Single 3 or Single core3 or more
core more core more unar,r.oure core
unar- core arm unor- core arm d armoured
mou red oared In ou red oured

25 7/2.24 110 100 96 90 120 101

35 7/2.50 130 120 116 110 150 123

50 19/1.80 160 150 142 134 185 152

70 19/2.24 198 184 170 162 228 190

95 19/2.50 233 218 199 190 279 226

120 263 250 224 216 318 259

150 7/2.24 297 283 252 244 354 299

185 7/2.50 335 320 92 28 419 347

240 7/3.00 400 380 340 335 525 436

300 112.50 433 394 359 355 575 474

725
400 113.00 520 490 420 390 695
500 112.80 558 - 460 785
625 113.00 620 - 500 910
Table 14.7
Current rating in amperes as per I. S. S. 692-1965 for Alu-
minium conductor paper insulated mass impregnated lead
covered 11 KY. underground cable

25 7/2.24 100 90 96 78 110 86

35 7/2.50 119 109 104 94 136 104

50 19/1.80 147 134 126 116 170 132

70 19/2.24 182 165 151 142 213 162

95 19/2.50 214 194 176 170 255 192

120 37P2.06 244 218 198 192 288 224

150 37/2.24 275 249 222 219 326 258

185 37/2.50 308 284 248 245 372 294

240 37/3.00 365 341 290 285 470 368

300 6112.50 394 360 310 305 507 400

400 61./3.00 475 440 370 340 640 610

500 9112.80 575 400 705

625 9113.00 580 435 820
But
Table 14.8
Current rating in amperes as per I.S.S. 1 554 .
minium C 1961 for Alu-
onductor P.V.C. 1100 volts underground cable.
NominalNumber Current
area in sq. and d' am- rating for Current razing for
Current rating for
rn M. eler of single core cable in ground
cable in Air
WirCS in
,n In
2 core 3 and
at, mu!. 2 core 3 and

6 1/2.80 mullicore
37 53
10 1/3.55 47 43
51 70 38
16 63 59
7/1.70 68 50
25 91 86
7/2.24 90 76 69
35 120 106
7/2.50 112 99 82
50 142 129
19/1.80 139 123 106
70 19/2.24 172
175
215
.1 156 152 129
95 19/2.50 191 189
207 248 156
120 37/2,08 242 282
231 1 227 188
286

150 37/2.24 262 215
278 323 1
185 305 301
37/2,50 316 246
240 380 350
37/3.00 381 320 285
J±
445 I 410 j
300 6112.50 440 365 330
400 500 470
6113.03 500 410 1 37
500 600 560
91/2,65 540 490
Table 14.9
Current rating in amperes as per I.S.S. 692-1965
Aluminium condu ctors for three core screened
Lead alloy sheathed double steel tape/single wire
armoured 22 K'.! underground cables.
Nominal arec
of conductor IvJaxlpflu,n Continuous Current Rating
Sq. mm.
In Ground In Duct
25 In Air a
90
35
80 70
110 100
50 135 90
120
70 170 110
(35 155
195 135
175
120 230 155
210
N 150 260 185
235
185 290 210
260 230
240 340
305 270
300 385 345 310

Table 14.10
Current rating in amperes as per I.S.S. 692-1965 for three-
core screened Aluminium conductors, Lead Alloy
Sheathed, Double Steel Tape/Single wire Armoured 33 1(V
Underground cable
4\onunal .'ea of
conductor in sq. MaximumContinuous Current Rating
Alfaximum
mm.

In Ground In Duct In Air am

70 150 130 125

95 170 150 140

120 200 180 65

150 240 220 200

185 265 245 215

240 320 275 255

300 360 ' 320 290
Table 14.11
Resistance cf Inilatcd underground cables
Nomrial area Number and Maximum a/Icu'. Maximum allowable
in sq. mm . ,wrninal able rs:ance reszstance per km. at
diameter of per km. cI 2OC 2C1'C for twin and mlt-
wires in mm f. ' r single core core cables in ohms
ccble3 in ohms
6 1/2.80 4.759 4.851
10 1/3.55 2.960 3.018
16 7/1.70 1.876 1.912
25 7/2.24 1.080 1.102
35 7/2.50 0.8675 0.8843
50 19/180 0.6176 0.6299
70 19/2.24 0.3988 0.4068
95 19/2.50 0.3201 0.3263
120 37/2.06 0.2423 0.2470
150 37/2.24 0.2049 0.2088
185 37/2.50 0.1645 0.1677
225 37/2.80 0.1311 0.1337
240 37/3.00 0.1142 0.1165
300 61/2.50 0.09979 0.1070
400 6113.00 006930 0.07069
500 co 1/2.S5 0.050/0
625 91/3.00 0.04645
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-: :.z
I

ESTJMATNG AND CONDUCTORS SIZE CALCUL\TIONS 435
c.I
c o 0
a: a: a: a: m c c C cl
a:
CS
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ct
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C) >- a CS —
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ry
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43
WJRINq ES'r MATING AND COSTflq
go 0
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438
WIRING ESTIMATG AND CO'ThJ
Table 14.35
Currit Rating for A. C. Motorc
B. H. P. of Current
the motor
01 1oua 'we for effi ci ecy and rn
.f
se 43 Three phase
0.125 s 440 Volts
0.3
0.25
0.6
0.50
0.75 7T
1.2 1.0
1.4
1.00
1.25 . 1.7
7.4
2.5 2.2
1.50 8.7
1.75 2.8 2.5
10.00
3.2 2.8
2.0 11.8
3.5 3.2
2.50
14.00
4.3 4.0
3.00 17.5
4.00 5.0 4.5
20.00
6.5 GM
5.00 24.00
8.0 7.5
7.50 36.00
12.0 11.0
10.00 47.00
15.0 14.0
12.50 59.00
19.0 18.0
15.00 70.00
22.0 21.0
20.00 91.00
29.0 28.0
30.00 135.00
42.0 39.0
40.00 183.00
56.0 53.0
50.00
71.0 j 66.0
--'-I
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C' •) ',- l,- — C' C') U) C'- —
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0 ,- - C'lc') "C O CC C' CC00
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440
WIRING, E'flMATJNG AND COSTING
C U) cc N C.0 C) CD
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r C)
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a) CD C' U) cc
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— — — — C'
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C.) '1 C) CD C') c. C) C-I
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St.-, k c;006
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- 0^0 cc
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St
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1-fl
cc
St
'e - N 't •• St C' itt
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Ct
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t C' itt C) C')
• - St N
z C C' - — C4 C' C') C') C')
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tI E "',z C') N C C' C4 - C
- L'i St v 4 CC N C) C

442
WIRING ESTI
MATING AND COSTING
11. Con ductor
A.r..S.R. size calculations for
ov erhead lines with
\Sjle e t erm in in th
e siz of Con
following factor are to ductor for overhead lines, the
Cue ratin be Considered
W g of
A.C.S.R. The cuent ri:
A.C.SRs is given in table 14.37
(ii)
The voltage drop should not be more than 12.5% and 5% of
the declared voltage for
tran smission and distribution
overhead lines respccti.e]y.
In Table 14.37 the resistance and
OI A.CSRs are giv imp edance of varioussiz
es
de termining the loaden. The voltage drop is to be calculated after
in amperes For readily
cal
drop, the voltage drop of 100 metres of LT, 400 culating
distr
the voltage
volts 3 phase, 4 re,
ibutors with various
14.38. sizes of A.C.S. Rs. is ta
bulated in table
Aftergoing thr
ough examples 7 t 9,
equipped with the p the reader wiIIflnd himself
ductor overhead lines. rocedure to determine the size OfA.C.SR con-
Exa mples. 7. AL. T. 3-pha., 4-wire
for S distr
UPPying to Iooas as shown in Fig. 14.1.ibutor is to be designed
A. C. S.fl. c Determine the size of
onductors for phases and neutral Assume
as 0.8. Assuming the voltage at the substation 42()'1". pf of the loads
is
- ,vczqj --L_. /OQ,?7
-j..r_ iôür,
10 kW 12 kW
TEl) Sun- (THREE 15 kW
STATION (THREE 13 kW (THREE
PHASE) (THREE PHASE)
PHASE) PHASE)
Fig. 14.1
Solution
Loads in kilowatts and amperes by
various section will be as in Table 14.39 Co nsulting Table 14.38 in
Table 14.39
Sect ion
Lod in KW
SA Load n Ar,zx,er
30
AB
40
BC 72.44
28
CD 50.708
13
23.543
ESTIMATING AND CONDLJCTCRS SIZE CALCULATIONS 443
= 400x5
Total permissible drop
= 20 volts.
Now again considering the various sections, and calculating the

voltage drop after arrivg at the suitable size of A.C.S.R. by con-
suiting Table 14.15, the Table 14.40 is drawn.
Table 14.40
Section Load in Suggested size of Voltage Voltage
a mps. AC.S.R. Drop a va ila ble a t
the end of
the section
SA 90.55 3 of Leopard 5.350 V 414.65 V
lofBeaver
(3 of 611 x 5.28)
(1 of 6/1 x 3.99)
AB 72.44 3otCat 5.08 V 409.57 V
lof Rabbit i.e.
(3o6/1 x450)
(1 of 61I x 350)
BC 50.708 3 of other . 3.836 V 405.734 V
£2.
lof Ferret
3of6#'1x4.22
1 of 611 x3.00
CD 23.543 3ofWeasel 3.90V 401.834V
lofSquirrl i.e.
3of6.1x2.9
1o16.1x2.1I
As the voltage drop is within permissible limits, the

arrangement shown in Table 14.40 is suitable.
Example 8. An 11 K y ouerhead line is to be errected for feeding
a substation at a distance of5 km which has to feed the following
connectedL. T. load. Determine the size of conductorand transformer
Load: (i) Lighting: 210 KIV (Single phase)

(ii) Fans, a- conditioner :66 KW (Single phase)
(iii) Industrial :200 KW ('three phase)
/
444
WIRING, ESTIMATINCJD COSTING
So1uti0. The lighting and fans are single phase loads and
therefore on each phase the load will be 70 KW and 22 KW for
lighting and fans, air conditioner resp
ectively i.e. three phase bal-
anced lighting and fans or air conditioner load will be 70 KW and
22 NW respectively. Now draw the Table 14.41.
Table 14.41
Detoils of load Connected Act 4ctuaTload

Diversity factor load (three
loadduring
p&se) during night
(t) Lighting 0.8 during night 70 NW 14.f
0.2 during day a.00
(u) Fans and O. 5 both duringd 22 MV 11.00
conditioner and night 11.00
(iii) Industrial load 0.9 during day. 200KW 188.00
0.1 during night. 20.00
Iota 213 NW 87 KW
From Table 14.41, it will be seen that day load is more, therefore
the transformer shouid be in a position to take this load. Assuming
0.6 as p.f. for this load.
KVA rapacity for taosforner = 213 = 266.6 KVA
Hence 300 KVA capacity transformer is suitable and will

a.) meet the future increase of toad
In view of the above, the overhead H.T. 11KV line should be

designed to cope 300 KVA load to meet even the additional increase
at a later time.
Hence,
Current, I
lix !,(OO
= 15.75 Amps.
Permissible voltage drop
12.5
X 11,000
uj
= i=
= 1375 V
Now referring to the table 14.37, it will be seen that if squirrel

conductor (6/1 x 2 .
11), the resistance of 5 Km. length will be,

ESTIIATING AND CONDUCTORS SIZE CALCULATIONS 445
1.40 x 5000
R= 7oh ms
1000
Voltage drop ='3xl6.59x7
= 190.9 V which is within the permissible limits

Hence, the overhead H.T. 11 KVline should be stretched with
squirrel (6/1 x 2.11)ofAC.S.R.
Example 9. A 6.6. KVfeeder of length 1 km is to be erected to
feed on Industrial substation of 500 KVA. capacity. Find out the
suitable size of A. C. S. 1?, conductor to be used for the purpose.
Solution.
500x1,000
Maximum current,
• '3x6-6x1,000
= 43.75 Amps.
= 12.5 x 6.6 x 1000

Permissible voltage drop
100
= 825 volts
Now referring to Table 14.37, it will be squirrel (6/1 x 2.11)
A.C.S.R. if used will he in a position to carry this load safely.
Now the resistance of squirrel for 1 km length will be,
R =1.4ohms
Voltage drop = ix 43.75 x 1.4
= 106.0 volts which is within the permissiblc limits.

Hence, the overhead H.T. 6.6 KY line should be streched with
squirrel (611x 2.1)ofA.C.S.R.
Typical Questions
1. What are the factors to be considered while determining the size
of conductors?
2. What do you understand by 'Estimating'?
3. Fxpliin One following terms used in estimating and. costing:
(a) Price catalogue
(B) Schedule of labour Rates
(c) Schedule of Rates
446
WIPING, ESTIMATING AN!) COSTING
4. Explain the importance of (a) current carrying capacity and

Voltage drop while determining the size of conductor (b)
5 Explain the method of det
in an overhead line. ermining the size OfA.C.S.R. to be used
6.
how will you deterjne the size of conductor of an underground
cable?
7. Wiat is the maximum
permissible voltage drop in case of (a)
internal wiring and (h) overhead lines for distribution and
transmission ?
F,-,'
15
Internal Wiring Estimates
Before an estimate for a wiring scheme can be had, it is nec-

essary for the electrical engineer to be conversant with the method
and technique by which an architect gives to the wiring contractor
specifications and drawings of the proposed building. The architect
asuaily never gives details of wiring circuit but definitely te!ts
whether he uai:tdirect or indirect light at a particular place, co
he generally shows the positions of wall or bracket
t light, pendant
ght, position of switches, and of power poin .,; etc.
After obtaining the blue prints from the architect the estrnatar
or contractor goes through the plans and colIees the specirication
f the electrical wiring asked for. Then he prepares an estimate
v}iich must comprise the estimates for
(a) Accessories required and their cost.
(b) Wiring materials (conduit and cables) and their co etc.
(c) Labour.
Under accessories comes an estimate for the number and types
of switches, sockets, holders etc. Usually there is no difficulty in
cbtainingtheir number which is definitely specified b y the architect
and the estimator is simpl y to add.
Under wiring material comes the length of the conduit, or P.V.C.
casing-capping or wooden batten required the length of the cable
or P.V.0 wire which will be used and other rolevant material
required for the completion of the wiring. This part of the estimate
cannot be calculated very accurately and to the point, but from site
plas a sufficientl y accurate estimate can be made. B efore estiniatiog
this part of the estimate, it is necessary for him to visit the site per-
sonally and he must give a due allowance for cuttinb'and ucstcc
of the material.
Thus Labour is the most dimccilt part to be assessed There are
many facturs upon which labour cost depends, such as .oure c
-30
448
wm!Nc, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
construction ofbuilding, its distance from the normal working point

and the type of wiring to be had. A great experience is required for
its stimulation.
Procedure to be followed while Estimating for Internal
Electrification
The following general points are to be considered.
1. (i) System of Writing. (ii) Method of wiring.
2. Particulars of load. (i) Total load (ii)
Total current. (iii)
Designing current
3. No. of Sub-circuits, based on the above.
4. Distribution points in circuit.
5. Layout (i) Line diagram (ii) Flow diagram
(iii) Photographic
view diagram
6. Size of Cable. (i) From Central D
istribution Board (CDB)
(ii) In Sub-Circuit
7. Main Switch.
8. Distribution box.
9. Size and Length of conduits.
10. Size and Length of cable required from DB to load points
based on voltage drop Calculation.
It. Cost of materials ineluding CST, ST. SC and transport.
12. Labour for wiring.
13. Tool charges if any.
14 • Over
head charges, contingencies. etc.
1 Special fittings if any.
Points to be adhered to while preparing the estimate
1. Length of conduit required can be calculated by going
through the plan of the building.
2. Allow 10% of total length for wastage in any system.
3. To calculate the length of wire, take the length of conduit
after allowing wastage.
4. The length of wire can be taken as 2.5 times the length of
conduit for looping system and 2 times for junction box
system.
5. The length of the looping wire etc. in switch boxes shall not
be lesser than 0.5 times of the height of the box itself.
6. The length of wire to be provided from the main board for
connection to meterboard shall not be more than 7.5 metres
and should Le one size higher than the actual size selected
for wiring.

I NTERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 449
7. The clearance provided between ceiling and the running

installation on the wall normally is taken as 0.25 to 0.5
metres. However this should be judged only by the type of
building, Learns crossing etc. Appearance should also be
given due consideration.
8. All the controlling switches in power wiring shall be
mounted on the metal frame of suitable design.
9. All the sub-circuits must have its own continuous earth
wire.
10. The wiring of power and light must be seperated from each
other, from the commencement of supply itself and shall
not be run on the same conduits.
11. There is no necessity of providing separate earth for the
lighting loads by the consumer ; supplier's earth shall be
sufficient.
12. All the wall plugs must be of three pins and should be
earthed.
13. More than one circuit, wires should not be dropped down
in one switch box. Separate boxes must be provided for each
cii-cui..
14. Labour can be calculated by calculating man days and
multiplying by the charges/day.
15. For material handling (i.e., transporting charges of mate-
rials to the site) will usually be judged by route length and
available cargo movers.
Any Low it should not be more than 5% (max.) of material
cost.
16. Overhead charges will generally be assumed as 10% to 15%
of the total cost.
17 In large installations, tool charges are to be included. It is
usually 3 to 5% of the total cost.
18 Strictly follow I.E. Rules of 1956. ISI specifications,
National Electric Code and the requirements of State
Electricity Board Inspectors.
19 Wiring of All multi-storied buildings above l5.0 M Height
must be inspected by Electrical Inspector and he has to
approve (Rule 50 A)
20. Any wiring s y stem has to last for -25 years. Hence high
quality naterials are to be used, high quality workmanship
450
must be executed through qualified contractors - hence

materials cost and labour charges will be high.
21. For loads above 4 KW, 3 ph. supply must be arranged.
22. The wiring should be done very close to the ceiling.
23. For final sub-circuits use l.sq.
Al. mm of copper or 1.5 sq. rain.
24. The bottom of ceiling fan should have a rain, clearance of
2.75 m.
25. Provide 3 pin plug points at switch boards, with switch
controls and solidly earth and third pin.
26. The consumer should provide ONE earth electrode for
single phase supply and TWO earth electrodes for 3 phase
supply. Earth pipe dimension: 40 mm dia and 2.5 Mlength.
27. If more than one electrode is provide, all earth electrodes
must be linked, for combined low resistance Water thetn
periodically,,
28. Use minimum of 14 SWG TC ( Tin
leads. ned-Copper) icr earth
29. All non-current carrying metallic parts must be provided

with 2 separate and distinct earth wires.
30. In bath rooms, all non electrical metal work including bath
tubs, water pipes sinks must be bonded to-gether and
earthed.
31. Do not exceed per circuit 800 watts or 10 lights or fans.
32. Do not exceed per circuit 2 numbers ofplug points for power
Circuit.
33. Use heavily insulated, flexible cables for domestic
appliances.
34. Do not keep pump motors exposed to open atmosphere.
Provide weather proof covers.
35. Provide lighting arresters, for High Rise Buildings. JR
v
alues must be 1 MU..
36. Provide Earth Leakage Circuit breakers, for loads excc•ed-
ing5KW.
37. If Generators are used, Connect them in a standard way and
ensure that it is NOT paralleled with EB supply.
38. Insist upon safety precautions as per I.E. rules.

INTERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES
Example I. Draw the electrical circuit and estimate the quantity

of materials and their cost required for the P.V.C. casing-capping
wiring system used in house the plan of which is as shown below.
:ssume that the height of roof is 3.75 m. and one plug point is to be
provided in each room.
Solution.
No. of Light points 5
No. of Fan points = 2
No. of Plugs =2
Let us assume that the wattage of each lamp is 60 \V, that of
fan point SOW and that of plug 100 W.
Wattage of Light points 60 x 5 = 300W
Wattage of Fan points 60 x 2 =120W
Wattage of Plug points 100 x 2 = 0 W
Total Wattage =520W

Total W3nagC
Thc 111je current = SuppvOhC
= 6-)o = 2.7 A
230
Now according to Tables 14.1 and 14.3 given in Appendix r
(111.10;
the above current and vattag a wire of size 1.5 sq. mm
kind
with maximum current rating and wattage loading of 10 amps
200 watts will suitable. This wire has 1 volt drop for 2.9 m. length.
On the next page the length of positive wire has been worked out
as 80 metre. In view of this, the voltage drop will be voltage drop
- < 2. = V
102.9
which is within permissible limits. Hence single core P.V.C. of 1.5

sq mm (111.40) will be used for wiring.
Fig. 15.2 represents the P.V.C. casing capping run in the
building since the total connected load is 620 watts. The maximum
number of points in a circuit can be 8 or 500 watt. But taking into
account diversity factor so only one circuit is sufficient.
Length of P.V.C. Casing Capping required. Let the sorv
meter be fixed to the left of the main entrance at a height of about
1.5 m. from the ground. Since only one circuit is to be carried, so the
452
WIRING ESTIMATING AN!) COSTING
-
wng " , "- i's of electrit a] fltting

15.1
7- I:
f!4
ONE
Sketch showing OfL, virious dtaii feIc't,-jnl fittng
Fig. I..2

INTERNAL NVIRING ESTIMATES 453
consumer's Main Board will consist of only 10 A Iron-clad Main

Switch. The casing will be run on the surface of the wall. The casing
s being run at a distance of 3 in. from ground. The total length of
casing is arrived at as follows
I.,
5. F
Circuit diagram
Fig. 15.3
Casing between Meter Board and Main Board = 0.10 m.
The vertical run of casing above M.B. = 1.50 Tn.
The horizontal run along the wall above the = 2.00 m.

main entrance
Run along the right-hand terrace wall up to the = 2 00 m.
Junction Box
Casing up to Lamp, L 1 = 1.60 M.

454
(The lamps are being provided at a dis-
tance of about 2.0 ni: from the ground
level, on the brackets)
Casing up to Switch of L 1 , provided at a
distance of about 1 ra. along the right
terrace wall at a height of about 1.3
metres from ground i.e., the lamp L 1 is
controlled from a point just at the
entrance of the door 1.70rn.
6.30 m.
Near the junction box the wall is punc-
tured and the branch of circuit is taken
into room No. 1, in which the casing will
be run on the ceiling.
Vertical run up to ceiling
=0.75 m.
Ca singnlongthe ceilingtoL 3
(3.00 + 0.75) =3 . 75 m.
Casing up to L, (0.3 + 1)
= 1.30 m.
Casing up to SB 1 (0.7 ± 1.7)
=2.40 m.
Casing along the wall up to lamp L 4 (2 rn
+ 1.5 + 2 75±1) 725 r..
Casing up to lamp L 5 (0.75 + 5.5 + 1.75)

=8.00 M.
Casing long the wall up to S B which
2 = 1.70 m.
again just outside the entrance
Total length of' casing 33.45
Allowing about 207c as wastage and the
length used for jointing etc. =6.69
40.14 rn.
Layout of wiring in room No.1

Fig. 15.4

INTERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 455
Say, 40 m. is the total length of P.V.C. casing capping

required.
C r5
Layout of wiring in Room No. 2

Fig. 15.5
Length of Negative wire required (of specification 1.5 sq.
mm (111.40) black in colour)
Meter Board to Switch Board = 10 m.
Up to lamp L1 = 5.5 rn.
Up to lamp L., allowing 1 m. length in junction = 2.0 M.
box and the conduit through the wall 0 + 1)
Up to lamp L.= 3.0 m.
11.5 rn.
From lamp L2 to S.B to be used in plug for both = 6.1 m.

go and return (1 + 0.3 + 2(0.7 + 17)
From junc(ion box to the point just above the = 3.5 m.
SB2
From a point to the S.B both go and return (1.7 = 3.4 m.
+ 1.7)
Up to lamp L 4 (1 + 2.75 +1) = 1.75rn.
Up to lamp L 5 ( + 5.5 +1) = 7.50m.
Total 36.75 rn.

W 'astage 10 per cent (say) 3.68 m.
Wire used up for connections, 10% say 3.68 m.
44.11 m.
Say 44 m.
WJIING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Lwgtii of pc)'Sit
ivc l wire 'equired (0
mm (11140) white in colour)- p eicatjons 1.5 sq.
Meter Board to Switch Board

= 1.0 m.
From switch board to lamp L
= 8.9 M.
through switch (1.5 2.0 + 1.7 + 1.7 + 2)
From junction box to SB1
(1.7 + 0.7 + 1.7) = 3.4 m.
From S.B 1 to L 2 i.e. half wire for
L2 = 3.7 m.
(1.7 + 0.7 + 0.3 + 1)
From S 1 B to fan (ceiling rose)
= 4.65 m.
(1.7 + 0.7 + 0.75 + 1.5)
From SR 1 to lamp L.
(1.7+0.7+0.75+3+1) = 7.15 m
From junptjon box to S.R
(2 + 1.5 + 1.7) = 5.20 rn.
Fro in S.R to L4
(L7 + 1 + 2.75 + 1) = 6.45 m
From S.!.?, to Fan
(1.7 + I + 2.75 + 0.75 + 2.75) = 8.95 ni.
From S.11.2 to L5
(1.7 + 1+2 75 = 12.70 m.
75 55 +1
62.10 m.
Total
Wastage @ 10 per cent
6.21 m.
Wire used up in connections etc. @ 20%
12.42 Tfl.
Total length 80.73 ra.
Say SO M.
hence tot length of wire used as positive and negative

= 80 + 44
=124
Say 125 m.
Note that in practice the length of wire to be used may not be
calculated in full details like thi5, but as a general rule the total
length of wire is a pp r
oximately 3 times that of length of the casi?zg
capping out of which the posit he is a p
Of that of the negative. Piximately double the length
Earth Wire. The earth wire is required for the plugs in two
rooms.
Wire required from in switch hoard to S.B
(a connection will be provided ft earth-wire in
junction box for it to be carried away to SB2
simply by providing a simple twisted joint
(1.5+2.0+2.0+ 1.0 +0.7 ± 1.) = '.9 m
From J. Box to S.B2
(2+ L5+ 1.7) = 5.2 in
14.1 in
Wastage etc. and length to be used in connection 1.4 111
etc. 10%
15.5 in
Now prepare the schedule of material and cost as shown in Table

15.1.
Example 2. A P.V.C. wiring is to he provided to a double storev
2 roomed, 4 flat house. Draw the circuit and estimate, the quantity
of material required and its cost, oil assumption that two Supply
Meters are to be taken. Also inaicate differeice if a ace
Meter for each flat is taken.
Fig. 15.6 represents the ground plan of the ground floor. 'Inc
plan for the first floor is just the same with a balcon y of I in. in the
inner courtyard side opposite two rooms, kitchen, bath and latrine.
The requirements are represented in the plan.
.T - ii iil- t
OPE
'ARV FLAT Ato / COb1 . 111No .
Fig. 15.6
000 c0o
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459
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460
WIRING, ES
T1MATLTG AND COSTING
Solution The estimate
o call made on the basis that either
twmeters are provided one common for
oil L;rOtlilcla nd first floor, or
basis of4 supply meters one for each flat.
(a) On the basis of two supply
No. of points in one flat and their wattage

Light points 8 with wattage of 60 x 8
= 480 W
Fan points 2 with wattage of 2x 60
= 120 W
Plug points 2 with wattage of 2 x 100
= 200 W
Total wattage per flat
800 \V
Since the max i

mum wattage allowed in each circuit is 500 W
or 8 points, so two circuits will be used in each flat.
Hence Wauage of each Circuit

=
If supply voltage
= 230V
Curren
Current from supply main
=4(X)=. 1.74 A
2 i0
(The power factor is unity, Since there is only resistive load).

From table 14. Ithe safe cur-rent which can be carried by 1.5 sq. mm
(1/140) is 1 0 .
amperes Due to mechanical reason this is the mini-
mum Size p ermissible for house wiring, so this wire will have an
added advantage to fleet the increased load due to extension in
future. On the next pages the length ofthe positive wire run for each
circuit has been worked out to be 60 metres. Now there is I volt drop
for every 2.9 metre length of wire for 10 Amps flow of current, thus
total voltage drop
1.74 60
- 10 2.9
= 3.599 V which is ithjn flh]jSsjhI lji

iie,ic' wi r
ing wi/I be (lone with 1.5 sq iii in (1/1.40) czIumj,'z ioin
'. V.C. wire single core coizilui t r.
( ' oTIflectej luid of 10 flats - (X) x 2 = 16(X) W
(Me Ltiiip ill IIIC SLurcas
60

Ilencelotal connected load 1660 W
11560
Load current -
230
= 7.22 A. approx.
From tables, the wire between supplier meter board and main
switch board may be either 2.5 sq. mm (111.80 capable *of carrying
safe current of 15 A or 4.00 sq. mm (112.24 capable of carrying 20
A, but the latter is preferred.
Assumption:
Height of proof = 3.5 m
Height of light points from ground = 2.0 ru
Height of switches from ground = 1.3 m
Height at which batten will bc run = 3.0 m
Length of Teakwood batten 2.5 cm. wide to he used in

each room of the ground floor.
Let the supplier meter be installed in the staircase.
Vertical length along the wall of staircase 1.0 m
Batten alongthe will upto the pointfrom where = 2.5 m

the tapping will he taken for watertight bracket
Vertical rin aloe ftc va1l for watertight fit 1 0 ni
tings round block
Vertical run up to switch for above = 0.7 rti
Horizontal run along the wall up to lamp L 1 = 3.5 ifi
Vertical run along the will up to lamp L 1 1.011 m
Vertical and horizontal run up to the ceiling = 0.75 m

above L (0.25 + 0.5)
Run along the ceiling = 200 m
Length of batten from F 1 to S.B 1 = 3.95 ru
2.25 + 1.7)
('.0. 16.40m
462
WIRING, EFcfAT1NG
AND CO31'fl'G
B. F. = 16.40m
Batten length up to L 2 and its switch
= 4.7 m
(3+ 1+0.7)
Batten from lamp L 2 to F2
(1 + 0.5 + 2.5) = 4.0 m
Batten from F2 to L 3 (2.5 + 1)
= 3.5 Tn
Batten length upto L5
= 6.5rn
(2.0 + 0.5 + 2 + 1 + 1)
Vertical run from the switch ofL5
= l.7m
Batten length up to L6
= 3.25 m
(1.25+ 1+ 1)
Vertical run from switch ofL
= l.75rn
Similarly the length forL 7 and its switch
= 5.00 m
(3.25 + 1.75)
46.80 m
\astage 15'
7.02 rn
53.82 rn
Say 55 m
LiIiIT Plan for wiring for each flat

Fig. 15.7
Since the thickness of the wall for
rooms are of the top floor is less and the
bigger dimensions, and if the scheme for the batten
run is kept the same, the length used will be about 107c more '
60 M. say
Length of batten used for the top and ground floor

=60+55 115 m.
Length of batten to be used in staircase = 5 m.(say)
Hence total length of batten used 120 m.
1.7
L6
SLit 144.f. ,
SB,
ç:
IL. -
S47TC
SWfl(k
coiiPt&iiioi
&'.X .1 WAY
Circuit Diagram
Pig. 15.8
The length of single core 1.5 sq. mm . (1/1.40) copper conductor

single core P.V.C. wire will be approximately 3 times the length of
batten used.
Total length of P.V.C. 1.5 sq. nrn. (111.40) single core = 360
rn (approx.)
31

464
WI1UNC ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Length of the positive wire = 360x2

3
240 (approx.)
As there will be 4 circuits, therefore length of positive wire for
each circuit will be
Length of positive wire in each circuit
240
4
= 60 m. (approx.)
Length of earth Continuity conductor. The earth conductor
is required for 3 pin plugs only and for that purpose 14 S.W.G.
conductor is being used.
Length of conductor in the ground floor = 19.40 m.
[(1+2.5 +15+2+025+2+225+ 1.7
for room No. 1) + (2.5 + 2.0 + 1.7 for room
No. 2 having a joint at point near about
Li)]
Length of wire used in connections and in 2.60 m
passing through walls
Wastage etc. 2.00 m.
24.00 m.
Length of conductor used in the first floor will be 10% more say
26 m. Hence total length of wire used for 2 floors
= 24 + 26 = 50 m.
Now prepare the schedule of material and costas shown in Table
15.2.
On the basis of 4 Meters. When 4 meters are to be provided
the difference uill be only in the distribution. There will be four
distribution hoards instead of 1w.> . Each distribution board will be
having main LC.sw itch 15 A and I.C. distribution board 2-u'iy.
The internal wiring will remain necessarily the same, so the readers
are adeisp d to prepare on e.ctin'are themselves for this on the abore
lines.

to a
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INTERNAL WIRING ESTU1ATES 467
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-E
Power Wiring Installations

Important points to be considered are:
1. I.E.E. rules Nos. 22, 50, 51 are to be satisfied.
2. Wiring is to be installed either in surface conduits system
or recessed conduit system.
3. Earth wire of 8 S.W.G. must run along the pipes.
4. Consumer must be provided two distinct earths in addition
to the supplier's earth. All the earths should be linked with
each other.
5. Every switch board or control board of the machine or
equipment must accompany with a suitable circuit breaker
so that, if required, the supply must be terminated without
any delay.
6. Controlling board should be placed as near as possible to
the equipment.
7. For the selection of cable, the starting current of the
equipment of motor is to be given due consideration.
8. The capacity of main switches or circuit breakers shall be
of three times that of the normal current.
9. Efficiency, power factor are to be given due consideration.
It can be assumed as 80% and 0.7 respectively unless
otherwise stated.
10. Proper Bushes (wooden or porcelain) are to be provided in
all the metal frame of suitable design.
11. 411 the controlling switches in power wiring shall be
mounted on the metal frame of suitable design.
12. When the outgoing lead is of U.G. Cable, allow a loop of 25
cm or the minimum bending radius above the switch. This
is necessary the cable is not subjected to undue strain due
to bending.
13. Avoid crossing in U.G. Cables within a shop.
14. In the case of the U.G. Cables, the size, the number of cores
in the cable and the direction of flow of power, shall be
clearly marked within the point.
15. The layout of the U.G. cable must be clearly marked with
suitable indicators of G.I. or Aluminium boards indicating
the location of the cable. It shall be of about 30 cm. This
is used in open grounds and side of the streets.
16. Length offlexible metallic conduit shall not be greater than
•2 rots.
17. Provision must be made for the emer g ency light-, in the
switch board room. This will until in illumination of the
room whenever the supply fails.

18, Proper safety precautions must be provided as per I.E. rules

41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46.
Example 3. In a single-storey building (the plan of which is
given in Fig. 15.9) the light and power points are to be provided in
conduit wiring as per figure. Draw a wiring circuit for the distri-
bution board, indicate the conduit run on the plan. Estimate the
quantity of material required, the cost of material and labour cost.
The wiring is to be of concealed conduit type.
Solution. As the building is to be provided with a light and fan
circuit as well as with a power circuit, they will be designed sepa-
rately. First designing Light and Fan circuit only:
No. of light points = 19

No. of fan points = 6
No. of plug points = 4
Wattage for light points 19 x 60 = 1140W
Wattage for fan points 6 x 60 = 360 W
Wattage for plug points 4 x 100 = 400W

Total conrc..d load 1900 W
Pig. 15.9
470
WIRING ESTIMATING
AND COSTING
Since the maximum number of lamps in
the total load in the circuit should be 500 W.a circuit is to be 8 and
The ma.ximm current in each Circuit -
= 2.2 A.
wire,From Table 14. 1, the safe current which Can be carried by P.V.C.
1.5 sq.mm
(IJ1.40)is lOamperes and hence this size is suitable.
\Vhi]e red Colour is used for live wfre and black for the negative.
The con
a nected load requires necessarily 4
circuits. For having
connected Conduit wiring, the Conduit is run over the roof before
Putting up
boxes etc. Concrete over it along with necessary outlet boxes,junct ion
Fig.outlets
circuits The 15.10 represents the conduit run for the four separate
in
circuit i are represented as 1, 2,
and in circuit 2 they are represented as 1
outlets in circuit no. 3 and 2 , 2 2 , 3 3 ......and similarly
4 are represented Since
4 to 6 wiresat
a time are to run in one conduit, so 25.4 mm. conduit may be used.
Assumptions
The height of the light braJcet from floor level=2.5

P1
The height of switch etc. from floor level = 1.5 in.
The height of ceiling from floor level
= 3.5 in.
Representation of conduit run

Fig. 15.10

Length of conduit used in circuit No. 1.-

Note that the lengths assumed, are all approximate.
Conduit run along ceiling to outlets
2 1 =(lm),4 1 =(2m),5 1 =(1.5TTh),6 1 =(1.5Tfl) = 6 r
From Main Board to ceiling = 2m
The socket outlet 1 1 and its control will be on the switch board
controlling outlets 2 1 , 4, and 51.
The conduit run up to outlet 5, from ceiling = 1 in
The conduit run up to outlet 3, from ceiling = 1m
The conduit run up to outlet 6 1 from ceiling = 1 in
The conduit length from 2, to switch = 1.2 in
The conduit length from 3 1 to its switch = 1 in
The conduit by 6 to its switch = 1 in
14.2 in
Wastage etc. 1.6 m
15.8 in
Total length of conduit abed 16 in.
No. of inspection boxes tç be provided at each bend, one above
the outlet and one below when it has a switch behind just below
it= 8
No. of outlet boxes—one two-way and the = 4
others single-way
Junction Box = 1
Length of 1.5 sq. mm (1/1.40)P.V.C. wire used for circuit

No.1
Length of negative wire—
From distribution board to outlet 2 1 = (2 + 1 + 1) = 4 in
From 2 1 to Junction Box = 1 m
From Junction Box to 11 2 in
From Junction Box to 31 d5 in
(as the wall at back will be punctured)
From Junction Box to 41 = 2.0 in
From 4 1 to5,.(l.5+ 1) = 2.5m
From 5,to6j(1+1.5+l) = 3.5 in
=15.5 in
472
Length used for connection etc.

3m.
18.0 M.
The Positive wire will be app rox. double of the the
negative wire length 36.0 in.
Total 54.0 M.
Eik Wire
flT
2I4IJJ.8OX
)
^
31
S 3J [5
R'presentjng line diagram for circuit No. 1.

Fig. 15.11.
Length of conduit used in circuit No. 2—.
Conduit run along ceiling to outlets 1
2 2 = (1.75 in), 3 2 = (1.75 in), 5 2 = (1.752 +=2.25),
(4m), = 16.5m.
(1 in.), 7, = (2 m), 8 2 = (2 m)
The socket outlets 4 2 and 6 2 and their control
will be provided
on switch boards in the two respective runs.
M Conduit run u p tu outlet l along the wail from 1.0 m
Ciiing =
Conduit run up to 3, along the wall from 1 . 0 M.

ceiling =
473
ThTERNAL WIRING FST1NATES
= 1.2m
Conduit run up to switch board from outlets 32
1.Orn
Conduit run up to outlet 52 along the wall from
ceiling
= 1.2m
Conduit run up to outlet switch board
= 1.0m
Conduit run up to outlet 82 along the wall from -
ceiling 22.9 in
2.1 in
Wastage etc. -
25.0 In
Total
No. of inspection boxes =8

=8
No. of outlets
(2 two-way and 6 one-way)
=2
Junction Boxes
wire used—
Length of 1.5 sq. mm (111.40)
Length of negative wire —
From distribution board to .Dutlet Junc
tion Box (2+4 1)
O.5m
From J.B. 1 to 12
= 55 m
From 12 to 22 = (1 + 1.75) and from
2 2 to3 2 (1.75 ± 1)
= 2.0 in (approx.)
From 32 to S.B.1
= 5.Om
= (1.75 + 2.25 + 1)
From JB. 1 to J.B 2
= 0.5 in
From J.B. 2 to 2
= 4.Om
From J.B 2 to 72 = (2 m) and from 72 to
8 2 = (2 m)
= 2.0 In (approx.)
From 52 to 62
26.5 m
Total
6.5 in
Wastage etc. and the wire used in switch
board and in outside etc. 33.0 in
66.0 In
The positive wire will be approx double
the negative length 99.0 in
Total
Circuit diagram for circuit No. 2.
Fig. 15.12
Length of conduit used in circuit No. 3..
13 Conduit run along the ceiling to 3 3

(2.5 m), 32 to
(4.5 m), 4 to 53 = ( 3.5 in), 33 to
=(
2
(3 in), 7 3 to 63 = ( 1 in) 17.5
and 7 3 to 8 3 (2.50.5 m), 53 to 7 3 Tn
m)
475
From main board to ceiling = 2.0 in
From ceiling to outlets 2 3 = ( urn) and 1 3 = ( 1 m) = 2.0 rn
From ceiling to outlets 7 3 = ( 1 m) and 6 = (1 = 2.0 in

M)
= 3.5 rn
From 4 3 to S.B. 2 (controlling outlet 4 3 and 5)
From 13 to S.B. (controlling outlets 13 and 23) = 1-0 1M
23.0 in
63
Hrf" 53
-1

13 .11
1 5f h
(LL POSH
Circuit diagram fc j circuit No. 3

Fig. 15.13
476
WIRING E ST[MATING AND COSTING
B. F. 28.0 m
From 2 3 to the Switch
CO ntroliing 33 1.0 rn
From 6 3 to its switch
From 7 3 to its switch = 1.0 in
= 1.0 m
From 8 to its switch
1.0 in
32.0 in
Wastage etc. 2.0 in
Total 34.0 m
No. of inspection boxes
No. of outlet boxes = 11
(5 two-way, 3 one-way) Junction Boxes = 8
2
Length of wire 1.5 sq. mm (I/l .40) used in circuit
No. 3.
Length of the negative wire
From distribution board to J FJ.1
= 3.5 in
From J. B to outlet 33
= 0.5 in
From outlet 3 3 to outlet 23
= 35 in
= 1.0 m
F romoutlet 3 3 to outlet 4
4.5 in
= 0.5 in
From outlet 5 3 to outlet 7 3
(3 + 1) = 4.0 m
From outlet 7 3 to 83
= 2.5 m
From outlet 7to6_(l+ 1+1)
= 3.0m
23.0 m
Wastage and length of wire used in switch = 4.0 rn
boards and outlets etc.
27.0 m
Length of positive wire is approx.
= 54.0 in
Total 81.0m
Length of conduit used in circuit No.4
Length of conduit along ceiling to outlet 2 = (5 in), from outlet
477
/M.RNA L WIRING MINUTES
24to4=(0.5m),24th34=(2m),4tO4(21fl),44 to = 14m
5 4 = ( 2 m), 5 4 to 7 4 = ( 1.5 m) and 7 4 to 8 4 = (1.0 m)
Conduit run from ceiling along the wall up to 2 4 1.0 m
Conduit run up to 4 4 along the wall = 2.0 m
Length of conduit along the wall to outlet 4 4 = 1.0 iTt
Length of conduit along the ceiling to outlet 6 4 = (1 +1)= 2.0 rn
20.0 m.
J. BOX
5.81
Circuit diagrams for circuit No. 4
Fig. 15.14

478
B F. =20.0 m
The lamp 5 4 will be Controlled from two points,
one inside the run and the other outside the bath,
while the control for the lamps 7 4
and 8 4 will be
outside.
Length of Conduit along the wall inside the run
for control of lamp 54 = 2.0 m
Length along the wall for control of outlets 54,74
and 8 4 = ( 0.5 + 2)
Length along the wall for control of outlet 64 = 2.5 m
= 1.0 rn
25.5 rn
Wastage etc.
2.5m
Total 28.0 m
Inspection Boxes
Outlet Boxes = 5
(3 two-way and 5 single-way) Junction Boxes -8
Length of i.Ssq. mm (1/1.40)wjj . e used— = 1
Length of the negative wire
Frurn distrihut-n board b S .B. = (
4 5 + 1 + 2) = 8.0 m
From SB. 1 to outlet 24
From outlet 2 4 to outlet 34 = 3.0 m
From outlet 5 4 to Junction situated at a dis- = 2.0 m
= 0.1 m
tance of 2.5 rn. from floor level in the kitchen
From Junction box to rml 74 - ( 1 . i. -'
) = 2.5 m
1.0 m
21.5 m
Wastage and the length used in connections
etc. z 3.5 in
Length of the positive wire 0 m

25.Tn
Total 75M rn
For estimating the light points, the various working and details
havo been given in Table 15 3.
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NC) N 0 '-4 3 3 N 8co 00
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c 1 • 5 •5 •
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8
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8 8 8 8 8 8
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Power Circuits
No. of power plugs to be provided = 6
Wattage of each point - = 500W
Total connected load for the 6 = 500 x 6 = 3000 \V
points
The maximum number of power points in a circuit is to be 2 or
the wattage can be 1000 W.
1OC = 4.4 A.
LO-
Ile maximum current in each circuit = --
Th O0
The suitable wire is to be 4 sq. mm (112.24) which can carry 20

amperes safely and 25.4 mm. conduit will be used. Fig. 15.15 rep-
resents the division of circuits.
22p
/
I
I
Fig. 15.15
The circuit diagram for each circuit is as shown in Fig. 15.15.
Length of conduit used in circuit 1—
Length from D. B. to l along ceiling (2 + 2) 4.0 in
(2 m. length is up to ceiling from D.B.)
Length along the wall up to switch board = 2.0 in
Length from outlet 1 1 to outlet 2 = 3.1 in
Length along the wall up to switch board = 2.0 m
11.1 Tfl
484
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COMING
+
1rcu1t a gram for power circuit

Fig. 15.16
Length of conduit used in circuit 2—
Length from D.B. to outlet 1 2 along roof
=(2+6) = 8m
Length along the wall up to outlet 1 2
Length along roof to outlet 22 = 2 in
=4m
Length along the wall up to the above outlet = 2 m
16
Length of conduit used
in circuit No. 3—
Length along roof from D.B. to outlet 1
= m
= (2 + 3.5)
Length along the wall to outlet 1 3 =
Length along the roof from outlet 1 3 20m
to 23
Length along the wall to outlet 23 4.5 rn
= 2.0 rn
= 14.0 ni
Total 1engthofcofldj5
11.1+16+14 =41.1m
Wastage etc. = 2.9rn
Total 43.0 m
Hence total length of conduit required for power wiring

No. of Inspection Boxes = = 43.0 in
approxi mately 2 in each outlet run
=12
Since in power circuits no positive half is run, it is quite rea-
sonable to assume that th e total length of wire used is
app roximately
2 times the length of conduit instead of it being 3 times. The
estimate for power wiring is given in Table 15.4.
Total length of 4 sq. mm (112.24) wire used = 43 x
Say, 1coiofloom
C C;
z z zz
(I
C
U
z
'IN
cc m N
-
E
• E
U
N 'I )0 x
0>
d -w I-
- . 0 0
0. .2 bo
0 -
cn
.E
IIt < E
E
&
- 000
0
0
•r'- c . 0

I-
E
00 0 00 0 0 0 00'
3.. , 0 0 00 0 0
0c,c
C N
N —
N
0
,-
" 0 = C E
c...
0
00 0 00 0 0 0 0 00
0 CO 0 00 0 0 0 0 00
c
g — '
N
N — — C
, —
486
WIRING EST
IMATING AND COSTING
E
o
0
cQ )C'3
'N
- - - c,
col
0 0 0
0000 0 0 0
0 0
C4
C -
C•4
- ,—•-zj
00
o • ,
I
0
C
C
; N
-

Example 4. A residential double storey building is to be electrified

with C.T.S. wiring. Give the approx. Cost for th wiring including
abrnzr charges. The details of fittings required are as follows:
Roon S i ze Tu ' Ordina ry Fan Piui.,'
S.
ci.
1. Drawing Room 40mx2.Om 1 1 1 2
2. Bed Room 4.0mx3.0m 1 1 1 1
3. ARest Room 2.0mx2.0m I - 1 -
4. Kitchen Room 4.0mx2.0m 1 2 - 1
5. Bath Room 1.5mx1.5rn - I - 1
6. Toilet Room 1.5mx1.5m - 1 - -
Assume necessary data as per I.E. rules and mention them
clearly.
Solution: 1. The plan of the Building is to be supplied by the
owner.
2. The location of electrical fittings are marked in consultation
with owner (see fig 15.16.1).
3. The height of ceiling, from floor level is 3.3 rn.
4. The ground floor and first floor are similar in construction.
5. The C.T.S. wiring, as required b y the owner is done at a 3.0
m above the floor level.
6 All switches and plug p oints are located at a height of 1.:5
m above the floor level.
7. The ceiling fans are located as far as possible at the centre
of the room.
8. Since it is a concrete ceiling, the charges for provision of
hooks for fans z'-e to be met by the owner.
9. The estimate is prepared purely as per reQuirement of
owner.
10. Total load
Tube Light 4 x 40 : 160
Ordinary light 6 x 60 360
Fans 3x80 : 240
Plugs 1 x 1000 : 1000
Plugs 4 x 500 2000
For the above Load, 4 circuits are formed.
Circuit 1 Loads in Drawing Room, Kitchen and hest Koorn,
including one plug in Kitchen.
2. Loads in Bed Room, Bath andToilet rooms including one
plug in Bed room.
3 One Plug in Bath room only.
2-plugs in Drawing room. All Switch Boards of thesize:
0.3rn x 02m
488
CIRCUIT-1 CIRCUIT-?
0- z;1
L 0L 4 — OL6
- M BED M 585 F3
B TL4j
-
S86 psi
I: 00 TL -,? JTL3 SB!. K

0L2 r;E51
-----
LIK H --- F'
H F li SB2 II
F1
I DRAWING
IL__ _SBI II SB1
I
LI
SBI
PLUG IN BATH-ROOM 4------ 40m—..

PLUG IN DRAWING ROO
Jnl is 1.0 metre cr-Way from ii
Jn2 is 1.45 metres above S32
.3n3 is at K
Jn4 is at K'
Jn5 is at M'
All. di mensions in metres
Fig. 15.16,1

CABLE LENGTHS REQUIRED

Circuit-1.Drawing Room, Kitchen, an Rest Room including one
no. plug in kitchen
SB 1 in Drawing Room has controls for 0L 1 , TL, & F1.
SB 2 in Kitchen has controls for 0L 2 , 0L3 , TL,, and plug in SB2.
SB 3 in Rest Room has controls for TL & F2.
The ceiling height is 3.1 M from floor level.
Load Description Length Total
in Mts. Length in
Mts.
Drawing Room
0L 1 From SB 1 to wiring height 1.45
wiring height to Jn 1 (2 + 1) 3.00
Jn 1 to CROL1 (down) 0.30
4.75
F 1 From SB 1 to Jn 1 (1.45 + 3.0) 4.45
Jn 1 to ceiling (up) 0.30
Ceiling to CRF I 2.00
6.75
TL, From SB 1 to CRF 1 (4.45 + 0.30 + 2.00) 6.75
CRF 1 to CRTL1 (2+ down 0.3) 2.30
9.05 20.55
Kitchen
SB 2 From SB 1 to Jn 1 (1.45 .s. 2.0 + 1.0)_. 4.45
Jn 1 to F to F 1 to G (Jn2) to SB., 3.75
(down)
1.0 + 0.3 + 1.0 + 1.45 = 35 8.20
0L2 " SB2 to 01 3 1.00
(The pendant holder for 0L2 is
fixed on the Same line of wiring) 9.20
0L3 " SB2toJn2toF1toHtoItoCROL3 5.75
1.45 + 1.0 + 2.0 + 1.0 + 0.30 = 5.75
TL, " SB2 to Jn 2 to 17RTL1 5.45
i453.0+1.0=.545 --
11.20 20.40
C.O. 40.95
N

490
Rest oom
B.F. 40.95
To S13 2 From Jn 2 to J to B 1 to S13 2
5.75
3.0+ 1.0+0.3+ 1.45575
TL From SB 3 to B 1 1.45
From 813 3 to B 1 to Ceiling to F 2 2.75
1.45 + 0.30 + 1.0 = 2.75 9.95
50.90
Total 50.90 Mts.

Add 10%5.09

55.99 Or say 56.0 Mts.
For Neutral Wire

Drawing Room
OL From SB 1 to CROL1
4.75
1.45 + 2,0 + 11) + 0.3 = 4.75
F 1 From Jn1 to CRF1
2.30
0.30 + 2.00 = 2.30
TL 1 From CRF 1 to CRTL1
2.30
2.00+0.30
Kitchen
OL., From Jri 1 to F to G to G 1 (Jn 2 ) to OL,
2.75
1.0 + 1.0 + 0.3 + 0.45 2.75
OL. From Jn 2 to F 1 to If to Ito 0L3
4.45
1.0 + 2.0 + 1.0 + 0.45 = 4.45
TU2 From Jn 2 to J to B (CRTL.2)
4.00
(3.0 + 1.0 = 4.0)
Plug From 0L2 to plug in S13 2 (1.0)
1.00
Rest Room
TL, From CRTL to CRTL 0.30

F2 From CRTL3 to ceiling to CRF2
1.30
(0.30 + 1.00 = 1.30)
I OtI1 length 23:15 m

Add 10% = 23.15 + 2.315 = 25.465 say 26.0 Mts.

For circuit 1, the length of cable required for both Ph. &
Neutral .. 56.0 + 26.0 = 82.0 Mts.
To find the voltage drop in the line we take the tail end of this
circuit i.e. F2 in rest room. The actual length of the cable from SB is
calculated as follows:
Actual wiring length of CRF 3 from SB1
Phase lead
From3B 1 to Jn2
1.45 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 1.0 6.75 Mts.
FromJn 2 to CRF2 8.50
3.0 + 1.0 + 0.3 + 1.45 + 1.45 + 0.3 + 1.0 = 8.50
15.25 Mts.
Neutral
From SB1 toJn2 to BI, (6.75 + 3 + 1 + 0.3) 11.05 M
From Bi to CRF2 (0.3 + 1.0 = 1.3) 1.30
Total 12.35 M
Hence tot& leDgth of = 15.25 + 12.35 = 27.60

cable 27.6 + 2.76 = 30.36 orsay 31.OMts.
Add 10%
80
The maximum current at any time will be = 3.5 Amps.
3.5 x 1.5
The designing current will be = 6.6 Amps.
Where 0.8 is the Temperature rating factor

SWG 1)18, 1.0 mm 2 copper or SWG 1'18,1.5 mm' Al can be
selected for this current.
For 3.5 mm 2 Al. Cable, the drop will be 6.6 X 19.7/1000 X 31 =
4.03 volts.
This is well within limits. Hence we can select,
1.5 mm 2 , 1/18 SWG, 1.1 KV grade 111.4, 19.7 ohmsIlc.M Alu-
minium cable
OR
1.0 M\1 2 , 1)18 SWG, 650/1100 V grade, 111.12, 17.7 ohms/14r.M,
Copper cable
OR
1.0 mm 2 , 1 1 18, SWG, 1.1 KVgrade, 14.03, 18.84 ohms/KM copper
cable can be used.

492
WIRfNG, ISTlMATINQ AND COSTING
Circuit-2: Bed Room, Bath Room and Toilet Room, including

one plug in Bed Room
Note: 1. SB 4 in kitchen, SB 5 in Bed room, each have 2 Nos. of 2
Way switches to control lamps in Bath & Toilet Rooms.
(0L 4 & 0L5).
2. SB 6 in Bed Room has controls for 0L 6, TL, F3 & plug in
SB6.
Phase Lead:
Description Length in
Mts.
To From by the side of SB 1 to wiring height (up) to 11.20
SB 4 point AtoptoF1thHtoK(Jn3)tosB
1.45 +2.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 2.0+ 2.0 + 1.45 = 11.20
Bed Room
To From SB 4 to K, (Jn 3 ), to KtJn 4 )to L to M to SB5 20.80
SB 5 1.45 + 0.3 + 0.5 + 1.5 + 1.45 = 5.20
Here we need 4 times this length, since 2 nos.
of? way switches 5.20 x 4 = 20.80
To From Jn 3 (K) to K' to N to SB 5 (down) 3.25
SB 6 0.3 + 1.5 + 1.45 = 3.25
TL, From SB 6 to N to ceiling to P to CRTL4 5.05
1.45+ 0.3 + 3.0 + 0.3 = 5.05
0L6 From SB 5 to CRTL 4 to Q to 04 8.55
5.05 + 2.0 + 1.5 = 8.55
F3 From SB 6 to N to ceiling to CRF3 3.25
1.45 + 0.3 + 1.5 = 3.25
Total 52.10m
Add 10% = 52.10 + 5.21 = 57.31 say 58 Mts.

Neutral
To , ' n 3 From by the side of SB to wiring height to A to 11.05
Fto F 1 to Hto H 1 to L 1 to Jn5
1.45 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 3.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 1.5 + 1.5 =
11.05
0L 4 From Jn 5 to CROL4 0.75

INTERNAL WIRING ESTP1ATES 493
From CROL4 to Jn (M') to M to SB6 2.50

0.75 + 0.3 + 1.45 = 2.50
0L5 From Jn6toOL5 0.75
CROLG to Jn (M 1 ) to N1 to SB5 2.50
0.75 + 0.3 + 1.45 = 2.50
Plug From Jn 6 to M to L to Jn 4 to N Jn 6 to SB6 5.25
in SB5 0.3 + 1.5 + 0.5 + 1.5 + 1.45= 5.25
F3 From Jn 5 to CRF, 0.3 + 1.5= 1.8 1.8
TL, From CRF 3 to CRTL 4 : 1.5 + 0.3= 1.8 1.8
01, From CRTL 4 to 01 6 2.0 + 1.5= 3.5 3.5
Total 29.85 m
Add 10% 29.85 + 2.98 = 32.83 or say 33.0 Mts.

Total length of cable for circuit 2 is : 58.0 + 33 = 91.0 Mts.
To find the voltage drop we take the tail end of the circuit and
assume a maximum current of 6.6 Amp in this circuit.
Tail end length
Phase leas
Phaselead : From SB 1 to SB to CROL 6 21.55
1.45 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 1.5
+ 1.45 + 1.45 + 0.3 + 3.0 + 0.3 + 2.0 + 1.5=
21.55
Neutral From SB 1 to K(Jn 3 ) to Jn 4 to CRF 3 to CRTL 4 18.65
toOL6
1.45 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 0.3 + 1.5
+ 0.3 + 1.5 + 15 + 0.3 + 2.0 + 1.5 = 18.65
Total 40.201M
Add 10% - 40.20 + 4.02 = 44.22 or say 45.0 Mts.

Taking the designing current as 6.6 Amps, we calculate for 1118
SWG for 1118 SWG, 1.5 mm 2 Al., 19.7 a•TKM cable, the voltage drop
will be
66x7x455.85 Volts.

494
WflUNC ESTIMATrNG AND COSTING
Hence we select 1118 SWG 1.0 mm 2
, 14/0.3, 18.84 P/Km multistrand
cable or 1118 SWG 1.0 mm 2, 1/1'. 12, 17.70 U/Km cable
Circuit-3 PLUGS IN DRAWING HALL
Load Description Length in
Plug P 1 From by the side ofSB to wirinjheight to point mis.
9.80
A to plug point (down)
1.45 + 2.00 + 1.45 = 4.90
For both phase and Neutral 4.90 x 2 = 9.80
P1 '1 9 P 2 From by side of SB to wiring height to point C
9.80
to plug point (down)
1.45 + 2.00 + 1.45 = 4.90
for both Ph. and N = 4.90 x 2 9.80
Total 19.60
20.00 M
Add10 % = 20.00 4- 2.00 = 2 Mts. Say
Since each plug is rated for 500W only we select minimum size
of copper cable 1.0 Sc, mm SWG 1118, 1410.3
or 1.0 S. mm, SWG 1118, 111.12 single strandmultistrand
cables
Finolex
from other
firms like SIEMENS' 'POLYCAB' 'INCAB' eth.
Gujt-4 PLUGS IN BATH ROOM ONLY

Plug :From by the side of SB to points 10.30
1500 w (Via A, F, F 1 , H, H 1 , L)
1.45+2+2+0 3+2+03+2+03+ 1.5+
0.75 = 10.30
From point S to plug (Down) 1.45
Total 11.75 m
Total length required for Ph. and N =
Add 10% = 23.50 + 2.35 = 25.85 or say 11.75 x 2 = 23.50 m
26.0 Mts.
150 0
Equipment current I = 3 =G. S 2 amps. and the designing
6.52
Current.=--j-x 1.5 = 12.22 amps
For SWG 3/22 Cu, Resistance =11.47 W11
ThTERNALWIR::
11.47 x 26
For 26 Mts. Resistance - - =0.298 ohm
- 1000
The line drop 0.298 x 11.47 3.6 volts.
This is less than the permitted drop
Therefore 1.6 mm 2 , SWG 3/22, 23/0.3 multistrand FINOLEX
cabh or 1.5 mm 2 , SWG 3/22, 3/J.73 or 1)1.38, 1.1KV, PVC sheathed
or Butyl or EP or Silicon Rubber Insulated Cables manufactured
by other firms like 'Polycab", "Gemscab", "Incab" "Siemens" etc. can
be used.
Length of Reaper Required
Circuit 1.
1.Drawing Room
From SB 1 to wiring height; 3 - 1.35- 0.2 1.45 M (up)
(assumption 5 & 6) 2.00
From wiring height to point A 1.00
From point A to Jn1 0.30
From Jr to Ceiling (up) 030
From Jn to CROL 1 (down) 2.00
From Ceiling to CRF1 2.30
From CRF 1 to CRTL1
From Jn 1 to G = 0.30 9.65 M
2. Kitchen
From Jn 2 to S132 = 1.45
Jn 2 to 0L 3 11 + 2 + 0.3 (down)) = 4.30
Jrr 2 to CRTL2 (3 + 1) = 4.00
& Rest Room
CRTL.3 to S13 3 (down) = 1.45 11.20
11.20 20.85 M
Add 10 = 20.85 + 2.85 = 23.10 or Say 24.01M.

Circuit 2
From by the side of SBr, to 11.05
(Via) A, F, F', H, H', L to Jn4
Ref. under Neutral of Circuit 2
From L to K to S13 4 (0.5 + 1.45 = 1.95) 1.95
From LtoM
0.75
From Jn 3 to N to SB 6 (1.5 + 1.45 = 2.95)
2.95
From N to Ceiling to P to Q to R 6.8(;
(0.3 + 3.0 + 2.0 + 1.5 = 6.8)
Total 23.50 M
Add 10' 23.50 + 2.35 = 25.85 or say 26.0 I'fts.
-33

496
Circuit 3
From by the side of SB to Jn4
11.05
From S to Plug point 1.45
12.50
Add 10% = 12.50 + 1.25 = 13.75 or say 14.0 Mts.
Circuit 4
From by the side of SB to P1 4.90
(1.45 + 2.00 + 1.45 = 4.90)
From by the side of SB to P2 4.90
(1.45 + 2.00 + 1.45 = 4.90)
9.80
Add 10% = 9.80 + 0,98 = 10.78 or say 11.0 Mts.
ASTRAC - I
Total Length of Cbie Required
Circuit. 1. 1.0 Sq.mm, 1118 SWG, 1410.3, 17.7 82.0 N1
ohms/km, 1. tV grade Mu1tistrand cable 91.0
2. -do- 22.00
a
Total 195.0
Or Say 200.OM
4. 1.6 sq. mrr, SWG 3122, 23/0.3, 11.47
ohms/km 1.1 KV grade multistrand cable 26.OM
ABSTRACT-ri
Total Length of Reapers Required:
Circuit 1. 24.0
2. 26.0
3. 140
4. 11.0 Total 75.0 Mts.
ABSTRACT-HI
LABOUR Charges
Electrician - 1 at Rs. 80/- per day 80.00
Skilled Asst- 2 at Rs. 70/- per day 140.00
Helpers -2 at Rs. 451- per day 90.00
310.00
This job can be completed in 7 days
Total labour charges = 2170.00

ANThit - - 497
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N C) .0 - C1 { .1 Cl) 0 II -NI I .- N I Cl) Cb cl CC CC c
N—C LO.. N -
— - - Cl) I N I Cl) I CC CC CCC N —co
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INTERNAL WIRING ESTiMATES 499
This is for Ground Floor only. Th ie ornamental fittings, T.L.

fittings, fans are all extra. There charges arenot included in this
estimate.
For First Floor, Add the following 4iring materials extra.
1. SWG 3/20,2.0 mm 2 cable 20.0 Mts.
2. G. I. pipe 19 mm4 5.0 Mts.
3. G.I. Bend-do- 6 Nos.
4. G.I. Coupler-do- 4 Nos.
5. Saddle clamps 24 Nos.
6. Screws 19 mm x 8 6 Nos.
7. Earth wire, copper SWG 14 112 KG.
The above extra materials are required to take supply from the
mains at the entrance of Ground Floor to the entrance of First Floor.
The main supply board items at the entrance are already included
in the estimate.
The cost of extra inatevials
1. SWG 3/20, 2.0 mm' 20M Rs. 315 per Mt. Rs. 63.00
PVC cable
2. G.I. Pipe 19 mm 5 M Rs. 2011: per Mt. Rs. 100.00
3. G.I. Bend 19mm 0 C. Rs.iil each. Rs. 60.00
4. G.I. Coupler 19 mm 4 No Rs. 5/- each. Rs. 20.00
5. Saddle clamp 24 No Rs. 6/- per doz. Its. 12.00

6. Wood Screws 20x 8 60No Rs. 30/- per 100 Rs. 18.00
mm
7. Earth Wire copper 112 Rs. 65/- per Kg Rs. 32.50
14SWG Kg
Total Rs. 305.50
Add with the wiring material cost of Ground Floor Rs. 3712.72
Total Its. 4018.22
Sundries 5% Rs. 200.91
Subtotal Rs. 4219.13

Transport 3% Rs. 126.37
WIRING, ES'flMTING AND COSTING
Labour charges 10% over & ahov l! ' j7r'r

(Its. 2170) of ground floor
Gross Total Its. 6732.70
Contingencies 15% Its. 1009.91
I-,
Grand total Es. 7742.61
Say Es. 7743

The total charges
For Ground Floor Es. 8929.00
For First Floor 7743.00
Grand total Rs. 16672.00

Say Rs. 16675
Spi. Note: The Inspection charges by the Electricity Undertakings
from whom the Consumer takes the supply is NOT
inclUded. These charges are extra.
Example 5. A factory of size 36.0 m x 20.0 is to be illuminated, so
as to get the illumination of 20 lux at working plane. Estimate the
cost for wiring, assuming the necessary data as per I.E. Rules (In-
candescent lamps are proposed)
Electrical Estimate For lighting scheme of a work shop of
Floor Area 38.0 x 20.0 m
Given Area of Room 36.0 x 20.0 = 720.0 sq.m.
Illumination Regd 20 candleslsq.m..
Assumption made 1 Depreciation Factor: 0.7
(General)
2. Coefficient of utilisation : 0.4
3. Efficiency of lamps: 10.5 lm/watt.
4. Temp. Rating factor: 0.8
5. Designing current of cable 1.5 x
current rating of bul&I'ernp. rating
factor.
6. Demand factor of lighting load= 0.8

INTERNAL WIRING E7IMATE8 501
7. No. of points in alighting circuit not

more than 8 or Max. wattage per-
mitted/circuit = 800
8. The height of Meter Board 1.35m
from the ground
9. Space height ratio: I to 2
10.The voltage drop at tail ehd is taken
as 5.6 volts.
Area x level of illumination
Total flhanmaOfl required = Coefficient of uiilisañon x Depreciation Factor
720 x 20 -
— 514285 lumens.
- 0.4 x 0.7 -
Assuming a moderate efficiency of lamp = 10.5 lumens/watt
....(assumption-3)
Wattage required = 51428.5/10.5 = 5100 watts.
Hence we select 51 No. of 100W lamps and the following allo-
cation is made.
In each bay :18 No. Total 36 No.
In the passage 9 No.
On the wall having the front entrance 3 No.
On the wall having the back entrance 3 No.
Total 51 No.
For detailed location of each lamp ref. the sketch shown.
The allotment of phases are as follows
In the Bays:
R-phase: Row A,D&G; J,M&P.
Y-phase: Row B, E & H; K, N & Q.
B-phase: Row C,F & I; L, 0 &R.
In the passa:
R-phase : L-42, L-43, L-49, L-50 & L-51
Y-phase : Lr44, L45, L46 L47 & 148
B-phase : L-37, L-38, L-39, L-40 & L-41

502
WIRING EST
IMATING AND cos'rr
'' '9 PS8 V
50 Jn33
Jn34 j32 51
i 18+ J x Jn 36
17 t I' 42 5
Jn24 R' fr 1—
H '+ PSB5 Jti 3 33

3
H' Jn25 Q' -* lGj
13. 1 41 Jn122 31p

in 23
F12 A6Jn13 30 9
11-f- I -f- o
F Jn260
35m
4
E 9 10 Jn5 40 Jn14 28
ss2 , -f- N-
J, 22
Jrl14
D -f- t- y S.B 45 Jri526 M
Jn27 M'
6 Jn3 39 Jnj624
C'Jn21 -f L
3 Jn2
66 J07 22 ,21 K
B' K'
Sm
in 1
A 1_ P4 Jfl18+20
2 A' Jn20 fig
in 29 'J'
DBI P581 PSB
]7Jn ,i 47 e331 D82
3m4
3m
Factory Lighting Scheme

—20m 14
INTE RNAI WIRINC ESTIMATES &03
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I-.
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- - (N (N LI)
604
WIRING, ESTIMJtTJ.JG ANDCOSTING
R-Phase:
Row A CR. CR2 From DB 1 Mts.
to S (wiring height) 2.3 m
StoJn0
3.0rn
JnotoBeam
0.75m
Beam to3.60m
Jn 1 to SB A (down)
2.30 m
SBAtoJnI
Jn 1 to Top of beam 2.30m
Top of be am toCR 0.35 m
CR2
Total 19.00m
Neutral: From DBIthJn
Jn to CR 1 , CR2 (0.35 + 5.0 = 5.35) 9.65m
535 m
Total 1500m
Row
CR1 , CR8 From Jn 1 to Jn4
3.6 x 3 10.80 in
Jfl 4 to SB0
SB 0 to Jfl4 2.30 in
Jn4 to CR7 CF, 2.30 m
5.35 in
Neutral: From Jn 1 to Jn 4 to C CR
Total - --.. 9n'i_.
-. III
I t.
R1 16.15m
(10.8 +5.35 = 16.15)
Total 36.90m
Row G:
CR 13 CR14 From Jn 4 to Jn7 3.6 x 3 10.80 n
Jn 7 to SBG
2.30 in
SBG to Jnl
JR7 to CR 13 CR14
2.30 in
5.35 Tn
Neutral: Total 20.75 in

From Jn. to Jn, to CR CR14
10.8 5.35 = 16.15 16.15

G. Total 36.90m
I

Y-Phase
Row B CF, CR4 Same as Row A but 3.6 M extra:
Phase 19.60 + 3.60 = 23.20 m
Neutral 15.00+ 3.60 = 18.60 m
Row E CR. CR10 Same as Row D but 3.6 M extra:
Phase 20.75 + 3.60 = 24.35 m
Neutral 16.15 + 3.60 = 19.75 m
Row H CR 15 CR 16 Same as Row G but 3.6 M extra:
Phase 20.75 + 3.60 = 24.35 m
Neutral 16.15 + 3.60 = 19.75 m
B-Phase
Row C CR3 CR3 Same as Row B, but 3.6 M extra:
Phase 23.20 + 3.60 = 26.80 M
Neutral : 18.60 + 3.60 = 22.20 M
Row F CR 11 CR 12 Same as Row E, but 3.6 M extra:
Phase 24.35 + 3.60 = 27.95 m
Neutral : 19.75 + 3.60 23.35 m
Row I CR 17 CR 13 Same as Row H but 3.6 M extra:
Phase : 24.35 + 3.60 = 27.95 m
Neutral : 19.95 + 3.60 = 23.35 m
PASSAGE L-37, L-38, L-39, 1-40, L-41, L-42
B-Phase Switch controls from L-37 & L-38 are on the same wall of
MSB at 3.0 M away from it, towards the passage.
Phase From DB1 to (wiring height) 2.3 in
lead
S to Jn19 (Horizontal) 3.0 m
Jn 19 to PSB, (down) 2.3 m
L-37 PSB3 to Jn 19 2.3m
L . 38 PSB1 to Jn 19 to Beam to Jno at pillar 465 m
A'
2.3 + 0.75 + 3.6 = 6.65
Switch controls for 1,39,1-40 and L-41 are in PSB 2 down in the
pillar E' facing the passage
PSB2 From Jn 19 to Jn 2o to J,.21 to Jn to PSB 2 21.05 m
0.75 + 3.7 + 7.2 + 7.2 + 2.3 = 21.05
606
WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTTjG
L-39 From PSB 2 to Jn 2 to Jn21
(2.3 - 3.). = 5.9 m
L-40 PSB2toj
L-41 PSB 2 to Jn to Jn 23
(2.3 + 7.2 9.5) 9.5 m
Total 55.30 in
Neutral:
L-37 From MSB to Jn19
L-38 S.30m
Jn 9 to Beam to Jn20
(O.Th + 3.6) 4.35 Tn
L-39 Jn 20 to L-39 at Jn21

L-40 7.20 m
Jn 21 to L-40 at Jn
L-4 1 3.60m
Jn 22 to L-41 at Jn
7.20m
Total 27.65
Y-Phase : L-48, L-47,1-36, L-45, L-44
PSB From DB 1 to T (wiring height)
2.3m
T to Jn 31 (Horizontal)
3.Om
Jn 31 to PSB 3 (down)
L-48 From PSB 3 to 1-48 at Jn31
L-47 2.3 In
From PSB 3 to L-47 at Jn
3.25m
l3.15m
switch control at pillar J 1 PSB 4
L-45 and L-44. facing the Passage controls L-46,
B.F. 13.15m
PSB4 From Jn 3O to beam
0.75 m
Beam to pillar J, (in) to PSB 4
(down) 5.90 in
L-46 From PSB 4 to Jn 2q to Jn
L-45 m
From PSB 4 to Jn 2q to Jn 2
, to Jn2.7 13.1 in
2.3 + 3.6 + 7.2 = 13.1
L-44 From PSB 4 to Jn 27 to
F'
Jn 20.3 in
± 7.2
56.Om

Neutral:
Neutral for 1-48, L-47, 1-46, L45 and L-44 are tapped off from Jn31
L-48 From DB 2 to Jn 31 (L-48) (2.3 + 3.0) 5.3 m
L-47 Jn 31 to Beam to Jn (L-47) (0.75 + 2.5) = 3.25 in
L-46 Jn 31 to Beam to Jn 2q to Jn (L-46)
(0.75 + 3.6 + 3.6) = 7.95 UI
L-45 Jn to Jn (L-45) 7.2 in
L . 44 Jn to Jn (L-44) 7.2 m
30.90 m
R-Phase:
From DB 2 to T (wiring height) 2.30 in
T to Beam 3.75 in
Beam to Jn (Via) J', K, L', M', N', 0', P', Q, 28.80 in
Jn to PSB5 2.30 in
L-43 FrornPSB5toJn(L-43) 230m
L-42 PSB 5 to Jn to R' to Jn 2 , ( 2.3 + 3.6 + 5.0) = 10.90 in
PSB 6 Jn 2s to R' to X to U (Jn 3.) to PSB 6 (down)
(3.6 + 3.6 + 0.75 + 2.3 = 10.25)
10.25 in
60.60 in
L-51 From PSB 6 to Jn to L-51 (2.3 + 3.75) = 6.05 in
L-50 PSBGtoJnfltoXtoL-50 5.55m

(2.3 + 0.75 +2.5 = 5.55)
L-49 PSB 6 to Jn 32 to X toY to -In,,11.80 in
(2.3 + 0.75 + 5.0 + 3.75 = 11.80)
84.00 in
Neutr For L-43, L-42, L-49, L-50, L-51
al:
34.85 in
L-43 From DB 2 to T to beam to Jn
(2.3 + 3.75 + 28.80 = 34.85)
608
L-42 Jnx to F. J;, 3.6 + 5.0 = 8.6)
8.60 in
L-51 R'toXthL-51(ViaJn)
(3.6 + 3.75 ?.25m
7.35)
L-50 Jn 3, to X to Jn 33 (1-50) (0.75 + 2.5 = 3.25)
3.25 m
L-49 Jri to Jn (L- .49) (2.5 + 375 = 6.25)
6.25 m
60.30
ABSTRACT I
R-Phase Row A : 19.6+ 15 = 34.6 Mts.
D : 20.75 16.15 = 36.9 in
G : 20.75 + 16.15 = 36.9 in

Y-Phase: Row B : 23.20 + 18.60 = 41.80 m
E : 24.35+ 19.75 =44.lOm
F E : 24.35+19754410m
B-Phase: Row C : 26.80 + 22.20 = 49.0 m

F : 27.95 + 23.35 = 51.3 in
I : 27.95 + 23.35 = 51.3 in
390.00 in
For Both Bays 780.00M
Passage: B-Phase 51.70+ 24.05 = 75.75
Y-Phase 56.80 + 30.90 = 87.70 m
R-Phase 84.00 + 60.30 = 144.30 in
1087.75 Or
Say 1088.0 M
Voltage Drop Calculations:
For voltage drop calculations, we take B phase ie. Row C, Row
F and Row I, since this is the tail and row.
Row C Le; nth of cable from DB 1 to Jn3
.....37.0 M
2.30 + 3.75 + 10.8 = 16.85
For Both Ph. and N. :33-70 + 10% = 37.0 Mts.
The maximum current in this section = 600

x 13 5.0 A
Selecting SWG 3/22, l.6mni 2, 23/0.3, 11.4c)/i_

509
1.4
The voltage drop = 5 x x 37.0 = 2.12 volts.
Row F: Both ph. & N. are tapped off from Jn3.

From Jn 3 to Jn 6 : 10.8 x 2 = 21.6 + 10% 24.0 M
The maximum current in this section = !2-0 x as= 3.24
Amp.
Selecting SWG 1/18,1.0mm', 1410.3,18.84WKM..
The voltage drop = 3.24 x low x 24.0 = 1.474 volts.
1.5
Row I: The current in this section = x = 1.7 Amps
Both ph. & N. are tapped off from Jn

Selecting SWG 1/18,1.0mm', 1410.3,18.84 WKM.
- 1 lx low x 24 = 0.768 volts.
to CR17!
The voltage drop in the section Jn 9 to SB 1 and from SB 1
The length of cable = 2,30 + 2.30 + 0.35 + 5.0 = 9.95 in
The Neutral from Jnq to CR 17 = 0.35 + 5.0 = 5.35 in
Total 15.30 in
Add 10% 1.53
Total= 17.0 Mts
I.717.O1814
The voltage drop = = 0.544 volts
Adding this drop with the drop from DB to Jn9
= 2.12 + 1.47 + 0.768 + 0.544 = 4.9 volts.
This is well within limits.
Hence the following sizes of cables are selected.
R-phase From DB to Jn 1 - SWG 3122, 23/0.3 21.0 M
Y-phase From DB to Jn 2 - SWG 3/22, 23/0.3 29.0 M
B-phase From DB to Jn 3 - SWG 3122, 2310.3 37.0 M
Total 87.0 M
For both bays ; 87.0 x 2 = 174.0 Mts.
SWG 1118, 1.0 mm 2 , 1410.3 = 780 - 174 = 606 Mts

PASSAGES
For B-phase
From 1)B 1 to Wiring height to jn ig to Beam 9.65 m
to J n (2.30 + 3.00 t 0.75
+ 3.6)
For Phase & Neutral 19.30 m
Add 10% 1.93 in
21.23
Or Say 21.0 M
The current in this section will be =
500 !.5
x = 4.0 Amps
For 1i18 SWG, the voltage drop =
1.582 volts
The r emaining section from Jn to Jn
22(75,7 - 21.0 = 54.75
Mts.) will have a current of 2.45 Amps, and the

Corr esponding voltage drop = 2.4 5x545 x 18.94
= 2.528 volts
Total voltage drop 1.582 + 2.528 4.110 volts

than 5.16 V permitted , which is less
Based on similar cal
culations, we select 1118 SWG for Y-phase
And for R-phase we select 3/20 SWG from DB 2
to Jn 24 99,0
And for the remaining 45.3 M, 3/22 SWG is selected
For passages :
R- p hase SWG 3/20, 28/0.3, 2.0 mm
2 -• 99 00 M
Y-phase SWG 3/22, 23/0.3, 1.6 m2 45.30 M

SWG 1118, 14/0.3 , 1.0 mm 2
B-phase SWG 1118, 1410.3 , 1.0 87.7 M
AB STRACT 11 mm ' - 75.75 f
SWG 1118, 14/0.3, 1.0 mm2
6 06. 0 M for Bays
163.45I for Passages
SWG 3/22 ,23/0.3 1.6 rum2 769.45 or say 770.0 M

174,0 M for Bays
45.3 M for Passages
219.0 Al
Say 220.0 M
SWO 3/20 , 2 8/0.3 1 2.0 mm2
98.0 M for Passages
WQ 'i /22 ,44/0.3, 3.0 mm2 Say 100 M
2 0. 0 M
iengtn of C.I. Conduits Required:

R-phase Row A FromDB to wiring height-(S) 2.30 m
StoJn0 3.00 m
Jn 0 to Beam 0.75 m
BeaTn to Jn1 3.60 m
JnIt0SBA 2.30 m
Jn 1 to top of beam 0.35 m
Top of beam to CR 1 CR2 5.00 m
17.30 m
Row D FromJn 1 to Jn4 10.80 m
Jn 4 to SB0 2.30 T1
Jn4toCR7CR 5.35 m
18.45 m
Row G FromJn 4 to Jn7 10.80 rn
Jn 7 to SBG 2.30 m
Jn 7 to CR 13 CR14 5.35 in
18.45 rn
Y-phase:
Row C : Same as Row A but 3.6 M extra : 17.30 + 3.60 = 20.90 rn
Row F: Same as Row D but 3.6 M extra 18.45 + 3.60 = 22 . 0.5 rn
Row I: Same as Row G but 3.6 M extra 18.45 +3.60 = 22.03 m
11-phase
Row C: Same as Row F but 3.6 NI extra :20.90+3.60 = 20.90 m
Row F: Same as Row D but 3.6 M extra 22.05+3,60 = 25.65 m
Row I: Same as Row H but 3.6 M extra : 22.05 + 3.60 = 25.65 m
Passages:
B-phase:
From DB 1 to S (wiring height) 2.30 m
S to Jri q (Horizontal) 3.00 rn
.n, to PSB I (down) 2.30 m
Jn 19 to Beam to Jn, 0 (0.75 + 3.6 = 4.35) 4.35 m
- 34
512
WIRING, ESTIMTIJ.G AND COSTING
Jnw toJn 21 to Jn, to PSB2 20.30 m
Jn22toJn23 7.20 m
39.45 m
Y-phase:
From DB 2 to T (wiring height) 2.30 m
To toJn 3.00 m
Jn31 to PSB3 2.30 m
From Jn 31 to Jn (2.5 + 0.75 = 3.25) 3.25 m
From Beam to Jn 29 to Jnm to Jnv to Jn 21.60 m
32.45 m
R-phase:
From D13 2 to T (wiring height) 2.30 m
Tto Beam 3.75 m
Beam to Jn 28.80 m
Jnt.o PSB5 2.30 m
Jn 2s to R' to Jn 24 (3.6 + 5.0 = 8.6) 8.60 rn
to X to U (Jn 32 ) to PSB 6.65 m
(3.6 + 5.0 + 2.3 = 6.65)
Jn 32 to L-51 3.75 m
XthJntoYthJn 8.75 m
(2.5 + 2.5 + 3.75 = 8.75)
Total 64.90 M
ABSTRACT- m
1,
Length of C.L Conduits Required'
Bays
R-phae i7.0 + 18.45 + 18.45 54.20 m
I

i—phase 2.LU -r = 64.90 m

B—phase 24.50+25.65+25.63 = 75.70 m
194.80 m
For Both bays 194.8 x 2 = 389.60 or Say 390.0 Mts.
Passage:
R—phase 64.90
Y—phase 32.45
B—phase 39.45
Total 136.80 or Say 137.00

Total Bays 390.00 M
Passages 137.00 M
Total 527.00 M
Add 10% 52.70 M
Grand Total 579.70 or Say 580 Mts.

Since only 3 leads are taken in each pipe, we take 18 SWG, 25.4
mm dia C.I. pipes. From Bay I to Bay II,
38 mm 0, 18 SWG
20.0 M
ABSTR.ACT-1Y
Labour Charges
Supervisor 1 at Rs. 100/- per day Rs. 100.00

Fore man 1 at Rs. 801 . per day Rs. 80.00
Electrician 2 at Rs. 70/- per day Rs. 140.00
Helper 4 at Rs. 451- per day Rs. 180.00
Rs.500.00 per day.

This job can be completed with in 15 days.
For Labour charges Rs. 7500/-
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514 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COST] NG
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IN rERN, LWIRINC ESTIMATES 517
L
I
cd
L
V U
cd
C C
o
V tun, cu
C C
— 0 a 0
a 0 oc oo
o
o o 000
oc
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ci•;ct:

518
Total Estimate
I. Wiring Material Cost Rs. 1368600
2. Supply Board Material Cost = Rs. 34OO
Total = Rs. 22220.00
Sundries 5% Rs. 1111.00
Total Rs. 23331.00

Contigencies 15% Rs. 3500.00
Total Rs.26831.00
Tool charges 3% Rs. 805.00
Total for materials Rs. 27636.00
Transport charges 3% Rs. 829.00
Labour charges as per abstract IV Rs. 7500.00
Total Rs.35965.00
Overhead charges 15% Rs. 5395.00
G. Total Rs.4136000
Example 6. A factory hail is 80 m x 25 rn. An illumination
of 15
lam. (candle per square metre). Assuming a suitable space ratio,
calculate the nu 'n berof lamps required and the candlepower of each.
The utilization factor is 0.4 and the depreciation factor isO. 7. Sketch
the arrcngement of lamps proposed. Draw a wiring diagram and
esttinate the quantity of material required. Assume the e ciency
ffi of
the lamp in lumens per watt.
.Solution.
Area of the factory hail = 80 x 25 = 2,000 sq. m.
Total lumens required in the Hall = 2,000 x 15 30,000
30,000
Lumen output of the lamps 1.071 x
=
Let the lamps be at a height of m. from the floor level, if the space
height ratio is 1.3.
Space
i.e. = 1.3
hcigh of lamps
Saace between the lamps 1.3 3 3.9, Say 4 m.
No. of lamps along the length sides = so = 20 (with 2 m. distance at

each end of the row)

519
25
No. of lamps along the width =; = 6 (with 2 1 m. distance at
the ends)
Total No. of lamps =20x6= 120
Efficiency of the lamp = 15 lumens per watts
• • ........ . . . .
•
• ........... .. . .
J4'.,n
I • • • ...........
• . S • •
. . . S S • • S S • • •
2 C '77
Layout of lamp
Fig. 15.17 -
Lumen outputper wattfrom these lamps = 120 x 15 = 1,800
1.071 x
Wattage of each lamp = 1.800 =
Say 60 W.
The scheme of the lamp disposition is given in Fig. 15.17.
The total wattage of scheme = 120 x 60 = 7,200 Watts.
For this load 3-phase 4-wire system will be most suitable with
120
- = 40 lamps on each phase.
If the supply voltage is 400 V

7,200
Current per phase = [cos = 111 = 10.4 A.
' x 400
So for connection from 3-phase meter to the Main Distribution

Board the wire of 10 sq. mm (113.55) will be used. From Table 14.1
the current carrying capacity of this cable is 34 amps. From the
main distribution board three circuits will be taken out feeding the
three sub-main boards with the help of 6 sq. mm (L'2.80) wires. The
sub-main distribution boards S. M. B and S.M.B 2 will be supplying
to 7 rows each row having 6 lamps through a 8-way, sub-main
distribution board; the central sub-main distribution board will be
supplying to six rows through a 6-way sub-main distribution board.

520
'3l1t
l.4'
I
444
OFF
SWAYO8.
ur
Arrangement of main disLribution board and sub-distribution

board
Fig. 15.18
The number of lamps in each circuit = 6
Wattage of each circuit 60 x 6
360 Watts
Although a wire 1.5 sq. mm
(111.40) will be quite suitable for
carrying 5 A, yet for safet y purposes, a wire 2.5 sq. mm
(111.80) will
be used. Fig. 15.18 and 15.19 represent the general scheme.
Let for wiring 25.4 MM.
heavy gauge conduit be used. The
maximum number of wires which can be safely drawn in the conduit
7 S -
.1
- Arrangement of circuits with switches

Fw 15.19

10 sq. mm (V3.55) wires =5

and 2.5 sq. mm (111.80) wires =10
The maximum number of 2.5 sq. mm (111.80) wires to be drawn
in the conduit are 6 and that 10 sq. mm (113.55) are 4, so the said
conduit can safely be used.
Representation of Main Switch Boards, Sub Main Boards and Switch

Boards -
Fig. 15.20
Length of conduit circuit
Length of conduit between Meter Board = 0.5 m
and Main Board
From Main Board to SMB 1 = 0.5 m
Length from SMB 1 to first Switch Board = 8.0 m
on either side = (4 + 4)
Length from Main board to SMB 2 = 9.5 rn. app.
Length from Main Board to SMB 3 = 9.5 m. app.
Length from SMB 3 to first Switch Board = 8.0
= (4 + 4)
Length from one Switch Board to = 64.0 m
another = (16 x 4)
Length of conduit from one switch board
to the lamp in the circuit is (22.5 + 3.5)
in, and number of circuits are 20, so total
length of conduit used is (20 x 26) = 520.0 m
620.0 in
Wastage etc. @ 10%, 62.0 m
682.0 m
Say 685 m

522
WIRING, ESTIMATING Al'4D COSTING
No. of right angle 25.4 mm. =2x No. o lengths

bends +1xNo .
or length going to roof
=2X22+1X2266
No. of inspection circular out- =
lets No. of bends = 66
Length of V.LR. 10sq. mm (1/3.55) wire
tribution Board- used for Main Dis-
4Xlmeach
4m
Length of VJJt. 6 sq. mm (1/2.80)
wire to be used from Main
Board to sub-main board—
For 2x1m. =2m
F0rSMB2 2x12m. =
F0rSMB3 2x12rn. = 24m
Wastage etc. © 10%

50
5m
55 in
Length of P.V.C. 2.5 sq. mm (1/1.80)
From sub-main boards to the individual
switch boards 20 x 5
100 m.
(One metre extra for connection and
through elbows etc.)
For each switch board to the last lamp
= [2(22.5 + 3.5 + 2 (extra) = 56]
For all circuits length 20 x 56
1120 in
Ass umingthat2mjs the length of wire
used in each switch board and each
S.M.B. so the total length = (2 x 20 + 2 = 46m
x3)
1266 rn
127 in
Wastage (a) 10% 1393 m
Earth Wire. Since no plug point is to be p
rovided, so there is no
necessity of running the earth wire, simply the conduit run Should
be earthed with the earth rovded on the Main Board and care must
be taken that the connection between the two individual conduits
lengths made must be proper.
INTERNAL. WIRING ESTIMATES
L 1 L 2 L 3 L4 L 5 L5
Fig. 15.21.Control of Lamps
The six lamps in one conduit will be controlled by the six indi-
vidual switches. All the lamps will be of pendant type. Fig. 15.21
represents the circuit for the six lamps. The estimate is given in
Table 15.5.
Example 7. A 7.5 kW, 400 V. 3-phase, 50 c/s motor is to be
installed in a workshop, the plan of switch is as shown in Fig. 15.22.
Show the layout of the wiring and estimate the quantity of
material required. The wiring is to be of surface conduit.
Solution.
The wiring can be divided into following sections:
(a) Main Board.
(b) Main circuit wiring.
(c) Starter Board
(d) Connections from StaFter to Motor.

Motor
Starter
Fig. 15.22
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524
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TERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 525
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526
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iNTERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 527
Before starting with the estimate, it is necessary to mention

bere the provisions to be provided with before connection to such
installations is made under Rules 51 and 22 of Indian Electricity
Appendix).
The electrici circuit f . t scheme is given in Fig. 15.23:
Circuit diagram for the scIi3rn

Fig. 15.23
NEJ. cos 0 xi = Motor output
Let the efficiency of the motor be 0.85 and its power factor be
0.8, so the Motor current
= 7.5 x 10
= 15.9A.
'Jix400x0.85 xO.8
From Table 14.1 a single core 4 sq. mm (1)2.24) wire will carry
safely a current of 17 A, but the momentary starting current is
higher about 2 times the full load current, so for safety purpo s es a
P.V.C. wire of 10 sq. mm having a safe current carrying capacity of
31 A will be used. As from the next pages, it will be seen the length
of single wire is approx. 43.34 metres and from Table 14.1 the 1 volt
drop is there for 5.4 metre run of wire. Thus the voltage drop will
be within permissible limits.
The main switch, the motor switch and the starter all will be
installed at height of 1.5 m. above floor level ; since the, e are only
w res to be run from main board to motor starter, so 19 mm. conduit
is s .fficient but for connection between starter and motor 25.4 mm.
con :uit is to be used since there will be 6 wires
—35
528
WIIHNG, ESTIMATING AND COS'rrNc,
Length of conduit (19mm.)-.

(i) Length from Meter Board to Main = 0.25 m
Board
(ii) Length from Main Board to Motor =22.00 m (approx.)
Switch
(iii) Length from Motor Switch to Starter
0.25 m
22.50 m
Wastage etc. 2.50 m
Total 25.00 rn
Length of 25.4 mm conduit-
Length from Starter to ground and
0.25 in. below it = 4.25m
Length up to top of Motor foundations 0.6
m. above floor level = (1 + 0.25 + 0.60)
= l.85m
6.10 in
Wastage etc 090 m
Total 7.00 m
Length of 25.4 mm. flexible
conduit.—About 1 in. for con-
necting heavy gauge conduit with motor.
Length of P.V.C. Wire 10 sq. mm (1/3.55)
3 lengths from main switch to Motor = 66 in.
Switch = (3 x 22)
3 lengths from Motor Switch to Starter = = 1.5 in.
(3 x 0.5)
6 lengths from Starter to Motor (i.e., wire
will go through 25.4 nirn. conduit and
flexible conduit about one metre length)
= (6 x 8.5)
= 51.0m.
Total
ll8.5ni.
Wastage and for terminals @ 10% approx. 11.5 in.
Total length required i 30
Length of 8 S.W.G. earth wire will be
appr oximately equal to the length of con- = 32
duit = 25 + 7
I
The estimate has been worked out in Table 15.6.

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530 WIRING,
ESTIMATING AND COSTING
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531
INTERNAL WIIUNG ESTIItkTES
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- - AiNu , ESTrMATLNG AND COSTING
Types of industrj Wiring

Industrial load consists of lighting as well as power load.
Accordingly, industrial wiring can be divided into two classes:
1. Power Wiring. Power equipmenteg motors (rating more than
2 or 3 k are 3-phase motors and hence require 3-phase supply)
installed in an industry requires 3-phase supply. Therefore, power
wiring for 3-phase, 3 wire, conduit wiring is done in such cases.
2. Wiring for Lig htine Fan and Heating.
In industry, tight fan
and heating circuits are required for obvious reasons and they work
on single phase supply. The wiring is done on the same pattern as
in domestic installations
A typical wiring in an industry comprises of
1. 3-phase energy meter
2. Main switch
3. Bus-bar chamber
4. Motor switches
5. Motor starter
Salient features of power wiring:
1. Surface conduit wiring is invariably employed
2. All equipments should be of iron clad construction
3. Every motor should have separate sub-circuit
4. Wood-work should not be used for mounting I.C. switches,
control and distribution gear.
5. Double earthing is invariably done.
6. Every motor is provided with a switch placed near it.
7. The length of flexible conduit used for connection between
terminal boxes of motors and starters, switches and motors
shall exceed 1.25 meters.
Example 8. An
industry as per plan Industrialist is interestedosito esta
'nachi shown in Fig. 15.24. The P tion ofblish an
various
m ,s equipment are also shows.
aterial required and cost of Determine the quantity of
and as well a for the same for feeding the power load
illuminatingthe facto,y area.
Solution.
Details of in
dustrial load are as follows:
South portion of the
(i) Paint shop
= 10-00 kW
(ii) Black-smith shop
= 25.00 kW

IN
.INGP,'r' T 533
J
IALL'
Jsr .ED
- 50UH
SIDE
i NORTH
SIDE GRINDERS1 xl
I L
RYICEJ i
BLACK- I SHAPERS
SMITH I I M
1W
H I
FOUNDARY N MACHINESJ
J
SHOPJ ALLIED
I
o SERVICES
PAINT
FITTING
F SHOP i I SHOP
PHASES
I OF1O
DIFFERENT1 '-1 1
E
I 3 Ph 12 Ways D.B.
&
lwT5 P Ph. 12 Ways D.B.&
MAIN SWITCHES
[MAIN SWITCHES
I 30 Amps
I 3Ph,4Wires
30Amp,3Ph MAIN SWITCH
Wins
AIN SWITCH ON NORTH SIDEI
L SOUTH SIDE I I
IC
A Is
60Arnp, 3 Ph, 4Wires

MAIN SWITCH IN
Fig. 15.24. Scheme of Various Work-shops.
(zii)Foundry Shop= 30.00 kW

(iv) 2 motors for allied services = 45.00 kW
Total 110.00 kW
North portion at the Industry:

(i) Fitting Shop = 2.00 kW
(ii) Motor for allied services = 25.00 kW
(iii) Lathes
(a) 2 kW each, 8 Nos. = 16.00 kW
(b) 3 kW each, 2 Nos. = 6.00 kW

'.
U0 Shapers, 3 kW each, 4 Nos. = 12.00 kW

(v) grinders, 1.5kW each, 2Nos. = 3.00 kW
Total 64.00 kW
Now for designing the electrification scheme assume the

following factors:
(i) Illumination level = 20 lux
(ii) Depreciation factor = 0.75
(iii) Utilisation factor = 0.4
(iv) Space heigit ratio = 1.25
In case the height of the electrical fitting is 8 metres from the
ground level, then,
Nos. of lights f i ttings along length =

8 x 1.25
20 Nos.
sos. of iihi.s iiuiigs along width = 100

8x1.25
10 Nos.
Total Nos. of light fittings 20 x 10
200 Nos.
Now flux per fitting= 20x200x 100

20 x 0.75 x 0.4 6
=6,667 lumens
Now referring to chapter on illumination, it will be seen that a
fluorescent tube of 40 watts have a luminous flux of 2,300 lumens
and therefore three Nos. 40 watts tube fittings will be suitable.
The lighting load = 200 x 120 watts 24 kW.
In addition 2 Nos. 40 watts pendant fittings is to be provided in
each toilet. Hence the total lighting load will be
Total lighting load = 24 +
= 24.4 kW. single phase 230 volts

535
If these fittings are placed on all the three phase, then total
connected three-phase balanced load will be
2 4.4
= 110 + 64 + -i--- = 182.13 kW.
Assuming 0.8 ff for industrial load and unity pf. for the
lighting load.
Total connected KVA = 225.63 KVA
Hence it is suggested that H.T. 11 KVsuppty may be taken from
the State Electricity Department and the same should be stepped
down in a substation The estimate for the sub-station portion has
been worked out in the concerned chapter.
Nowbefore starting the calculation for estirnatin g letus assume
thatthere are different feeders or circuits for the followingpirposes.
(i) 150 Amp, three-phase feeder for industrial load
on north
side of the hall.
(ii) 2 feeders of 150 Amps, three-phase for industrial toad on
- south side of hail.
(iii) 60 Amp, three-phase 4-wire feeder for the ligh t ing leai
Power circuits. There will be two feeders separately for scuth
and north portions. It is proposed to use P.V.C. cable running t urn
the substation to the other end of the hail. The cable will be taped
in between by a T-joint. From the T-joint the P.V.C. wires in rigid
and flexible conduits are taken upon switch and machine or motor
r espectively. The P.V.C. cable will be tightened along the v. all with
mild steel clamps of suitable size.
South side.
Total load = 110kW
Load in amperes 110 x 1,000

198.5 amps
400 x 08
As there are to be two feeders for the south side, it is proposed
that the feeders should separately feed the following loads
(1) For feeder or circuit No. 1.
Foundry shop = 30 kW
Motors for allied services = 45 kW
Total load = 75 kW
Load in amperes on feeder No. 1 = 135.3 Amps
WIRING, ESTBLAT[NG AND COSTING
From Table 14.8, it will be seen that under ground cable 1,100
volts 3 core 70 sq. mm will be suitable but considering the high
starting current 95 sq. mm cable should be used. The cable from the
substation will go towards 20 kW motor through foundry shop. Now,
the list of the material to be used to feed the machines and motors
will be as follows
P.V.C. cable 31 core 95 sq. mm 1,100 volts.
(a) From substation to point A 4 metres from feeder panel

to the ground + 3 metres a
loop + 2 metres from the
panel th the wa'lI+ 10 metres
along the wall towards ceil-
ing + 2 metres upto point A
+ 3 metres for bends.
= 24 metres
(b) From point A to point C = 120 metres
Total length = 144 metres say, 150 metres
(ii) No. of Tjoiits suitable for = 2 at point A and C.
above cable
(iii)Ni.,. of straight through joint = 1 at point C
(iv) P.V.C. wire
(v) For foundry shop
Load in amperes 30 x 1,000

54.13 amps.
= ', fix 400 x 0.8 =
From Table 14.1, it will be seen that considering the high
starting current 50 sq. mm wire will be suitable. The length will be
= 6 x 5 + 3 x 15
= 30 metres (in rigid conduit) + 45 metres
(in flexible conduit)
= 75 metres
For allied services motor 25 kW.
Load in amperes - 25x1,000

/ix4OOxO.8
= 46.9 lamps.

INTERNAL WIRING ESTD1ATES
From Table 141, it will be seen that considering the high

starting current, 35 sq. mm wire will be suitable. The length will be
= 6 x 5 + 3 x 15
= 30 metres (in rigid conduit) + 45 metre
(in flexible conduit)
= 75 metres
(&) For allied services motor 20 kW
Load in amperes = x400xO.8 =36.08 amps.

T3
From Table 14.1, it will be seen that considering the high
starting current, 25 sq. mm wire will be suitable. The lengths in the
rigid and flexible conduits are same as for (a) and (b) above.
(v) Conduits
Length of rigid conduit Length of flexible conduit
Purpose
51 mm 1 38 mm 1 31.8 51 mm 1 38 mm 1 31.8
MM MM
5 1 -
(a) For 50 sq. mm
(b)For 35 sq. mm
(c)For 25 sq.
mm
Total I 15 15
(vi) Main switches, tripple pole, iron-clad. 100 amps each. = 3

Nos.
(vii) 0.1. wire No. 8 from sub-station to all machines and motors
for providing double earth
Length of G.I. wire No 8 = 2(144+60) = 408 metres
=41.17kg. Say 45 kg.
2. For Feeder or circuit No 2 South side
On this feeder, following load will be connected
(a) Paint shop = 10.10 kW
(b) Blacksmith shop = 25.00 kW

Total 35.00 kW
35 x 1,000
lcd in amperes =
x400<0.8
63.16 amps.

58
wmrNC, ESTIMAT1NG AND COSTING
For this load, P.V.C. wire s/c 35 sq. mm

will be suitable, but
considering the high starting current, P.V.C. wire of 50 sq. mm will
used.
Following material will be used on this feeder

(i) P.V.C. wire s/c50 sq. mm
3 x 4 metres from the feeder panel to the ground + 3 x 3 metres

as loop + 3 x 2 metres from the panel to the wall + 3 x 10 metres
along the wall towards ceiling + 3 x 25 meters from substation to
point D + 3 x 200 metres from point
D to F + 3 x 45 metres from
point F to H + 3 x 15 from point II
to J + 3 x 15 metres as down at
points E, G, and J.
Total length = 3 x 319=957 say 1,000 meires
From Table 14. 1, it will be seen that the voltage drop is within
the p e r
missible limit, if loaded to the current as calculated above.
(ii) P.V.C. wire 4 sq. mm.
At point E, a main switch tripple pole is to be provided from
v.hjch connection Lo 5 kW power hammer are taken,
Current carrying capacity of power hammer
= ' x1,000
= 9.022 amps.
v3x4OOxO8
From Table 14.1, 4 sq. mm
P.V.C. single core wire will be
suitable which can also withstand high starting current.
Length of wire 3x15+6x5_7Smetres
(iii) P.V.C. wire 25 sq. mm .
At point G, a main switch tripple pole is to be provided from

which connection to 20 kW electric oven is taken.
Current carrying capacity of electric oven
20 x 1, 000
=3ó.O8amps.
Jix4OOxO8
From Table 14.1, it will be seen that 25 sq. mm
. will be suitable.
Lengthof wire =3x15+6x575me
(iv) P.V.C. wire 16 sq. mm .
At point J a main switch tripple pole is to be provided from
which connection to 10 kw compressor motor is taken.
Current carrying capacity of compressor motor
1Ox1,..
= ,.
3 x4OO.G.
From Table 14. 1, it will be seen that P.V.C. wire single core 16
sq. mm . will be suitable.
Lcigth of wire 3 x 15 + 6 x 5 = 75 metres
(v) Conduit length and circular outlet boxes. Following will be
the length of conduit and outlet boxes.
Length of rigid conduit Length of flexible Outlet boxes
Purpose conduit
51 31.8 25.4 19 31.8 125.4 F 19 2 Single
MM mm mm mm mm. mm mm way way,
For 50 sq. 325 - - - - - - 2 1
mm wire m.
For 25 sq. - 15m - 5m - -
mm wire
For 16 sq. - - iSm - - 5 -
mm wire
F4sq.mm - - - 15m1 - - 5m
wire 1 1
Total 1325m 15m 15mj15m 5m 5m 5m 2
1 f
1
(vi) Main switches trippie pole

(a) Iron-clad main switch tripple pole l5 = 1 No.
amps for power hammer
(b) Iron -clad main switch tripple pole 6O = 1 No.
amps electrical oven
(c) Iron -clad main switch tripple pole 30. = 1 No.
amps for compressor motor
(vii) G.I. wire No.8 = 2(319+ 20+ 20+ 20)
= 758 metres
= 76.64 kg: say 80 kg.
approx.
North Side
On north side total connected load is 64.00kW, Feeder or circuit
No.3 is to be run for this purpose
64 x 1, 000
Load in amoeres .l3-x400x0.8 = 115.40 amps.

540
WIRING, ESTTh(AT &Jqj COSTING
From Table 14.8, it will be seen that PVC 11,00 volts under-
ground cable 3 core 70 sq. mm. is suitable. The length of the cable
is as follow
(i) P.V.C. cable 3core ?Osq. mm. 11,00 volts
Length =4 metres from feeder panel to ground, +3 metres as

loop +2 metres from the panel to the wall +10 metres
along the wall towards ceiling+75 metres upto point
K + 180 metres up to point
T
= 274 metres say 280 metres
(ii) No g . of Tjoints for above cable = 4
and Nos. at points L, R, S
Now at point L,
P.V.C. wire of suitable size will be taken for
b calculated as followsand lathes The size of wire to be used is to
connection to shapers
Lds
Lathes = 2 x 6 = 12 kW
Shapers = 2 x 3 = 6 kW
Total load
= 12 + 6 = 18 kW
Load in amperes
18 x 1,000
x4O0x08
= 32.47 amps.
From Table 14.1, it will be seen that 25 sq. mm
P.V.C. wire
single core ran in conduit will be used. This size will be
point to N. run from
Length = 3 x 30 = 90 metres Say
100 metres
Now at point M and N,
circular outlets are provided and con-
nections for lathes are to be provided
Load at these points =4kW
Load in airipores = 4 x 1,000
'/ix4O0xçi8 = 7.21 amps.
From Table 14. 1, it will be seen that 4sg. mm
core run in conduit will be suitable P.V.C. wire single


541
Length = 3 x 6 per drop + 3 (10 + 10) for connection to
lathes at point M + 3 x 25 for connection to
lathes at point M.
= 153 metres Say 160 metres
Now at point P the connected load is
Lathes =2x2
= 4 kW
Shapers = 6 kW
Total 10 kW
lOx I,CX)O
Load in amperes \1x400x0.8 = 18.04 amps.
From Table 14.1, it will be seen that 10 sq. mm . P.V.C. wire

single core run in conduit is used. This wire wifl be run upto main
switch board at point P.
Length =3x20
= 60 metres Say 75 metres.
Now from main switch bbard each machine will be fed by a
separate control. The wire size to be used should be 4 sq. mm .
Lengthofwire = 3(20± 30+ 15+ 15)
= 240 metres Say 250 metres.

At point S, control switch for controlling 25 kW motor is to be
provided.
Load in amperes of this motor = 25 x 1,000.

Iix4OOxO.8
=46.91 amps.
From Table 14.1, it will be seen that 35 sq. mm . will be most
suitable, the length of this wire will be,
Length =3(6+10+4)
= 60 metres, Say 75 metres including the double
run wire from station to motor.
At point T, the loads to be tapped are as follows:
Lathes = 2x3 = 6kW
= 2x2 = 4kW
Total 10 kw
Shaper 2 x= 6kW
Grinder = 2x 1.5 = 3kW
Total 19 kW
542
Load in amperes = 19x 1,000

lx.400 x 0.8
34.29 amperes.
From Table 14 1 it will be seen that P.V.C. single core 25 sq.

mm . will be suitable. The length will be as follows
Length
From TtoX = 3x30 90
From V to main switches = 3x 8 = 24
From W to main switches
3 8 = 24
From X to main switches = 3x 8 = 24
162 metres
Say 185 metres
Now from main switches at points V W, X, 3 )ength of P.V.C.
wire single core 4 sq mm. to lathes, shaper and grinder is to be
given. The length will be as given below:
Lngth= 3x 170= 510 Say 525 metres.
'inc l uding double run of wire from

starter to motor)
) Virjjs sizes of PVC wire.
The above calculation may be
summarised as follows
(a) P.V.C. wire single coie 35 sq. mm = 75 metres
(h) P.V.C. wire single core 25 sq. mm = 100 +185 = 285 metres
c) P.V.C. wire single core 10 sq. mm = 75 sq. mm .
(d) P.V.C. wire single core 4 sq. mm = 160 + 250
+ 525
= 935 metres
(w) Length of conduits. It will be as follows
Purpose Rigid Conduit Flxib!e Conduit
38 31.8 25.4 19 38 31.8 15.4 19
mm. wire
For 4 Sq. Trim. 230 m

wire 80M
54
(v)Maii -• :.' Lrippiepoi r n . clad

The amperes capacity
of these main switches should be as follows
(a) l5 Amps 77N05
(b) 60 Amps I No.
(C) G.IujjreNo8
The length of this wire should be
Length =2x625
= 1350 metres
= 136.7 kg. Say 140 kg.
(vi) outlet boxes for 31.8 mm dia. conduit
2-way = 4 Nos.
8-way = 2 Nos.
Now.after the quantity of various important items have been
determined, the estimate is prepared as shown in Table 15.6.
Internal Lighting Circuits
Total lighting load single phase 24.4 kw
Load in amperes 24.4 x 100)

106.1 amps.
= 230
This load is to be divided on all three phases
Current per phase 106.1

= = 35.37 amps.
Referring to Table 14.1, it will be seen that P.V.C. wire single

core 600 volts 25 sq. mm . will be suitable as mains. The further
distribution is as shown in Fig. 15.26. Now itis desired to take three
phase four-wire sub-mains on both sides of Vie hall. These sub-mains
will terminate ii 30 amps, three-phase four-wire main switches
placed at the ci ntre of both side walls of the hail. Three-phase
12-way DistribLjon Board are placed on the same board on which
30 amps switches are placed. The-sub-circuits are taken from each
D. B. Thus there will be in all 20 sub-circuits each feeding 10 fittings.
It is economical to feed half of the hail i.e. south side hail from one
Distribution Board Prid other half i.e. north side from the other
Distribution Board.
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548 WIRING, ESTIMA'flNG AND COSTING
(i) Length of P.V.C. wire 25 sq. mm .

Length = 4(4 metres from the feeder panel to the ground
+4 metres as loop +2 metres from the panel
to the wall +10 metres along the wall
towards ceiling +130 metres upto the Dis-
tribution Board.
= 4 x 15 = 600 metres
The above length is required on one' side, the length of the wire
on other side will 4 x 180
i.e. = 720 metres
Total length of P.VC. wire 25 sq. mm. single core,
= 1,320 metres
Keeping in account the wastage,
Total length = 1,400 metres
(ii) Conduit 38 mm. dia.
It will be seen that 4 cables of single core
can be accommodated in 38 mm. dia. conduit25 sq. mm . P.V.C. wire
Hence Length of 38 mm. dia. Conduit =
Say 350 metres 150 + 180 = 330 metres
(iii) Right-angled Bends 38 mm. dia.
It will-be seen from Fig. 15.24, that 6 Bends are required
each side Hence. o
Total nos. Of 38 mm. dia.
= 2 x6
Ri ght-angled Bends
= 12 Nos.
(iv) Nos. of 30 amps, 3 phase 4 wire =
2 Nos.
iron-clad main switches
(v) Nos. of phase, 12-ways D.B.
2 Nos.
As discussed earlier, that there Will
Hence load on each sub-circuit in amperesbewill
10 tubes
be in a Sub-circuit.
Load in amperes on each sub-circuit
- 10 120
- —j-- = 5.22 Amps.
From Table 14.1., it will be seen that the safest size to meet this
load will be 2.5 sq.
nun of P.V.C. re. Two wires in conduit are
taken to switch boards positions, each switch board Should be in a
Position to ac
commodate 5 number 5 amps, tumbler Switches These
Boards s1oud be spaced at a distance of 11 metres from each other.
Lk

3 pHA 3f 3 PHASE
2 WAYS 12 WAYS
0.8.0,1 O.8.ON

Sour/I
NORTH
.5/BE SIDE
30
31XSF 4 W!0.
L4411. W'TCh'
ON J0(ITH
SIDE
•1 -3
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Hr 3P/,A.SE.4WE
MAYV SWITCH
0J( NORTH
s,nf
6OA1P 3P/5
4 WQE 4A/i1 SW7CI
I', S,.S srATIov
L oOocôj
Circuit Diagram for the Scheme

Fig. 15.26
(vi) P.V.C. wire single core 2.5 sq. mm .
Length up to switch board on one half portion of the north side
of the hail
= 2 [5 + 63 metres for the run in conduit from the D.B. towards
ceilings (for 9 sub-circuits) + 97 + 87 + 77 + 67 + 57 + 47 + 37
+ 27 + 17J
550
= 2 x 581
= 1,162 metres
Total length of the 2.5 sq. mm . single
core P.V.C. wire
= 4 x 1,162
= 4,668 metres Say 5000 metres
(vii) conduit 19 mm. din.
This is the smallest size to accom-
modate two conductors of 2.5 sq. mm . of
P.V.C. single core wire.
Length of 19 mm. dia. conduit
4 > 581 upto switch boards.
= 2,324 metres Say 2350 metres
(viii) Right-angled bends for l9 mm. dia. conduit.
The right-angled bends upto switch board will be as follows
2x4x2
= 16 Nos.
Now the remaining part of the problem remains to determine
the length of wire and conduit from switch boards to fittings. For
this purpose from one switch board the lengths are determined and
then the same is multiplied by 20.
(ix) Length of P.V.C. wire 2.5 sq. mm.
(a) For phase
Length =2(10+20+30+40+50+7x7)
= 2 x 199 metres
=398 Say 425metres
(b) ForNeutral
= 7 + 50
=57 Say 75metres
Length of wires from 20 Switch boards to fluorescent fittings
= 20 x 500
= 10,000 metres
Now from the previous explonation it will be seen thnf,
from
each switch board, he size of the conduit should be in a position to
carry the 6 wires of 2.5 sq. mm
dia. conduit. . size. This can be carried in 19 mm
551
(x) Length of 19 mm. dia. conduit

= 20(7 + 50) = 1,140 metres
(xi) Rig ht-angled bends for 19 mm. dia. conduit
20 Nos.
(xii) Outlet Boxes 19 mm. dia.
(a) 2 outlets = 20 x 4 = 80 Nos.
(b) Single outlet 1 x 20 = 20Nos.
After these quantities are worked out,the estimate is prepared
as per Table 15.7.
The Total Estimated Cost in view of Tables 15.6 and 15.7.
= Rs. 231302 + 155416
= Rs. 3,86,718
It should be noted that the estimated cost does not include the
cost of material in the substation and their errection and as well as
the cost of the tube light fluorescent fittings.
Example 9. A recently constructed portion of the college
hu ilthngas shown in Fig. 15.27 is to be provided with surface conduit
wiring. Number of electrical points required have been marked.
Prepare a schedule of items required and also determine the esri-
muter! Cost.
Solution.
Following is the detail of the connected load
(a) No. of light points = 49 Nos.
Assuming wattage of each lamp =49x 60
as 60, the connected load
= 2,940 watts.
(b) No. of fan points = 14 Nos.
Assuming wattage of each fan = 14 x 60
as 60, the connected load
= 840 watts.
(c) No. of water-tight fittings
= 2 Nos.
Assuming wattage of each = 100 x 2
water-tight fitting as 100
watts, the connected load
= 200 watts.
Total connected load = 2,940 + 840 x 200
= 3980 watts
Now for providing connection to this building, three-phase
four-wire service connection is required from the L.T. mains.

552
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554
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3980
[.me current =Jix4O0 (power factor being unity)
= 5.74 amps.
From Table 14. 1, it will be seen that P.V.C. wire single core 2.5
sq. mm. will be most suitable for using as mains for providing
connection between energy meter and main switches.
Fig. 15.28 represents the position of various Distribution Boards
from three-phase 400 volts main switch, the sub-mains are taken
to various single-phase Distribution Boards. Now the loads on
various Distribution Boards are calculated for determining the
P.V.C. size.
JiJiLi
TYRE.- PH45C /00 V 4.?..
W/TAIEUTAL I INK
'.?AOJ VtTCN
S INGE PIIASF
AN D 08.4/04
4'4411 SWITCR "/W-4 6

PRAff AND 0.3 4/07
4f4!I. SWITCH
4./N 3W17C,' S'4c61 5 PtIA.cE
6 .IMO D ' S. No. 2
4 4/008 IJO. 3
- Fig. 15.28
D.B. No.1 or 'Cjrcujt No. 1.
Connected load 18 x 60 + 1 x 100
= 1180 watts
1180
Load in amperes =230- = 5.13 amps.
From Table 14.2, it will be seen that P.V.C. wire double core 2.5
sq. mm . will be suitable. This size of wire can withstand higher
loading upto 15 amps due to short circuit also.
Length = 6 metres
D..B. No. 2 or circuit No. 2.
Connected load = 13 x 60 + 1 x 100 = 880 watts
Load in amperes = 880
=3.83 amps
230
INFERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 557
Jiorrt Table 14.2 will ix seen that P.V.C. wire double core 2.5
sq. mm . will be suitable.
Length =7+1+7+5+3m (for loop) 23m Say 25m.
D.B. No.3 or circuit No. 3.
Connected load = 13 x 60 = 780 watts
Load in amperes = 3.39 amps
Again, it is suggested to use twin core 2.5 sq. mm . P.V.C. wire
Length = 5 +5+ 32 +5 + 5+ 3 (for loop) = 55 m
D.B. No.4 or circuit No. 4.
Connected load = 19 x 60 = 1140 watts
1140
Load in amperes = = 4.96 amps.
Again it is suggested to use twin core 2.5 sq .am P.V.C. wire.

Length = 5 + 5 + 28 + 5 + 5 + 3 (for loop) = 51 m Sa55m.
(1) Total length of P.V.C. twin core 25
sq.mrn. =6+25+55+55
-141m Say J45ni.
(2) Length of conduit 19 mm. dia. 145 m.
(3) No. of right-angled inspection
bends for 19 mm. dia. conduits = 0 + 2 + 5 + 5 = 12 Nos.
(4) Main switch tripple pole with
neutral link iron-clad 15 amps
500 volts I No.
(5) Main switch single pole with
neutral link, 15 amps 250 volts = 4 Nos.
(6) I.C.D.B., 4-way 250 volts 15 amps
per way with four outgoings = 4 Nos.
(7) Angle Iron main board with iron
sheet at top and bottom
(a) 15 cm. x 20 cm. = I No.
(b) 25 cm. x3O cm. = 4Nos.
After determining, the material required for the circuits, the
material required for various sub-circuit is determined.
Before the quantity of material is estimated, it is necessary that
position of various points may be fixed as shown in Fig. 15.29 and

558
later on the schematic circuit diagram of wiring is drawn as shown

in Fig. 15.30. The quantity of material thus required is worked out
by consulting Fig. 15.29 and 15.30. How,r after certain length of
experience one does not need to draw these figures, he can work out
the quantities from the initial plan of the building marked with
electrical fittings.
0.5m
—16,77--- -O
'2M
4m
4m ± óm -f'-- 6m
CO O-3',
0 0---- I
Tc C..) 88 8 4rn
l.*3m4
C of o o
I 4m 4n
Position of va rious points fed from circuit No. 1

Fig. 15.29
L,1
1f3
QL,2
f583
S8-4 9
/1ALL F5 I
- 6L8
I
VVTIà
Schematic circuit diagram of wiring of circuit No. 1
Fig. 15.30

Material required for connecting various loads to D.B. No. I

having 4 sub-circuits:
Following will be the loading on each sub-circuit.
Sub-circuit No 1:- L 1 , F 1 , L2 and L 11 -
Sub-circuit No 2 :- L 3 , F2 and L4
Sub-circuit No 3 :- L 5 , L 6 , L 7 , L 8 , L 12 , F3 F 4 , and WT,
Sub-circuit No 4 :- L 10 , F5 , L 9 and L13
(a) Conduit 19 mm. dia.
(1) From DB-1 to SB-2 0.5 m
(ii) From SB—i to L 1 , F 1 and L 2 = 16 in
(iii) From SB-2 to L 3 , F2 and L 4 = 26 in
(iv) FromSB-2 to SB 1 = 10 in
(v) From SB—i to L 11 = 10 in
(vi) From L 2 to SB-3, L 12 = 12 in
(vii) From SB 3 to L 5 , L 3 , F4 and L. = 24 m
(viii) From L 5 to F3 , L 7 and WT, 16 m
(ix) From L G to SB 4 = 15 in
(x) From SB-4 to L 12 =20m
(xi) From L 10 to F5 , L. and various loops = 20 m
Total 169.50
Say 170 m. (after taking into account
wastage)
(b) P.V.C. wire single core 1.5 sq. mm .
(i) For phase or positive wire
r2xl70m =340m
(ii) For neutral wire = 170 i-n
Total =510m
(c) Right-angled Bends for 19 mm dia. conduit= 13 Ncs
(d) Round Junction . Box
(i) 3 outlets = 3 p.,r
(ii) 2 outlets = 9 No.
(iii) Single outlets = 6 A'us.
Material required forconnecting various loads to D. 11 V
which three sub-circuits are taken.
37

560
L22
08 NO.2
-
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IT
L 20 F8 I F6
S8-71
F9
&--
L79 Ls 1 F7 1L76
L78 .cr_
3m 4epi 43m
urn
0
ZR
Schematic circuit diagram of wiring for circuit No. 2.

Fig. 15.31
Fig. 15.31 represents the schematic diagram of wiring on circuit
No. 3. Following will be the loading on each sub-circuit.
Sub-ci -rcuit No. 1 = L 4 , L 15 , L 16 , L 7 , F6 and F.

Sub-: `'. = L, , L 18 , 4-21, Fs, L
Sub-circuit No: 3 = L, L49
Sub-circuit No. 4 = kept unconnected to any load for use at the
time of expansion in future.
(a) Conduit 19 mm. dia. - -
(i) From DB-2 to SB-6 = 20 m
(ii) From SB-6 to L 14, F6 and L 7 16m
From SB-6 to L 15, L 16 and F7 = 27 m
(iv) From SB-6 to S8-8 and L,, = 16 in
(v) From SB-7 to L, F 8 and L21 =30 m.
(vi) From SB-7 to L 19, L 18 , F9 , and WT 2 = 28 in
(vii) Down at water-tight point = 7m
Total =144m
Say 150 m.
(after i taking into
account wastage)
)

(b) P.V.C. wire single core 1.5 s. mm.

(i) For phase or positive wire =2 x 150= 300 m.
(ii) For neutral wire = 150 m.
Total 450m.
(c) Right-angled Rends for 19 mm. dia. conduit
= 13 Nos.
(d) Round Junction Box.
(i) 3 outlets = 1 No
(ii) 2 outlets = 7 Nos.
(iii) Single Outlet = 6 Nos.
Material required for connecting various loads to DB Nc. 3 from,
which four sub-circuits are taken.
Following will be the loading on each sub circuit:
Sub-circuit No. 1 = L 23 , L 24 , L, L 26 , L and F10.
Sub-circuit No. 2= L, L, L 30 , L.
Sub-circuit No. 3 = L 3 , L 32 , L, and L
Sub-circuit No. 4 = L, L, L 37 , L 38 and F12.

(i) From DB-3toSB--9 and SB-10 = 15 m
(ii) From SB-9 to L = 9m
(iii) From SB- 10 to L, L, F 10 , L,
L 24 and Flo 33 m
(iv) From DB-3 to SB-li and SB-12 = 22 m
(v) From SB-11 to I 15 m
(vi) From SB-12 to L, L, L 32 , L 31 , = 36 m
F 1 , L, and L
(vii) From Lto5B--13 = 11 m
(viii) From SB-13 to L, F 12 , L 3 , L 37 , L = 28 m
Total 169 m.
Say 175 m. (after

taking into account
the wastage)

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r-.--±J
— i 38-9
0-S-S
i L /
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T I La J
1301 L3
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1 32 L33
58.•1.g
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131J
Schematic circuit diagram ofwiringo fcircuit No. 3.

Fig. 15.32
(b) P.V.C. single core 1.5 sq. mm. wire
(i) For phase =175x2= 350 m
(ii) For neutral = 175 m
Total 525 m
(c) Right-2ngled Bends for 19 mm. dia. conduit

= 11 Nos.
(d) Round Junction Box
(a) Four outlets = 1 No.

(b) 3 outlets = 3 Nos.
(c) - 2 outlets 5 Nos.
(d) -Single outlets io Nos.
Material required for connecting va r ious loads to DB No. 4 from
•hich four ¶ub-circz., its are taken
Fig, 15.33 represents the sc hematic diagram of wing of circuit

INTERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES - __
No. 4. Following will be the loading on each sub-cffcuit:

Sub-circuit No. 1 = L, L 40 and L41
Sub-circuit No. 2= L42 , L, L 44 and F13
Sub-circuit No. 3 = £ 46, L 47 , L 41 , L 49 ad F14
Sub-circuit No. 4 = £ 46
08-4 iom
58-14
!
£4; ,'
IM
%* £ 40
'-41fl--''m'
F--------
58-15 (5L42 5,77
F13
--c
£44 1
4 -r
3m
5m+
58-16 L43 I 2/n
4'.5
--
L 49 F14 L43
----
L47
Schematic circuit diagram of wiring of circuit No.4

Fig. 15.33
(i) From DB-4 to SB- 14 = 16 m
(ii) From SB-14 to L 4 , L 41 , L 39 23 m
(iii) From DB-4 to SB-15 = 20 m
(iv) From SB- 15 to L 42 , F 13 , £ 4 3 and L 44 = 25 m
(v) From SB- 15 to SB- 16 = 25 m
(vi) From SB-16 to L 45 = 8 rn
(vii) From SB-16 to SB-17 1 in
(viii) From SB-17 to L 46 , F 14 , L 48 , £47 and L 49 = 21 m
Total 139m.
Say 150m. (after taking into account the wastage)

564
W[RflG ESTIMATING AND COSTING
(b) P.V.C. wire single core 1.5sq. mm

.
(i) Forposjj wire = 150x2
300m
(ii) For neutral wire
= 150 in
Total length 450
(c) Right-angled Bends for 19 mm. dia. conduit = 12 Nos.

(d) Round Junction Box
(i 3 outlets = 2 Nos.
(ii) 2 outlets 4 Nos.
(iii) Single outlets = 6 Nos.
The details of items and estimated cost have been worked out
in Table 15.8
Example rO.A
factory building measuring 100 in. x 45 in. is
required to be electrified. Assurning the following factors (i) design
the illumination scheme and (li) determine the estimated cost of
providing the Wiring.
(a) Spacing to height ratio =1
b) Clear height =4m
(c) Height of working r I in
(d) Coefficient of utilization 0.5
Solution,
- Spacing between two light points
= Height of the fittings above working plane
4—l=3m.
Nos. of fittings, lengthwise

3
=33-1=32
Nos. of rows -
—-1 = 14 Nos.
Total nos. of light. points = 14 X 32 448 Nos.

Hence, f, , -, x output of each fitting = 200 x00 x 45
448 x 0.5
= 4,018.4 lumens
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WIRING,
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From 'chapter on illumination' it wifl en th .

fluorescent tube has an output of 2,300 lumens. Thus it is proposed
to use an industrial type of fitting with two nos. of fluorescent tube
of 40 watts.
Total load = 40 x 2 x 448 = 35,840 watts
35.84 kW
- 35.84x 1,000
Load in amperes '
-
= 51.56 amps.
Hence 10O Amp 3-phase 4-wire with neutral link iron-clad main
switch 500 volts will be suitable.
Further it is desired that each sub-circuit should feed 7 fluo-
rescent tube light fittings. Hence,
Load on each sub-circuit = 7 x 80 = 560 watts.
As the supply voltage is 230 volts, hence,
Load in amperes = 560
2.43 Amps.
230
From Table 14. 1, it will be seen tha P.V.C. Wire single core of
size 1.5 mm'. 250 V grade will be suitable for concession from the
distribution board to light fittings.
P.V.C. 1,100 volts grade cable will be used for providing con-
nection between energy meter and iron-clad 100 amps 500 volts
3-phase, 4-wire main switch. Size of this cable can be found out by
referring Table 14.8. It will be seen that 35 sq. mm . three and half
core cable will be suitable to take the load.
Length of 35 sq. mm. 3 core P.v.c. 1,100 volts grade cable
= 10
12-way, 3-phase D.B. having current carrying capacity of 15
amps way will be used.
Therefore on each D.B.
12 x 7 )< 80
Load in amperes
=
= 9.701 amps.
From Table 14, 1, it will be seen that P.V.C. wire single core 6
sq. mm . will be used. The positions of distribution boards are shown
in Fig. 15.34.

MERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 569
I >1
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570
WIRING STIMAT1NG AND
COrJG
From the figure it will be seen that route length of circuits will
be as follows.
(i) Circuit No. 1 = 48 in
(ii) Circuit No. 2 = 28 in
(iii) Circuit No. 3 = 10 m
(iv) Circuit No. 4 = 10 in
(u) Circuit No. 5 = 28 m
(vi) Circuit No 6 = 42 in
Total route length =166 in.
Taking into accounts the drop of 3 in

the total length will be,
=1GG+3x12
=2O2m. Say 21()
After, an Engineer gains experience in estimating, it is not
necessary to draw a list of items required for wiring. By virtue of
his experjonc he will draw out a list ofvarjous jobs to be performed,
the cost of which is known to him due to lengthof his service. In
Govt. depa rtments schedule of various jobs indicating the cost of
each job, are used for ready r
eckoner.
pared in Table 15.9 in accordance withThis
the .e.timate has been p re-
,ay explained above.
Example
11-In a six storeyed Govt. building, it is proposed to
install an automatic push button type lift
which should be in a
Position to accommodate 6 persons at a time and should move at a
speed of 1 rn/sec. If three phase, 400 volts, 50
C/s a.c. supply is
available in the building at a distance of 20 rn. from machine room,
determine the estimated cost of installing the lift.
solution.
For traction purposes d.c. motors are most suitable and in
case
of lift, d.c. compound wound motor is used. Motor generator set will
be used for conversion of a.c. to d.c. supply.
10 h.p. d.c. 220
volts d.c. compound wound motor will be most
suitable for this purpose
10 kW 220 volts d.c. generator coupled to a.c. three-phase,
volts, 50 c/s. 15 h.p. motor will be used to feed the d.c. c 400
wound 10 hp motor. ompound
Now 400.vojts a.c. three-phase 50 c/s Supply is a v
distance of 20 m. from 15 h.p. a.c. motor. From Table ailable at a
14.12, this
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572 WIRING, ES TIMATING AND COSTING

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CON TROLLER
A.C.UOTOR
eNERATORSr
ToO. L.VJPLED
OMPOUND
^VnWWNO h*7O2
CONTROL CABLE
LIFT CAR
LIFT DOOR
— ATFFRST
FLOOR
&4SEMENT
I--
Arrangement of Lift
Fig. 15.35
motor will draw 22 amps load from the mains. In view ofTable 14. 1,
25 sq. mm . P.V.C. single core 660 volts grade will be suitable to meet
the load, 4-wire of25 sq. mm . can be accommodated in H.G. conduit
of dia. 38 mm.
After working the above details, the estimated cost is worked
out as shown in Table 15.10.
Examples 12. An auditorium, the plan of which is shown in
Fig. 15.36 is to be provided with electrical wiring. Suggest the
number of points and determine the total connected load of the
auditorium. Draw neat connection diagram and also determine the
estimated cost of providing internal electrification including cost of
electrical fittings and fans. The cost of wiring at first floor which is
being used by a commercial organisation is not to be included.
Solution.
The load of the auditorium in accordance with the level of
illumination required has been worked out in Table 15.11. The
coefficient of utilization has been taken as 0.35 to 0.4 while calcu-
lating the requirement.
In addition, emergency lighting system in case of failure of
supply received from State Electricity Deptt. will be used. These
lights will work at 24 V and for this purpose standby batteries will
be used.
8 J
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INTERNAL WIRIIC ESTIMATES 581
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582
WrRrNG ESTIMATG MD COSTji
It is proposed to use basement as switch room and duty cabiij

for the electrician.
Details of load are given i naTable 15.11.
Category A
(i) Lighting load for ill
umination and exit light= 17,660 watts
40 Ceiling fans load
1,500 watts
(iii) Exhaust fans load
1,440 watts,
(iv) 5 Amps plugs load
= 100 watts
Total 20,700 watts

Category ]B
(i) Adv ertisement load
1,400 watts
(ii) Power plugs load
8,000 watts
(iii) Amplifiers load
= 400 watts
Total 9,800 watts
Category C
(i) Load for emergency light
= 275 watts
For this load, service connection from existing 3-phase, 4-wire
mains will be taken through an underground cable. The meter will
be instafled in basement As
be a co the connection to the auditorium will
nectionmmercial
se p
one, thus there is no need of obtaining two con-
arately one for lighting and other for power load. In this
case the lighting load will be also be considered aspurely
commercial However there will be separate circuits for
and power. lighting
Lighting and Fans load in Amps 20,700

- = 29.88 Amps
Power load in Amps 9,800

0.8
Total load in Amps = 17.68 Amps

= 47,56
C onsulting Table 14.8, it will be seen that 3 core 35 sq. mm
P.V.C. 1106 volts grade cable will be suitable.
(i) Length of this cable from meter to main = 15 m.

switch
(ii) 100 Amps 3 phase 500 V.I.C. main switch = 1 No.
with neutral link
(iii) Aluminium strip 25.4 mm x6.30 mm for =20m.
bus bar
(iv) Length of P.V.C. 1100 volts grade 3core =10m.
35 sq. mm .
A suitable cover for bus bars will be made by using G.I. sheet.
The proposal is to take connection from the bus bar for every
circuit.
(1) Light, Fans and Exhaust Fans load.
The total load is 20,700 watts, 29.88 Amps. It will be better if
the following circuits are provided
(a) Main Hall =2 circuits sharing half the load
i.e. 3,180 watts (4.59 Amps in
3-phase (Supply)
(b) Gents green room and 1 circuits to feed 5,480 watts
half of stage (7.91 Amps on 3-phase supply'
(c) Ladies green room and = 1 circuit to feed, 5,480 watts
half of stage (7.91 Amps).
(d) Restaurant, booking office = 1 circuit, 1060 watts (4.61
Amps. office, gents toilet on single phase supply) and
verandah.
(e) Foyer, corridor, Manag- = 1 circuit, 2320 watts
er's office, Ladies wait- Amps) on three phase supply
ing room, w.c. and
basement.
In view of the above, particulars of materials for the circuits as
shown in Table 15.12, is selected.
(2) Power and Advertisement load.
The total power load is 9.8 kW (17.68 Amps). For this load fol-
lowing circuits will be provided. -
(i) One circuit for corridor, foyer, = 3,400 watts (6.140
Verandah and Restaurant. Amps)
(ii) One circuitfor stage and greens 6,400 watts (17.675
J4T.S.. Amps)
In view of this particulars of material as shown in Table 15.13
selected.
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTgJG
(3) Emergency Lighting (d.c.)
The emergency lo is 275 watts at 24 Volts (11.46) amps,
will be only one circuit in the basement. there
The particulars ofmaterjal
required are shown in Table 15.14.
After the size of various types of rap rials
are d etermined, the
circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 15.37 is drawn. The estimated cost
of this work has been calculated vide Table 15.15
'..
Fig. 15.37
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INTERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 587 j
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5S8 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
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I Th 'TERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 591
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692
WmrNG, ESTIMATING AND cOSTING
Example 13. In a factory of area 30 rn x 12 n the following

machines are to be erected. Estimate the cost for the power and
lighting wiring.
(i) Two Lathes of 1 HP. 3o 416 V each.
(ii) One Grinding machine of 0.5 HP, 220 V, i
(iii) One Drilling machine of 0.5 HP, 220 V, 1
(iv) One Shaper machine of 5 HP, 416 V, 30 and
(v) One Welding machine of 10 KVA, 416 V, 3 phase.
Industrial type double tube fitting may be used for lighting

Solution : In this estimate, 50% of floor area is used for Office,
Supervisory Staff and for Consumer's enquiry ch
amber, in the
remaining 50% of floor area, the machines are suitably located. The
roof trusses are at 3.0 M spacing and the bottom of trusses have a
clearance 015.0 M from Ground.
Assumption Made
POWER WIRING CIRCUIT
1. The Machines are located as shown in the sketch,
2. For Grinding and Drilling machines,
System is proposed. Surface Conduit
3. For Shaper machine, Lathes and Welding U.G. Cable sys-

tem is proposed.
4. The trench is 1.0 m deep.
5. The trench is covered with heavy concrete slabs.
6. (a) Main Panel Board is at a height of 1.35 M above the
ground level and is located as shown.
(b) The Starter and Main Switches are erected for each
individual machine at a height of 1.35 M, on a floor
mounted angle iron frame, at the arms stretch of the
operator. The cost of starter and switches are included
in the cost of machines
7. The Surface Conduit Wiring is done 2.5M above the ground
level.
8. The Cable sizes are selected basing on the designing current
and its association voltage drop.
9. 24 Nos 5/15A plugs 1 }\V each are provided
As per rule, double earthing is dofor all machines Using SWG
8 copper,

INFERNAL WIRING ESTIMATES 593
Shaper MJC Length of 4 core cable required

From DB to GL to Trench to A M/C to starter
1.35+1.0+3.0+1.0+1.0+1.35=9.70+ = 11.70
2.00 loop -
wastage = 1.70
= 13.40 or 14 M
Cable size calculation
Name plate detail : 5 HP, 416V, 3, 0.707 lag
Assuming TI = 0.8,
s), 735.5
line current = 9.02 Amps.
416 x 0.8 x 0.707
The designing current = 17 Amps.
Selecting 2.5 mm 2 , 111.80, 20,', 4 core, 15 nV/A1 M (Non metal

sheathed) insulated with Butyl Rubber - (Table 14a)
The voltage drop = 15 x 10 x 17 x 14 = 3.57 volts.
This is well within permitted drop and hence this cable is
selected.
2. (ii) LAThE (1)
Length of 4 core cable required
From DB to GL to Trench to B to C to MJC starter
1.35 + 1.0 + (1.0 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.50) + 3.0 + (1.0 + 1.35)
= 14.70 + 2.00 loop = 16.70
Add 10% = 1.67
Total =18.37 or say 18.5

Cable size calculation
Name plate detail: 1 HP, 416 V, 36, 0.7 lag
Assume TI = 0.8,
1 x735.5
line current = = 1.82 Amps.
'j x416x0.7 xO.8
1.82x1.5
The designing current = 0.8 - = 3.4 Amp.

594
Selecting 1.0 mm 2 , 111.12 amp, 37 mV/AIM 4 Core cable (Non.
Metal sheathed) insulated with Butyl Rubber.
The drop = 37 x 10' x 3.4 x 18.5 = 2.34 volts.
This is well within limits and hence this size can be selected.
(ii) LATHE (2)
Length of 4 core cable required
From DB to Trench to D to E to M/C to starter
1.35 + 1.00 + (1.0 + 1.5+ 1.5)+ 3.0 + 1.00 =13.00
1.35 = 11.00 + 2.00 loop
Add 10% wastage= 1.32
14.32 or Say 15.0 M

Since Lathe No 2 also has the same Name plate detail, we select
the same 1.0 mm', 111.12, 10Am, 37mv/AJM 4 core cable (Non nital
sheathed) insulated with Butyl Ruhber
Total length of cable required: 18.5 + 15.0 = 335 or say 31.0 in,
(3) WELDING SET
Length of cable required
From DB to F to GtOM S
2.35 +12.0 + 5.0 + 2.35 = 21.70 + 2.00 loop =23.70
wastage = 2.37
26.07 or 26.0 mts

Cable Size Calculation
Name plate detail: 10 KVA, 416V, 3, 0.8 lag
Assuming i = 0.9
line current = DO x io
19-2= Amps.
'/X416XO9xOg
Designing current = !J. 5 = 36.14 Amps.

0.8
Sel e tir.g 4 core. TO mm 2
, 7/1.4G 41 Amp, 3.7 irv!APM
(Non, metal . sheathed) Ethyl e n e_ p ropelene insulated

Voltage drop = 3.7 x 10 x 36.14 x 26 = 3.48 volts

This is w€Il within limits and hence can be selected.
4. DRILLING MJC
Length of Cable required:
From DB to (up) H. to I to J to K to SB'
(up) 2.65 + 10.5 + 3.0 + 3.0 + 2.65 (down) =24.18
= 21.80 + 2.38 loop
wastage= 2.41
26.78 or say 27.0 M

Cable size calculation:
A single cable for both drilling and Grinding is drawn up to point
J from where connection to Grinding r&c is tapped off.
Current in the line is the sum of current due to Drilling and
Grinding mlc.
Total power = 1.0 HP, 220V, 1, 0.65 say r = 0.8 lag
Line current = I x735,5-6 42 Amp

220 x 0.65 x 0.8
6.42 x 1.5
The designing current = = 12.05 Amp.
0.8
This is the current up to J
Length of cable up to J = 2.65 + 10.5 = 17.76
+ 3.0 = 16.15 + 1.61 loop
wastage= 1.77
19.53 or say 20.0 m

Selecting Twin core, 1.0 mm', 111.12, 12 Amp, 43 mv/A/M.
cable.....
Voltage drop up to 20.01VL = 43 x 10 x 12.05 x 20.0 10.32
volts.
This is far greater than the permitted.
Selecting Twin core 4mm 2 1/2.24,27 Amp, 12mv/AJM up to 20.0
m length,
The drop = 11 x 10 x 12.05 x 20.0 = 2.64 volts.
From J to K to L (SB Drilling rn/c,)

Switch board for controlling of

I S-pin plug.
19 20 21
+ 1-f
2
- 1- - 17
,— DB PZuq -
3
16
I
± Ph N
Trench
S
+ ± ±
I
6
+
4- •+
-- + +
1- 1
8f+ - -1- 11
+. + + 10
LT}
F- 12.0 -_J
+ P OSItiQ? l
of T.L. fittings
plugs on the walls are at
height of 1.35 metres and IlIndicatjng lamp
T.L.S. on the Walls are at P -Plug Point
a height of 2metres down R - Fan
fro roo f trusses.
from SliS2,S3_it,.,hes
'I
All dimensions vn metr

1

J Pc
—3m .' 3m
2m
Lathe 1 C
B 15m
15m
Eli ]^:]
1'5m
.4 58
H
E
1'5m

Shaper
4
15m
30m
D
fl 1m Trench
S
Partition
Note:Point H is at the height of 2.65 met're

above DB from K tb t (SB d2-i11)=2.65 metre

length = 3.0 + 2.65 = 5.65 + 0.56 loop = 6.21

wastage= 0.62
Total = 6.83 or say 7.0 M
Selecting Twin 1.0mm 2 , 1/1-12,12A, 43 mV/AIM cable......
The total drop from DB 2.64 + 1.80 = 4.64 volt which is less
than the permitted and hence can be designed like this.
5. Grinding mc
Voltage drop up to J = 2.64 volt
Length of cable from J to M = 2.65
(SB Grinding)
drop for this length for the same 1.0mm 2 cable 43 x 10 x 6 x
2.65 = 0.688 volt
Hence 1 mm 2 Twin core is selected from J to SB.
6. Plugs
Each plug 1 KW, 1, 230 V. Total 24 Nos. as shown in sketch.
Separate individual connection is proposed from supply DB to each
plug.
Supply from DB (Plug 1)
Plug 1. From DB to trench to P1
1.35 + 1.0 + 7.5 + 1.0 + 1.35 = 12.20 + 1.00 loop =13.20
'I

Wastage= 1.32

C Total = 14.52
or say 14.5 M
Ref. Table 14a
Selecting 1.5 mm', 111.40, 15A, 29 mV/AIM
Drop in this section = 29 x iO x 8.15 x 14.5 3.4 volts.
This is within limits and can be accepted.
Plug 1: =14.5 M
Plug 2 Deduct 3.0 M from P1 =11.5 M
Plug 3 Deduct 3.0 M from P2 = 8.5 M
Total =34.5 M
Plug 4, 5, 6 same as P, P, P =34.5 M

INTERNAL WIRING ESTMATES 599
Plug 7: DB to P-7 (1.35 + 1.0 + 1.5 + 9.0 = 15.20

+ 1.00 + 1.35)
Loop= 1.00
Total = 16.20
Wastage = 1.62
Total = 17.82
or say 18.0 M
Drop in this section : 29 x 103 x 8.15 x 18.0 = 4.3 volts.
Hence 1.5 mm 2 cable can be accepted.
Plug 8: Add 3.0 M extra with Plug 7 21.0 M
Plug 9: Add 3.OM with Plug S 24.0M
The drop with this cable is 5.67 volts . (high)
Select 2.5 mm 2 , 111.80,20 A, 17 mV/AIM-the next higher size.
Plug 21: DB to trench to P 21. -
1.35 + 1.0 + 10.5 + 9.0 + 1.0 + 1.j = 24.20 + 1.52 = 25.72
loop
Acid 10% wastage = 2.57
Total = 28.57
or say 28.5M
Ref. Table 14 a and Select 2.5 mm 2 , 1)1.80, 20 A, 17 mV/Amp.
Drop = 17 x lO x 8.15 x 28.5 = 3.94 volts (accepted)
Plug 21
Plug 20 deduct 3.0 M from P21 25.5
Plug 16 deduct 3.0 M from P20 22.5
Total = 76.5 M
Supply to DB (Plug H)
From DB (Plug I) to opposite side through trench
1.35 + 1.0 + 12.0 + 1.0 + 1.35 = 16.70 + 1.00 Loop 17.70 M
Wastage 10% =1.77
= 19.47
Say 20.0 M
Current in this cable = 12 x 8.15 = 97.47 Amps.
(assuming all the plugs are loaded simultaneously.)
Selecting 4 core, 35 mm 2 , 7/2.50, 100 Amp. 1.1 mV/AIM.
Drop in this section = 1.1 x 10 3 x 97.8 X 20 = 2.15 volts
From DB (lug II) 1.5 mm', Twin core cable.

600
P-16, P-17, P-18, P45, P-14, P-13, P-12, P-li =34.5 + 34.5 +
18.0+21.0
(Same as P-i to P-8) =108.0 M
P40 2.5 mm 2 Twin core = 24.0 M
Plug 22: DB (Plug II) to P-22
1.35+1.0+19.5+3.0+1.35=27.20+200 =29.20
Loop
Add = 2.92
=32.02 or . say 33 M
Drop using 2.5 mm 2 cable 8.15 x 17 x 35.0 = 4.43 volts
(ac-
cepted)
Plug 23: Add 3.0 M with Plug-22
= 35.0 M
Drop : 8.15 x 17 x 35.5 x 10 = 4.85 (accepted)

Plug 24: Add 3.0 M extra with plug 23
Drop: 8.15 x 17.0 x 38 x 10 = 5.26 volts higher.
Plug 22 : to plug 24 : 32.0 + 35.0 i- 38.0 = 165.0 M
ABSTRACT
Cable Req uirements: Ref. Table-id a,
1) Shaper Machine: 4 core, 2.5 mm 2
, 111.80, = 14.0 M
20A, 15mV/AjM
2) Lathes I & II: 4 core 10 mm 2 , L1.12, bA,
36.0 M
37 mV/AIM 18.5 + 17.0 = 35.5 say 36.0 M
3) Welding: 4 core 10 mm2, 7/1.40,41A, 3.7
mV/MM 26.0 M
4) Drilling& Grinding:4 core, 4mm 2
, 1)2.24, = 20.0 M
27A, limV/Aj,M
2 core 1.0 mm 2 , 111.12,
i2A, = 10.0 M
43mV/A/M-(7 + 2.65) = 9.65 or say 1GM
5) Plugs : 2 core, 1.5 mm 2
29mV/M.,4 , 1)1.40, 15A, =216.0M
P-i to P . 8/34.5 + 34.5 + 18.0 + 21.0
= 1080
P-li to P-18
= 108.0
Total = 216.0 M
2 core 2.5 mm 2 , 111.80, 20A, l7mV/AjM
230.0
P9 to P . 10 24.0 + 24.0 = 48.0

P. 19 to P.21 = 76.5
P-22 to P.24 =105.0
Total 229.5 or say

230.0 M
From DB (Plug I) to DB (Plug II)
4 core 35mm 2 , 7/2.50, bOA, 1.1 mV/AIM = 2 0. 0 M
11GHTING SCI—
Assumptions
(1) A uniform illumination of 150 flux ie. 150 lumens per sq.
m. is provided.
(2) Depreciation Factor = 0.70 for Tube light.
(3) Utilisation Factor = 0.40 -
(4) Assume a moderate lumens of 1900 Im for 40 W for lou-
rescent Lamps, 1900/40 = 47.5 lm.'watt.
(5) Surface conduit type of wiring i. oposed.
(6) Space Height ratio is 1 : 2.
(7) The total lighting load 7 MV. (including external lighting
corridor, verandah, factory out door areas like main & exit
roads, car parks etc.
(8) Exhaust fans 24 Nos. are provided
(9 Nos. in each 30.0 M side & .os. in each 12.0 N side)
(9) T.Ls. are suspended 2.0 M from Roof Trusses.
Calculation:
Area in Sq. mRequired level of illumination
Total lumens req .xed inside the shop = Coefficient of uLthsauons x depreciation factor
30x12x150 =192.85x103lumen
= 0.4x0.7
Total luminous. ' required - 192.85 x 10
No. of Lamps = Luminous flux per lamp 19(Y)
= 101.5 or say 10 lamp. of 40 volts T.L.
No. of fitting = 1102 = 51 No. (Twin T.L./fitting)

DETAILED ESTIMATE
Description Qy. Rate u Ri. Amount Total in Rs.

£
NaL
Rs./P.
1.0 CABLES Per Mtr.

4coye 35 mm, 7/2.5, 100 Amps 20 M Re. 1201- 2400.00
(a)
(b) 4 care 10 mini , 7/1.4,41 Amps 26M Ks. 6Q' 1560.00
4 core 2.5mm',1I1.80,ZOAmps 14N Rs. 38(- 532.00

(c)
(d) 4coie 1.0 mm', 111. 12, 10 Amps 36M Rd. 22/ . 792.00
2 core 3.5mm. 111.40, lSAmps 21631 Ks. 161- 3456.00

(e)
230M Its. 20f- 4600.00 13340.00
(1) 2 core 2.5 mm', 1/1.50,20 Amps
2.0 Main Supply Board Items each
INc. 14500.00 14500.00 14500.00
(a) Circuit Breaker. 200 Amps.
(b) Main sitchc6 600 V, 100 A
TPIC (N) (Incoming supply iNc. 1500.00 1500.00
500V60ATPIC(N)(Wciciing) INc. 900.00 900.00
iNc. 370.00 370.00
500V30ATPIC(N)(ShapeT) 560,00
500V15ATI'IC(N)(Lath) 2Nc. 280.00
120.00 240.00 357000
250V ISA ICDI' (Grinder & DO- 2 No
1mg)
INc. 1700.00 1700.00 1700.CC
(c) Main DB,500V,60A, 12 way
8800.00 8.',00.00 8600.00
(d) 1800V grsde, 25no' mulii.trsnd ICO M.
single core
1 No Ks. 301- 30.00
(e) Earth Link -6 Way
Plugs 515A, 250 V with -itch 840.00
Fuse indicating Lamp. 24 No. Ra 351-
20 kg Ks. 751- 1500.00
Copper 8 SWC 220.00 2590.
Scrvw. Bolt & Nuta etc. 10 kg. Ks. 2'2/-
Per gg.
Total
Sundries 5% 2225CC
Total 46725.00
Contingincies 15% 7008.75
53733.75
Tool chargesL.S. 1000.00
Total 54733.75
'-anp'rt3% 1642.00
Labour as detailed 1875.00
Total 58250.00
Over head char 15s 8737.€2
Total 66988.37
OR Say Ra. 6690
For lighting-it is left to the reader.

604
WIRING ESTU'jq'j AND COSTING
Example
14. An induction motor of 5 HP has to be erreeted for
pumping water for irrigation. Estimate the total cost of installation;
including a pump set.
The distance between the supply pole and switch room is lOm.
and the distance between the switch room and motor is 8M. provide
G.I.conduit between the pole and the pump room. Assume suitable
do to.
DETAILED ESTIMATE
Description Qty-
No. Rate pe,
's. P. in Rs.
1.0 Materials from Post to
Consumer's Board
() I bO y Grade, single core 72.0 m

Rs. 830/. per 100 m 1197.60
45q.mm Weather prcoCcable
(b) G.l. IreSWG 8 3Kg. Re. 161- per Kg- 4&00
SWC r Rs. 18/. per Kg. 36.00
(c) Cj Thimble 2 No.
Its. 6/- each 10.00
(d) Bing insulator (porcelain) 120 No. Ri. 2/ . each 24.0.00
(c) 'Wooden Nipple 2Xo. Ri. 2/- each 4.00
(,i') C.I.Pipe
Fa. OJ. per m
38 ,nnr 18 SWG
(g) G. I. 4No. Ri. 201- each .'C. 00

38 mm 18 SWC -
(h) C!. Coupler I No. Re. 10/. each 000
(1) Sedd1 6 No. Ri. 9/, per dcee. 4 50
(j ) Stay set ro!-G.l. pipe I No. L.S.
(4) Earth lead Cu. SWG 8 112 Kg Re. 75/. per Kg. 3 50 1489.60
2.0 Ma in Supply Board Items
(a) Te nk Wood Board1mQ7m iNo.

Ba. 4 . each 40.00
(6) LC C u tout 30A 500V 3 No. Ba. 24/. each 7'2 00
(.) T.P.I.C. Main Sa'itch 3 .'.,
500 V
1 No. Ba. 3601. each 300.00
(d) Neutral Link, 500V, 30A 1 No. Ba. 10/. each 10.00
(e) 15 A. 500V Fuse unit 4 No. Ba. 30/- each 120.00
(1) SA ,250 v ,Tumbler 3 Ri. 96/- doe. 36.00
Switch (flush)
(9) Batten Lamp holder 3 Ri. 61- each

(brass) 1800
(4) VI R€Sqmm multi-strand I5 Ha. 7.20/. per m

7/1.12 cable 108.00 for mU board
Connection
764.00
L,JLJUN

607
AWit Total
11,ite per
S Description Qty
Amoi' in
Rs. P.
RI-
(i) Earth wire Cu. SWG 8 1 Nl. 11,7 1, per

I No. R. 30- each 30.00 969.00
(ii) Earth link. 4 Way
3.0 Motor Connection
M.teriil.
p It.. 241- per NI 72.00
(a) Metallic Flexible Hose P i e 3M
38mm it,
14 NI R. 19.50 per NI 273.00
(b) C.I. Conduit 18 SWG 38 mm
, 1.5 * 8 * 2.0.8,
wastage)
CI. Benda with covers 38mm 4 No. Ha. ?- each 32.00
36 No. Ra.1W-prdot 4.CJ

Saddles 38 mm lb
1 No. Ha 360' . each 360.00
(c) T.1 1 1C. 500 V.30 A Switch
20 NI Ha. 931- per M 1660.00
(d) 4mm 1 , 7/0.73,1100 V, Silicone
Rubber Insulated 3 ii' 4 core
multi -strand cooper cable
1 o. Ha. 23.- c.a:h 25.00
(e) 1W. Board o.BmsO.4 in
RA. 73. I7.50 2657.50
(f) Copper No. 8SWG for earth 2.5 Kg
4.0 Lighting ltea

20mts. Ha 10 SO perm 21600
(a) C.I. Conduits l9mm it,
1 No. Ha. 14/- e.ch 14.00
Jn. Box, 50mm s 50mm
Bends 19mm it, 6 Nos- Ha. 21-each 1200
.
36 Nos. Its. 9- die. 27.00

Saddles 19 mm
500 V, ISA, Main Switch 1 No. Its 273- 275 CO
(b)
250 V SA, Tumbler Switch 5 Nos. Ha. &- c 30.00
(c)
250 V SA Mug with awitch 1 N o R 2.c.rh
1 No. Ha. 25.- 25 )

(e) T,W. Box 30 cm a 25cm.
4 Nos. Its. 60'- each 240 00
(f Bulk head fitli,v i;
4 Nos. Ha. 4/- each 16.00
(g) Ceiling Roses plate 250V.
5,5 , Bakelite
Ha 2 . - per in 80,30 95500
(¼) 1 mm' Cu. cable, Silicone 40 mta.
Rubber Insulated, 500 V
Grade single core
Note: 1. The wiring is for the 4 Nos. B.H. flu:ng on the 4 sides ofthe walls
and one No. light is fixed on thejn. box for internal lighting.
2. The Main Sutich Board is fixed at the entrance of rooni, on the

outside wall, under the sun shade of the door.
-40
608
WIRING, ESTIMATING
AND COSTING
Cost of Materials
Material from Post to Consumers Rs. 1489.60
Board
Main Supply board items
= Rs. 869.00
Motor connection materials = Rs. 2657.50
Lighting items
= Rs. 955.00
F oundation for Motor Bed (L.S.)
= Rs. 200.00
Total= Rs. 6171.10

Sundries 10% = Es. 617.11
Total = Es. 6788.21

Contigenceis 15% = Rs. 1018.23
Total = Rs. 7806.44

Tool Charges 3% = Rs. 234.19
-
Total Rs. 8040.63
Labour 15% = Es. 1206.10
Total = Rs. 9246.73
Transport 5% = Rs. 462.34
Total Rs. 9709.07
Over head charges 15% = Rs. 1456.36
Grand Total = Rs11165.43

Say Es. 11165.00
I
16
Installation and Estimates
for Service Lines
The service line is that which brings the electric energy from
the supplier's lines to the consumer's building. The service line
feeding a building can be of the following types:
(1) Overhead which can further be subdivided on the basis of
the wires coming through the conduits or with the help of service
entrance cable.
(2) Underground.
The service line is terminated at supplier's Main Board, which
is a property of the supplier and the consumer has no access to it.
According to Indian Electricity Rules, the consumer usually has his
own Main Board adjacent to supplier's Main Board.
Rule 58. "The point of commencement of supply of energy to a
consumer shall be deemed to be the point at the outgoing terminals
of the cut-outs inserted by the supplier in each conductor of every
service line other than an earthed or earthed neutral conductor or
the earthed external conductor of a concentric cable at the con-
sumer's premises."
When the service line is provided with the help of an overhead
line, it must have fixed minimum clearance above ground of the
lowest conductor and a definite clearance must be provided from
the adjacent buildings. These are controlled by Indian Electricity
Rules 77 and 79 which are quoted below.
Rule 77."(1) No conductor of an overhead line, including service
lines, erected across a street shall at any part thereof be at a height
less than—
(a) for low and medium voltage lines •.. 5.795 m
(b) for high voltnge lines ... 6.10 m
610
(2) No co
nductor of an overhead line, including service lines,
erected
than - along any street shall at any part thereof be at a height less
(a) for low and medium voltage line
•.. 5.490 in
(b) for high voltage lines
(3) No co 5.795 m
erected else nductor of an overhead line, in cluding service line,
less than—_ where than along or across any Street shall be at a height
(a)
for low medium and high voltage lines up to ..4.575 m
and i ncluding ii000 volts, if bare
(b)
for low, medium and high voltage lines up to
and in ...3.965 m
cluding ii000 volts, if insulated
(c)
for high voltage line above 11,000 volts
...5.185 m
(4) For ex
tra-high
be less than 5.185 M. plus voltage line the clearance ground shall not
0.305 m. for even' 33,000 volts or part
thereof by which the voltage of line exceeds 33,000 volts.
Pr
odded
shall not lessthat
thanthe minimum
6.10 m. clearance along or across
any street
il
ule 79. (1) Where a low or medium voltage overhead line
passes above or adjacent to or terminates on any building ; the
following minimum clearance from any accessible point, o
of maximum sag, shall be observed: n the basis
(a) for any flat roof, open balcony,
roof— verandah roof and lean-to
(i)
when the line passes above the building a vertical
of 2.44 m. from the highest point. clearance
(ii)
when the line passes adjacent to building a vertical
clearance of 1.22 m. from the nearest point, and
(b) for p itched roof-
(i) when the line above the
2.44 m. im b uilding, a vertical clearance of
mediately under the lines, and
(ii)
when the line passes adjacent to the building, a
clearance of 1.22 m. horizontal
(2) Any co
that spe nductor so Situated as to have clearance less than
cified in sub-rule (1) shall be adequately
be attached by means of metal clips at suitable in sulated and shall
earthed bearer wire having a b r in tervals to a bare
317.52 Kg. eaking strength of not less than
(3)
The horizontal clearance shall be measured when the line
is at a maximum deflection from the vertical due to wind pressure
INSTALlATION AND ESTIMATES FOR SERVICE LINES 611
Service line connection with angle Iron Bracket for a

double-storey building.
Fig. 16.1
Arrangement for kVTH meter and cutout at consumer's permiseS.

Fig. 16.2
612
Overhead Service Mains. The overhead service main can be

had in a number of ways depending upon the conditions prevailing.
Some of the typical methods are detailed belcw
(1) Service Mains bra Double Storey Building. Fig. 16.1, 16.2,
16.3 and 16.4 represent the two methods of having a service mains
SL:v-c Iin, colir,ectjo with C.!. Pipe to a i n g ie .

Fig. 16.3 storey building.
Represents an alternative method of providing Service Mains.

Fig. 16.4
613
INSTALLATION AND ESTIMATES FOR SERVICE LINES
when the connection from overhead bare Aluminium conductors are

bro'.i;ht to the building si4e by weather-proof cable P.V.C. cable.
Example 1. Estimate the cost of providing service line connec-
tion fora double-storey building having a connected load of2.00 KW.
The L. T. mains pole is at a distance of appx. 20 m. from the building
and the service line is to be laid as per Fig. 16.1.
Solution.
2 x 1000
Loadin Amps =
= 8.7 amp. approx.

In view of Tables 14.1 and 14.2, twin, core P.V.C. and single
core 6 sq. m m. P.V.C. 660 volts grade will be suitable. The cost has
been estimated in Table 16.1.
Service Mains for Single-Storey House. When an overhead is to
be given to a single-storey house, a G.I. pipe is a necessity in order
to cover the Indian Electricity Rule 77. Fig. 16.3 represents the
method for providing service connection to a single-storey building.
The G.T. pipe is required to be supported with stay wire. Fig. 16.5
represents the connection of stay wire, 1-thimble and stay ins&atOr.
Connection of stay wire and stay insulator.

(a)
Connection of stay wire and I-thimble

(b)
Fig. 16.5
4. Underground Service Main. Whn a number of build-
ings are side by side, for providing a service connection to all such
buildings it is always convenient to bring the main from the service
pole underground by means of a cable terminating it at the main
board of one building. The main board of the second building is
looped to this main board, similarly the man board of the third
buildings is looped to the second main board as shown.
00 , • ..
• 0 00.
Z zz a • 00 o 0
a
• .. .:
cd
E . ! c-4 tc to x 75 11
c cj
Q
.d 8
E
E 'E
.EUE
2 '
- •E
- EE •-
C E
cc
ci
C d

i14
\'iRINC E
C ST:JNG AND CO;
.; a
2
c)
0
'I.
E
o
28
'ii
'—, 0
0
0 00 0 0 0 00
to 00 00
00 00 0
Lo
0
- ' o c' -.
, ei
C'1
0 cn e c'i
ei
0 0
00 0 0
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
0. U 0 00 00
0
- I---'
o cc
• • 0
- - c4
0 0 0
E z z z
•
00 E
Z •
0 tc
0 II
N C -
C C
•-
.s -.
L C)
-
0
cr
> •I.? XXN 2E • CC?
U U C.?
C —
0 CC •
0 E -a C
C
U .qCe;080
C g g -. E.Ce=Co
Ci 0 -.

INSTALLATION AND ESTIMATES FOR SERVICE LINES
I 615
I-
N
E
C.-,
N
C
0 cn. w 0 0 0 I 0 I 0
N 0 O 0 00I0zico
t- —m N NO co—
— tO N tO N c - tO
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The underground service mains also become a necessity when

the owner of the building does not want to spoil the beauty of the
building by having an overhead service connection. For laying a
cable a trench about 1 m. deep is made, and the run of the cable
should be as straight as possible. At bends longer radius sweeps
should be made. The cable along the pole should be liked with the
help of clamps, and at least 3 metres from the ground must be run
in a G.I. pipe of ample size.
Example 2. Estimate the cost of providing a service line con-
nection to a single-storey building the position of the tubular steel
pole and meter board may be assumed as shown on Fig. 16.4. The
connected load of the building is 3 kW.
Solution. Load in Amperes = 13 Amps.
From Tables 14.1 and 14.2, it will be seen that P.V.C. twin core
6 sq. mm . will be suitable. The estimated cost has been worked out
in Table 16.2
Example 3. Estimate the cost of providing a service line con-
nection for the scheme as shown in Fig. 16.6. The total load on each
meter is 15 Amps. The distance of supply pole from the first Main
Board position is 10m. The horizontal distance between two adjacent
Meter Boards is 15 ,n.
CA &t
Service Main by under ground cable

Fig. 16.6

INSTALLATION AND ESTIMATES FOR SERVICE LINES 617
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17
Estimates for L.T. Distributors and
Street Light Feeders
Example. 1. A pole and stay assembly as shown in Fig. 17.1

are to be erected. Determine the volume of excavation required to be
done and also draw a list of materials which will be used to provide
such an arrangement.
Solution.
Total volume of excavation = Excavation for stay pit +
Excavation for pole pit
Excavation for stay pit = 091 x 0.61 x 1.22 = 0.6772 cu. m.
Excavation for pole pit 0.91 x 0.61 (0.60 + 0.75 + 0.45)
= 0.91 x 0.61 x 1.80 = 0.9991 cu. m.
Total volume of excavation = 0.6772 + 0.9991. -
Ans. = 1.6763 cu. m.
Now, volume for which P.C.C. Block is to be provided
= Volume of P.C.C. in stay +
volume of P.C.C. in pole
Volume of P.C.C. in stay = 0.91 x 0.61 X 1.22 = 0.6772 CU. m.
Volume of P.C.C. in pole = (0.91 x 0.61 x 0.60) - (Volume
occupied by the pole)
Assuming that pole has an area of cross-section as 0.23 x 0.23-
sq. m.,
Volume of P.C.C. in pole = (0.91 x 0.61 x 0.60)-(0.23 x 0.23)
x (0.60-0.15)
= (0.91 x 0.61 x 0.60) - (0.23 x 0.23 x 0.45)
= 0.3331 -0.02380
0.3093 cu. ni.

Total volume for which 1: 4 :8 P.C.C. is to provided
= 0.6772 + 0.3093 = 0.9865 rn

DISTRIBUTORS AND STREET LIGHT FEEDERS 621
Volume of cement = x 0.9865
= 0.0759 cu. m.
Now 1 cu. rn. cement contents weigh 2,060 kg. approx.,
I
PC. C.
1:4:8
h-9,cmc, rn- -.c rnx51cn-.j

Hence, weight of cement
F:g 17.1
requirCJ = 2060 x
x 0.9865 = 0.3036 Cu. rn.

I
C.
5 cm
0.0759 = 156.35 kg.
Volume of sand =
Volume of 28 mm. graded stone or brick aggregate
= x 0.9863 = 0.60T2 cu. m.
Volume of Brick work = (Volume for the first si.ep + volume for
the seccrd step.)— (Vol urne ofpole)
622 WffiII4G, ESTIMATING, AND COSTING
= 0.85 x 0.55 x 0.75) + (0.79 x 0.49 x 0.45)

—(0.23 xO.23 x 1.20)
= (0.3506 + 0.1742-0.0635
= O.46l3 cu. m.
Assuming that 500 bricks are used for 1 cu. m. volume,
Nos. of bricks required = 500 x 0.4613 230.65 say 231 Nos.
Assuming that 95 kg. cement is required to provide the brick
masonry work with cement and sand having ratio as 1 4 for one
cu. M. volume or with 500 bricks, the
Weight of cement required = 9 53 x 0.4613 43.82 kg.
Volume of sand required to provide 1 4 brick masonry
43.82
= x 4 = 0.0866 cu. m. appx.
Total quantity of cement required for providing P.C.C. and

brick masonry
= 156.35 + 43.82 = 200.17 say 210kg.
(including the quantity required for plastering the top surface
of the brick masonry)
lotal quantity of sand required for P.C.C. rock and brick
masonry
= 0.3036 -P 0.0866 = 0.3902 say 0.4 cu. M.
(including the quantity ofsand required for
plastering the top surface of the brick
masonry).
List of materials required has been given in Table 17.1.
Example. 2. An overhead line far various loads as shown in
Fig. 17.2 is to be constructed. Determine the approximate cost of
erecting the same.
60 fl7._..j.30P7 .._-__ 6cn7__._..L2a,77..r8
SLIB
5 TA T10,Y 4 Kc, k. K,
Fig. 17.2
Solution. It is seen that the load on the line varies. The per-
missible voltage drop at point E is limited to 5% of the declared
voltage.

DISTRrBUTORS AND STREF LIGHT FEEDERS 623
Hence permissible voltage drop at point E-
Table 17.1
S. r Description of
No. Material Unit Quantity
1. P.C.C. Pole 9.15 m. long ' 1
2. Stay plate 6.30m thick and ofsj 1
cm..x3Oc '- 9mm.dia.hole
3. Galvanised Stay or Anchor Rod 19 mm. No. 1
din., 60 cm. long
4. Stay Bow of Galvanised Iron 15 mm. No. 1
din, and 37.5 cm. long
5. Galvanised Thimble . No. 2
6. Strain orStay Insulator No. 1
7. Stay Collar of 3 mm. thick Flat ln,n No. 1
S. Stay wire 7/8(7 strands ofG.I. wire kg. 10
of size 8 S.W.G.) Taking longt), P q 7 to. approx.
9. M.S. Bolts and Nuts having Round Neck Nos, 2
and Hexagons] Head 50 mm. x 15 mm.
10. M.S. Washers 15 mm. Non. 2
11. Cement kg. 210
12. Sand cu. m. 0.4
13. Graded stone orBrick aregateofsize Cu. m. 0.6072
28 mm.
Now consulting Table 14.15, the size of conductor upto various

loading point can be ascertained. It is advisable that voltage drop
and available voltage at various loading points be tabulated as
shown in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2
S. I Load Lead jSectu Size of conductor Length Voltage I Voltage aa1-

No. IL.. '4' in Amp rectmrnended in m. drop jableatfarend
eres
43.331 OA 4 of squirel60 7.902 V 392.098 V
(6/1 x2.11)
2 26 37.52 AD -do- 30 3.424V 389.674V
3 16 23.09 DC -do- 60 4.214 V 385.460 V
4 8 11.55 CE -do- 40 1.405 V 384.055 v
Now the next step is to select the arrangement of conductors.

Assuming that there is no residential accommodation, so near to
the conductors to make them accessible, vertical formation as shown
in Fig. 17.3 (a) is selected. The arrangement of conductors at point
D will be as shown in Fig. 17.3 (b).
--41
624
liWIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Arrangement of Conductors.
,_ '
Arrangement of Conductors 0 'r , nole at oint D.

()
- Fig. 17.3
(a) P.V.C. cable 3 core 35 sq. mm ., 1100 volts grade is selected

for obtaining the connection from substation.
Length = 10 m. inside the substation in the
concrete ducts + 5 m. outside the
substation under ground + 6 m.
(over the pole) = 21 m.
(b) Length of squirrel conductor 6/1 x 2.11
Length = 4 x (60 + 30 + 60 + 20 + 20)= 760m.
From the table in chapter on overhead Unes, it will be seen that
the weight of this conductor is 85 kg. per km.
Hence equivalent weight
= 85x760
1000
= 66.88 kg. or say 74 kg.
(including 10% wastage)
(c) P.C.C. pole 9.15m. long. After every 50 m. but one at the
turning pt. D and one at end are to be provided
Nos. of poles = 6
There will be five spans.
(d) G.I. wine S.W.G. for continuous earth
Length= 60 + 30 + 60 + 20 + 20 = 190 m.
Keeping a margin for wastage and provision for 12 guards and
3 ground earths, the Length
= 250 m. = 25 kg. approx.
After working the above details, the estimated cost is arrived
in a manner shown in Table 17.3.
Example. 3. In a congested colony in old Delhi, it is proposed
to run an overhead line, by using weasel conductor (611 X 2.59) for
phases and squirrel; (611 x 2.11) for neutral. The continuous earth
wire ts to be of G.I. wire S.W.G. No. 8, the distance of the poles from
the residential accommodation is 50 cm. and the width of road is 2.8
in. Suggest a method to erect the line to meet the requirement of
Indian Electricity Rule No. 79 to avoid the accessibility. Also cholk
out the list of materials used on each pole.
Solution. In accordance with Indian Electricity Rule No. 79,
the minimum clearance from the building on the basis of maximum
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628 WIRING, ESTIMATING, AND COSTING
deflection should be more than 1.22 m. In view of the foregoing, it

is suggested that the conductors should be supported on pro eted
bracket as shovm in Fig. 17.4.
F-
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45-75 an.
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Fig. 17
Top width of the pole = 18.30 cm.
Hence the distance of phase conductor from the edge of the pole
should be
122 -(50 + 18.30) = 53.60 cm.
Cons.dering the safe limit due to deflection it is desired to place
the bare phase conductor at a distance of60 cm. from the edge of the
p ole. 'I'hesa couduetofs will therefore automatically wili be at a safe
distance from the accommodatin of the other end of the road. Placing
the neutral conductor atone of the projected Angle Iron at a distance
of 30 cm. from the phase conductor, the length of Angle Iron for
Projected Bracket will be:

(ci) Length = 3 [60 cm, + 1.5 cm. (projection from the insulatoi
for neutral conductor.) + 18.30 cm. (To cover the width of
the pole) + 6 cm. (projection on the other end of the pole) +
30 cm. (distance between the phase and neutral conduc-
tors)]
= 3(60 + 1.50 + 18.30 + 6 + 30)
= 3 x 115.80
= 347.40 cm.
Now to support this projected Angle Iron bracket, a vertical
Angle Iron piece as shown in Fig. 17.4. The length of piece as can
be seen from Fig. 17.4 Will be
Length of Angle Iron vertical piece = 7.62 + 3 x 45.75 + 7.62 =
152.49 cm.
Now this piece is required to be supported by a brace as shown
in Fig. 17.4. It r 11 be seen that equilateral triangle is to be found
the length will therefore be
Length of Brace = (84 . 15) 2 + ( 84 . 15) 2 = 118.8 cn.
Hence, Total length of AngleIron 60 mm. x 60 mm. x 6mm.

= 347.40+ 152.49+ 118.8 =618.69ci,
Assuming 10% wastage = 640 cm. approx. = 6.40 m.
Weight at 5.40 kg. per metre
= 34.56 kg.
Flat Iron 63 mm. x 6 mm.
Length for each clamp = (6 + 18.30 + 6) = 30.30 cm.
Length for 4 clamps = 4 x 30.30 = 121.20 cm.
Assuming .10% wastage = 133.32 cm. say 130 cm. = 1.30 m.
Weight at 3 kg. per metre = 3.90 kg.
The list of material is given in Table 17.4.
Table 17.4
S Details o[Materuil Unit I Qty. I Remarks
No.
1. Angle Iron 60 mm. x 60 mm. x 6 kg. p4.56
mm.
2. Flat Iron 63 mm. x 6 mm. kg. 3.90
3. M.S. bolts and nuts having Nos. 2 1 For clamps at brace,
round neck and hexagonal head
50 mm. x 15 mm.
4. -do-4Omm.xl5cm. Nos. J For clamps at projected
6
Angle Iron bracket,
5. I-do- 60 mm. x 15 cm. Nos. 4 For joining the vertical
Angle Iron pieces and
Brace.
6. W.S. washers 15 cm. I Nos. 1 24
WIRING, ESTIMATING, AND COSTING
Example. 4. A road as shown in Fig. 17.5 is required to be
ilium ma ted b y providing street lighting. Assu ining the
width ofroad
as 4 in. design a street lighting scheme and estimate the cost if the
scheme is to be estimated for obtaining minimum level of ilium i-
nation as 0.6 lax.
60/7?.
ri- 50j
5cN°1 H-[1IIIlJJ
3
q'90
300111. -.
Fig. 17.5
Solution. While designing the Street
lighting scheme, the
following points need consideration
(z) As fr as possible, the design should be such that Luminous
Intensity should be uniform.
(ii) The distance between the two
street light points sfould net
be more than 35 m. to obtain a space height
ratio within the limit
and to obtain uniform level of illumination.
(iii) All crossings and turns should be provided with a street
light point.
---J
7
E'
! Jo II 12
M^— 13 14 15 16 1
R
S N
Fig. 17.6
Proposals
(1) Between A = 9 spans spaced at 30 m. apart
(2) Between BC- 2 spans 25 rn. Ppirt
(3) Pole D = Pole Data distance of 25 m. from pole
C
(4) BE and EF = 27 m. span distance
(5) BG and Gil = 27 m. span distance
(6) HJ = 34 m. span distance

(7) JK and KL = 30 m. span distance
(6) DM = 10 spans 30 m. apart
(9) MN = . 2 spans 30 m. span distance
(10) HP = 1 span 33 m. apart
(11) PR = 8 spans 30 m. apart.
In view of the above, the position of the poles to carry street
lightfittings is marked as show-n in Fig. 17.6. The distance between
various poles is also shown therein. It will he seen that maximum
distance between two poles is 34 m.
Now, minimum level of illumination required is 0.6 lux. Let us
assume the height of lamp as 7 m. and considering that 100 watt
lamps are used for the purpose.
Referring to chapter on Illumination, the luminous flux ouL put
ofthis lamp is 1630 lumens,
1630
Candle Power of each, 100 wan lamp =
Taking co-efficient of utilisation as 0.3, the C.P. will be

1630
/ =—x O.3
4t
From Fig. 17.7 it will be seen that the maximum level of Illu-
mination will be at the centre of the two poles.
7m. 7m
Fig. 17.7
/
Level of Illumination, E= - cos3 O x 2
h2
(as from both sources, it will be added)
From Fig. 17.7. tan 0 = = 0.4118

632
cos 0 = 0.9258
cs 3 e =
1630 0.7936
E
= 4.1
As coefficient of utilisation is 0.3, therefore
Level of I llumination = 4.1 x 0.3 = 1.23 lux. which is maximum.
The minimum level of Illumination will be flea- po Aa
.8, which can be determined by taking cos 0 of one light as unit and
0 for the other light.
Level of Illumination at pt. A
o.3-L __ 0.3x.x-i.
Tr
h 4—m 49
= 0.7938 lux.
Hence 100 watts lamps will be suitable.
(i) Nos. of poles = 41
(ii) Nos. of street light fittings = 41 Nos.
(iii) Nos. of anchored stays
= one at pole 1 + one at pole 10 + One at pole
24 + one at pole 34 + one at pole 36 + one at
pole 12 - one each at pole 21, F, Jand L =
10 Nos,
(iv) Conductor Size.
For calculating the conductor size the load
on the line is to be considered The load is 4.1 kW for this load and
length of feeder squirrel conductor is suitable.
(u) Length of squirrel conductor (6/1 x 2.11), in view of Figs.
17.5 and 17.6. = 2(300+70+300+60+30+50++30)18
Weight. at 85 kg. per km. = 153 kg. say 160kg.
(considering sag and wastage)
(vi) G.I. wire S.W.G. 8 = 100 kg. approx. (considering
sag and wastage and provision
for 10 earths and guards.)
(vii) P.V.C. cable 2 core 35 sq. mm . -r 0 jr.
The estimated cost and schedule of items has been worked out
in Table 17.5.

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WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTI
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Example. 5. A proposed colony as shown in Fig. 17.8 is to be

electrified. There are four identical phases. Total number of quarter
and the connected load is given below. Design and estimate the cost
of electrification scheme proposed by you.
The provision of street lighting is also lobe taken into account
assuming minimum level of Illumination required as 0.3 lux and
co-efficient of utilisation as-0.3.
?TPE Nos. Connected load in each
Quart L' r.
1 120 1.5 kW
2 96 1.0 kW
3 160 0.5 kW
Solution. Total connected residential load on the substation
= 120x 1.5+96x 1.0+ 160x0.5
= 180 + 96 + 80 = 356 k.\V.
PH E I PHASE H
UARTER5 TYPE 3
TYPE 1-
505TATN 77 P3H0ASEM1.— . ! PHA5EL

PROPOSED
5ITEFOR I

L H 11
H-
ri
OUARTER5
1TYPE2 IARTER5
III
I I
F
3
4
,71
E
Fig. 17.6
636
AND COSTING
Assuming the load factor as 0.5, the
su bstation will be 356 x 0.5 178 kw. res idential load on the
Now for this load, two feeders, one for

for phases iii and IV are recommended p hases land H and other
Load in amperes Qn each fcQdcr
178
X
= 2 7s = 128.4 amps.
Lay
out of feeders No. 1 and 2 is shown
are ess entially required to be in Fig .
p laced at Position 17.9. The poles
C-i, D, D-i, E, E-i, F, and F-i. A, A- 1, B, B. 1, c,
req Consideng feeder No. 1, the
uirement
lines. of various items has been worked out in the following
The total requ irement exce
be double. pt that of undergr
ound cable will
35 1. Poles. The span is to be kept in the

m. as the street lights are to be provided neig hbourhood of
PH4Sf I
PHASE if
5118
STATION
FEEDER N
-
VA 66.5ka,
22-5kw
.
32-5 kw II /
10kw
.B 22kr
B-,
FEEDER No.!
1 PHASE liT
PHA
/
'I
1)-
Fig. 17.9
(i) Span between AD 42014
No. of poles = 14 (excluding pole at position A)
300
(ii) Spans betwecnAB =- = 10
30
No. of poles = 10 (excluding pole at position 8).
300
(iii) Spans between BC =-= 10
30
No. of poles = 11 (including polies at positions B and C)
(iv) Spans between BE and CF

420
= = 14
No. of poles = 14 on each lane excluding poks at positions B and C
Total No, of noles required

= 2(14 + 10 + 11 + 14 + 14) = 126.
2. Size of PVC underground cable
Load in amperes on each feeder
128.4
64.2 Amps.
From Table 14.8, it will he seen that: aluminium conductor

P.V.C. 1,100 volts grade 50 sq. mm . 31 core will be suitable
(i) Feeder No. 1.

Length = 5 m. (Inside Substation) + 5 m. (under-
ground) + 10 m. (on the pole) + 5 m. for
the loop = 25 m.
• (ii) Feeder No. 2.
Length = 5 m. (Inside Substation) +9 m. (under-
ground) + 10 rw(on the pole) + Sm. for
the loop = 29 nt,say 30 m.
Total length of P.V.C. 1,100 volts grade50 sq. mm . 3core cable
= 30 + 25 = 55 m.
WmrNc ESTLMATING AND COSTING
3. Size and weight
OfA.C.SR Conductors
Consider various Sections in F
size of conductor required forvaous eeder No. 1by
sections and determine the
14.15. The total length for both the feeders will beC onsulting T
double able
As
t r ansformers are usually the
desi
the voltage by ±7.5% or ±5%;. gned for adjustable tapping to %,a'
has been taken as 420 V. therefore the Voltage at the substation
(i) Length OfA.C.SR
Rabbit (6/1 x 3.33)
2 (3(420 + 420)) = 5,040 rn.
Weight at 214 k,,./km.
1078.56 kg. or say llOOkg.considenng

sag and wastage.
(ii) Length OIA.CSR Weasel
(6'1 x 2.59)
= 2 1(420 +42O) = 1,680 m.
Weight at 128 kg./km.
215.04 kg., say 225 kg.

C onsidering sag
and wastage.
(iii) Length tf Leopard (6/1 X
5.28)
2 (3(300 + 420 + 303)) 6,138 m.
Weight 9t 493 kg./km.
= 3026.034 kg., say 3100kg.

sag and wastage C onsidering
(iv) Legth of Beaver (6/1 x
3.99)
2 (300 + 420 + 303) 2,046 m.
Weight at 303 kg./kin. 619.94 kg.
say 640 kg. consi
4. Cal culations for dering sag and wastage
Street Li
Sireet Light Feeders, one for main roadghting There
and phases will he two
land
other for main road and phases 111 and IV. On the main II and the
road, the
poles on both sides will be p rovided
' th street light fittings. It is
proposed that4Owattfluoresceflt tube l.h -ill be installed
The level of illu
mination should be calculated
and D as shown in Fig. 17.10 (a), (b), for
p ositions A B, C
(c) and (d).
(i) Level of Illumin ation
for A
Level of Ill umination E
L cos IO ,x CO C[ficicnt of uilizajo0

2,300
where
4it
(by cc i;uhig chapter on Illumination)
h 8m.
8
0rian 22.2
= tan-'0.3603
o = 19°49'
• cos O=O.941
2,300 0.3
E =—xx2x(O.941)
4t 64
= 1.427 tux.
30M. -
C
(a)
H- 22.5m.—. H-15rn•--- C
(c•)
3•5 In
(d)
Fig. 17.10
—42

640
(ii) Level of illumination for position B
For position Bon1y effect of one
sideration. light will be taken into con-
Level of Illumination
E = x coefficient of utilization
h2
=4
23(X)
x 0.3 = 0.858 lux.
,tx64
(iii) Level of illumination for position C
8
8=un
= tan' 0.5334 -
= 280 5'
cos 3 0 (0.8836)
0.6901
E =2x Lh2 x co-efficjt of utilization x cos' e

3300 0.3 x 0.6901
4ir .64
= 1.184 lux.
(iv) Level of illumination for position D
8 an-=6642'
cosO =0.3955
cos 3 0 =0.06184
E=2x x co-efficient of utilization x cos 3 0

h2
2 x 23(X)
-in
= 0.1071 lux.
641
DISTRIBUTORS AND STREET LIGHT FEEDERS
In view of the above, it will be seen that level of Illumination at

point D will be lower than requirement but if the calculations are
made for various points between DB, it can be found that pt. D will
have the minimum level of Illumination. As all points on the road
except a particular pt. D will have the level of Illumination more
than the requirement, the selected fitting will be suitable.
5. Conductor Size and Weight of Conductor for Street
Light Feeder.
(a) Nos. of fitting on Street Light Feeder I
= 14 (along AD) + 14 (along BE)
+ 21 (along AC) + 14 (along CF) = 63.
Total Nos. of'Fittings on both Feeders = 126
Load on Feeder No. 1
= 63 x 40 watts.
= 2.520 M.
Load in amperes = 10.956 Amperes
(hence 15 Amps. Time Switch will be
suitable)
Load on AD = 560 watts.
Load in amperes on AD side
560
230
= 2.435 Amps.
Load on AF side = 1.960 kw.
Load in amperes on AF side
= 8.521 Amps.
Route Length from A to F the farthest point
= 300 + 303 + 420
= 1023 m.
Consulting table 14.14, the impedance of squirrel A.C.S.R.
conductor is 1.4 ohm / kin. The voltage drop upto p1. F will therefore
be 12.78 V. approx. and hence the available voltage will be within
the limits. The conditions on Street Light Feeder 2 will be similar.
Hence squirrel A.C.S.R. conductor is selected.
Total Length of squirrel A.C.S.R. conductor (6/1 x 2.11)
642
= 2(420+ 300+ 420+ 303420)

= 3,726 m.
(c) Weight at 85kg/km.
= 316.71 kg. or say
= 325 kg. (including sag, wastage etc.)
Cd) Length of two-core PVC cable 10 sq. mm .
= 25 + 30
=55 m.
6. Stays
(1) Anchor Rod Stays
(Atpst. DD-i, E, E . 1, F,
(ii) Flying Stays = 6 Nos. arid F-i)
= 6 Nos. (At pta. A,A-1,B,B.l

7. Pole Earthing. 11 on each feeder Cand C-i)
Total Nos. = 22 Nos.
8. Nos. of Shackle Insulators. Vertical formation as shown
in Fig. 17.3 is to be made.
(i) Shackle In
sulator 1,100V for phases
= 420 No.
3 Nos. for each pole
except for poles shown
below whence more number are required.
(a) A ,A1,C an d C,.i
= 6 Nos. on each pole
(b) B, B-i
= 9 Nos. on each pole
(ii) Shackle Insulator
phase. 500 volts for neutral and street light
= 268 Nos.
The e
stimated cost has been worked out in Table 17.7.

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D1STRIJrORS AND STREET LIGHT FEEDERS 647
Example 6. A feeder as shown in Fig. 17.1! is to be erected.
I Determine the schedule qlmaterial and estimate cost of the same.

K
10 Kw
C
vN CA8LE
Joute length
30m.
to 5k. JfL.i_— S
Fig. 17.11
Solution. The load on the lines varies, as can be seen from Fig.
17.10. As the declared voltage is 400 volts, therefore,
Permissible voltage drop = =2O Volts
i.e. the available voltage at the far end should be
=400-20=38Ovolts
Now assuming the available voltage at the L.T. side of the
transformer as 415 volts, the size of the conductor upto various
loading points can be determined iy consulting Table 14.38. The
voltage drop in various lengths of the distributor and the available
voltage at various loading points has been tabulated in Table 17.8
Total load on the line =20+20+5+10+5+5+10+ 1085KW.
3)X11WIJ
Load in amperes = 122.7 amps.
'Jx400xl
Consulting Table 14.8, the above current can safely be carried
by 150 sq. mm . 31 core P.V.C. 1100 volts grade underground cable
The resistance of this cable as can be seen from Table 14.11 is 0.2088
ohms/km.
Resistance of the underground cable -
= [10 m. (inside the sub-station) + 30 m (under-

02088
ground) + 10 M. (apt the pole)] x- j-
50 x 0.2088
= =0.01Q44 ohms
1,000
Voltage drop ='x 122.7 xO.01044 = 2.21R volts
Hence the available voltage at pt. ,4 = 415 -2.218 = 412.78' V.
Details of various items required are as under:
6-18
WIRING ES
Leopard (6/1 x 5.28)
Length
Weight at 493 kg/km =3(60+60+30)._450m
221.85 kg. Say 230 kg.
(including wastage and sag)
(2) Beaver (6/1 x 3.99)
Len I-
= 60+ 60 + 30= 150 in
Weight at 303 kg/kW = 45.45 kg Say 50 kg.
(3) Squirrel (6/1 x 2.11)
I engt
Weight, at 85 kg/km = 4 (60+ SO + 60 + 60 + 100) = 1440 ni

= 122.4 kg Say 130 kg
(4) P. C'.C. Poles 9.15mlong:
The numbers of poles can be determined
the neighb ourhood 0135 m. assuming that r estricting the span in
in near future. str eetlights may be fixed
(i) Between AL) 6 Nos.-including poles at
(ii) Between DK E 5 N os.-excluding pole at A and D
D but including
pole at position K
(iii) Between DI-! = 8 No s.-exc1ujrg ple it
D but including
pole at Position H
Total = 19 Nos.
(5) Ançhr Stays
(i) At pole on position A = 1 No.
(ii) At pole on position D
= 1 No.
At pole on position J = 1 No.
(iv) At pole onposition K
= 1 No.
(U) At pole on josition E
= 1 No.
(vi) At pole on position G = 1 No.
(vii) At pole on position H
= 1 No.
Total 7 Nos.
(6) Pole Earthing
(i) Between portion AD = 2 Nos.
(ii) Between portioh•DH = 2 Nos.
(iii) Between portion DK = 1 No.
Total 5 Nos.
Schedule
in Table 17.9. of materials and estimated cost has been worked out

649
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DLSTRffiIJTORS AND STREET LIGHT FEEDERS 651
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652
WIRING, E STIMATING, AND COSTING
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•1)_ • _1
Example. 7: In a street, there are 12 tubular lamp posts of height

7 mts. with aspan of 30 M, each post}as one 4 feet fube with outdoor
type fittings. Estimate the cost for the entire installation by
assuming sutable data. Under ground cable may be used.
Solution For this street light service, the following is assumed.
Given Data : Height of post 7 m span 30 mts;; No. of posts 12
Assumption Made:
1. One No. switch 15 A, 250 V, is provided at post No. 1, to
control ALL the 12 lamps.
2. Supply to this MS is taken from the nearest pillar box, 8 M
away.
3. The pillar box is at a hieght of 0.5 M above the gi ound.
4.The service cable is RUN 1.0 M below the ground.
5.The MS is placed 1.35 M above the ground
6.116 of Post Height i.e. 7/6 = 1.166 M is below the ground.
7.Coping for the post is done above the ground, for a height
of 0.7 M. This is to eliminate stay sets for the posts.
M2
8. We use 2 core 1 rum 2 , 1/1.2 cu cable for tapping from 6m
Lo the lamp
9. All the 12 lamps are on one side of the street.
Voltage Drop Calcuation:
Current in each bulb of 40 \V = 401230 = 0.173 Amps.
1.5
The designing current = 0.173 x = 0.326 Amps.
Distance from pillar to th post No. 1 = SM

Length of cable required = (1+1+8+1+1.35 + looping) = 15 M
We select 6m M2, 1/2.80 in 7.3m1 7 iAmp. /M. single phase, twin
core copper cable (Multi-strand Sheathed, Insulated with BUTYL
RUBBER).
654
WIRING, ESTTh.iATJNG AND COSTING
STREET t.fGh'T
()Ong tfJ
IM SB
(COPING
-4
- CA9LE M'Y •r_- - -
PILLAR I 2 3STREET LIGHTS

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12
0-5m
I HI! i
8m—A 9 C C S F G H I J K L
A -B3Om
STREET LIGHTS
The Currents and associated Voltage drop in each sec-
tion are shown below:
SL No. Section Distance Current Voltage drop Total
Ampa Volts
1. PA 8M 3.912 0.428
2. AB 30M 3.687 0.820
3. BC 3.260 0.713
4. CD 2.934 0.642
5. DE 2.608 0.571
6. EF 2.282 0.429
7. FG 1.956 0.428
S. CH - 1.630 0.356
9. HI 1.304 0.285
10. IJ 0.978 0.213
11. JK - 0.652 0.141 -
12. XL 0.326 0.0tj5.165
(This drop is within limits)
Ph
CR-
Pound
block
1-w
Round
block
SF T
Single lamp controlled
by single switch
N
Ph
Two lamp controlled by two

switches from same place
-43

656
LABOUR CHARGES
1 For excavation of earth for laying Cable at Rs. 1350.00
1 M below the ground: 10 labourers at Rs.
45/- per day for 3 days
2. For excavation of earth for errection of 12
Rs. 450.00
Nos. of post. 5 labourers at Rs. 45/- per day
for 2 days
3 Bricks for laying 370 m length L.S. Rs. 275.00
4 Erretion of poles, Running the Cable, Fixing
the junction boxes, Making the joints, fixing
the T.L.fittings etc.
(a) Supervisor - 1 at Rs. 100.00
(b) Cable jointer - 1 at Rs. 80.00
(c) Electrician-2 at Rs. 80/- eachRs. 160.00
(d) Helpers - 4 at Rs. 45/- each Rs. 180.00
Total Rs. 520.00 Per day

for 3 da y s Rs. 1560.00
5. Refilling the earth -2 labourers at Rs. 45.00 Rs. 90.00
per day
6. Mason - 1 No - 2 daysat Rs. 80.00 per day Rs. 160.00
If - 2 No - 2 daysat Rs. 45.00 per day Rs. 1SO.00
7. Junior Engineer to see that the entire work Rs. 1500.00
is completed with in 10 days at Rs. 150.00
per day

Total Rs. 5565.00
DETAILED ESTIMATE
Si. No. Description of Qty. Rate in Amount Remarks

Materials Rs. Rs. p. -
1. 6 mm 2 , 7/1.12, Twin 381m Rs. 51/ 43 1.00
core multi-strand, per m.
Metaljc Sheathed
1100 V grade, U.G.
Cable, Copper
2. 1mm 2 , 1/1.12, Twin Rs. 20/- Post 1
Core, Metalic l3Om perm 2600.00 7-1.166-1.35
Sheathed 600 V = 4.84
grade, U.G. Cable Post 2-12,
Copper. (Height of 10 x 11 =
each post + 3m loop + 110.00
wastage) x 12
(Contd.)
657
Description of Qty. Rate in Amount Remarks

Si.
Materials Rs. Es. p.
No.
1562.00
3. Cable junction box, ii No. Es. 142i-
suitable for 6 mm 2 each
Cable L.T. boxes
Black 50 Kg Es. 16/- per 800.00
4. Bituminous
Compound for L.T.
per M 120.00
5. Varnished Tape 25 60 in Es. 2'-
mm
300.00 for the
6. Black adhesive Tape 100 in Es. 3/-per M joints at
25 mm fitting
55m Es. 1/-per M 55.00
7. Cotton Tape 25 mm
Nos. 48 Nos. Es. 10/- each 480.00
8. Cable clamps 4
for each post
2400.00
9. Street Ligth T.L. fit- 12 No. Es. 200/-
ting,lx40W each
10. CopperNo.S for Earth 7 KEs. 75/- Kg 525.00 for earthing
the fittings
Cement, Sand Bricks etc. L.S. 1000.00
11.
for Civil work
Total 29273.00
Es. 2927.30
Sundries 10%
Es. 32200.30
Total
Es. 4830.00
Contingencies 15%
37030.30
Tool Charges 3% Es. 1110.91
Rs. 38141.21
Total
Labours as detailed Es. 5565.00

Transport 3%
Es. 43706.21
1311.19
Es. 45706.21
Total
Over head Charges 15% Es. 6752.61
Grand Total Es. 51770.00 or say Es.

51800.00
Sal......... .........
Chief Engineer in Charge

658 WIRING, FSrATQ AND COSTING
ANNEXURE.
Length of Cable required

From pillar to trench (0.5 + 1.0 = 1.5) = 1.5 m
From trench to 1st Post (Horizontal under the ground)= 8.0 m
From under the 1st Post to SB at the 1st post
(1 + 1,3 = 2.3) =2.3rn
From SB to trench (down) (1.3 + 1.0 = 2.3) = 2.3 m
From 1st post to 12th post (lix 30 = 330) =330.00m
Loose =2.5m
Total = 346.6 m
Add 10%= 34.6 m
Total 381.2 m
Or say 3S1/- Mts.
ffueol
Estimates For 11 K.V. Feeders
And Sub-Stations
i
Example 1. Determine the quantity of material required and

. substation, Assuming that
cost for erecting 300 KVA 0.4111 M T
400 volts generator pannel is at a distance of 50m in an adjoining
power house.
Solution.
Load in amperes on L.T. cable
=4OOx3
= 433 amps.
Load in amperes on H.T. cables

- 3O0xl0YJ
-
= 15.75 amps.
Consulting tables 14.8 and 14.9, following cables are selected.
(1) L. T. —PVC 1,100 volts, Aluminium conductor 3-crcre
400 sq, mm underground cables.
60 in (5 in loop will be given on each side)
(ii) H. T. —Screened Aluminium conductor Lead alloy
sheathed double steel tape single wire armoured
.11KV, 3core 25 sq. mm underground cable = 20m.
Equipment in the substation will be connected with two sepa
rate earths. Following items are required in each set of earth
c&o
(i) Copper strip 40 mm. x 6.30 mm.20 m

(ii) G.I. pipe 80 mm. dia. = IOM
(iii) Cast iron galvanized
60 cm.-x 60 cm. x 6.30 mm. 1 No.
(iv) Charèoal 10 Bags
(u) Bolts and Nuts required size
= 4 Nos. approx.
Each set as given above will cost Rs. 2500.00 approx. Labour
cost will be extra.
Schedule of items and estimated cost has been given in Table

18.1.
Table IS.)
S. I Schedule of Unit I Qty. 1 RateJ Total

No .I
1 P.V.C. 1,100 volts aluminium

conductor, three and half core m. 42000
perm
400 sq. mm . underground
cable.
2. Screened aluminium conduc. 20 348 00 6960 00
tar Lead alloy sheathed, m.
perm
double steel tape/single wire
armcured 22KV, 3 . core, 25 sq.
mm. underground cable.
3 TrarisforrncrstepupO4KVto No.
11 K y , 300 KVA capacity, 1 200002 001 2,00002 I 00
each I
3-phase 50 cycles, core type
double wound suitable for
indoor use and having no load
ratio )f O.4/11 KVwith copper
winding connected in
star/delta. H.V. side provided
with ±2.5%, ±5%, ±5%, ±7.5%
tappings and the tappings are
brought upto an externally
hand operated off circuit tap
changing switch with suitable
indicator and locking device
and with transformer oil for
first filling and standard
accessories.
(Contd.)
61
ESTIMATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUBSTATIONS
S.
No.
_[_ Schedule ofltelfla
TooJ
Rs. Rs, I P.
(1) Metal clad indoor type Air Circuit

breaker 400/440 volta, 3-phase,
4-wire 50 cycleiSOOamps havin
reptunng capacity 10 MVA and
fitted with
3 Nos, H.D. H.C. Electrolytic

Copper Busbars mounted on por-
celain Busbarsupport3, rating 250
a mps
(ii) I No. H.D. HG. Loiyic Cop-'
per Busbars rnou nted on poreelain
Busbarsupporth, rating 250 amps.
(iii) 3 Nos. C.T. Ratio 500/5 amps
(iv) I No. voltmeter 500 volts range
with a 3-way on and off voltmeter
selector switch.
(u) 1 No. Ammeter 1.000 amps. scale
with a 3-way on and off Ammcte
Selector Switch. 00
1 47590l 00 47590
(vi) 1 set of protective fuse for volt- No.
meter.
High Voltage AC metal-clad
floor mounting extensible unit
type. 11KV, 3.phae,3 . wire. 50
cycles/sec. Switch Board hav-
ing breaking capacity of 250
MVA. Unit should comprise o
the following:
(i) Incoming Panel having:
(a) I No., 400 amps, vertical
drop down drawout free
handle mechanism oil cir-
cuit breaker with standard
equipment.
(b) 3 Nos. 5 amps overload trips
calibrated 100/200%
(e) 3 Nos., enclosed time limits
fuse
(d) 3 Nos, (Ts of ratio 40/5
amps, 15 VA for protection
and indication instruments
(e) 1 No. ammeter, 40 amps
scale with a 3-way on and of
ammeter selector switch
(f) 1 No. voltmeter range 15 KV,
with selector switch
(g) Set of red and green
eating lamps for operation;
onllO volts.
662
WIRING ESTIMATING AND
Schedule of Items
Unit I Qiy^ Rs. P.
(h) 3-phaae horizontal dropout oil irnmeraej

potentia' Transfo-er ratio 11,000/110
Volta.
VA out put per phase with
Fuses or, liv. and L.V. sides.
(i) Cable end Box suitable for cable at
No.2 aia,ve. item
(j) Metal clad air insulated Busbara chain-
beta having 3 Non., ..30 amps Busbata.
(ii) Outgoing Feeder
Panel 2 Non. each
equipped with:
(a) 1 No., 400 amps vertical
drop
drawout free handle mechanism oildown
cii--
cuit bre aker unit.
I "''"' °I i te ms I 11,,; I r. Role Total
Fitted ith Rs.P

(a) 3 Nos. 5 amp. over load
trips
Calibrated 100/200%
(b) 3 Nos. CTS of ratio 40/5 amps.
15 VA output for
protection
ALd
indication Inst'umerjs
() Ammeter range 40 amps.
WiLh Selector Switch.
(d) 1 Set of green and
red indica-
to 0 lamp.
(e) Cable Boxes, 2 Nos. Suitable
for Cable at Item No. 2 above
(/) Metal clad air Insulated Bus-
No. 1 474000.00 474000.00
bar Chamber having 3 Nos.
1
500 amps. Busbars.

6. Black B ituminous cable Compound
Suitable for voltage 11 Ky. k g.50 50.00 ! 2500.00
7. Black a dhesive tapes 25 mm. wide 50
m. length. Roll 20
8.
900.00.! 1800.00
Varnished or Empire Tape
wide 50 M. length. Roll i 30.00 450.00
9. Colton Tape 25 mm. wide 5025meter 711L
length. Roll is 15.00 25.00
10. Earthing Complete
11. 'Lump 8ump provision Sets
for Cement
2 2250.00 4500.00
Sand, Bricks and bolts etc. 3300.00
Tra nsportation Charges LS.
Labour charges, aaauning the fol- 5300.00
lowing Technicians and labourers
'I will finish the job within 20 days
(includes testing Commissioning and
(Contd.)
ESTIMATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUB-STATIONS 663
Schedule of Ikmj Unit. I Qty: I Rate Total

SBo I
Rs. Rs P
(a) Electrician = I No. at the n
of Rs. 80 per day.
(b) Mason = 1 No. at the rate
Rs. 100 per day. Rs. l26OJ
Ri. 801227
(c) Mazdoors 10 Nos. at the ri
offla. 45 per day.
add Contingencies at 10% Rs. 8012170
Ri. S 134970
Hence the estimated cost of Say Ha

work is H g . 8,81350 881350.00
Example 2. Estimate the quantity of material and the cost of

erecting 75 KV'A pole mounted sub-station by extending the existing
11 KV overhead line which is existing at a distance of 500 in. The
sub-station is to be used for lighting load having 2 Feedersharrg
equal load on L.T. side.
Solution. Load in Amperes
75 x 1,000 Amps.
j xli, 000
Squirrel (6/1 x 2.11), AC.S.R. is selected for the purpose of
overhead line, consulting Table 14.14, the impedance of this caAe
is 1.4 ohms/km.
Therefore voltage drop in. 500 m. span
= ,:x 1.4x 3.937
= 4.773 volts which is very much within the limits

Length of conductor squirrel (611 x 2.11)
=3x500=1,500m.
Weight at 85 kg./km. = 127.5 kg.

Considering wastage and sag the weight will be = 140 kg.
Pole P.C.C. tim. long
500
Nos. ofspans
66
WIRING ESTIMATING AND COST
Nos. of poles
=16 Nos. (2 Nos. each for poles structur
and .4 N0 5 . for 4 pole Structure)
25 sq. in 3-core 11KV cable
Lenh =10 M. on the pole + 10
M. as four pole
structure + 10 Tn. loop on each side
30 m.
G.I. wire No. 8
=140 kg., including earthing of pole
and quarding.
Fig. 18.1 (a) represents the
end tw o ar rangement on poles except on the
provided Pole structure and on the pole where shackle of point is
Fig. 18.1. (b)
switch. represents the arrangrnent of one phase on a DX
Schedule
in Table 18.2. of Items and the estimated cost has beet worked out
Fig. 18.1
Example 3. Estimate the q
uantity ofrnaterjl required and cost
of erecting the overhead H.T., 11 "line and substation for feeding
the factory load as given in Example 15.6. H. T. overhead line 11 K
is to be extended fro-,,a point as shown in Fig. 18.2.
Solution. Total Connected load 225.63 KVA
Load in amperes on L.T. side 225.63 x 1.000 = 318.1 amps

-__.-_______._
400
Load in amperes as H.T. side 225.63 X ,

1 000 = 11.84 amps.
'Jix 11,000

I ESTIMATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUB-STATIONS

66
Table 18.2
Remarks
S.No. Jduleo(ILerns Units Qty. Rate Total
Rs. P. Rs. P.
1. pole ii m. Nos. 16 3000.00 48000.00
2. ing Sets 2 i85000 3700.00

orS 11 Ky
operating Sets 2 11000.00 22000.00
3.
complcte 11
drop-down
nits 3 Nos.,
clamps for
. pole and
on channel
A.CS.R. squirrel kg. 140 54.00 7560.00

4.
(611 x 2.11) con-
ductor
12 25.00 300.00
5. Teakwood Cross Nos.
Arm Bracket 150
cm. long with
clamps for P.C.C.I
pole jim. long 432.00 I
36 .
1200
6. 3.way 11 XV pin Nos,
insulator spindle 225.00 2700.00 3 Nos. for end to
7. 1-1.1. disc type Nos. 12
insulators 11 K
20 I 16.251 325.00
8 Flatlmn25mm.x kg.
6 men for braces
and for projection
to carry earth wire
and clamps
140 16.00 2240.00
9. G.I. wire SWG 8 kg
for Na 1 1 4450.001 4450.00
10. Platform
housing the trans-
former with chan-
nel iron and the
platform is
rnd with Gi.
ii. Transformer
step down 1L'0.4
KV, 75 KVA
capacity. 3-phase
core type double
C.O 1 91707.00
666
WIRING EST IMAflNG AND
COS'rj.
S. Schedule ofI te ms
No. Unite Qty. Rate Total Remarks
J wo undsuitabie fo r ou tdoo r l No -I LIUi.UO I

USe and having
no 1,s,.41
ratio of 11j.4 ° Ky with
i 200002.00 I
copper windings connected
in delta/star LV. aide pro-
vided with 2.5% ± 5% and ±
7.5% tappings which are
brought out to an exter-
nally hand operated o
circuit tap changing switch
with suitable indicator and
locking device, complete
With transfo1 .,er oil for
first filling and standard
acoessol-jes
12. "Screened Alurn,'^ urn
Jductor,
LOfl-I Ifl 30 1 348.00 1 13440.00
Lead n1n,! j
sheathed double steel
tape/single wire armoured
11 XV 3 core 25 sq. mm .
under cable
13. Out-door cable end box 11
Ky for cable at Si40. 12 No. ME 3050.00
above
14. Stay plate M.S. 6.30 mm No.
thick, 30 cmc 30 cm.
8 1 110.00 80.00 Two stays
at both
ends of the
Feeder and
Four at
middle two
pole Struc-
15. Ga lvanised stay or Anchor Ncs. ture
Rod 60 c long l9min. dia. 8 115 920.00
16. Stay Bow of Galvanised Nos.
4 30.00 120.00
Iron 15 mm dia. and 37.5
cm. long.
17. Non. 16
18. Strain oratayinsula .. 64.00
19. Stay. Collar of 3.80 mm Non. 8
Nos. 72.00
thick flat iron 8 80.00
20. Ea th plate Gj 6OCm.BO Nos.
cm. x 6.30 mm. 2 500.00
21. Stay wire 7/8 SWG
kg. 60
22. Ch&rmal for pole earthing Bags. 120 1080.00
'-I 720.00
(Contd.)

ES1(ATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUB-STATIONS 667
Units Qty. Rate Total Rernark

S. Schedule o[Iteins
No Rs. P. Js. P.
B.F. 3,12,63&00
23. fransformer Earthing complete in Nos. 4 1230.00 5000.00
11 reaped
24. Cement Bags 40 100.00 4000.00
25. Send Bags 40 4.00 160.00
per Bag
26. 1xicks Nos. 15,0 900.00 1350.00
0 (per
1000
Nos.)
27. LT. main I.C.T.P. switch with Noe. 1 600.00 600.00
eutra1 link 200 amps., 500 volts
2a LT. main I.C.T.P. switch with Nos. 2 117000 2340.00
aeutral link, 100 amps 500 volts
.C. cable, aluminium conduc- m. 20 45.00 900.D0
29. ?. V.C.
tor 1,100 volts grade single core 50 per m
mm.
iq.
3OiP.V.C. cable, alu in.iur coaduc- m. 30 33.00 990.00
tor l,100 volts grade single core 35 per m
mm.
31. jAnticlimbing Devices Nag. 16 25.00 400.00 one On
each pole
32H Danger plate Nag. 16 30.00 1 480.00
33H.T. beads for insulating the Na g . 1,S0 1.00 1800.00
jumpers Lump Sump. 0
34. 1,Black Bituminous compound ii Kg. 20 50.00 1000.0C
KV per kg
35JLS. provision for Black tape, 600.00
Empire tape, cotton tape and
Binding wire
Labour Charges, considering that
following technicians and labour-
ers will complete thejobduringthe
nos. of days shown
Designation-Nos. Days Re
Electrician 1 10 0.0U
lineman Cdi 1 20 70.00
Mason i 1i 00.CI
Blacksmith 1 15 60,00
Mazdoor 20 1500
5 for 10 days 19250.00
__________
15 for 20 days
351405.00
Add 10% Contingencies 35140.50
.tal' 356545.50
Hence the estim.at.cd cot of
b Rs. 3 çfl54'r,o
j
668
II K y. LIME
Am
3OOn.
PA (TORY
- PROpOCO
S118-STATVN
900 M.
-1.-I
Fig. 18.2
(i) A.C.S.R.
conductor for overhead line. Consulting table
14.14, it will be seen that the impedance of squirrel
x 2.11) is 1.4 ohms/km co nducthr(6/1
Hence the voltage drop upto end point of overhead feeder

= Jx 1.4 1.2 x 11.84 = 34 .45 volts
H ence it is suitable Length
= 3 x l,200r3,600metres;
Weight at 85 kg./km. 85 x 3,600
F-
OC)O
Keeping provision for sag and wastage, Weight of A.C.S.R,

squirrel (6/1 x 2.11) = 320 kg.
(ii) Underground cable H.T.
Length of screened, Aluminium conductor Lead alloy sheathed,

double steel tape/single wire armoured 11 KV, 3 core 25 sq. mm
underground cable. = 40 m. .
(iii) Un derground L.T. Cable
Length of P.V.C. 3 core 185 sq. mm .

1, 100 volts aluminium
c onductor underground cable =56 m.

669
ESTIMATES FOR 11 KY. FEEDERS AND SUBSTATIONS
(iv) Pole, P.C.C. 11m. long.

1,200
Nos. of spans = = 24 Nos.
Nos. of two poles structure: One at the corner and one at the
end of overhead 11 KV feeder.
Nos. of poles = 26 Nos.
Quantity of material required and cost has been worked out in
Table 18.3.
Table 18.3
Unit Qty. Rate Total Remarks
S. Schedule of Items
______ Rs. P . Rs. P . -
No.
- A SUB-STATION
1. ransformer Stepdown 1110.4 No. 1 2,00002.00 2,00002.00
KV, 300 KVA capacity. 3-phase,
50 cycles, core type double
round suitable for indoor use
and having no load ratio o
I 110.4KV with copper windings
connected in star/delta. LV. side
provided with 2.5%, ± 5%, ±5%.
5%, ±7,5%. tappings which are
brought upto an externall y hand
operated off circuit tap changinj
switch with suitable lockini
device and with transformer oil
for first filling and standard
accessories. 1 3,52000.00 ,52,000.00
2. High voltage A.C. metal clad No.
floor mounting 11KV, 3-phase,
3-wire 50 cycles 250 MVA
Breaking Capacity, vertical
drop down drawout free handle
mechanism O.C.B. with follow-
ing accessories:
(a) 3 Nos. 5 amps. overload trips
calibrated 100/200'.
(b) 3 Nos. enclosed time limit
fuse.
(c) 3 Nos.CTs. of Ratio 40/5
amps., 15 VA, for protection
and indication Instrument.
(d) I No., Ammeter, 40 amps.
scale with a 3-way on and o
Ammeter Selector Switch.
(eet of red and green indicatrn
lamps for operation on 110
volte fl
(Confd.)
670
WIRING, ESTIMATING AND tOSTG
S.
No.
Schedule of Jieri Unit I Qty.
1T'f
! P. I Ps. P.
(f)Ecer r meter. 5,52,000.0(
(g) 3-phase horizontal drop out

Oil immersed Potential
Transformer, ratio
11 , 0 00 / 110 volts, 100 VA
output per phase with uses
on H.V. and L.V. side.
(h) 2Nos, cable end Boxes
suitable for 25 sq. mm .
11 KV underground cable at
serial No. 4.
3. Metal clad indocr Industrial 1
pattern floor mounting type 1,35,000.00
L.T. Distribution Board suit-
able for opera t—on on 400/340
volts, 3-phase, 4-wire 50 cycles
system and eipped with the
following
(cx) Busbar units
(1) 3 Nos. H D.H.0 Electro- 5,52,002.00]
lytic copper Birba"s rated 300
Amps, for phases mounted on
porcelain supports.
(ii) I No. H.D.H.0 Electrolytic
Busbars rated 150 amps, for
neutral mounted or r]ain
Busbar Supports.
Iriconing
3I amps., 400 vlts, tripple
pole trip free, horizontal
drawout type O.C.B. with an
estimated r p t;r',r cs;acity
of 15 MVA s 400 volts and
rovidod wii-.
(i) C.T. operated, overload
trips with cii Dash Pot for
time lag.
(ii) 1 No. undo, voltage release,
ui)1 No. Neutral Unk
(iv) 1 No. Mechanical on and o
Indicator.
(c.') 1 No. Emergenc y trip
Lever.
(m.i) 1 No., Ammeter range 500
amps, with a Lwayn and
Off selector switch.
cii)3 CT s. ratio 3005 Amps.
No. vcI'" ...
6.87,002.00
(Contd.)

ESTIMATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUB-STATIONS 671
S..No. Schedule of Ik,rss Unit QLy. Rate Total Remarks

Rs. P• I Rs.
B.F. 6,87,002.00 I
500 volts with 3-wayand
off Selector Switch.
(ix) 1 Set of voltmeter
protective fuse.
(x) 1 No. Cable Box
suitable forL.T.cable
t serial No. 5.
(c) Outgoing
(i) 3 Nos 150 amps.
500 volts I.C.T.P. and
Neutral Link, H.R.C.
Combination tape
fuse switch units
complete with a set o
3 fuse cartridges,
ammeter 200 amps.
range and Se'*.ctor
Switch, CTs. ratio
150!5 amps 3 Nos. a
cable end Box.
(ii) I No.—do—bt of 60
amps, and wjthC.Ts.
ratio 60/5 amp.
The above unit shild be
complete with all necessary
interconnections, small
wiring, oil for 0CM and
earthing strip.
4. Screened Aluminium Con- m 40 73.00 1 2920.00
ductor, Lead alloy per m.
sheathed double steel
tape/single wire arrxured,
11 K y , 3-core 25 sq. mm.
underground cable.
5. P.V.C., 3core 1,100voltes, m 50 342.00 17100.00
185 sq. mm . Aluminium PC- m
conductor underground
cable.
6. Black Bituminous Corn- kg. 30 50.00 1500.00
pound suitable for voltages per kg
11 K
7. —do—but suitable for kg. 50 40.00 2000.00
1,100 volts per kg
8. Varnished or Empire tape Rolls 20 30.00 600.00
25 mm. wide 50 m. length per roll
9. Cotton tape 25 mm- wide 50 Rolls 20 15.00 300.00
m length per roll
C.O. 7,11.422.00
(Coned.)
-44
672
WIRING, ESTrMATINC AND COSTING
S.Na. Schedjileofjjems Unit
Q'y. Rate Totol
Rs. P.
10. Black adhesive tape 2 lioll3l 30 7 .11,4220 I
mm. wide, 50 m. hlengt 90.00
per roll
2700.00 I
11. Earthing complete
Sets 1 4 2250.00
12. Lump Sump Provision for 9000.00
Cement Sand, Brick-Bolts 4500.00
and Outdoor cable end Box
for 25 sq. mm . 22 K cable
Transportation charges
(Lump/sump 5300.00
Labour charges, assuming
the following technicians
and Iabou will finish
the job in 20 days (testing,
commissioning and
erection)
(a) Electrician = 1 No. at
the atc of Rs. 80 per day
(b) Mason = I No. at the
rate of Mg. 100 per day
(c) Mazdoor 10 Nag, at
the rate of Rs. 45 per day 00
Add 10% Contingencies 745522.00

74552.20
Hence the esdmated
cost of the substation is Total 8,2007420
1 119 - 8,20074.00
Example 4. Prepare a list of materials required with cost, for

installation of a substation at a H.T. Consumer's premises The
details of the load are as follows
I. Compressor motor 3 1 P 440V - 75
H.P.
2. Furnace 30 449V.110 Ky
3. Washing Machines
3440V - 10 H.P. - 1 No.
30 440V - 1.5 H.P. - 1 No.
30 440V - 1.0 H.P. - 1 No.
4. Grinder Machines 30 440V - 2
H.P. - 1 No.
The cost should be covered for Transformers Structures, Con-
trol Room with O.C.B. and MV. panel. The feeding must be thro'
U.G. cable.
Solution.
This is a problcm,
pertair.g o erection cIa H?. Sub-statjor
at the Consumer's premises, It is assumed t-
Tra nsmission line passes 2 KM away from his I t 3 ilo KV
pr emises Therefore,
673
ESTIMATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUB-STATIONS
a separate extension line is errected up to his premises. A sub-

station 110/11 KV & 11 KV/400V is errected at lOOM away from
this consumer and supply is taken to this consumer thro 2 core 33
KV U.G. Cable inside the premises and a 11KV/440 Tr. is errected.
Load in the factory:
1. Compressor Motor-3 440 V-75 H.P.
Assume i = 0.8 and p.f. = 0.7
75 x 0.7355
Load in KVA = x07 = 98.5 KVA
0.8
2. Furnace 3(D440 V-hO KW

Assume 11 = 0.95 p.f. = 1
110
Load inKVA = -=115.78KVA
0.95 x 1
3. Washing Machines
(i) 3 1 440 V-- 10 H.P.
Assume i = 0.8 p.f. = 0.7
10 0.7355
Load in KVA = = 13.13 KVA
0.8 xO.7
(ii) 34 440--1.5 H.P.

Assume Ti = 0.75 p.f. = 0.68
1.5 xO.7355
Load in KVA = = 1.57 KVA
0.75 x 0.68
(iii) 3 0 440 V- 10 H.P.

Assume 11 = 0.72.f. = 0.65
1.0 xO.7355
Load inKVA =0.72 - x 0.65 =2.16KVA
(iv) Grinder Mic--3 440 V-2 H.P.

Assume r = 0.9 p.f. = 0.82
2x0.7355
Load in KVA = 09 xft82 = 2 KVA

674
WIRING, ESTIMATTJ TJ AND COSTING
Total Connected Load = (

i) + (ii) + (iii) + (iv) = 233.14 KVA.
Note 1. Assume a capacitor bank 0150 KVA is
connected.
2. Assume a lighting load of 10 KW,
Hence Total con-
nected load = 293.14
KVA With future expansion in
mind, we select a 500 KVA 11KV1440V, &Y.
Transformer.-
DETAILED ESTIMATE
For Erection of 110 KY Sub-Station
Deiojjs of work
No. QtY.
Thousands Thousands Amount in
Re. Thousands
140 Grounds & Building
(a) Grounds
(b) Building 1.S 800.00
(c) Quarter. 15 40000
1S 150.00 1350.00
2.0 Structure.
(a) 110 KV k1tructu res line & 2Nos.
70.50 141.00
Tra nsformer Bays-Single
Bus arrangement
(b) . 11 XV Bays (including bus- 2 Nos.
bar, insulators, etc.) 35.60 71.20
(c) Tapping stcuu 1 Nos. 5.50 5.50
2.1 Erection of Bus Bar,
Insulators ate.
(a) 110KV
LS 230.00
(b) 11 K
[2 35.00 482.70
3.0 Switch Gear. Erected
(a) 110 XV Clrujt Breaker 1 No.
(OMCl3/ABCF) 460.00 each 400.00
with
C.T.S.
(5) 110 XV Isolator with 1 No. 25.30 each
Earthing Blade 25.30
(c) 110 KVP.T. 1 set 60.00 each 60.00
(d) 110KVLA(3thtype) 3seta 55.00 per 165.00
Set
(e) 11 XV C irc uit Breaker with 1 set
C.T. 60.05 per 60.05
let
(I) 11KV Isolator INo. 2.50 each 2.50
(g) llKVLA (station type) leet 6.50 per Bet
(h) 11 5.50
K LAB (Disto. type) 1 set 1.00 per Bet
(i' 11 KV P.TS. 1.00
'I
1N 6.60 each 5.50
Total 784.85
Sundry Labour and Transport 5%
39.24 824.09

ESTUATES FOR 11 K.V. FEEDERS AND SUB-STATIONS 675

I
SI. Details o[work Qty. Rate in Amount In Total
No. Thousands Thousands Amount in
Rs. Rs. Thousand.
4.0 Power Transformer.

Erected
(o) 110/11KV, 10 ?"A, Power INo. 2000 each 2000.00
Transformer
(b) 11 KVJ440V, 500 KVA, Dis- 1 No. 125.15 125.25
tributi.n Transformer
(c) Erection ofTransformerRail LS 2.0.75
Track etc.
Total 246.00
(d) Plinth, Labour and Trans . 1.2 214.60 2360.60
port 10%
5.0 Station Auxiliaries
Erected
() 11OKV,100A}I Battery with lNo. IS 100.00
Charging Equipments and
Distribution Board includ-
ing A.C. plant
(b) 110 K Line plant 1 No. 35.60 35.€0
(c) 110 K Transformer panel 1 No. 1430 14.30
(d) Relays and Control panel I No. 1.2 175.25
etc. for 110KV/11 KV/440 V
38
(e) Synchroscope 1 Nos. 1.2 15.25
(1) Annunciation Panel 1 Nos. 45.30 each 45.30
(g) Fire Fighting Equipment 12 40.00 385.70
(Sundries, Transportation and Labour for the above, have leen
included in each item).
ABST.r(ACT

No. Particular Amount (Rs. in Thousands)
1350.00
1. Grounds and Building

2. Structures Erected 482.70

3- Switch Gears Erected 824.09

4. Power Transformers Erected 2360.60

5- Station Auxiliaries Erected 385.70

Sub Total 5403.09

Contingencies 15% 810.46

Tool charge 3% 162.09
6375.64
Total for works

Estt. and supervision charges 15% 956.34
Gross Total 733198

676
WIRING
EMIMA TING AND COSTIN-
Overhead charges 15%

1099.79
Totalfl.7
[Rupees Eighty Four Lakhs, Thirty One
hundredand Seventy seven only] Tho usand and Seven
"Sanctioned"
Sd. ............. ................
Chief En
cte: This is the exp enditure to be gineer In-charge.
Board for the S.S. erection for this in curred by the Electricity
xpans ion con sumers as well as for future
DETAIL ESTIMATE
ES TIILA •TE FOR ii KV/416 Volts S.S.
—Details of Q
work
No.
Thousa Thou8ap Amount in
1 -0 Grouj & Buildings
(d) Ground
(b) uiJding 4 Mx 5 M LS 130.00
2.0 Str uctures Erected LS 5400 184.00
(a )
14V Bags (including 1 No. 35.60
bus-bar insu lator etc. 35.60
structure only)
(i) Erection of Bus-bar LS
I nsulators etc. 35.00 35.00 70.60
3.0 Switch Geai-s Erected
(a) 11 KV circuit breaker i Set
with C T 57.55 57.55
(b) 11 K'.' Isolator
I No. 2.50
..c) 11 LAs(statjo type) 1 Set 5.50 per 5.00
5.50
set
—do-- (Djstj n. type)
1 set 1.00 per 1.00
(d) ii V P.T.
set
•1
No. 5.50 I each
UI&ansport b% 5.50
3.72 78.27
(Contd.)

ESTIMATES FOR 11KV. FEEDERS AND SUB .STATIONS 677
Amount (Rs. in Thousand s)

No. - Particular
4.0 Power Transformer
Erected
125.15 125.15
(a) 11 KV/440V, 500 KVA 1 No.
Distribution Trans-
former
LS 20.75
(b) Erection of Transformer,
Rail Track etc.,
145.90
160.49
(c) Plinth, Labour & Transport LS 14.59
10%
5.0 Station Auxiliaries
Erected
(a) 100AH, 110V Battery with IS 15.00
charging equipment
(b) 11 KVLine panel LS 25.00
(c) 11 KVTransformer panel LS 25.00
(d) Relays & Control panels etc. LS 37.00
for 11 KV/416 VS_s.
(e) Fire fighting equipment LS 25.00 25.00 127.00
ABSTRACT
Na Particular Amount (Rs. in Thousand.
1. Grounds and Building 184.00

2. Structures Erected 70.60
3. Switch Gears Erected 78.27
4. Power Transformers Erected 160.49
5. Station Auxiliaries Erected 127.00
620.36
Sub Total
Contingencies 15% 93.05

Total 713.41
ç21.40
Tool charge 3%
734.81
Total for works
Estt. and supervision charges 110.22
15%
Gross Total 845.03
Overhead charges 15% 126.75
- Total 971.78
[Rupees Nine Lakhs Seventy one Thousand and seven hundred and
Eighty only.]
19
Extracts from Indian Electricity
Amendment Rules-1972
The Indian Electricity Rules have been framed to ensure safety,

satisfactory operation of e q
uipment and to avoid fire risk. Important
extracts from these Rules are given below.
28. Voltage. The difference of electric p
otential measured in
con between any two conductors or between any part of either
volts
ductor and the earth as measured by a suitable
said to be v oltmeter and
'Low'. Where the voltage does not exceed 250 volts under
normal conditions
'Medium' 'Where the voltage does not exceed 650 volts under
normal COndition
'High' Where the voltage does not exceed 22000 volts under
normal conditions
'Extra High'. When the voltage exceed 22 Ky.
29. Construction, inst
m aintenance of electric supply allation, protection operation and
lines and
electric Supply app aratus All
lines and apparatu shall be of sufficient in
mechanical strength and size for the work they may be required to
do and shall be con
structed, installed and p rotected in accordance
with I.S.I's specifications,
30. Service lines and apparatus on consumers premises
(1) The supplier shaII ensure that all electric Supply
lines, wires,
fitting,
are on and
a conapparatus belonging to him or under his control which
sumer's premises are in a safe condition and in all
respects
p fit for supplying energy, and the Supplier shall take due
recautions to avoid danger arising on such premises from such
supply lines, fittings and apparatus
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES-1972 679
(2) Service-lines placed by the supplier on the premises of a

consumer which are underground or which are accessible shall be
so insulated and protected by the supplier as to be secured under
all ordinary conditions against electrical, mechanical, chemical or
other injury to the insulation.
(3) The consumer shall, as far as circumstances permit, take
precautions for the safe custody of the equipment on his premises
belonging to the supplier.
(4) The consumer shall also ensure that the installation under
his control is maintained in a safe condition.
31. Cut-out on consumer's premises :- (1) The supplier
shall provide a suitable cut-out in each conductor of every service
line other than an earthed or earthed neutral conductor or the
earthed external conductorofa concentric cable within a consumer's
premises, in an accessible position. Such cut-out shall be contained
within an adequately enclosed fire-proof receptable.
Where more than one consumer is supplied through a common
service-line, each such consumer shall be provided with an inde-
pendent cut-out at the point of junction to the common service.
(2) The owner of every electric supply line other than the
earthed or earthed neutral conductor of any system or the earthed
external conductor of concentric cable, shall protect it by a suitable
out-cut.
32. Indentificaton of earthed and earthed neutral con-
ductors and position of switches and cut-outs therein —
Where the conductors include an earthed conductor of a two-wire
system or an earthed neutral conductor of a multi-wire system or a
conductor which is Lobe connected thereto, the following conditions
shall be complied with:
(1) An indication of a permanent nature shall be provided by
the owner of the earthed or earthed neutral conductor, or
the conductor which is to be connected thereto, to enable
such conductor tobe distinguished from any live conductor.
Such indication shall be provided—
(a) where the earthed or earthed neutral conductor isCOflF the
property of the supplier, at or near the point of
mencement of supply
(b) where a conductor forming part of consumer's system is to
be connected to the supplier's earthed or earthed neutral
conductor, at the point where such connection is to be
made;
680
Wflwrc, ESTTh{ATINC AND COSTG
(c) in
ofall other cases, at a point corresponding to the point as
comme
ncement of supply or at such other points may be
a p proved by an Inspecthr.
(2) No cut-out, link or switch other than a linked switch
arranged to operate simult
aneously on the earthed or
earthed neutral con ductor and
inserted or remain live con
neutral Co in serted in any e ductors shall be
arthed or earthed
or earthed nductor
neutral of a two wire system or in any earthed
Co nductor of a multi-wire system or in
any Con
tions ductor connected thereto with the following excep-
(a) A link for testing purposes or
(b) A s
witch for use in controlling a gen
33. E arthed erator or tr ansformer.
terminal
supplier shall p rovide and or consumers
p
the con m aintain on the con remises :— (1)The
sumer's
in anpremises for
P osi tionsumer's use a suitable earthed terminal
at or near the point of
accessible
under rule 58: comm encement of supply as defined
ins Provided that in the case ofniejum high Or extra high voltage
tallation the consumer shall, in addition to the aforementioned
earthing arrangemen
indep endent electrode:t,provide his own earthing system with an
Pr
ovided
te rminal in thfurther that the supplier may not provide any earthed
case of insta llations already
con nected to his system
uior before
behalf if hethe
is sdate to be specified by the State Government in this
is efficient atisfied that the consumer's earthing arrangement
(2)
The consumer shall take all reasonable
prevent mechanical damage to the earthed terminalp recautions to
and its lead
belonging to the supplier.
(3)
inst The Supplier may recover from the
co nsumer the cost of
allation ofrule
Sub-rule (2) of such82.
earthed terminal on the basis laid down in
34. Accessibility
of bare conductors
are used in a building, the owner of such:— Where bare con-
co nductors shailT
- (a) ensure that they are inaccessible:
(b) p
rovide in readily accessible Position switches for rendering
them dead whenever necessary ; and
(c)
take such other safety measures as are considered neces-
sary by the Inspector.
681
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES-1972
35. Caution Notices:—The owner of every medium, high and

extra high voltages Installation shall affix. permanently caution
notices in Hindi, or English and Local Language of the districtiOn
with a sign of skull and bones on poles, motors. transformers etc.
37. Supply to vehicles, cranes etc.: —Every person owning
a vehicle, travelling crane or the like to which energy is supplied
from an external source shall ensure that it is efficiently controlled
by a suitable switch enabling all voltage to be cut off in one operation
and, where such vehicle, travelling crane or the like runs on metal
rails, the owner shall ensure that the rails are electrically contin-
uous and earthed.
38. Cables for per portable or transportable apparatus
(1) Flexible cables shall not be sued for portable or transportable
motors, generators, transformers, rectifiers, electric drills, electric
sprays, welding sets or any other portable or transportable appa-
ratus unless they are heavily insulated and adequately protected
from mechanical injury.
(2) Where the protection isby means of metallic covering, the
covering shall be in metallic connection with the frame of any such
apparatus and earth.
42. Ruler. Every circuit and apparatus hould be so arranged
that there is no danger of their getting charged with a voltage higher
than for 'vhich they are intended.
— (1)
43. Provisions applicable to protective equipment:
Fire buckets filled with clean dry sand and ready for immediate use
for extinguishing fires, in addition to fire extinguishers suitable for
dealing with electric fires, shall be conspicuously marked and kept
in all generating stations, enclosed sub-stations and enclosed switch
stations in convenient situations.
(3) First-aid boxes or cupboards, conspicuously marked and
equipped with such contents as the State Government may specify,
shall be provided and maintained in every generating station,
enclosed sub-station and enclosed switch station so as to be readily
accessible during all working hours. All such boxes and cupboards
shall, except in the case of unattended sub-stations and switch
stations be kept on charge of responsible persons who are trained
in first-aid treatment and one of such persons shall be available
during working hours.
-.. Instructions for restoration of persons suffring
frornelectric shock:— (1) Instructions, in English, Hindi and the
local language of the district, for the restoration of person suffering
682
from electric shock, shall be affixed by the owner

place in every g in as Co nspicuous
enerating station., enclosed sub-station enclosed
switch Station and in every factory as defined in
clau se (m) öfsectjon
2 of the Factories Act, 1948 (LXJII of 1948) in which electricity
used and in such other premises where electricity is used as theis
Inspector may, by notice in writing served on the
owner direct.
(2) Copies of the instructions shall be Supplied on demand
an officer or officers appointed by the Central or by
the State Gv-
ernrnent in this behalf at a price to be fixed by the Central or the
State Govc -rirnent
(3) The owner of every generating station, enclosed
station, enclosed swi sub-
tch-station and every factory or other premises
to which this rule applies shall ensure that all authorised persons
employed by him are acquainted with and are competent to apply
the instructions referred to in sub-rule (1).
45. Precautions to
be adopted by con sumers, owners,
electrical co ntractors, electrical
wor kmen and Suppliers
(1) No electrical installation work, including additions,
repairs and adjustmants to existing i3t a lterations,
a1lations, except such
replacement of lamps, fans, fuses, switches, low voltage domestic
appliances an. j
fittings as in no way alters its capacity or character,
shall be carried out upon the premises of or on behalf of any con-
sumer or owner, for the purpose of supply to such consumer
owner, except by an electrical contractor licensed in this behalf bor,
the State Government and under the direct sup y
ervision of person
holding a certificate of competency issued or recognised by the State
Government:
cworks executed for or on behalf of

the Central Government and in the case of
in stallations in
oil fields and railways, the Central Government and in other mines,
cases
the State Government may, by notification in the official Gazette,
exempt, on such conditions as. it may impose, any such work
described therein either generally or in the case of any specified
class of consumers or owners, from so much of this sub-rule as
requires s:: work to be carried out by an electrical contractor
licensed by the State Government in this behalf.
(2) Noelectrical installation w orkwhich has been carried
out
in contravention of sub-rule (1) shall be connected with the works
Of any supplier.
(3)
The provisions of sub-rule (1) shall come into force in any
oil field, mine or railway or any State or part thereof on such date
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITYRULES.197
683
as the Central or, as the case maybe, the State Gvnt may,
by notification in the offitial Gazette appoint.
46. Periodical inspection and testing of consumer's
ins tallation— (1) (a) Where an installation is already connected
to the supply system of the supplier, every such installation shall
be periodically inspected and tested at intervals not exceeding five
years either by the Inspector or by the supplier as may be directed
by the State Government in this behalf or in the case ofinstallations
in mines, oil-fields and railways by the Central Government.
(b) 'Where the supplier is directed by the Central or the State
Government, as the case maybe, to inspect and test the installation
he shall report on the condition of the installation to the consumer
concerned in a form approved by the Inspector and shall submit a
COPY of such report to the Inspector.
(2) (a) The fees for such inspection and test shall be determined
by the Central or the State Government as the case may be, in the
case of each class ofconsumers and shall be payable by the consumer
in advance.
(b) In the event of the failure of any consumer to pay the fees
on or before the data specified in the fee-notice, supply to the
installation of such consumer shall be liable to be disconnected
under the direction of the Inspector. Such disconnection, however,
shall not be made by the supplier without giving to the consumer
seven clear days' notice in writing of his intention so to do.
(3) Notwithstanding the provisions of this rule, the consumer
shall at all times be solely responsible for the maintenance of his
installation in such condition as to be free from danger.
47. Testing of consumer's installation. (1) Upon receipt of
an application for a new or additional supply of energy and before
connecting the su p ply or reconnecting the same after a period of six
months, the supplier shall inspect and test the applicant's instal-
lation.
The supplier shall maintain a record of test results obtained at
each supply point to a consumer, in a form to be approved by the
Inspector.
(2) If as a result c r such inspection and test, the supplier is
satisfies that the installation is likely to constitute danger, he shall
serve on the applicant a notice in writing requiring him to make
such modifications as are necessary to render the installation safe.
The supplier may refuse to connect or reconnect the su p ply until
the required modifications have been completed and he been
notified by the applicant.
48. Precautions against leakage before connection :.-

(1) The supplier shall not connect with his works the installation or
apparatus on the premises of any applicant for supply unless he is
reasonably satisfied that the connection will not, at the time of
making the connection, cause a leakage from that installation or
apparatus exceeding one-five-thousandth part of the maximum
current supplied to the applicant's premises.
(2) If the supplier declines to make a connection under the
provisions of sub-rule (I), he shall serve upon the applicant a notice
in writing stating his reason for so declining.
49. Leakage on consumer's premises. (1) If the Inspector
or the supplier has reason to believe that there is in the system of
a consumer leakage which is likely to affect injuriously the use of
energy by the supplier or by other persons, or which is likely to cause
danger, he may give the consumer reasonable notice in writing that
he desires to inspect and test the consumer's installation.
(2) If, on such notice being given—
(a) the consumer does not give all reasonable facilities for
inspection and testing of hi-, installation, or
(b) a leakage exceeding one-five-thousandth part of the max-
imum current supplied to the consumer's installation is shown to
exist, the supplier may, and ifdireted so fo do by the Inspector, shall
discontinue the supply of the installation but only after sending to
the consuiner forty-eight hours' notice in writing of disconnection
of supply and shall not re-commence the supply until go or the
Inspector is satisfied that the cause of the leakage has been removed.
50. Supply to consumers. (1) The supplier shall not com-
mence or continue to give supply of energy to any consumer unless:
(a) a suitable linked switch or a circuit-breaker of requisite
capacity to carry and break the current is placed as near as possible
to, but after the point of commencement of supply as defined under
rule 58, so as to be readily accessible and capable of beingeasily,
operated to completely isolate the supply to the installation, such
equipment being in addition to any equipment installed for con-
trolling individual circuits or apparatus.
Provided that where the point of commencement of supply and
the consumer's apparatus are near each other, one linked switch or
circuit-breaker near the point of commencement of supply shall be
considered sufficient for the purpose of this rule:
(b) a suitable linked switch or circuit-breaker of requisite
capacity to carry and break the full load current is inserted on the
EXTRACTS FROM INTJLAJ,
ELECTRICITY RULES-1972 685
secondary side of a transformer in the case of I 6a or extra high

voltage installation Provided however, t the linked switch on
the primary side of the transformer be such capacity as to carry
the full load current and to break c. iy the magnetism current ofthe
transformer:
Provided further that the provision of this clause shall not apply
to transformers installed in sub-stations up to and including 100
KVA belonging to the supplier;
(c) every distinct circuit is protected against excess energy by
means of a suitable cut-out or a circuit breaker or adequate breaking
capacity suitably located and so constructed as to prevent danger
from over heating, arcing or scattering of hot metal when it comes
into operation and to permit of ready renewal of the fusible metal
of the cut-out without danger:
(d) the supply of energy to each motor or other apparatus is
controlled by a suitable linked switch or a c i rcuit-breaker of requisite
capacity placed in such a position as to be adjacent to the motor or
other apparatus readily accessible to and easily operated by the
person in charge and so connected in circuit, that by its means all
supply of energy can be cut off from the motor or apparatus, and
from any re-u]ating switch, resistance or other device associated
therewith
(e) all insulating material is chosen with special regard to the
circumstances of its proposed use, the mechanical strength being
sufficient for its purpose, and so far as is practicable, is of such a
character or so protected as to maintain adequately its insulating
properties under all working conditions in respect of temperature
and moisture ; and
(I) adequate p recautions are taken to ensure that no live parts
are so exposed as to cause danger.
(2) Every consumer or other user of energy shall so maintain
his installation as to conform at all times to the provisions sub-rule
(1), and shall use all reasonable means in his power to ensure that,
where energy is supplied by a supplier, no person other than the
supplier shall interfere with the service-lines and apparatus placed
by the supplier on his premises.
51. Provisions applicable to medium high or extra-high
voltage installations. The following provisions shall be observed
where energy at medium, high or extra-high vol:. -e is supplied,
converted, transformed or used
(1) (a) All Conductors (other than those of overhead lines) si' all
686
be completely enclosed in mechanically strong metal casing or

metallic covering which is electrically and mechanically continuous
and adequately protected against mechanical damage unless the
said conductors are accessible only to an authorised person or are
installed and protected to the satisfaction of the Inspector so as to
prevent danger.
(b) All metalwork enclosing, supporting or associawith the
installation other than that designed to serve as a conductor shall
if considered necessary by the Inspector, be connected with earth.
(c) Every main switch board shall comply with the following
provisions, namely:
(i) a clear space of not less
than 1 metre in width shall be
provided in front of the switchboard;
(ii) if there are any attachments or bare connections at the back
of the switchboard the space (if any) behind the switchboard shall
be either less than 20 ems, or more than 75 crns. In width, measured
from the farthest outstanding part of any attachment or conductor.
(iii) if the space behind the switchboard exceeds 75 ems in width,
there shall be a passage-way from either end of the switchboard
clear to a height of 1.8 m.
(2) WLcre an application has been made to a supplierfor supply
of energy to any installation, he shall not commence, or where the
Supply has been discontinued, recommence the supply unless he is
satisfied that the consumer has complied in all respect with the
conditions of supply set out in sub-rule (1) of this rules 50 and 64.
(3) Where a supplier proposes to supply or use energy at
medium voltage or to recommence supply after it has been discon-
tinued for a period of six months, he shall, before connecting or
reconnecting the supply, give notice in writing of such intention to
the Inspector.
(4) If at any time after connecting the supply, the supplier is
satisfied that any provision of sub-rule (1) of this rule, or of rules 50
and 64 is not being observed, he shall give notice of the same in
writing to the consumer and the Inspector s p ecifying how the pro-
vision has not been observed and may discontinue the supply if the
Inspector so directs.
48. Appeal to Inspector in regard to defects:-
(1) If any
applicaat for a supply or a commence is dissatisfied with the action
of the supplier is declining to c ommence, to continue or to recom••
mense the supply of energy to his premises on the grounds that the
installation is defective or is likely to constitute danger, he may
appeal to the Inspector to test the installation and the supplier shall
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES-19W 681
not, if the inspector or, under his orders, any other officer appointed
to assist the Inspector, is satisfied that the installation is free from
the defect or danger complained of be entitled to refuse supply to
the consumer on the grounds aforesaid, and shall, within twenty-
four hours, after the receipt of such intimation from the Inspector,
commence, continue or recommence the supply of energy.
(2) Any test for which application has been made under the
provision of sub-rule (1) shall be carried out within seven days after
the receipt of such application.
(3) This rule shall be endorsed on every notice given under the
provisions of rules 37, 48 and 49.
53. Cost of inspection and test of consumers installation:
- (1) The cost of the first inspection and test of a consumer's
installation carried out in pursuance of the provisions of rule 47
shall be borne by the supplier and the cost of every subsequent
inspection and test shall be borne by the consumer, unless in the
appeal under rule 52, the-Tnspector . directs otherwise.
(2) The cost of any inspection and test made by the Inspector,
at the request of the consumer or other interested party, shall be
borne by the consumer or other interested part) , unless the Inspector
directs otherwise.
(3) The cost of each and every such inspection and test by
whomsoever borne shall be calculated in accordance with the scale
specified by the Central or the State Government as the case may
be in this behalf.
54. Declared voltage of supply to consumer. Except with
the written consent of the consumer or with the previous sanction
of the State Government a supplier shall not permit the voltage at
the point of commencement of supply as defined under rule 58 to
vary from the declared voltage by more than 5 per cent in the case
of low or medium voltage or by more than 121 per cent in the case
of high or extra-high voltage.
55. Declared frequency of supply to consumer. Except
with the written concent of the consumer or with the previous
sanction of the State Government, a supplier shall not permit the
frequency of an alternating current supply to vary from the declared
frequency by more than 3 per cent.
56. Sealing of meters and cut-outs (1) A supplier may
affix one or rrore seals to any cut-out and to any meter, maximum
demand indicor or other apparatus placed upon a consumer's
-45
688 wmrNG. E JTmJc AND COSTING
premises in accordance with section 26, and no person other than

the supplier shall break any such seal.
(2) The consumer shall use all reasonable means in his power
to ensure that no such seal is broken otherwise than by the Supplier.
(3) The word supplier' shall for the purpose of this rule include
a State Government when any meter, maimum demand indicator
or other apparatus is placed upon a consumer's premises by such
Government.
57. Meters, maximum demand indicators and other
apparatus on consumer's premises :- (1) Any meter or maxi-
mum demand indicator or other apparatus placed upon a consumer's
premises in accordance with section 26 shall be of appropriate
.capacity and shall be deemed to be correct if its limits of error do
not exceed 3 per cent, above or below absolute accuracy at all loads
in excess of one-tenth of full load and up to full load.
(2) No meter shall register at no load.
(3) Every supplier shall provide and maintain in proper con-
dition such suitable apparatus as may be prescribed or approved by
the Inspector for the examination, testing and regulation of meters
used or intended to be used in connection with the supply of energy:
Provided that the supplier may with the approval of the
Inspector and shall, if required by the Inspector enter into a joint
arrangemert with any other supplier for the purpose aforesaid.
(4) Every supplier shall examine, test and regulate all metres,
maximum demand indicators and other apparatus for ascertaining
the amount of energy supplied before their first installation at the
consumer's premises and at such other intervals as may be directed
by the State Government in this behalf.
(5) Every supplier shall maintain a register of meters showing
the date of last test, the error recorded at the time of the test the
limit of accuracy after adjustment and final test, the date of
installation ; withdrawal, reinstallation, etc., for the examination
of the"inspector or his authorised representative
58. Point of commencement of supply :-The point of
commencement of supply of energy to a consumer shall be deemed'
to be the point at the outgoing terminals of the cut-outs inserted by
Vie supplier in each conductor of every service line other than an
earthed or earthed neutral conductor or the earthed external con-
ductor of a concentric cable at the consumers premises,
59. Precautions against failure of supply Notice cS
failures— (1) The Jay-out of the electric supply lines of the supplier
for the supply of the energy throughout his area of supply shall
van der norm al working conditions be sectionalized and so arranged,
and provided with cut-outs or circuit-breakers so located, as to
restrict within reasonable limits the extent of the portion of the
system affected by any failure of supply.
(2) The supplier shall take all reasonable precautions to avoid
any accidental interruption of supply, and also to avoid danger to
the public or to any employee or authorised person when engaged.
on any operation during and in connection with the installation,
extension, replacement, repair and maintenance of any works.
(3) The supplier shall send to the Inspector notice of failure of
supply of such kind as the Inspector may from time to time require
to be notified to him, and such notice shall be sent by the earlier
practicable post after the failure occurs or after the failure becomes
known to the supplier and shall be in such form and contain such
pol-ticulars as Inspector may from time to time specify.
(4) For the purposes of testing or for any other purposes con-
nected with the efficient working of .,he undertaking, the supply of
energy may be discontinued by the supplier for such period as may
be necessary subject (except in cases of emergency), to not less than
twent y -four hours' notice being given by the supplier to all cla es
ofconsumers specified by the Inspector likely to be affected by such
discontinuance ; and in the event of any consumer or consumers
from such classes of consumers objected, the supply of energy shall
not be discontinued (except in cases of emergency), without the
consent of the Inspector and subject to such conditions as he may
impose.
60. Text for resistance of insulation :- (1) Where any
electric supply line for use at low or medium voltage has been
disconnected from a system for the purpose ofaddition or aIteratioi
or repair, such electric supply line shall not be reconnected to the
system until the supplier or the owner has applied the test pre-
scribed under rule 48.
(2) The provision of sub-rule (1) shall not apply to overhead
lines except overhead insulated cables unless the Inspector other-
wise directs in any particular case.
61. Connection with earth :- (1) The following provisions
shall apply to the connection with earth of systems at low voltage
in cases where the voltage normally exceeds 125 volts and ofsystems
at medium voltage.
(a) The neutral conductor of a three-phase four-wire system,
I
690
and the middle conductor of two-phase three-wire system

shall be earthed by not less than two separate and distinct
connections with earth both at the generating station and
at the sub-station. It may also be earthed at one or more
points along the distribution system or service line in
addition to any connection with earth which may be at
Consumer's premises.
(b) In the case of a
system comprising electric supply lines
having concentric cables, the external conductor of such
cables shall be earthed by two separate and distinct con-
nections with earth.
(c) The connection with earth may include a link by means of
which the connection may temporarily interrupted for the
purpose of testing or for locating a fault.
(d) (i) In a direct current three-wire system the middle con-
ductor shall be earthed at the generating station only, and
the current from the middle conductor to earth shall be
continuously recorded by means or a recording ammeter,
and if at any time the current exceeds one-thousandth part
'fth-2 maximum supply current, immediate steps shall be
taken to improve the insulation of the system.
(ii) Where the middle conductor is earthed by means of a
circuit-breaker with a resistance connected in parallel, the
resistance shall not exceed 10 ohms and on the opening of
the crcuit-breaker immediate steps shall be taken to
improve the insulation ofthe system, and the circuit beaker
shall be reclosed as soon as possible.
(e) In the case of an alternating current system, there shall not
be inserted in the connections, with earth any impedance
(other than that required solely for the operation of
switch-gear or instruments, Cut-out or circuit beaker, and
the result of any test made to ascertain whether the current
(if any) passing through the connection with earth is nor-
mal, shall be duly recorded by the supplier.
(/) No person shall make connection with earth by the aid of,
nor shall be keep it in contact with, any water main not
belonging to him except with the consent of the owner
thereof and of the Inspector.
(g) Alternating current systems which are connected with
earth as aforesaid may be electrically interconnected.
Provided that each connection with earth is bonded to the metal
sheathing and metallic armouring(ifand) of the electric supply lines

concerned.
(2) The frame of every generator, stationary motor, and so far
as is practicable, portable motor, and the metallic par t s (not
intended as conductors) of all transformers and any other apparatus
used for regulating or controlling energy and all mediutv voltage -
energy consuming apparatus shall be earthed by the owner by two
separate and distinct connections with earth.
(3) All metal casings or metallic coverings containirg or pro-
tecting any electric supply-line or apparatus shall be connected with
earth and shall be so joined and connected across all junction boxes
and other openings as to make good mechanically electrical con-
nection throughout their whole length
Provided that where the supply is at low voltage, this sub-ruL--
shall not apply to isolated wall tubes or to brackets, electroliers,
switches, fans, regulators covers or other fittings (other than 6er-
table hand lamps and portable and transportable apparatus unless
provided with earth terminal.
This sub-rule shall come into force immediatev in t case of
new installation and in case of existing installations theprovisions
of this sub-rule shall be complied with before the expiry cIa period
of two years from the commencement of those rules.
(4) All earthing systems shall, before electric supp' lines cr
apparatus are energised, be tested for electrical resistance toe ,,; ure
efficient earthing.
(5) All earthing- systems belonging to the supplier shall, in
addition, be tested for resistance on dry day during the dry season
not less than once every two years.
(6) A record of every earth test made and the earth thereof shall
be kept by the supplier for a period of not less than twoyears after
the day of testing and shall by available to the Inspector when
required.
62. Systems ofmediumvoltage Where a medium voltage
supply system is employed, the voltage between earth and any
conductor forming part of the said systems shall not, under normal
conditions, exceed low voltage.
63. Approval by Inspector (1) Before making an appli-
cation to the Inspector for permission to commence supply of energy
athigh or extra-high voltage to any person, the sup!iershail ensure
that the high or extra high voltage electric supply lines or npparatus
692 WIRING, ESTIMATING A&J.flJ COSTING
belonging to him are placed in position, properly joined and duly

completed and examined. The supply of energy shall not be com-
menced by the supplier unless and until the Inspector is satisfied
that the provisions of rules 65 to 69 both inclusive have been
complied with and the approval in writing of the Inspector has been
obtained by him:
Provided that the supplier may energise the aforesaid electric
supply lines or apparatus for the purpose of tests specified in rule
65.
(2) The owner of any high or extrahigh voltage installation
shall, before making application to the Inspector for approval of his
installatim. or additions thereto, test every high or extra-high
voltage circuit or additions thereto, other than an overhead line,
and satisfy himselfth at theywithstand the application of the testing
voltage set out in sub-rule (1) of rule 65 and shall duly record the
resi.ilts of such tests and forward them to the Inspector:
Provided that, an Inspector may direct such owner to carry out
such tests as he deems necessary or if he thinks fit, accept the
manufacturer's certified test in respect of any particular apparatus
in place of the tests required by this sub-rule.
(3) The owner of any high or extra-high voltage installation
who makes any additions or alternations to his installation shall
not connect to the supply his apparatus or electric supply lines
comprising the said alterations or additions unless and until such
alt, rations or additions have been approved in writing by the
Inspector.
64. Use of energy at high or extra-high voltage. (1) The
Inspector shall not authorise a supplier to connect a supply of energy
at high or extra-high voltage to any consumer, unless—
(a) all conductors and apparatus intended for use at high or
extra-high voltage and situated on the premises of the
consumer are in accessible except to authorised person and
all operations in connection with the said conductors and
apparatus are carried out only by an authorised person
b) the consumer has provided and agrees to maintain a sep-
arate building or a locked weather-proof and fireproof
enclosure of agreed design and location, to which the
supplier shall at all times have access, for the purpose of
housing his high or extra-high voltage apparatus and
metering equipment, or where the provision of a separate
building or enclosure is impracticable the consumer has
segregated the aforesaid apparatus of the supplier from any

other part of his own apparatus.
Provided that such segregation shall be by the proviion fire-
proof walls, if the Inspector considers it to be necessary
Provided further that in the case of an out-door installation
the consumer shall suitably segregate the aforesaid apparatus
belonging to the supplier from his own to the satisfaction of the
Inspector.
(c) all pole type sub-stations are constructed and maintained
in accordance with rule 69.
(2) The following provisions shall be observed where energy at
high or extra high voltage is supplied, converted, trans-
formed or used—
(a) All conductors orlive carts ofany apparatus shall ordinarily
be inaccessible.
(b) All windings, at high or extra-high voltage ofmotos or other
apparatus within reach from any position in which a person
may require to be, shall be suitably protected so as to pre-
vent danger.
(c) Where transformer or transtormers are used, suitable
provision shall be made, either by connecting with earth a
point of the circuit at the lower voltage or otherwise, to
guard against danger by reason ofthe said circuitbecoming
accidentally charged above its normal voltage by leakage
from or contact with the circuit at the higher voltage.
(d) (i) Where a sub-station or a switch-station is situated in any
building and where fire in the sub-station or switch station
might involve risk to the said building and the said sub-
station or switch-station contains oil-immersed trans-
formers, switches or static condensers involving the use of
more than 2000 gallons (2,270.5 litres of oil in one chamber,
provision shall be made for suitable oil soak-pitand where
use of more than 2,000 gallons (9,082 liters) of oil in any
one oil-tank, receptacle or chamber is involved, provision
shall be made for the draining away or removal of any oil
which may leak or escape from the tanks, receptacles or
chambers containing the same ; special precautions shall
be taken to prevent the spread of any fire resulting from
the ignition of the oil from any cause and adequate provision
shall be made for extinguishing any fire which may occur.
Spare oil sh,,a l l not be stored in any such sub-station or
switch-station.
694
(ii)
Cable trenches inside Sub-stations and switch-stations
containing cables shall be filled with sand, pebbles or
similar non
-inflammable materials or completely covered
with non-inflammable slabs.
(e) Unless the conditions are such that all the conductors and
apparatus for use at high or extra-high voltage may be made
dead at the same time for the purpose of cleaning or for
other work thereon, the said con
ductors and apparatus
shall be so arranged that they maybe made dead in sections,
and that work on any section made dead may be carried on
by an authorised person without danger.
(I) Adequate precautions shall be taken to prevent unautho-
rised access to any part of the installation designed to he
electrically charged at high or extra high voltage.
65. Voltage tests (1) High and extra-high voltage electric
Supply-lines (other than overhead lines) and apparatus of the
supplier shall not be connected to a system for the purposes nfsunply
or use ofenergy unless the insulation ofthe said electric supply-lines
a nd app aratus has withstood, either-
(i) the tests prescribed in that behalf in the appropriate
specification of the Indian Standards Institution Cr in its
absence the British Standards institution then currn
or
(ii) in cases where no such tests have been prescribed, the
cptinuous application between conductors and also
between conductors and earth duringa period ofOn minute
of the testing voltage given in subrule (2).
(2) For the purposes of clause (ii) of sub-rule (1)-
(a) if the normal working voltage does not exceed 1,030 volts,
the testing voltage shall be 2,000 volts
(b) if the normal working voltage exceeds i,000 volts, but does
not exceed 11,900 volts, the testing voltage shall be double
the normal working voltage
(c) if the normal working voltage exceeds 11,
000 volts, the
testing voltage shall be normal working voltage plus 10,000
volts
Provided that an apparatus which is not new shall be tested in
such manner as the Inspector may specify.
(3) If the test prescribed in sub rule (1) is made prior to the
said electric supply-lines and apparatus being placed in position for
the purposes of supply of energy, the said electric supply-lines and
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RUI.ES.1972 695
• the apparatus after having been placed in position and before being
connected to the system shall have withstood a further test for
resistance of insulation either by the application of the tests pre-
scribed in sub-rule (1) whenever reasonably practicable, or by the
application of a testing voltage of not less than 1,000 volts either
alternating current or direct current between conductors and also
between conductors and earth during a period of not less than one
minute.
(4) Where any electric supply line (other than an overhead line)
or apparatus for use at high or extra-high voltage has been dis-
connected from a system for alteration or repair, such electric supply
line or apparatus shall not be recollected to the system tintil the
supplier has applied the testprescribed in sub rule (3) and satisfied
himself that the insulation of the electric supply line or apparatus
is in sound condition.
(5) The supplier shall duly record the result of every test made
Under this rule.
(6) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub- niles (1) to (4), (both
inclusive) the Inspector may, where he thinks fit, accept the
manufacturer's certified tests in place of the tests prescribed in this
rule.
66. Metal sheathed electric supply lines : Precautions
against excess leakage :- (1) The following provisiors shall
apply to eleciric supply-lines (other than overhead-lines) of a
supplier for use at high or extra-high voltage
(a) The conductors shall be enclosed in metal sheathing which
shall be electrically continuous and connected with earth,
and the conductivity of the metal sheathing shall be
maintained and reasonable precautions taken where nec-
essary to avoid corrosion of the sheathing.
(b) In the event of failure of insulation occurringbe'tween one
conductor and the metal sheathing at any point along an
electric supply line as aforesaid, the impedance of the
relevant circuit shall be such that, with the full voltage
maintained at the source of supply, the current resultng
from such failure shall not be less than twice the value of
the current for which a suitable cut-out of adequate rup-
turing capacity or other suitable overload protective device
has been set to operate or the current required to operate
a snitahie discriminative fault current relay:
Prvided that the operation of the aforesaid overload protective
696
device or of the discriminative fault current relay shall cause the

automatic operation of a circuit-b'i-eaker of adequate rupturing
capacity.
The relevant circuit herein before referred to means the com-
plete circuit from the source of supply to the point of failure of the
insulation, including any connection with earth of the system of
which the electric supply line as aforesaid forms part and any
curr ent-limiting device inserted in Luch connection with earth ; and
the source of supply means the point at which energy is given to the
system or circuit of which the electric supply line as aforesaid forms
part.
(c) Where an electric supply-line as aforesaid has concentric
cables add the external conductor is insulated from an outer
metal sheathing and connected with earth, the external
conductor may be regarded as the metal sheathing for the
purposes ofthis rule, provided that the foregoing provisions
as to conductivity are complied with.
(2) Nothing in the provisions of sub-rule (1) shall preclude the
employment in generating stations, sub-stations and switch-
stations (including outdoor sub-stations and outdoor , switch-
stations) of conductors for use as high or extra-high voltages which
are not enclosed in metal sheathing or preclude the use of'electrk
supply lines laid before the prescribed date to which the provisions
of these rules apply.
67. Connection with earth :- (1) The following provisions
shall apply to the connection with earth of three-phase systems for
use at high or extra-high voltages:
In the case of star-connected systems with earthed neutrals or
delta connected systems with earthed artificial neutral point:
(a) the neutral point shall be earthed by not less than two
separate and distinct connections with earth each having
its own electrode at the generating station and at the
sub-station and may be earthed at any other point, provided
that no interference of any description is caused by such
earthing;
(b) in the event of an appreciable harmonic current flowing in
the neutral connections so as to cause interference with
communication circuits, the generator or transformer
neutral shall be earthed through a suitable impedance.
(2) Single-phase high or extra-high volta g e systems shall be
earthed in a manner approved by the Inspector.
697
(3) hi the case of a system comprising electric supply lines

having concentric cables, the external conductor shall be the one to
be connected w;' 'h earth.
(4) Where supplier proposes to connect with earth an existing
System for use at high or extra-high voltage which has not hitherto
been so connected with earth, he shall give not less than fourteen
days' notice in writing together with particulars to the telegraph
authority of the proposed connection with earth.
(5) Where the earthinglead and earth connection are used only
in connection with earthing guards erected under high or extra-high
voltage overhead lines where they cross a telecommunication line
or a railway line, and where such lines are equipped with earth
leakage relays of a type and setting approved by the Inspector, the
resistance shall not exceed 25 ohms.
(6) In so far as the provisions of rule Glare consistent with the
provisions of this rule, all connections withearth shall also comply
with the provisions of that rule.
Rule No. 70. Suitable arrangement for automatic discharge of
static condenser shall be made on disconnection of supply.
v
71. Additional pro ision for supply to high voltage
luminous tube sign installation (l)Any person who proposes
to use or who is using energy for the purpose of operating a luminous
tube sign installation, or who proposes to transform or who is
transforming energy to a high voltage for any such purpose shall
comply with the following conditions
(a) All live parts ofthe installation including all apparatus and
live conductors in the secondary circwL, but excluding the
tubes except in the neighbourhood of their terminals shall
be inaccessible to unauthorized persons and such parts
shall be effectively screened.
(b) Irrespective of the method of obtaining the voltage of the
circuit which feeds the luminous discharge tube sign, no
part of any conductor of such circuit shall be in metallic
connection (except in respect of its connection with earth)
with any conductor of the supply system or with the primary
winding of the transformer.
(c) All live parts of an exterior installation shall be so disposed
as to protect them against the effects of the weather, and
such installation shall be so arranged and separated from
its surroundings as to limit, as far as possible, the spreading
of fire.
698
(d)
The secondary circuit shall be permanently earthed at the
transformer and the core of every transformer shall be
earthed.
(e) Where the conductor of the
p rimary circuit are not in
metallic connection with the supply c
a m otor-generator or a double onductors (e.g., where
-wound convertor is used),
one phase of such primary circuit shall be permanently
earthed at the motor-generator or convertor, or at the
transforner.
(/) A final sub-circuit which forms the Primary circuit ofa fixed
lumin
ous-discharge tube sign installation shall be reserved
solely for such purpose.
(g)
A separate primary final sub-circuit shall be provided for
each transformer or each group of tr
ansformers having an
aggregate input not exceeding i000 volt amperes, of fixed
luminous dischargedtube sign installation.
(h) An interior installation shall be
p
adjacent means for di sconnecting allrovided with suitable
phases of the supply
except the "neutral in a three phase four-wire circuit.
For instsllations cn the extericr of building a suitable
emergency fire-proof linked switch to operate on all phases
except the neutral in a three-phase four-wire circuit shall
be Provided and fixed in a conspicucus position at not more
than 2.75 metre above the ground.
(k) A special "caution"notice shall be affixed in a conspicuous
place on the door ofevery high voltage enclosure to the effect
that the high voltage supply must be cut off before the
enclosure is opened.
(1) Where static condensers are used, they shall be installed
on the load side of the fuses and the primary (low voltage)
side of the transformer.
(m) Where static condensers are used on primary side, means
shall be provided for au
tomatically discharging the con-
densers when the supply is cut off:
Provided that static condensers or any circuit interrupting
devices on the high or extra-high voltage side shall not be used
without the approval in writing of the Inspector.
(2) The owner or user of any,
luminous tube signor similar and
voltage installation shall not bring the same into use without giving
to the Inspector not less than 14 day's notice in writing of his
intention so to do.
75. Joints. The ultimate strength of th ejoint should not be less

than 95% of the conductor and electric conductivity equal to the
conductor. -
76. Maximum stress Factor of safety.
(a) For metal supportes-2.0
(b) For mechanically processed concrete supports-2.5
(c) For hand moulded concrete supports-3O
(d) For wood supports-3.5
77. Clearance above ground of the lowest conductor
(1) No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines, erected
across a street shall at any part thereof be at a height less than—
(a) for low and medium voltage lines ... 5.8 metre
(b) for high voltage lines ... 6.1 metre
(2) No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines,
erected along any street shall at any part thereof be at a height less
than—
(a) for low and medium voltage lines ... 5.5 metre
(b) for high voltage lines ... 5.8 metre
(3)No conductor of an overhead line including service lines,
erected elsewhere than along or across any street shall be at a height.
less than—
a) for low, medium andhigh voltage lines ...4.6 metre
up to and including 11,000 volts, if bar
(b) for low, medium andhighvoltage lines ... 4 metre
up to and including 11,000 volts, if
insulated
(c) for high voltage lines above 11,000 . 5.2 metre
volts
(4) For extra-high voltage lines the clearance above ground
shall notbe less than 5.2 metre. plus 0.3 metre for every 33,000 volts
or part thereof by which the voltage of the line exceeds 33,000
volts
Provided that the minimum clearance alongor across any street
shall not be less than 6.1 metre.
79. Clearance from buildings of low and medium voltage
lines and service lines :- (1) Where a low or a medium voltage
overhead line passes above or adjacent to or terminates on any
building, the following minimum clearances form any accessible
point, on the basis of maximum sag, shall be obse'ved

700
WIRING, 1ST1MATING AND COSTING
(a) for any flat roof, open balcony, verandah roof and lean to
roof-
(i) when the line passes above the building a vertical
clearance of 2.5 metre from the highest point, and
(ii) when the line passes adjacent to the building a hori-
zontal clearance of 1.2 metre from the nearest point, and
(b) for pitched roof-
(i) when the line passes above the building a vertical
clearance of 2.5 metre im mediately under the lines
and—
(ii) when the line passes adjacent to the building a hori-
zontal clearance of 1.2 metre
(2) Any conductor so situated as to have a clearance less than
that specified in sub-rule (1) shall be adequately insulated and shall
be attached by means of metal clips at suitable intervals to a bare
earthed bearer wire having a breaking strength ofnot less than 350
kg.
(3) The horizontal clearance shall be measured when the line
is at a niaximurn d€jl€ctjcjri from the vertical due to wind pressure.
80. Clearance from buildings of high and extra-high
voltage lines :—() J Where a high or extra high voltage overhead
line passes above or adjacent to any building or part of a building
it shall have on the basis of maximum sag a vertical clearanceabove
the highest nart of L}1-: huilding immediately under such line, of not
less than . —
(a) for high voltage lines up to and ... 3.7 metre
including 33,000 volts
(b) for extra-high voltage line 3.7 metre plus 0.3 metre
for every additional
33,000 volts or part
(2) The horizontal clearance between the nearest conductor
and any part of such building shall on the basis of maximum
deflection due to wind pressure, be not less than—
(a) fhr high voltage lines up to and ... 1.2 metre
including 11,000 volts
(b) for high voltage lines abov2 11,000 ... 2 metre
volts and up to and including 33,000
volts
(c) for extra-high voltage .. 2 metre plus 0.3 metre for
lines every additional 33,000
volts or part thereof.
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULS1972 701
85. Maximum intervals between supports. All conductors

shall be attached to supports at interval ntexceedingthe safe limits
based on the ultimate tensile strength of the conductors and the
factor of safety prescribed in rule 76
Provided that in case of overhead lines carrying low or medium
voltage conductors, when erected in, overalong or across any street,
the intervals shall not, without the content in writing of the
Inspector, exceed 65 metre.
86. Conditions to apply where telecommunication lines
and power lines are carried on same supports. :- (1) Every
overhead telecommunication line erected on supports carrying a
power lines shall consist of conductors each having a breaking
strength of not less than 270 kg.
(2) Every telephone used on a telecommunication line erected
on supports carrying a power line shailbe suitably guarded against
lighting and shall be protected by cut-outs.
(3) where a telecommunication line is erected on supports
carrying high or extra-high voltage power line arrangement shall
be made to safeguard any person usingthe telephone against injury
resulting from contact, leakage or induction between such power
and telecommunication lines.
87. Lines crossing or approaching each other. Where an
overhead line crosses or is in proximity to any telecommunication
line, the owner ofthe overhead line shall protect it in a manner laid
down in the Code of Practice of the Power and Telecommunication
Co-ordination Committee.
(2) When it is intended to erect a telecommunication line wh ich
will cross orbe in proximity to an overhead line the person, proposing
to erect such telecommunication line shall give notice in writing of
his intention to thç owner of the overhead line and the owner of the
overhead line shall, within twnety-one days of receiving such notice
provide the protection referred to in sub-rule (1).
(3) Where an overhead line crossed or is in proximity to an
overhead line belonging to another person, the owner of the line
which was last erected shall so protect it as to guard against the
possibility of its coming into contact with the other overhead line.
(4) A person erecting or proposing to erect an overhead line
may require t.heowner of the overhead line to provide the protection
referred to in sub-rule ( wthin tcrit y -one days of the rceipt of
the notice in that behalf.

702
W[RINC, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
(5) In all cases referred to in the preceding sub-rule the

expenses of making the guarding arrangement shall be born by
person whose line was last erected.
(6) Where two line cross, the crossing shall be made as nearly
at right angle as the nature of the case admits.
(7) The guarding arrangement shall ordinarily be carried out
by th'e owner of the support on which is made and he shall be
responsible for its efficient maintenance.
(8) All work required to be done by or this rule shall be carried
out to the satisfaction of the Inspector.
88. Guarding:— (1) Where guarding is required under these
rules the provisions of sub-rules (2) to (4) shall apply.
(2) Every guard-wire shall be connected with earth at each
Point at which its electrical continuity is broken.
(3) Every guard-wire shall has an actual breaking strength of
not less than 635 kg. and ifmade ofiron or steel, shall be galvanized.
(4) Every guard-wire or cross-connected system ofguard-wires
Lal have suffic;cnt curren t-carrying capacity to ensure the ren-
dering dead, without risk of fusing of the guard-wire till or wire the
contact of any live wire has been removed.
(5) Lines crossing tr
olley-Aires-In the case of crossing over a
trolley wire the guarding shall fulfil the following conditions,
namely:
(a) where there is only one trolley-wire, two guard-wires shall

be erected as in diagram A
( where there are two tro]ley\vjres and the distance between
them do not exceed 40 cms. Two g
as in diagram B
uard-wires shallbe erected
(c) where there are two troll?v-w-jres and the distance between
them exceeds 40 ems, but does not exceed 48 inches or
1.219 m. threeguardvires shall be erected as in diagram
C;
(d) where there are two t r
olley-wires and the distance between
them exccds 1.20 metre each trolley-wire shall be sepa-
rately guarded as in diagram D
(e) the rise of the trlley beam shall be so limited that if the
trolley leaves the trolley-wire, it shall not foul the guard-
wires ; and

EXTRACTS FROM INDiAN ELECTRICITY RULES-1972 703
(I) where a telegraph-line is liable to fall or below down upon

an arm, stay-wire or span-wire, and so side down upona
trolley-wire, guard hooks shall be provided to prevent such
sliding.
20cm20c-'
I,,;,, 60cm
ffC F --"o
0-li" men60cm
?O 40cmJ
20Cm
P
20 c,
"'7 min6Qc,
lri16C'c,
U;o 2m
20cm 20cm 20cm 23cm
m,,) 60 cm
C',er 1-2m
Fig. 19.1
89. Service-lines from overhead lines. No service-line or

tapping shall be taken off an over-head line except at point of sup-
port.
90. Earthing (1) All metal support of overhead line and
rretallic fittings attached thereto, shall be permanently and efli-
ciently earthed For this purpose a continuous earth wire shall be
provided and securely fastened to each pole and connected with
ordinarily at f ur point in every mile or 1.6 km. the spacing between
the points bc-iig as nearly equidistant as possible. Alternatively,
each support and metallic fitting attached thereto shall he efficiently
earthed.
(2) Each sta y -wire shall be similarly earthed unless an insu-
lator has been placed in at a height not less than 3 metre from th2
ground.
91. Safety and protective devices (1) Every overhead
line (not being suspended from a dead bearer wire not being covered
with insulating material end not being a trolley-wire erected over
any part of streets or other public place or in any factory or mine
-46
or on any consumer's premises) shall be protected with a device

approved by the Inspector for rendering the line electricafly,
harmless in case it breaks.
(2) An Inspector may by notice in writing require the owner of
any such overhead lines W herev e r it may be erected to protect it in
the manner specified in sub-rule (1).
(3) The owner of very high and extra-high voltage overhead
line shall make adequate arrangements to the satisfactions of the
Inspector to prevent unauthorised person from ascending any ofthc
supports of such overhead lines without the aid of a ladder or special
appliances.
92. Protection against lightning (1) The owner of every
overhead line which is so exposci as to be injury from lighting shall
adopt efficient means for diverting to earth any electrical surges
due to lightning.
(2) The earthing lead for any lightning arrestor shall not pass
through any iron or steel pipe, but shall be taken as directly as
possible from the ligh
tning-arrestor to a separate earth electrode
subject to the avoidance of bends wherever practicable
Service Lines—The licensee shall lay free of charge 100 feet
of service line from his nearest distribution main outside the
of the p roperty, in respect of which the requisition is made. 1 Any
i-nits
length in excess of 100 feet,as defined above and the whole of the
service line within the limits of the property in respect of which the
application is made shell be paid for by the applicant. The cost
mentioned above, however, shall be exclusive of the proportionate
cost of first pole and fitting beyond 100 feet aforesaid. The propor-
tionate cost of such poles and fittings shall be in the same ratio as
100 feet is to the length of the line beyond 100 feet from the joint
or tap-off of the service and the second support of the service Fie.
The main cut-outs or fuses shell be inserted and sealed by he
lictnseu free of cost to the consumer.
Consumer not to interfere with the supply mains or

apparatu s — The
meter boards, main Cut-outs etc. must on, not be
handled or removed by any one who is not in the employment of the
licensee. The se ', ii
are fixed on the meters and the licensee's
apparatus must on, not be broken.
Wiring on consumei-'s Premises— .. For th protection of the

"onsun-er and the public generally, it is necessar
on the c onsumers p!emjss should conform to the y that the wiring
I.E. Rules and the
Rules of the Fire Insurance company in terms of which the building
is insured and be carried out by a licensed electrical contractor.
705
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES- 1972
The material used for wiring shall comply with the standard laid
down in that behalf by the Indian Standards Institution or
equivalent. As soon as the consumer's installation is completed in
all respects and tested by the consumer's contractor, the consumer
should submit to the licensee, the wiring contractor's completiQo
and test report. A form for this purpose shall be supplied by the
licensee, his important that the conditions named therein are fully
complied with as otherwise there will be a delay in obtaining the
supply.
As required by Rule 45 of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 no
electrical installation work (including addition, alteration, repairs
and adjustments to existing installations), except such replacement
oflamps, fans, fuses, switches, low voltage domestic appliances and
fitting as in no way after the capacity and the character of the
installation, shall be carried out upon the premises on behalf of any
consumer or owner for the purposes of supply of energy to such
consumer or owner, except by an electrical contractor, licensed by
the Government, in this behalf and under the direct supervision cf
a person holding a certificate of competency issued or recognisC1 l:y
the Government. Any person holding a certificate of competencY
issued or recognised by the Government. Any person ommttiflg
breach of Rule 45 shall render himself liable to punishment under
Rule 139 of the said Rules.
Apparatus on consumer's premises— (a) All transformers.
switchgear and other electrical equipment belonging to 'he
consumer and connected to the mains of the licensee shall be
maintained to the reasonable satisfaction of the license-
(b) In the case of high voltage consumers, suitable protective
devices approved by the licensee shall be used so as to afford full
protection to the licensee's apparatus placed on the consumer's
premises.
Procedure for testing installation by the licensee and fee.
notify tO
(a) Upon receipt of the test report, the licensee shall
the applicant the time and the day when the licensce s
representative proposes to inspect and test the installation. It v.11
then be the duty of the applicant to arrange that a representative
of the wiring contractor employedbyhim is present atthe.inspection
to give the licensee's representative any information that may be
required by him concerning the installation.
(b) No connection shall be made until the consumer's
installation has been inspected and tested by the licensee and found
satisfactory. No charge shall be made for the first test by the licensee
but subsequent test to faults disclosed at the initial test shall he
charged for in accordance with Part III of these condition.;.
Periodical test of the installation will also be undertaken by the
licensee at rates that may be ascertained from his local cce.
WIRING, EST[MATING AND COSTING
(c) Before taking the insulation test of installation the wiring

mustbe completed in all respects. All fittings, whether incandescent
lamps, fans, motor, heating, cooking or other apparatus must be
connected to the conductrs and all fuses, must be in place and all
switches in the 'on' position before the tests are carried out. Tem-
porary wires or fittings or dead ends should not be included in the
installation and no part of the work should be left incomplete.
(d) A pressure of 500 volts will be applied between installation
and 'earth" and the insulation resistance to earth after one minute's
electrification shall be such as will not cause a leakage, from the
installation exceeding one five thousandth part of the maximum
current demanded.
(e) The test between the poles should give at least half the
result of that to "earth".
(I) Manufacturer's test certificates in respect of all high voltage
apparatus shall be produced if required by the licensee.
Extensions and alterat ions— Should the consumer, at any
time after the supply of energy has been commenced increase the
number or size of lights, fan or motors etc. on his premises or in any
way alter the position f his wirng therein, notice thereof must be
sent in writing to the licensee whose representative will call and
inspect the alteration and if necessary, change the meters and fuses
ar.d alter the service line. Failure to give such notice may derange
the supply system and render the supply liable to be summarily
discontinued. During such time as alteration, additions or repairs
are being executed, the supply to the circuit which is being altered,
added to or repaired , must be entirely disconnected and it shall
remain disconnected until the alternations, additions, or repairs
have been tested and passed by the licensee.
Failure of supply :- (a) Should at any time the licensee's
service fuse or fuses fail, notice thereof should be sent to the lice,i
see's local office or if there are sub-stations, to the nearest sub-
station. Only authorised employees bearing thebadge of the licensee
are permitted to replace these fuses in the licensee's cut-outs.
Consumers are not allowed to replace these fuses and they vill
render themselves liable to a heavy penalty, if the licensee's seals
placed to protect his apparatus are broken. The licensee does not
allow his employees to carry out any repairs except replacement of
fuses in the consumer's installation.
(5) The icensee shall not be liable for any claims for loss,
damage or compensation whatsoever arising out of failures of supply
when such failure is due either directly or indirectly to war, mutiny,
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY RUI.ES.1972 707
civil commotion, riot, strike, lockout, lire, flood, tempest, lightning,

earthquake, or other force, accident or cause beyond his control.
Payment of bills— (a) Bills should be paid at the licensee's
local office within 15 days from the date of their presentation.
(b) Any complaints with regard to the accuracy of the bills shall
be made in writing to the licensee and the amounts of such bills
shafl be paid under protest within the said period of 15 days. The
amounts of bills paid under protest will be regarded as advance to
the credit of the consumer's account until such time as the bills in
dispute have been fully settled.
Accurac y of meters—Should the consumer dispute the
accuracy of any meter which is not his own property, he may, UPOfl
giving notice and paying of prescribed fee, have the meter tested by
the licensee or the Electrical Inspector ........in accordance with
Section 26 of the Act. In the event of the meter being tested by the
license and found to be beyond the limits of accuracy as prescribed
in the Indian Electricity Rules in force, from time to time, the testing
fee shall be returned and the amount of the bill adjusted in accor-
dance, with the result of the test taken with respect to the meter
reading ofth• three months prior to the month in which the dispute
has arisen, due regard beinggiven to conditionsofocLupancy during
the months.
Discontinuance of supply:— (a) Ifany consumer adopts any
electrical appliance which is likel y to affect the supply to cther
consumers or uses the energy supplied ordeals with it in any manner
so as unduly of improperly to interfere with the efficient supp ly c
energy to any other person by the licensee, or fails to keep in proper
order any meter belonging to him by which the supply is registered.
or the licensee may disconti,ue the supply so long as such ar
appliance is so adopted energy is soused or dealt with or the meter
is not kept in proper order, as the case may be.
System ofsupply—Suppiv of energy shalibe given by licnsc
in the following system, namely
(i) Low Voltage—Direct current, two wire; or Alternating
Current. 1 0 50 Hz,
(ii) Medium Voltage—Direct current, three wire, or Alter-
nating Current, three phase. 50 cycles ; and
(iii) High Voltage—Alternating Current, three phase, 50 cycies.
Classification of installations—A. C. System— (a) Two-
wire single phase 230 volts-
(i) General supply not exceeding 10 amperes.
(ii) Motive power installations upto I BHP in aggregate.

(b) Four-wire, three phase, 230 volts between phase wires and
neutral - General supply exceeding 10 ampers.
(C) Three-wire, three phase, 230 volts between phase Motive
power installations of over I BHP.
D.C. System— (a) Two-wire 230 volts.
(i) General supply not exceeding 10 amperes.
(ii) Motive power installations upto I BHP in aggregate.
installations of over I 131f P.

General wiring condition :- (a) Mains. The consumer's
mains shall in all cases be brought back to the licensee's point of
supply and sufficient cable shall be provided for connecting up with
the licensee's apparatus.
(b) Switches and Fuses. The consumer shall provide linked
quick break main switches and a single pole fuse on each conductor
except the neutral cr'nd • ictor wjh shell be fxed as near as possible
to the licensee's meter board.
(c) Balance of Installation. If the connected load of any
installation exceeds 10 ampers at 230 volts, the installation shall
be wired on the group system; separate neutral wires being brought
back in each case to the licensee's point of supply. An approved type
of double pole linked switch shall control each main circuit. The
larap, fans or any other apparatus of'which the installation consists
shall be so grouped that under al working conditions the
current will be flo'.ving in the neutral wire.
(d) Medium Voltage Supply. With medium voltage supply,
i.e., above 250 volts and upto 650 volts, the licensee's meter and
services cut-outs shall be enclosed in a strong teakwood box suitably
ventilated and provided with a hasp, staple and lock. All wires
between which a difference of potential of over 250 volts exists shall
be made inaccessible to unauthorised persons or enclosed in an
earthed metallic casing or conduit. A "Caution" Board printed in
Hindi and in the local language of the district shall be fixed thereto.
(e) Overhead Mains. In order to save the expense of a long
underground service on priv p te property, a ccnsmer may, with the
licensee's approval, erect a pillar on that portion of his property
which is nearest to the license's supply mains into which the service
shall be laid and from which the consumer shall run overhead mains
109
EXTRACTS FROM INDLN ELCUC1TY RULES-1972
to his premises. Theseoverld mains shall constitute a portion of

his installation and shall lltiid in compliance with the Indian
Electricity Rules in force frmtimne to time. An efficient chocking
coil and lightning arrester my be fixed at the commencement of
the overhead line at the cmsner's cost, should he desire the same,
as an additional protection fEhiS installation.
Earthing. Gas ps shall on no account be used for
(f)
earthing purposs.
(g) Domestic heatingand cooking. A special circuit of
for
supply.
heating and cooking shaUberan from the licensee's point
Wall plugs used on these ciitS shall be of the three pin type, the
third pin being an earth wmection. Two pin plugs or lighting
sockets shall not be allow. All appliances used in the bathroom
be
for heating or washing pwpscs or in any damp location must
effectively earthed.
Plugs. All plugs s11 be switched on the live wire and not
(h)
on the neutral.
shall not he allowed to be run sela-
(i) Wiring. Single lc
rately in iron conduit.
(j) A.C. Motor insttion. Motor shall be provided with
control gear so as to prevt satisfactorily the maximum current
dernandfronl the consume st:1atI0fl exceeding the limits given
11owing schedule auny time under all possible conditions.
in the f. Nvill render the consumer
Failure to comply with erqgulations
liable to disconnection fron the supply on account of interference
with the supply to other cumer5.
Limit cfmxw:urr1
ra !li rC of sizeff
currcflt dcrncznded
jr.stcLfriOr1
Uptu and ludr.g I S:x times full load current.

Single phase
BHP Three times full lead current.
Three phase Above I Bi'afld up to
and jnclud 10 BlIP
Twice full load current.
Above 10 EP and Up
to and jrdiding 15
BHP One and a half time full load
Above l5 EP
current.
Motor circuit shall bentrolled by a triple pole linked switch
projected by a no-volt rele and T.P. fuses (or overload releases).
It is important that the rase should be maintained in thorough
working order. Wiring foruotor5 shall be run with all threePha5e
wiresbunched in a singlet cc';t, which shall be eCiefltlY
earthed throughout and1flCCt to the frame of the motor from
which two separate earth wires shall be run. The minimum Size of
the earth wire permitted is No. 14 S.W.G. All motors shall comply
in every respect with the Indian Electricity Rules' in force from time
to time.
Motor above I BHP shall be wound for three-phase, 400 volts
between phases.
(k) Power Factor of Apparatus. The apparatus shall have
a power factor of not less than 85 percent at normal working load.
Intending consumers are advised to consult the Engineer of the
licensee before ordering their motors, as in some cases it may be
practicable to relax the starting current limit dependent on the
location and conditions of working.
93. Unused overhead line (1) Where an overhead line
ceases to be used as an electric supply line, the ownershall maintain
it in a safe mechanical condition in accordance with rule 76 or shall
remove it.
(2) Where any overhead line ceases to be used as an electric
suppl y -line, an Inspector may, by a notice in writing served on the
owner, required him to maintain it in a safe mechanical condition
to remove it within fifteen days of the receipt of the notice.

711
IJRAS FROM INDIAN EIRJC1TY RULES-1072
Annexure A
Table 1. P.V.C. Insulated Wires (Twisted Copper)
P C Sele Core I' V C

Copper Con- area in Size of Wire
ductor Size mm' in MM Unit Twin Cwr
ZIOltS I L'OIiS
175.00 Coil of 320/- 4251-
1/.044118 1.5 111.40
9144 m
do 315.00 600/- 7 501-
31.036120 2.0 1/2.80
111.80 do 225.00 415/- 4701-
3/.029/22 2.5 90011-
4.0 1/1.24 do 480.00 830/-
7I.029'22
do 720.00 1300/- 1550/-
7/.036/20 6 11280
(o 1200.00 1900/- 2550/-
7/.044!18 10 1/3.55
7/1.70 do 1400.00 2500/- 2900/-
7/.052/17 16
do 2300.00 3800/- 3800/-
7/.064/16 25 7/2.24
7/2.50 do 3320.00 4650/-
19/.044/18 35
do 4 500.00 7000/-
19!.052/17 50 7/3.00
1912.24 do 6320.00 9200/-
19.'.064/16 70
1912.50 do 12000.0.) 15500/-
19/.083/14 93
37!.072/14 120 37/2.06 do 2200000 30,600/-
do, 13000.00 15000!-
37/064/16 150 37/2.24
do 4500000 50'J00i-
371. 128/10
Table 2. Approximate Cost of Flexible Cords

230 Vw'ls Grod.e
V.1.11. insulated W/Shop type Flexible c-crd
Size of Wire i' I Unit
MM. flexible cord twin care flex- unkrinkble
twin twis,'d. jbli'ire. domestic t.p-e
three core
3 4 5
I - 2
Es.11/193105.00
Coil Of 10 0 m. P. 1 65 . 00 Es. 34000
Es. 165.00 Rs- 225.00 Es. 435.00
23.'. 193 1 do Es. 725.00
do Es. 215.00 its. 565.00
40/.193 - Rs. 1800.00
110L193 do Es. 500.00
162/.193 do Es. 750.00 - J. 3250.00
Table 3. Approximate Cost of I .C. Switches

IC. Switches I Unit
current capucity
in Amperes ^^ `^
T^vv -N C P
10 - Each Rs. 80.00 - .. -- -
- Es. 100.00 - Ri.275.00 Es. 25000
15 360.00 Es. 370.00
30 - Es. 23000 -
60 - Es. 260.00 Es. 600.00 l 875.00 Es. 890.00
Rs.950.00 1150.00 Rs. 1170.00
100 -

712 WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTIN
•Table 4. APPROXIMATE COST OF I.C. DISTRIBUTION

FUSE BOARDS
Single phase
Descripin -
SNo. Rate
IC MS.
1. 1/2 way 1.C.D.B., 250 V. 15 amps/way Each Rs. 85.00 Rs. 36.00
2. 3/4 way 1.C.D.13.,
250 V. 15 amp/way EachRs. 125.00 Rs. 101.00
3. 6 way I.C.D.B., 250 V. 15 amp/way Each Rs. 170.00 Rs. 159.00
4. 8 way I.C.D.B., 250 V. 15 amp'way Each Rs. 210.00 Rs. 168.00
5. 10 way LC.D.13., 250 V. 15 amp/way Each Rs. 300.00 -
6. 12 way J.C.D.B., 250 V. 15 amp/way Each Ra. 450.00 R. 216.00
7. 16 way IC.D.B., 250 V. 15 amp/way Each -. Rs. 270.00
Triple pole 4way
1. 166 amp/way
_T 0 amp/way
T ^1 a h R;_ 380.00
ch Rs. '1700.00
Triple pole 6 way
72. 32a F" a
2 Irriui
Each IN. 1000.00
Table 5. Angle iron Main board, with iron sheet at top ant
b o t torn
.
Table 6. I. C. CUT-OUTS
I. C. Cut-out Unit 2.50 V/ts
Current Capocity
I
500 Volts
S. Pole S. Pole
15 amps Each
30 amps Each :: : gg
60 amps Each -
Hs. 70.00
_
Table 7. Approximate cost of "Conduit Fittings" -
Items t19mrn254mrn3,8m3;35
I
Couplers 35.00 60.00 72.00 1
(Contd.)
713
RATESinRupees
Items U19 mm. 25.4mm. 31.8mm. 38.8 mm. 50.8
Die. Die. dia. Dia. mm.
Din.
30.00 36.00 43.00 60.00 72.00
Tees 22.00
Doz. 9.00 10.00 12.00 16.00
Saddles 372.00
Dozen 38.00 42.00 90.00 10000
Inspection bends 90.00
24.00 30.00 40.00 60.00
Elbows 120.00
" 32.00 36.00 50.00 80.00
Inspection elbows 90.00
35.00 40.0060.00 80.00
Inspection tees 120.00
48.00 00.00 72.00 90.00
Circular inspec-
tion boxes with
cover 200.00
Gross 34.00 36.00 72.00 84.00
Lock Nut 35.00 50.00
100 10.00 15.00 25.00
P.V.C. bushing
Nos.
"Round Junction Boxes" Rate in Rupees
R A T ES in Rupees
19 mm. 25.4 mm. 31.8 mm. 38.8 mm. 50.8
Items Unit mm.
Die. Da. dia. Dia.
- The.
26.00 125.00 175.00 280.00
ôay T Dozen 24.00
30.00 140.00 190.00 300.00
Two . ways Dozen 30.00
38.00 18000 205.00 372.00
Three . ways Doz.n 3.00
42.00 190.00 225.00 410.00
Your-ways Dozen 3.00
Table 8. Approximate cost of Electrical Accessories

Item Unit IRate in
SNo
Dozen 48.00
1. Ceiling rose 2 plate (Bakelite)
' 6000
2. Ceiling rose 3 plate (Bakelite)
5400
3. Ceiling rose 2 plate (porcelain)
3.00
4. 5 amps tumbler switch (surface type)
4 .00
5. 5 amps tumbler switch (surface type) 2 way
6. 5 amps tumbler switch (flush type) (C E. C. Mu Lac
or Similar Superior make)
1(j,0O
7. 15 amps tumbler switch (surface type).
8. Plug and Socket
4800
(i) 5 amps. 3 pin
- 36,00
(ii) 5 amp. 2 pin
12000
(iii) 15 amp. 3 pin
48.00
9. Cut-out single pole 5 amp. bakelite
Dozen
10. Lamp holders.
7.00
(a) Pendant type (brass)
36.00
(8) -do-- bakelite)
(Contd.)

714
Item it jRate in
(c) Batt'n tYpe (!I ru 's)

- 60.00
(d) -d__ (Bakelite)
48.00
(e) Bracket type (brass)
180.00
(I)
-do-- (Bakelite)
11. Lamp Shades 96.00
(a) E. 1. 2.5.40 cm x 8.90 cm.

Each 20.00
(b) E. I. 25.40 cm x 12.70 cm.
(c) - 35.00
Opal glass 25.40 cm.
(d) 110.00
Class Cool icon 27.95 cm. --
(e) 250.00
E. I. Coo) icon 27.95 cm.
- 125.00
j) Plastic Cool icon 27.95 cm.
180.00
(g) I..angharn aluminium 25.40 cm.
135.00
(/a) Anodized aluminium 25.40 cm.
(j) 170.00
-d0- Cool icon 27.95 Cm,
15.00
12. (a) V.'.T. Bracket 30 ems. com
globe plete with holder and
30.00
(h) rass Bracket with ordin8ry
(c) lla)jtc }rackct 15.00
13. Call Bell 2201230 V 8.00
14. Bell push Ikz.cra 18000
15. Ccl ia1h.ko '60.00
115.00
16.
T.W. Boards.
S ngle 'Doubh
(a) l8 cm. xlocm.
6.00 75.00
Dozen
(b) 2OCm. x lScm.
2.00
(c) 20 cm . 110.00
x 25 cm.
0.00 -135.00
(d) 2O con , x3ocm.
(c) 30 cm. x 25 cm. 140.00 2.00
15.00
(I) 2 3 con. x45 150.00
18.00
(,g) 30 con, x38 cm. 160.00
50.00 190.00
Dozen
(h) JO con - x4Scm
(1) 30 cm. x 60 cm. 75.09 280.00
2 290.00
(/1 4Scm.x
5.00 - 2 310.00
(k) 60 con. x 75 cm.
17. T.W. B100k ..3 330.00
(a) round 7.5 cm. x
(Single) Each
(ConEd,)
--4 . .- ---

hem in R,
11 •
Each . 4.00
(b) r.iund 10cm. x 2.5 cm. (Single)
Each 5)
(c) round 7.5 cm. x 35 cm. (Double)
Each 6.00
(d) round IC cm. ' 2.5 cm. (Double)
Each 8.00
(e) Hexagon 10 cm. x 4 cm.
• P \.C. Casing & Cnpptng
100 M. 1150.00
(a)4O mm. x22Tflrfl.
M. 1300.00
(b) 44 mm. x 28 mm.
m 2600.00
() 51 mm. x 35 mm.
100 20.00
19. T.W. Plugs 2.5 cm. sq. 1.9 cm. sq. 5
cm. long. Nos.
20. T.W. flattens
(o)j3 mm. xl3mm. 100 120.00
rn 125.00
(b) 19 mm. x 13 mm.
rn 130.00
(c)25 mm. xl3mm.
135.04.)
(d)3l mm. xl3ram.
rn 140.00
()38 mm. x 13 mm.
"rn 145.00
(j)51 mm. xl3mm.
Pox of 100 3.00
21. (a) Link cl i ps with pins (4.4 mm.)
Nos.
3.50
(5) Link clips with pins (size 51 cm.) Pox of 100
Nos.
Box of 4.00
100 Nos.
Gross 24.C-("
22. (a) Porcelain cleats 2-way
36.00
(b)-do- 2-way (Big size)
10.00
23. (a) Round cleats (glazed)
15.00
(b)-do- (Superior glazed)
Dozen 48.00
24. 2-way 5 amps tumbler switch (Surface type)
- 144.00
25. 2-way tumbler switch 5 amps (Flush type)
5.ampstumbler switch with 2 pins socket and 120.00
26.
plug. (non-inter-locking).
150.00
27. Pendant-holder Brass (Externally threaded)
(Externally - 36.00
28. Pendant-holder Bakelite
threaded)
C.I. M.S.
29, BOXES WITI3 MASONITE COVER
Each 10.00 600
(a) 7.60 ern x 7.60 cm 4 cm. 14.00 8.00
(b) 7.60 cm 14.2 cm 4 cm. 17.50 9.04)
(c) 10 cm X 1 cmx 5cm. 28.00 12.00
(d) 15 cm x 20 cm x 4 cm. 45.00 18.00
(e) 20 cm x 20 cm x 10 cm. 52.00 20.00
(f) 20 cm x 30 cm x 10 cm.
(g) 25 cm x 30 cm x 10 cm.
(h) 30 cm 45 cm x 10 cm.
I 60.00
130.00
30.00
42.00
(Contd.)
716
WIRING, ESTthIATJNG AND CO
S.No.
J Item
Ttn
30. 7.6 cm. deep C.I. terminal IJox with metal
Doz.
cover (one-way two-ways, three-ways four-
ways)
31. Screwed CONDIJJT/p.VC CONDUIT
(o) H.G. (Heavy Gauge) 19 mm.
(b) HG. Conduit 25.4 mm. 10.80
(c) H.G. Conduit 31.8 mm. 13.80
(d) H.G. Conduit 38.8 mm. 16.50 1
(e) H.G. Conduit 51 mm. 19.50 2
-
(h Flexible conduit 19 mm. 33.00 3€
(g) Flexible conduit 25.4 mm. 10.00 .5
(A) Flexible conduit 31.8 mm. 14.00 •
(i) Flexible conduit 38 mm. 18.00
-
(j) Flexible conduit 51 nm. 24.00 12
30.00 15
32. SCREWS
Pkt. of N.F. F
100 No. BR
I. Iron Screws 'Nettle Folds" (Flat Head)
() 1 .25cm x 4 S.W.C.
(b) 1.80 cm 4 S.W.G. I Pkt. 18.00
(c) 2.54 cm 6 S.W.C. - 28.00
(d) 3.18 cmx 8 S.W.G. - 33.00
(e) 3.80 cm 8 S.W.C. - 3&00
(f 4.3!cmv8.S\y' 48.00
(g) 5.08 cm x 8 S.W.G. - 50.00
(h) 5.08 cm x 10 S.W.G. - 54.00
60.00
II. Macliine Screws (Round head)
I Pkt. of
100 No.
(a)1..90 cm 0.31 cm .
1 Pkt. 6.0(
(b)2.54 cmxO.31 cm -
(c) 2.54 cm 0.40 cm - 6.0(
(d) 2.54 cm 0.48 cm - 18.0(
(e) 2.54 cm 0.63 cm 26.0(
(1) 3.18 cm 0.48 cm 22.0(
(g)3.18cmx03 cm. 18.0(
(h)3.81 cm 0.40 cm 7.O
(1) 3.81 cm 0.48 cm - 24.0(
(j) 5.08 cm x 0.63 cm 30.0€
(k) 5.08 cm 0.31 cm 25.0€
(1) 5.08 cm 0.40 cm - 12.0€
(In) 5.08 cm 0.48 cm
30.0€
35.0€
III. -B rass-Screw (Imported Round Head)
(a) 1.25 cm
(b)1.9Ocm ..... Cross
- 41.00
(c)2.S4crn . 54.00
(d) 3.18 cm 69.00
.0 (e) 3.81 cm 84.00
(1)5.08cm 100.00
I..
133.00
IV. Iron Ilinge (Imported)

4) i..:• Dozen 18.00
(b)3.8crn 22.00
(c)3.81 cm - 24.00
33. Earth Wire No. 14 G.I. per kg. 18.00
34. Earth Wire No. 8 S.W.G. per kg. 16.00
35. Nails' per kg. 20.00
Table 9. Approximate Cost of Underground Cable PILC

Item Unit Rote
1. H.T..33KVU.G. Cable 3x7O sq. mm . metre Rs25581-
2. H.T., 33 K U.G. Cable 3 x 95 sq. mm. metre R917281-
3. H.T., 33 KY U.G. C'.ble 3 x 120 sq. mm . " Rs18591'
4. H.T.,33KVU.G. Cable 3xlSO sq. mm . Rs19841
5. H.T., 33 K U.G. Cable 3 x 185 sq. mm . Rs226&f-
6. H.T., 33 K U.G. Cable 3 x 240 sq. mm . Rs25331.
7. HIT., 33 K U.G. Cable 3 x 300 sq. mm . Rs27221-
8. H.T., 1116.6 KV U.C. Cable 3 x 25 sq. mm . " Rs. 348/-
9. F.T. 1116.6 KV U C. CaMe 3 x 70 n. mm. metre Rs. 5401.
10. HT., 1116.6 KY U.G. Cable 3 x 95 sq. mm . " Rs. 600/-
11. HT., 1116.6KV U.C. Cable 3 x 120 sq. mm. ' Rs. 684/-
12. H.T., 1116.6KV U.C. Cable 3x 150 sq. mm . Rs, 759/-
13. UT., IL'G 6 K U.G. Cable 3 185 sq. mm. Rs. 905/-
14. UT., 11.6.6KV U.C. Cable 3 225 sq. mm. " 1. 9651
15. UT., 11/6.6 NV U.G. Cable 3 .. 300 sq. mm . Rs. 1217 . -
16. IT. U.G. Cable 4 x 6 sq. mm . Rs. 51/-
17. L.T.U.C. Cable 4 x 10 sq. mm . " Rs. 60/
18. L.T. U.G. Cable 4 x 25 sq. mm . Rs. 88.'-
19. L.T. U.C. Cable 4 x 50 sq. mm . " Rs. 135/.
20. L.T. U.G. Cable 3 x 70 sq. mm . ' Rs. 15V-
21. L.T. U.G. Cable 31 x 95 sq. mm . ' R. 192/-
22. L.T. U.G. Cable 31 x 120 sq. mm . R. 237/-
23. L.T. U.C. Cable x iso sq. mm. R. 278/.
24. L.T. U.G. Cable 3'x 185 sq. mm . " Rs. 342/-
25. L.T. U.G. Cable 3 1 x 240 sq. mm . Rs. 444..
26. L.T. U.G. Cable 31 x 300 sq. mm . " Es. 538/.

718
WIRING. E STIMATING AND CO
Table 10. Approximate Cost of Joint Boxes for P.1.1

Cables
(i) Straight Through
Item
1. }LT. Straight t hrough 11J6. 6KV3x25 sq. mm

Each Rs. 10601
2. HI. Straight through 1116.6 KV 3 x 70 sq. mm
. - Rs. 1460/
3. H.T.Straightthroug
1F6. 6KV3xI2o sq. mm
- R& 1695/
4. H.T. Straight through 11/6.6KV 3
x 155 sq. mm.
5. 11.1. Straight through 11/6.6 KV 3 x225 sq. mm Rs. 2360/
. - Rs. 2765/
6. ftT.&raightthrough
lIiG.6 KV3x300 sq. mm.
Rs. 33851
7. LT. Straight through 4 x 25 sq. mm
.
8. LT. Straight through 4 x 50 sq. mm Rs. 475/.
-
Rs. 535/-
9. LT. Straight through 31 x 70 sq. mm
.
- Rs. 650/-
10. L.T.Strajght through 3x 95 sq. mm.
Each R. 660/.
11. L.T. Straight through 3 x 120 sq. mm
.
Rs. 10501
12. L.T. Straight through 3 x 150 sq. mm.

- Ra. 10501
13. L.T. Straight through 3 x 185 sq. mm
.
Rs. 1095/
14. L.T. Straight through 31 x 225 sq. mm.

- Rs. 1105/
15. LT. Straht through 3 x 300 sq. mm.

- Rs. 16701
(ii) Outdoor
1. 11.T. Outdoor boxes 1116.6 NV 3 x 25 sq. mm
. Each
2. lIT. Outdoor boxes R. 15251.
11/6.6 NV 3 x 70 sq. mm.
3. 11.1. Outdoor boxes IL'6.6 NV 3 Rs. 15651.
x 120 sq. mm .
4. J1.T. Outdoor oxes 11/6.6 NV 3 x 150 sq. mm 138. 19101.
. Rs. 19101.
5. H.T. Outdoor boxes 11/6.6 NV 3 x
185 sq. m!ti.
6. FIT. Outdoor boxes Ra. 19101.
11/6.6 NV 3 x 225 sq. mm .
7. ILT. Outdoor boxes
Rs. 23951-
11/6.6 NV 3 x 300 sq. mm .
(iii) Indoor -Rs. 2395/.
1. FIT. Ir.door boxes

1116.6 NV 3 . 25 sq. mm. Each
2. 1-1.1. Indoor boxes 11/6.6 NV 3 x 70 sq. mm Rs. 393/.
.
3. 1-iT. Indoor boxes 11/6.6 NV 3 x 120 sq. mm Rs. 460/.
.
4. H.T. Indoor boxes Rs. 535/.
1116.6 NV 3 x 150 sq. mm .
5. H.T. Indoor boxes 1116.6 NV 3 x 13 sq. mm Rs. 630'.
.
i. ILT. Indoor boxes 1116.6 NV 3 x Rs. 780/.
225 sq. mm .
Rs. 780,.
7. HT Indoor oxes 11 16.6 NV 3 x 300 sq. mm
.
Rs. 810/.
EXTRACTS FROM INDIAN ELECTRICITY PULES-1972 719
Table 11. Approximate Cost of Insulating material
(1) Insulating tapes

Item Unit j late
(a) Black adhesivetapes 25 mm, wide O Roll of 50 Rs. 9000
metres length metres
(') Varnished or nnpire tape 25 mm. Rs. 30.00
wide 50 meters length
(c) Cotton tape 25 mm, wide 40 metre " Rs. 15.00
length
(ii) Insulating Compound
(a) Plastic Compound for L.T. kg. Rs. 12.00
(b) Black Bituminous Cable Compound kg. Rs. 16.00
suitable for vokages upto 11 XV.
(c) Rosin oil Cable Compound for volt- kg. Es. 50.00
ages upto 33
(d) Sleeve Compound kg. Es. 10.00
Table 12. Material for overhead lines, service lines and street light
S.No. Item Unit I Rote
1, A.C.S Ii. Conductor in vayious sizes kg Es. 5.

2. P.C.CJE.C.C. pole 8.5 rietre long Each Es. 18C)0-
3. P.C.CJb.C.C.pok 9.15 metre long Each Es. 2200-
4. VC CJR.C.C.le 11.00 metre long Each Es. 3000.-
5. Wooden pole 8.55 metre long Each R. 250.-
6. Wooden pole 9.15 metre long Each Rs. 20.-
7. Wooden pole 11.00 metre long Each Es. 320-
8. Danger plate Each Es. 30/-
9. Anti -climbLg device Each Es. 25/-
10. Arrestors lightning L.T. Each Es. 650,'-
11. Arrestors lightning 11/6.6 XV Each Rs. 1850/-
12. Arrestors lightning 33 K Each Es. 25500/-
13. Bobjes 15.9 mm. Doz. Rs. 10/.
14. Insulator pin-type with spindle, 500 V Each Rs. 12.!-
15. Insulator pn-type with spindle, 1100 V Each Rs. 12/-
16. Insulator io-type with spindle Each Rs. 45/.
6.6KV/I' KV
17. Insulato:'n-typo with spindle 33 KV Each Rs. 275/-
18. Shackle insulator medium 500 V with Each Rs. 12/-
straps and bolts
19. Shackle Insulator large 1,100 V with Each Rs. 22/-
straps and bolts
20. H.T. disc type insulator 11 XV Each Es. 225/-
21. Flat Iron all sizes Kg. Es. 16.25
(Con td.)
-47


Item Unit Rate
22. Angle Iron all ezes Kg. R.
23. Stay plate m.a. 6.30 mm. thick, 22.5 cm. Each Ra. 75/.
x.5cm.
• 24. Sty plate m.s. 6.30 thick. 30 cm. x 30 cm. Each Re. 110/.
25. G1vanised stay oranchorrod 60 cm. long Each Rs. 95/.
16rnrn. dia.
26.
Galvanised stay oranchorrod 60 cm. long Each Rs. 115/.
• 191nm.dia.
27. Stay bow of galvanized iron 15 mm. dis.
Each Re. 30/.
and 37.5 cm. length
28. Galvanised thimble
Each Re. 4/.
29. Strain or stay insulator Rs. 9/.
30. Stay collar of 3.80 mm. thick flat iron
E.h Re. 10/.
31. Earth plate G.I. 60 cm. x 60 cm. x 6.30 Each Re. 250/.
MM wire 7/8 S.W.G.
32. Stay Kg. Rs. ia/-
33. R.bracko g 5.08 cm. Each Re. 15]-
34. Projecting angle iron bracket 0.92 m. Each Rs. 50/.
0.92m.
35. Projecting angle iron bracket 1.25 m.
Each Re. 75]..
1.25 m.
36. Projecting angle iron bracket 1.53 m.
Each Re. 105/.
1.53 m.
37. 2 line cross-arm bracket with suitable
Each Es. 25/.
clamp.
38. 4 line cross-arm bracket with suitable
Each Es. 55/.
clamp.
39. Eye bolts and nuts 20.5 cm. x 1.2mm. Each Rs. 25/-
40. Eye bolts , and nuts 30 cm. x 1.25 mm. Each Re.30/-
41. Aerial pole fuse strips 15, amps.. 250 V. Each Re. 6/-
42. Fuse cutout porcelain (bakelite) 5 amps. Each Rs, 10/-
43. Fuse cutout porcelain (bakelite) 15 amp. Each Re. 15/-
44. Fuse triple pole iron-clad M.E,M. 15 Each Re. 30/.
amps., 500 V.
45. Fusetriplc pole iron-cladM.E.M. 30amps. Each Ps. 401.
500 V.
46. Fuse triple pole iron-clad M.E.M. 60 amps EachEs. W.
500 V
47. Fuse triple pole iron-clad M.E.M. 100 Each Rs. 110/-
amps 500 V
48. D . clamp for shackles of all sizes
Each Rs. ill-
49. H.R.C. fuses 500 volts 100 amps Each
50. H.R.C. fuses 500 volts. '0 amps Rs. 1351-
Each Re. 210/.
51. $-I.RC. fuses 500 volts 315 amps Each Es. 320/.
52. H.R.C. Fuses 500 volts 400 amps Each Es. 450/-
53. H.R.C. Fuse 500 volts 630 amps Each Rs. 475/.
54. Lamp 10') watts 250 volts Each Es. 10/.
55. Lamp 150 watts 250 volts Each Re. S/..
56. Lamp 200 watts 250 volts Each Ps. 16/-
57. Do"' L., ight fli
t ting 0.610 metr Each Es. 175/-
.,Ingeh cmpict& in all respect
(Contd.)
0 b C b c
Z zzz z z z1
- c•
—
x -
'I
0
z t2
—
-
c- -
-
-
roQEO n
1 --- -
N
u

ESTIMATES FOR L.T. DISTRIBUTORS AND STREET LIGHT FEEDERS 721
I.
E
C C C C C C 0 0 C C C C C 0 C
C C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C 0 0 0 C
E2 C C
C 9
- C C C C C C C C C CC
0 0 0 C
C000
0C0 '1
C C) C C C) C 0
C C
C C
fl..
ELECTRICAL WRING
722
cl
I..
to
E ci
ole 010
0 010 In to
Ll IIt-
e cIe
IN To 04
I
9 ID
be
L_!
CID
ESTIMATES FOR LT. DISTUTOR$ AND STREET UGKT FEEDERS 723
8. We use 2 core 1 mm 2 , 111.2 cu cable for tapping from

6 mm 2 to the lamp
9. All the 12 lamps are on one side of the street.
Voltage Drop Calculation:
Current in each bulb of 40W = 40/230 = 0.173 Amps.
The designing current = 0.173 x = 0.326 Amps.
Distance from pillar to the post No. 1= 8m.
:. Length of cable required =(1+1+8+1+1.35+looping)
= 15 M
We select 6mm 2,1 12.80 mm 7.3 m V/Amp. / m. single phase, twin
core copper cable (Multi-strand Sheathed, Insulated with BUrIL RUB-
BER).
STREETLIGHTS
The Currents and associated Voltage drop in each section
are shown below:

St. r. Sect &on Di.sona Current Voltage
Amps

1. PA SM 3.912 0.428
2. AB 30M 3.587 0.920
3. BC 2.260 0.713
4. CD 2.934 0.642
uó £
5. DE - 2.6O3
6. EF - 2.282 0.429

7. FG - 1.956 0.428
1.630 0.356
& GH
9-
HI 1.304 0.285
13. IJ - 0.978 0.213
Ii. JK - 0.652 0.141
12 0.326 0.06 L
(This drop is within limits)
LABOUR CHARGES
1. For excavation of earth for laying Cable at Es. 1350.00
1 M below the ground: 10 labourers at Es.
451- per day for 3 days
2. For excavation of earth for erection of 12 Es. 450.00
Nos. of post. 5 labourers at Rs. 451- per
day for 2 days
3. Br.cks for laying 370 Cl length L.S. Rs. 275.00
4. Frectic•n of poles, Running the Cable, Fixing
thc junction boxes, Making the joints, fixing th
T.L. fittings etc.
(a) Supervisor -1 at Es. 100.00
(b) Cable jointer - 1 at Es. 80.00
ELECTRICAL WiRING
at Es. 80/- each Es. 160.00

(c) Electrician-2 at Rs. 45/- each Rs. 180.00
(d) Helpers - 4 Total Rs. 520.00 Per day
for 3 days P.s. 1560.00
Rs. 90.00
5. Refilling the earth - 2 labourers at Rs. 45.00
per day Es. 160.00

6. Mason 1No-2daY3.t Rs. 80.00 per day Rs. 180.00
Helper - 2 No - 2 daysat Es. 45.00 per day
Rs. 1500.00
7. Junior Engineer to see that the entire
work is completed with in 10 days at Rs.
150.00 per day Rs. 5565.00
Total
ANNEXURE- 1
Length of Cable required

From pilarto trench (0.5 ± 1.0 = 1.5) = 1.5 rn
Frorti trench to 1st Post (Horizontal under the ground = 8.0 m
From under the 1st Post to SB at the 1st post
=2.3m
(1+1.3=2.3)
From SB to trench (down) (1.3 + 1.0 = 2.3) = 2.3 m
From 1s osttO 12th post (11 x 30 = 330) = 330.00 m
Loose = 2.5 m
Total = 346.6 rn
Add 10% = 34.6m
-
Total = 381.2m
Or say 3811- Mts.
'I
725
INDIAN STANDARD U.S.) FUNDAMENTAL DEfiNITIONS
Ionization: The tormation of ion 's by the division ormoiccules

or by the addition or removal of Electrons from atoms, molecules or
groups of the latter.
Moiccule The smallest particle ofa subst.ance which exists in
a free state and exhibits the chemicalpropertie s of the substance.
Neutron: An elementary particle having no resulthat charge
and the mass of which is approx. equal to that of a proton.
Positive Electricity : Electricity which is similar to that
produced by rubbing a piece of glass (resin) with silk.
Proton : An elementary particle containing the smallest pos-
e order as
itive charge of electricity and possessingmass of the sarn -
the hydrogen atom.
Electrostatics
Capacitance of CapacitoL; 1 he charge on one of the capacitor
plates divided b y the potntial difference between them, the influ-
ence of any other conductor being negligible
Capacitance of Conductors : The charge of a conductor is
divided by its potential, all other conductors assumed to be at zero
potential.
Capacitor: A system of two conductors (plates) separated over
the extent of their surfaces by an insulation medium which is
capable of storing electrical energy as electrical stress.
Eddy currents: The currents induced in the interior of con-
ducting masses by variations of the magnetic flux. -
Current Density : A vector of which the integral over given
suffice is equal to the current flowing through the surface. The
mean density in a linear conductor is equal to the cffreflt dde
by the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Electric circuit : An arrangement of bodies or media through
which current can flow.
Electric flux: The differential co-efficient of the electric flux
density in a dielectric with respect to time.
Conductance : The reciprocal of resistance.
Cathode: The electrode by whichhe current in a system leaks,
that is, by which the electrons enter the medium.
Anode: The electrode by which the current in a system enters,
that is by which the electrons leaves the medium,
thre mean
Alternating Current : A periodic current of which
value is zero.
720 WRING, ESTIMA'1INC AND COSTING
Joule effec:The pc.iar f heat due to the passage of

electric current through a homonogenous conductor.
Joule's law The law according to which the power developed
in the form of heat in an homogenous conductor is proportional to
the product of its resistance and the square of the cur-rent which
passes through it.
Kirchoff's Law
(a) First Law: The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at
anode of a network is zero.
(b) Second Law: The algebraic sum of the EMF's in a closed
circuit is eaual to the algebraic sum of the potential drops due to
the resistance.
Non Inductive Circuit An electric circuit of which the
inductance is negligible in the particular Condition under consid-
eration.
Ohm's Law : The law wh i ch, in the case of direct currents,
expresses the proportionality between the current and the potential
difference between the endr Of circuit element in which there is
no E.M.F. generated.
Parallel Circuit. Shun ICircuits: Electric or magnetic circuit
are said to be in parallel (shuat), when the current or flux is divided
between them.
Resistance : (in direct (.urrent) : The constant difference of
Potential applied to the ends ofa conductor, divided by the current
it produces, when the conductor has no E.M.F. acting there.
Resistivity : The resistance of a wire of a gi ven substance
multiplied by cross-sectional area of wire and divided by its length.
Series Circuit Circuit connected so that the same current
flows through them.
Skin effect-Kelvin effect : Non-uniform distribution of
variable currents in solid conductors resulting in an increase in the
:urrent density near the surface.
V oltage- p otential difference : The line integral from one
point to another of an electric field, taken along a given path.
Voltage (Potential) drop: The diminution of potential along
a conductor or in an apparatus through which a current is passing
Electric Discharge in gases
Corona effect : The particular form of the glow discharg in
the case of electric line or apparatus working at high voltage.
1 N DLkNSTANDAD(I.S.)}VNDIENTAL DEFINITIONS 727
Flash over : The passage of a disruptive disarge round an

insulating material.
Leakage Path (Electric) : The shortest distance acrost the
'urface of a piece of insulating material between two points at dif-
ferent potentials.
Spark: A brilliantly luminous phencmenon of short duration
which characterizes a disruptive discharge.
Striking (an arc or a spark)
Variable conditions during which an are or spark is established.
Megnetism
Absolute Permeability ofa substance or of an isotropic
medium
The magnetic flux density divided by the magnetic field
strength.
Coulomb's low The law according to which the force exerted
between two points of magnetic masses in homogeneous, isotropic
medium of a infinite extent and constant permeability is propor-
tional to these poles and inversely propertThnal to the square of
distance between them.
Diamagnetic Substance : A substance which becomes mug
netised always reduces by an external magnetic field, the magne-
tization having the effect of reducing the induction due to field alone.
Ferro-magnetic Substance : A s. bstance which may be
magnetized to a considerable extent in an external magnetic field
and which retains the whole or part of'this magnetization after the
effect of the field has cease.
Para-magnetic Substance : A substance which becomes
magnetized, generally reduced in an external magnetic field, the
effect of magnetization being to increase the induction, due to the
field alone.
Magnet-Permanent Magnet : A ferromagnetic body which
attains a magnetic field without the aid of external electric currents.
Magnetic Field : A region of space in which there exists a
magnetic state associated with forces.
Magnetic Field strength : An exial vector quantity which
thgether with niagnetic induction specifies amagnetu: field at any
point in space. It can be detected by a small magnetized needle,
freely suspended, which sets itself in the direction of field. The free
suspension of the magnetized needle assumes, however, that the
I
WLRNC ESTJ MAT j
NCr) COSTING
medium of fluid or that a small gap is ore': . ..

in such a direction ihat free movement is possible. As long as the
induction is solenoidal, the magnetic field is irrotational outside
the spaces in which the current density is not zero, so that it derives
a potential (non-uniform) therefrom. On the other hand, in the
interior of currents, its curl in the rationalized system, is equal to
the vector current density, including the displacement current.
The direction of the field is represented at every point by the
axis of a small elongated solenoid, its intensity and direction being
such that if counter-balances all magnetic effects in its interior
whilst the field intensity is equal to the linear current density of the
solenoid.
Magnetic flux: Flux of the magnetic induction.
Magnetization: An operation by which ferromagnetic body is
given the properties of magnet. A term sometimes used as synonym
for intensity of magnetization.
Magnetic Current : Current principally for producing a
magnetic field.
Magnetizing Field : A magnetic field used to produce mag-
net za ion.
NormalPerrneability Per meahility corresponding tonormal
induction. In practice , when the term permeability is used without
any qualification in connection with ferro-magnetic materials,
normal permeability is implied.
Residual Magnetism: A property offerr omagnetjcbodjes by
which they retain a certain magnetization (Induction) after the
magnetizing force has been removed.
Saturation : The state ola ferr omagnetic substance placed in
a field, so strong that the intensity of magnetization becomes
independent of the field, the substance is then said to be saturated.
In a wider senee, a ferromagnetic substance is said to be more
or less saturated according to whether its magnetization is more or
less close to saturation.
Electromagnetism Electrodynamic
Electromagnet : A device consisting of a ferromagnetic core
and coil which produces appreciable magnetic effect only when an
electric current flows through the coil.
Electromagnetic Induction: The production ofelectromotive
force
INDIAN STANDARD (IS.) FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITI 729
(a) in a closed circuit, by the variation magnetic flux linking

it.
(b) In an element of a movable circuit, by te lines of magnetic
flux that it cuts.
Elcctron*gnetism:That part of science which deals with the
relations between electricity and magnetism.
Excitation : The production of magnetic flux through a mag-
netic circuit bymèans of an electric current. The term is sometimes
used as a synonym for th-e magnetomotive forceproducing the flux
through an electromagnet.
Faraday's Law : The fundamental law of electromagnetic
induction which states that the E.M.F. induced in a closed circuit
is proportional to the rate of change of flux linked by the circuit.
Laplace's Law : The law which gives the force exerted on
an element carrying a current placed in a magnetic field.
Lenz's Law: The law which states that the induced E.M.F.
tends to produce current in such a direction that it will oppose the
cause by which it has been produced.
Magnetic Circuit :A combination ofmedia,mainly comprising
ferromagnetitsubstance, forming a closed circuitand through which
a flux of magnetic induction may pass.
Magnetic Core The part of a magnetic tircuit surrounded by
a coil.
Magnetomotive force (Along a closed curve). The line
integral of a magnetic field strength around the curve.
Mutual induction : The magnetic flux which the current
flowing in one circuit induces in another circuit divided by the
current in the first circuit.
Mutual Induction (Between circuits). The induction of an
E.M.F. is one circuit by the change in the current flowing through
another circuit. -
Reluctance The rnagnetomotive force applied to a magnetic
circuit divided by the flux established in it..
Self Inductance: Co-efficient of self Induction : For a closed
circuit the total magnetic flux linked by it divided by the current
flowing through it, or the total magnetic energy stored, divided by
half the square of Cie current flowing through it.
Self Induction: The induction of an E.MJ'. in the circuit itself
by the change in the current flowing through it.
Solenoid : A coil- usually of tubular form for producting a
magnetic field.
730 WIRING, ESTI [ATING AND COSTING
Yoke : The piece of ferromagnetic material not surround- , by

windings, used to connect the cores or an electromagnet or a
transformer or the pole of a machine.
Units and Systems of Measurement, Absolute
Electric--! Units
Ampere: (units of Electric Current)
A constant current which flowing in two parallel straight con-
ductors of infinite length of negligible cross section and placed at a
distance of one metre apart in a vacuum will produce a "rce of x
io newton per metre length between the conductors.
Coulomb : The quantity of electricity conveyed in one second
by a current of on ampere.
Farad (unit of Capacitance): The capacitance of an electric
capacitor having a difference a Electric potential of one volt between
the plates, when it is charged-with a quantity of electricity of one
coulomb.
Henry (unit of Electric Induction) : The inductance of a
closed circuit in which an E.M.F. of one volts is produced when the
curr'erit in the circuit varies at the uniform rate of one ampere pr
second.
Ohm (unit of Electrical Resistance)
The electrical resistance between two points of conductor when
a constant potential difference of one volt applied to these points
produced a current of one ampere in the conductor, provided no emf
is generated in the conductor.
Volt (unit of Potential difference and E.M.F.)
The difference of electric potential which exists between two
points of a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere,
when the power dissipated between these points is one watt.
Weber (unit of magnetic flux) The magnetic flux which
linked with a circuit composed of a single turn produced in it an
E.M.F. of one volt if it is uniformly reduced tor zero in one second.
Barye: The C.G.S. Unit of pressure which is equal to one dyne
per square centimetre and which was adopted at the international
unit.
Dyne (the C.G.S. Unit of force) : The force which produces
on a miss of one gram an acceleration ofone centimetre per second.
INDIAN STANDARD (LS.) FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS 731
C.C.S. Unit.
Name
Magnetic field density Oersted
Magnetic flux density Gauss
Magnetic flux Maxwell
Magnetomotive force Gilbert
Erg: (the C.G.S. unit of work) : The work done by a force of
one dyne when its point of application is moved one centimetre the
direction of force
Newton : The force which produces on a mass of one kilogram
an acceleration of one metre per second.
Practical Electrical Unit (C.G.S. to Practical units)
72 Conversion Ratio
Resistance Ohm io-
Voltage Vol,
Current Ampere 10
Quantity of electricity Coulomb 10
Capacitance Farad 101
Inductance Henery iO -
Magnetic flux Weber 10
Energy Joule lo-1
Power Watt I0'

Reactive Power Var 10-1
Apparent Power Volt ampere 10-1
Usual Practical Units: Units which are not actually included

in the practical units derived from the C.G. system, but which are
commonly used. The following units fall under this category
Ampere Hour: The quantity of electricity which flows if a
current of one ampere passes for one hour and is equal to 36000
coulombs.
Ampere turn : The magnetornotive force produced by one
ampere flowing through a single turn of a conductor.
Volt-ampere hour: The unit of apparent energy in the prac-
tica l system, equal to one watt.
Walt-hour: The electrical energy developed during one hour
by a power of one watt and is equal to 36000 joules.
732
WIRING, MIMATING AND COSTING
Connection of Poly-Phase Circuits

Mesh : Connection in series of the windings of a poly-phase
system, effected in such a manner as to form a closed circuit in 3
phase system. This is called the delta connection.
Star: The connection of poly phase apparatus so arranged that
one end of the windi.igs, conductor or apparatus corresponding to
each phase is connected to a common point the other end being
connected to the corresponding conductors at the distribution sys-
tem. In a 3-phase circuit this is sometimes called a 'Y' connections.
Zig-Zag or Inter-Connected Star
The connection in star of poly-phase windings, each branch of
which is made up of winding, that generate phase-displaced voltage.
Inductive reactance : The product of the inductance and the
angular frequency.
Effective Resistance : Resistance to alternating current.
Ratio of the power dissipated to the square of the R.M.S. value of
the current. For sinusoidal current, divided by the current.
Impedance The terminal voltage of circuit divided by the
current flowing through it.
21
The Electrical Panel Boards-

Their Design and Drawings
1. Introducn, 2. Types of Panel Boards, 3. Examples of cide dimen-
sions of some electrical accessories, 4. Design of Panel Boarè, 5. Specific
size of sheetlD be used for fitting the accessories, 6. ExampLessfdesigfliflg
the Panel Bwrd, 7. Types of Switch Boards.
1. Introduction
Theswitches and receptacles cannot be mounted placed on
wall plates or switch boards having hotch-potch appearance. The
spacing between switches and other central devices should also be
very props- so as to have aneat and tidy appearance. The selection
of size of a particular switch board is based on numberof switches,
sockets asi fan regulators to be mounted, depending upon the
outside dimensions of switches and other equipmenthtbe installed
on that particular switchboard.
Theurpose behind design and drawing of panel boards is to
develop in the students, the ability to utilise outside dimensions for
the purpose of selection of the size of switch board and mounting
various control accessories which are part of an electrical installa-
tion.
2. Types of Panel Boards
There are two types of panel boards in use in house wiring:
(a) Teak wood switch boards for surface wiring: The
switches, sockets and fan regulators are mounted on top of a wooden
block, except for the wires.
(b) Teak wood switch board with stnlLia cover for
concealed wiring. The major part of the switches and regulators
are accomodated below the surface of the wall. The switch board is

734 ELECTRICAL WIRING. ES
TIMATING AND CQsTIN(;
embeded in the wall and covered with a suninica sheet. The switch
max' be tumbler switch or flush switch, P.V.C. piano type or M.C.B.
Only the part requiring operation will be projected out. Cir-
c ular/rectangular holes will be drilled in sheet for concealed
switches and other electrical accessories etc.
The panel for distribution and control for laboratories and
workshops are made of an iron sheet supported on angle irons on
which energy meter, iron clad main switch and distribution fuse box
and M.C.B etc. are mounted.
3. Example of outside dimensions of some electrical
accessories
Tumbler switch. [Fig. 21.1 (a) and (b)]
1.
Outside diameter = 50 mm
Distance between terminals = 25 mm
This distance is very important, that the holes on wooden
boards are to be drilled at the same distance as that on switch. The
wires from beneath the switch board are made to pass through these
holes and made to connect the terminals of the switch.
40
U) LtJ +
(C'
Fig. 21.1
2. Three pin socket outlet (tumbler) (5 Amps.):

[Fig. 21.1 (c)]
Outside diameter = 50 mm
Distance between terminals = 20 mm.
This distance is most important as the distance between
terminals of a three pin shoe is also the same. This is a standard
dimension according to I.S.I. recommendation which the manufac-
turer must observe.
Spacing between holes for fixing it with switch board is 40 mm.

THE ELECTRICAL PANEL BOARDS 735
3. Flush switch (5 Amps.)

Outside dimensions = 55 mm x 25 mm
Dimensions of the rectangular portion to be fitted in rectan-
gular hole of the sunmica plate = 35 mm x 15 mm.
The switch is fixed to the sunmica sheet with the help of two
studs.
The rectangular hole of size 35 mm x 15 mm is made in the
sheet for fixing it. The i ectangular projection of 35 mm >' 15 mm en
the back side of switch is made to pass through the rectangular hole
on sheet.
H
TH
55
35
Fi i 3T-
-

I —------j
-

Fig. 21.2 Fig 213
4. Flush socket (5 Amp.). (Fig. 21.3)

Outside dimensions = 55 mm x 40 mm.
Size of the rectangular portion tobe fitted in rectangular noI€
of the sunmica plate = 30 mm x 30 mm
Distance between centres of holes for fixing purposes = 45 mm
5. Fan regulator
The overall outside dimensions of fan regulator vary from
company to company. This is important when surface switch brard
is designed because the holes for connections and far fixing the
regulator with switch board will have to be done. But for flush type
switch board, onl y one hole i.e. for the speed knob will have t. be
48
736 ELECTRICAL WIRING. T MATING AND COSTING
drilled in the sheet. The average size' of a fan regulator is

125 mm x 100 mm.
HOLES FOR
FIXING WITH
SWITCH BOARD /b 50
5 70
it
F-5
4
TUMBLER SW!TCH 3-PIN SOCKET OUTLET 15 Amp
15 Arrp.
70 -I
40 -
ifttr
I1
5710
50
42 50 25
2S

60-! -15J20
FLUSH SOCKET 15 Amp-
FLUSHSWITCH 15 Amp
75 -
- -25___.. -I
S ITCH AND SOCKET COMBINED 15 Amp
Fig. 21.4
4. DESIGN OF PANEL BOARD

The type of wiring i.e. batton system (surface wiring) or con-
duit wiring (concealed) will determine whether the switch board
.4

-I-
125
€Ti
,61tOLES
FOR F1xINCSOREWj
IL -\
103
tf __
1
/ - I ZAZ1
-5 -
125
-e- \\\ 1/ 6
OFF
K - A
-100
MOLES FOR CONNECTIONS
Fig. 21.5
should be mounted on the surface of wall or it should be embedded
in wall i.e. flush mounted. In the case of batton or casing capping
type of wiring, the flush mounted switch board may be used if the
house owner so desires.
After , considering the outside dimensions of switches, socket
outlet, fan regulators and other equipments to be installed on switch
board, the following sequence of operation should be observed in
selecting and designing the switch bo- rd.
(a) Total number of switches, sockets, fan regulators and other

equipments if any, to be installed on the switch board in
such a manner as to give good appearance.
(b) Selection of size of switchboard should be based on number

of switches, sockets and fan regulators to be installed. A
few standard sizes of switch boards a: vaiiable in the
..r,LZiLAL W!t(!, : ATrc AND COSTNQ
market, but larger switch boards are a
placed demand. vailable only on prior
(c) The location of each equipment should be based on the

utility, i . e. the fan regulator should not be placed on bott.
side and switches on the upper side or in Scattered form.
The switches should be preferably installed on the lower
side in a row. The fan regulator is normally installed above
the row of switches. The space where switches and other
equipment is to be installed should be marked on the switch
board. No switch or fan regulator should project outside the
edges of the board.
(ci) After marking the location ofeach equipment on the switch
board, the work on switch board can he carried out for
drilling the holes and making rectangular grooves etc.
(e)
The switches and other accessories should be such that
their connections are clear and traceable for future repairs.
5. Specific size of sheet to
be used for fitting the accessories
Bakelite sheet cov er/sunmica sheet cover
The bakelite sheetisunmica switch board cover is available in

large size, it will have to be cut to pieces of required sizes. The
normal sizes of switch boards available in market are
10 cm x 10 cm - For one switch only.
10 cm < 20 cm - For one switch and a socket outlet or two
switches (flush type) and a socket.
20 cm x 25 cm - For 2-3 switches socket, and a fan regulator.
20 cm x 30 cm - For 3 to 4 switches, socket and a fan

regulator.
25 cm x 30 cm For 4 to 5 swithccs, socket outlet and a far,
regulator.
30 cm x 30 cm - For 5 to 6 flush type and 4 to 5 tumbler type
switches, a socket outlet and two fan
regulators.
Aj cm 5 cm - For upto 10 switches, a socket and three fah
regulators For flush type and upto
tumbler t y pe switches. The sizes above this
can be obtained only by special order to
carpenter.
1

The thickness of wooden board for surface wiring should not

be less than 6 mm and that of bakelite sheet 2 mm. The size of
bakelite should be sarn2 as th' the switch board selected.
6. Examples of designing the Panel Boards
Example 1. Design and draw the bakelite sunmico sheet for
coricealedwiring, which contains one tumbler switch and a three pin
tumbler socket outlet. Give overall size of sheet, and otlzernecessarv
details. The outside d j ,ncn ions of the switch and socket are giten at
page 166 for refen cc purposes.
Fig 21.6
Solution. (Refer Fig 21.6). A hole of 20 mm is drilled in the
sheet for toggle of the switch to be operated. The other 50 mm
diameter hole has been made for the socket outlet. The distance
between these two holes has been kept sufficiently large to ac-
comodate the switch and socket easily. Other small holes along outer
surface have been made to accomodate countersunk headed wood
screws to fix it with the switch board.
Example 2. Design and draw the bakelite Isunmica sheet for
concea!ed ILiring which should contain one flush switch and one
flush socket outlet. Give overall size of sheet and rectangular holes
to accornodate switch and socket. Other details may also be added.
3 Fr trg
J- - sw,'ze
For socket 1 -e
r
1'
LT'
.ae
For fl.sh
SWiTCh
Fig. 21.7

740 ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Solution. The left rectangular hole has been made to ac-

comodate the flush switch. The two small holes are meant for the
screws so that the flush switch can be fixed to the pl± Th H
hand rectangular hole is meant for the flush socket outlet. The ;.X
small holes along its outer surface are for fixing the switch cover to
concealed switch board with the help of C'S' K headed screws.
Example 3. Design and draw the surface type switch board
which should accomod ate, a tumbler switch and a tumbler socket.
1 0---
:ii1ii.II:i-i------- -
lows
100
(r (o
L°-----20
200
—-OJ
t
Fig. 21.8
1- 200---- .1.
'I
100
150 FOR REGULATOR

SPINDLE
-è
200 HOLES FOR
SWITCH TOGGLES
I 40j -60± 604- 40—.

CSK HOLES FOR FIXING TO
SWITCHBOA
91 0
Example 4. Design and draw a bakelite sheet for the con-

cealed switch board which should contain three tumbler switches
and a fan regulator. The necessary outside dimensions of the
switches and fan regulator are giver earlier at begining
Solution. (Refer Fig. 21.9). Where ever a bakelite/sunmica
sheet is to be designed to cover tumbler switches, 20 mm diameter
holes shall have to be drilled for a toggle of the switch to project out
of the sheet for operating the same. Since, the diameter of each
switch is 50 mm, a gap of 60 mm between each two switches is
therefore sufficient as shown above. The spindle of the fan regulator
will also be projecting outward for the regulator knob. For this
purpose, a hole of 15 mm has been drilled. The eight countersunk
holes have been drilled for the countersunk screws so that the plate
is fixed to the switch board. All overall dimensions have been shown
along with other necessary dimensions.
0 0
150
-
LM _______ +_ 'tH300
2- 5 0 Hole for
connections through
board
o
F-
255 QQ 30 25
Holes for connections
200
325 - 50
Fig. 21.10
Example 5. Des ign and draw a wooden switch board for
surface wiring which should contain three tumbler s ' itches and a
fan regulator. The outer dimensions of switches and fan regulator
are given earlier.

742
ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND
C OSTING-
Sol "
ti on. (Ifer Fig. 21.10). In the wooden boards of th is
only the holes are to be drilled for c type,
onnections to the switches etc.,
placed on its outer surface. The three switches have been shown.
Two holes of 5 him diameter each
have been shown for Connection
to the fan regulator through the wooden board. The four Counter-
sunk holes on four corners of the board are forv,'n,
it to fr u f
L :cded lnLo vaji Two ho l es have
been drilled for connections to the fan reg
ulator. Base of regulator
itself will be fixed to the board with two wood screws for which
drilled holes ma y not be required.
Examph 6. Design and drcL a bakelite
/S Ulflh j 0 sheet for the
switch board to he used for Concealed conduit wiring which should
contain three flush switches a socket outlet and alan regulator. The
flush switches should relna in at a reasonable distance The necessary
outside dimensions of the switches and fan regulator are given
earlier. -
Solution T
he drawing f Bakeijte/sui,ca sheet fuhUling
the above conditions is given in Fig. 21.11. The
rec tanktr holes
50-4

00
TI
50
ME
t, 555 For regUltQr

SPflde
3O
25 1 15 , 30
LflT 25
0H4r1?rI
_j I±
250
Fig. 21.11

71IE ELECTRICAL PANEL BOARDS 743
have been made for the rear rectangular portion of the switch to be
inserted. The two circular holes around each rectangular holes are
for the screws for fixing the switch to the plate. The circular hole
has also been drilled for fan regulator spindle. The countersunk hole
around the plate are for the wood screws for fixing it with switch
b:.:rd.
Example 7. Design and draw a bahelite I sunnlica sheet fir the
concealed conduit wiring which should contain six flush sit itches
anti a fan regulator.
00
T
H
13CC
0000
H
©
Fig. 21.12
Solution. In this case, a long rectangular groove has been cut
to fix all switches in a row on a common groove. This process will
require less labour as individual grooves will take more time. The
eight countersunk holes along outer surface are for the screws for
fixing it with switch board.
Example S. Design a surface type wooden switch board and
also a bakelite/suninica sheet for switch panel of flush type under-
ground switch board which contains six switches, one socket outlet
and two fan regulators. The switches for the surface switch board
are tumbler type whereas for the bakelite sheet are flush mountings.
Show the dimensions in both the cases taking dimensions of switches
from earlier part in this chapter and fan regulatorsizes 125 mm
x 10 mm each.
-
-f
-1T
3° L0_01-i°
—ioo —4.—io o -...- 153 —4 ..-- 100-4 100—$
C111 5
L L° ----------------------
450
(a)
b55-i
-r 0 0 0
0 70 25
0
300
103
0 00 0 00 0 0
0
allu1°R
o
0 0 00 425.---°
0 0
0 0
300 -_-_.
(b)
Fig. 21.13
7. Types of Switch Boards
Surface type wooden switch board. The detailed dimen-
sions of the switch board and the accessories mounted over it is
shown in Fig 21.13 (a) Since the fan regulators, switches and socket
are placed on the front surface, a sufficient gap between each two
components should be maintained keeping in view the area covered
by switches and regulators, the size of switch board should be
30 cm x 45 cm. The switch board should be placed horiontal.
Bakelite/sunmica sheet for flush switch board. Fig. 21.13
(b). The switches and socket 3iould be placed on a common rectan-
gular hole prepared by cutting the sheet. The flusb switches cover
less space than the tumble r !wich. The size of switch br shouJ
not be as large as surface type switch board. The sheet size should
be 3Q. cm x 30 cm. The other dimensions have been shown on the
sheet itself.
22
Miscellaneous Electrical
Components
Slip Rings ; Brush Holders ; Main Parts of Brush Holders and their
functions; Types of Brushes; Brush Rockers and Brackets; Types of Brush
Rockers ; Armatures; Main Parts of Armature ; Field Poles and InterpOles
Commutators ; Parts of a Commutator ; Field Magnet frame ; Current
Transformer. -
SLIP RINGS
The slip rings are employed for wound type rotor of an induc-
tion motor. These are the rings by which current is taken to and
from the rotating parts (wound type rotor) of a machine. The
windings lying in rotor slots are connected to slip rings at one end
of rotor shaft. The brushes which rub on the outer surface of the slip
rings are made to carry the current from and to the rotor winding.
The Brushes are held in brush holders mounted on insulated steel
spindles, securely held with end cover of machine. These brushes
SHAFT
ROTOR PSTAQ
WIN OIMR
wI(SNTAR)
ONGS Otto
- SLIP RNG
OFF
CARBON
BRUSHE' .OONFF 0 MOTOR 57 A R T ER
FUSES
I PlC
4• ••IN OFF
MAIN SWITCH
Fig. 22.1 3-PHA AC. MAINS

746
ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
are further connected to 3 phase star delta connected rheostat for

speed control and starting purposes. The slip rings are made of
brass, bronze or gun metal in single, two or three parts assembled
and circular shape obtained. But this is only in case of large slip
rings. Small rings are made in single pieces. The slip ring induction
motors are very extensively used on account of its higher initial cost
and greater maintenance cost. These are used only when speed
control is required.
es
IG B
.1
46
T
RING A
33 8
•1
44 ..
Lii4J4 $¼O WQS.,i,
To be screwed to ring A for Ring B
ex t.4 and
Bolt ondStud covered
5 int. With InSUIQd tube
7
Fig. 22.2. Detail and part assembly of slip rings.

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS 747
The diagram shown above is a wound type rotor connected in

star/delta. The diagram from supply to slip ring is shown in a starter
for three phase to explain method of starting a slip ring induction
motor. The resistance is inserted in each phase. At the time of
starting, the current taken by the motor is limited for safety pur-
poses and as the motor gradually takes up speed, the resistance is
cut-off. The moment, the motor catches its full speed, starting
resistance is reduced and finally cut-off. The rotor windings are
short circuited automatically. Li Li
0
n
f. \\/ \
U.
\U
4et 4
Lu
Lu 0 -
0
\ ,
C.
. - -..---,---
00
I
e Lu-'
0 0
I
S. 0 -. -i
-
0
0
Lu 00
-
0
a
Lu
Wz
0
In
C"
Ez
0 I;
An example of two phase slip ring showing detail and part
assembly is given in Fig. 22.2. The sleeve has a central hole for shaft.
There are various holes along the outward projection of sleeve for
fixing slip rings with sleeve with nuts and bolts. The two inward
holes are made to pass current carrying studs. The two slip rings in
isometric projection are similar to each other. The part a
the parts is also shown. ssembly of
BRUSH HOLDERS
The function of brush holder is to hold the brush against the
commutator surface in D.C. machines. The brush holders are held
at a place along the end cover of the machine. The brushes are made
to deliver the current to the commutator in case of motors and collect
in case of generators or dynamos. Each brush is held in the box,
which has some device for exerting constant pressure on the brush
by way of spring action resulting in rigid contact between carbon
brush and commutator surface There are two types of brush holders
in use i.e. hammer or lever type. In the case of hammer type, the
carbon brush is firmly held at one end of lever and in the later case,
the brush is free to slide in the box. However, the brush is forced
towards the commutator by spring power. The brushes are firmly
held to avoid any vibrations.
Main Parts of Brush Holders and their functions
In the drawing in Fig. 22.4, following are the main parts and
their function has been explained in brief:
1. Brush Holding Box (C.!.). The part is casted in one single
piece made to receive carbon brush which is free to slide in its
rectangular hole. The brush is forced towards commutator by spring
power. T. brackets projecting c•utward are made to support the
pressure arm and spring etc. with the help of a pin running between
two projecting brackets. There are two projections made in the rear
for clamping devices (Fig. 22.4b) so that the whole system alongwith
its attachments is supported for fixing it to brush holder bracket.
The clamping device is fixed in the rear projection and jammed with
a screw to the box, a hole for which is shown in the clamping device.
The screw will enable the clamping device to be held at any place
upward and downward
2. Pressure Arm (C.!.). The pressure arm is shown on op-
posite page in two views i.e. elevation and end view, In addition to
this, an isometric view of pressure arm is shown here so that
internal details are clearly understandable. The function is self

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTPJCAL COMPONENTS 749
explanatóry i.e. to exert constant pressure on the brush towards

commutator. It is supported on the pin between two projecting
brackets on the brush holding box. One end of this part comes over
the brush. It is operated with spring and spring rod is made to be
held in the slot of the pressure arm for desired pressure.
=

C
a
In r
UI
1
I),
4
J'T g ..- L
tO
'C
0
0
z
0
0
ZE-
it I
I 1/1
0
II
id
Fig. 22.4. Brush Holder, Details and Assembly.
3. Distance Piece Or Sleeve (M.S.). It comes over the pin

between pressure arm and right projecting bracket of the brush
750
holding box. Its function is to keep the pressure arm at its proper
place. S
econdly, it is used to support the spring as the distance piece
comes under the spring.
4. Pin (M.S.).
One end of the pin is threaded and screwed
the tapped hole of the projecting bracket on the brush holding to
The other end will come in the hole of the other bracket and thus, box.
the pin is held between two projecting brackets of the brush holding
box. One end has a saw cut for tightning
pu rposes. It is made to
support pressure arm and distance piece over it.
5. S prings.
It is mounted over the distance piece. The
end is secured beneath the right bracket to stop its circularsmaller
ment. The other end having straight bar is forced towards move-
brush with Spring power and thus exert pressure on pressurecarbon arm
forcing it to press the brush downwards.
6. Cl amping Device (C.I.).
The function of this part is to
support the brush holder assembly along the surface of the corn-
mutator .
i It is later attached to the rocker arm. The drawing
shows
sometric 'dew of the assembly. The device is in two pieces, the
bigger part is attached to brush holding box in the rear. The
rectangular Side on one side of vertical is made to fit in the rear
vertical slot of the brush holding box and jammed by way of screw
for which a threaded hole is shown. The smaller one is secured with
the bigger one and attached to it with screw.
7.
Carbon Brush. The brushes form the connecting link
between arnt;jre and the external circuit To ensure good contact.
they are held against the co
mmutator by means of pressure arm.
The current is received or supplied through the carbon brush which
rests on rotating commutator .
The brushes are
gular holes and rub upon rotating outer surface sup ported in rectan-
brush is p rovided with flexible Of comm utator. The
c onnections known as
connections, which are connected to the fixed connecting'pigtail
lug or
terminal The pigtail connections are connected to brush at top by
a screw or soldered to a clip which can be moulded into the brush.
Types of Brushes
There is - vaety of brushes based on voltage and speed

of corn
1utator. Some of the brushes commonly used are:
(a) Metal Mixture Brushes On account of low resistance
O
wing to mixture of graphite and copper, it can be used for
extra high currents
(b) Hard Carbon Brushes. A special carbon mixed with some

other material is used. The brushes are moulded to the
required shape and size and then baked at high tempera-
ture suitable for normal current density.
(c) Graphite Brushes. These brushes have special quality
due to its material that they can collect greater current as
compared to brushes of the same size in othcases.
The drawing on opposite page represents detail ofanothertype
of brush holder in isometric projections. The main drawing is a body
which holds the carbon brush on one side and has provisions to be
held with where ever it is required to be fitted. The spindle which
supports the whole assembly (spindle not shown) comes in the main
hole and clamped by a screw shown above it. In its middle, there is
a tapped hole in which a screw is serewed to serve as a pivot for the
pressure arm. The circular side has an inclined projection in which
a hole is drilled for connecting screw. The bottom of the connecting
screw is circular and has a hole so that spring could be attached
The other threaded rod is made to pass through the hole in the
inclined projection. The spring is made to pull the bottom of the
pressure arm towards it and as such, the other end will exert
pressure on the carbon brush downwards. Whenever pressure on
carbon brush is to be increased or decreased. The circular nut is
operated upon, which will result tension in the spring reduced or
increased and ultimately pressure on carbon brush can be increased
or decreased. A separate isometric view of carbon brush is given and
pigtail connections are shown.
-i-
5
-r
Fig. 22.5
-.49

752
a: A
e a:.
z \ k
L_ J
I.-
0
a:
ui
oe-
/
1
oI =0
-z
-o
if
'I
Fig-22-6
BRUSH ROCKERS AND BRACKETS

The brush rockers, brackets etc. are all meant to assist a stable
position of carbon brushes, through which current enters or leaves
the armatures of dynamos or motor. The brushes are firmly held
over the commutator and provided with pigtail connections in the
form of copper wire embedded in the material of the carbon brush
during manufacturing.
Fig. 22.7 -
The brush holder or brush box in which the brush exists is

mounted on brush spindles or brush bracket (for ver y large
machines) is further bolted or clamped to the brush rocker. Hence,
the brush rockers are used to hold brush boxes through the spindles
The brush rocker is fitted over the internal circular extension near
to the bearing on end shield of the machine. This is applicable for
small machines. In the case of large machines, it is fitted directl
with the field magnet frame. The sleeve or spindle which carries one
PA
__
LJ*E
r 1O HOLE 1
:
FORET SCREW-J20.- Th5-------------
H
Fig. 22.8
754
or more brush holders is attached to brush rockers insulated from

it with insulation sleeve and washers of ebonite or mica on both sides
of rocker arm T.e cable holder is held between two nuts on opposite
side of spindle. The spindle is covered by a mica sleeve. Each rocker
has different arms radially Projecting outward which are equal in
number to that of sleeve or spindle carrying brush boxes.
ozi
Fig. 22.9
Types of Brush Rockers

1. Brush rocker for two Brushes. The thawing here shows
a cast iron brush rocker for supporting two brush spindles and
attachments. The rocker is in single casting with a large hole in the
centre for fixing it with end cover inner projection.
Elevation, side and plan of brush rocker is shown in Fig. 22.8.
2. Brush rocker for Four Brushes. The rocker is made of

cast iron in two pieces, each having four radially projecting arms.
Tvo small projectirms with tap p ed holes are provided on both sides
around the central hub for clamping the pieces with the help of
locking screw. The end of each arm is like a box meant to receive the
r'ir31e c• t brush holder attachments. The outer boxes are
strengthened by ribs. Fig 22.8 shows detail of assembly of two pieces.
i^^
fT
I.— J
Bolt Z, 10 hold
two pie5
Fig. 22.10 Bolt and Nut to hold two pieces of rocker.
756
3. Brush Holding Bracket. When more than one brushes are
to be placed against the commutator surface, the bracket as shown
below is mainly applied. The number of such brackets to be used is
the same as that of the number of poles of a machine. This bracket
is clamped to the brush rocker ring with the help of the slot, shown
near the top. The brush is placed in the brush holder and the brush
holder is fastened by means of bolts to the bracket at the bottom.
S
I
I..
k5Oso-.LcoLsJ2sH
—275— -
Fig. 22.11. Brush Holding Brackets.

A similar bracket for holding brush spindle is also shown.
MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
ARMATURES
Armature is the main part of a D.C. Machine which revolves
in the magnetic field. With the change of flux, an e.m.f is induced
in the conductors laid in the slots of the armature. The current is
collected from these conductors by connecting them with the com-
mutator segments and brushes are made to collect the current for
external use. This is in the case of dynamos only.
The armatures are made of core plates or stampings held on
the shaft between two end rings. The shaft forms the basis of the
whole structure which receives the core plate on it and it is the iron
part revolving between the poles of the field magnet frame. The
stampings or laminations are dirctly mounted over th.e shaft and
keyed to it, butin large motors, they may be assembled and mounted
over the armature SPIDER or frame, which is meant to reduce
weight and cost of the armature and hence a substitute to ver y large
size stampings. The thickness of lamination varies from 0-5 to 1 mm
depending upon frequency of magnetic reversal. The starnpings are
insulated from each other by a thin insulated paper layer pasted
over it or varnish is applied on both sides of each stamping for
insulating purposes so that the total iength of iron (excluding
insulation) is about 90 per cent of the total core length. '[he length
of core plates when assembled on shaft or spider is known as core
length. The laminated core is used to reduce the eddy current losses.
Main Parts of Armature
Following are the mainparts of an armature:
1. Laminations or Stampings. The armature core is made
of silicon steel stampings. The stampings are insulated from each
other by a thin insulated paper layer or spray varnish applied to
both sides of each stamping at the time of manufacture. The use of
20
IN
jI1T11
MEN
.yway
3
END
16 Slots )O
5 Deep
Fig. 22.12
high quality steel is made to keep hysteres is loss low, which is due
to cyclic changes of magnetisation caused by rotation of the core in
the magnetic field. Secondly, it reduces eddy currents in the core
which are caused by the rotaticn of core in magnetic field. The
stampings are formed in variety of forms. When stampings are
assembled, slots are formed along the armature core, so thaarma-
ture conductors are laid. The laminations are held in such a way
that they are perpendicular to the path of eddy currents and parallel
to flux, the path of eddy currents thus is cut into several units.
Fig. 22A3. Open and parallel sides slots ARMATURE.

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
There are mony tpcs of laminations with difference in slots

only i.e. 'H' type for small toy dynamos and for very small motors.
Tripolor armatures are used for small motors of low voltage and
consist of three big slots and three teeth on its circumference. Some
common types of armature stampings are given here.
(a) Parallel sided slots: This is a very common type of
armature. The winding wires are laid in the slots and with separate
binding wire, the windings are bound along its circumference, so
that they are not affectedly centrifugal force caused by high speed
of armature. The stampings are mounted over spider and held
firmly with spider arms. The outer rectangular shape ofspiderarms
serve the purpose of key to fit in key of stampings.
(b) Semi-enclosed Stampings:
The winding lying in these
slots are free from any centrifugal force as the slots are semi-
enclosed from top. Hard wooden wedges are driven into the top of
each slots above the windings. It is advantageous due to the above
reasons but is difficult to wind being the only disadvantage.
c) Semi Circular Semi Enclosed Slots:
The stampings are ver y similar to that of parallel sided slots.
The only difference is that the slots are semi-circular at the bottom
and semi-enclosed at top and have parallel surfaces on sides.
Fig. 22.13 and 22.15 are of small armatures shown in isometric
views in section. The stampings are to be directly pressed over the
shafts and keyed to it. The stampings are clamped between two end
rings from both sides. The end rings are also used for supporting
windings projecting out of the slots. The end rings are held in place
by set screws partly going into shaft. To avoid the effect of
27 00
Ch
AR.1ATURE Lnc '".9
Fig 22.14 Elevation Upper Half in Section and Side View of ARMATURE
7$0 F'F.(TR.JcA!, Wf!\c, F$TM.
centrifugal force due to high speed of armature, there are two slots
along its circumference for binding wires. The slots which are only
2 m deep are formed b' using small sized stampings for thatlength
of slot. The slots in the previous drawing are parallel sided. The
effect of centrifugal force on windings is not possible in this case
when slots are semi-enclosed as on opposite page. The key is formed
in the laminatins and keyway will exist on the shaft. The right ring
-J
A
0 -
I
0
Li
LU
C
\
'.. LU
0
'p
0
LI)
to
0
Li
\\\ 2
C \
p—
a
LiE
-!1 N E
-
Fig 22. 15
MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONENT 761
is made larger and extended outward which form a flange to receive

fan plates which are to be crewed to collar along existing holes. The
commutator is mounted on the shaft near the smaller ring. A
separate view is given to detail out the slots and teeth.
FIELD POLES AND INTERPOLES
The field magnets in D.C. machine are meant for producing
magnetic flux. The pole cores complete the magnetic circuit between
the -armature and y oke. The field poles are sometimes casted with
'Yoke' or casted separately and bolted to the frame. The poles are
either solid castings or built up of laminations assembled together
and riveted between end plates. Generally, laminated poles, are
preferred due to the reasons that when the armature teeth pass
along the poles, the flux density varies and the effect is more on
- Tck ç&
HI E 120
204
LQm,r1aed pe
1jJ
Fig. 22 16
762
ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTINC
doles. The eddy current losses and heat produced may be more if,
laminated poles are not used.
- Field pole, and Windings.
The laminations ar: made of soft
steel punchings of suitable size and shape to form the finished core.
The core plates are held together between thick- plates by counter-
sunk headed rivets. Two tapped holes are made at the top of the pole
as shown here so that the stud passing through the field magnet
frame from outside can firmly hold the pole along inner surface of
the frame. Field winding duly formed is placed over the pole and
held between projecting surface of pole and inner surface of frame.
The poles are always in pairs and fitted opposite each other. The
outer surface of pole is machined to obtain firm contact between pole
and frame The inner curved surface of pole is machined to the
Cover Plate 2mm Thck
Wrnding
WIfldng
2-15 TAPPED 0 covered w
HOLES 7 tape
2
gAPART°
Side P1°e
15
4mm thick I i
1 II I
0 1 2 Ri vet head
gI
-99T CSK
VC S
Long
Fig. 22.17. Lanijnatj Pole and Coil.

diameter little more than the diameter of armature to create an air

gap.
Field Pole and Winding or Coil: The field pole shown below
in section is wound in a 'U' shaped former made of card board or
fibre. The coil is covered from top with cover plate and from outer-
side with insulating tape half overlaped. The coil is then impreg-
nated in insulating point and dried properly. The assembled views
in elevation and plan are shown in Fig. 22.16. The pole consists of
silicon steel laminations assembled and held together with the help
of six countersunk headed rivets. The two tapped holes at the top
are for the studs which hold the pole along the inner surface of Yoke
of body. The coil is supported on two shoulders of pole.
15 TAPPED HOLE
DEEP
L2
I-
U2 is
COIL SUPPCT L 80______ 4 STUDS
EACH
Fig. 22A8
INTER POLE and COIL: This is also known as commutat-
ing pole. Commutating poles are fitted to the field magnet frame in
the no .J ieutrai axis between main poles Tnotoror a generator
i. e. poles and inter poles will be alternately in the frame. These are
used in large machines which have to carry heavy loads. These are
used for providing a field in the inter pole air gap for neutralizing
764 ELECTRICAL WIRING ESTIMATING AND CO STJNG
the armature reactance field and for inducing an e.m.f. in the coils
undergoing commutation in opposition to the reactance voltage. The
inter poles are either made of cast steel or wrought iron stampings
held together between thick plates and firmly held by countersunk
headed rivets, (This type of inter pole is not shown here). It has
smaller cross-section as compared to main poles.
Fig. 22. 19
The drawing in Fig.22.19 and 22.20 shows a cast steel inter

pole of rectangular cross-section. The coil is separately shown in
isometric view. The inter pole has a tapped hole at the top to fasten
it with field magnet frame with stud. The coil is held over two angle
irons to be attached to the interpole with small nuts and bolts.
The laminated pole is shown alongside in isometric projection.
There is a rectangular hole in the pole for a rectangular soft iron
piece. There are two holes at the top (not tapped). The two studs are
made to pass through the field magnet frame and then through the
Pole top holes. The studs are made to fit in the tapped holes of the
rectangular bar (not shown in figure).
Pole Shoe. When the pole is casted alongwith the Yoke, it is
attached to the inner surface with the help of studs. The pole shoe
is made of wrought iron laminations screwed to the face of the casted
pole, with countersunk headed studs.
Another example of an interpole and coil appears on opposite
page and its assembly with field magnet frame is shown below. The
difference between the previous interpoe and this type in that it is
MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONEN 765
laminated and design and size of winding or coil is different. The

laminations made of silicon steel are assembled together with
countersunk headed rivets between two thick end plates of the same
siz2 as stampings. The steel bar of rectangular cross-section as
shown in Fig. 22.21(5) is to be inserted in the rectangular hole in
the interpole.
rd
915 iGPPQd floC
25 deep i
4
2 HCWS-S
15
Fig. 22.20 Interpole and Coil

U 766

- 2 TAPPED DLES
()
2 014 H0 1 E S
130
4-6 Csk "Z3d

RIVETS
Fig. 2221. Interpole and Coil.
U,
MISCELLkNEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS 767
6-
Fig. 2222. Laminated Pole.
FIE LD NET
FR .:4MAE
STEEL BAR
END PLAE
- -- --
WINDING
LAMINATIONS
"-SUPPORTING PIN
!LE^- fl0
ISO -I
Fig 22.23. Sectional view showing assembly of field magnet frame and interpole.
COMMUTATORS
The commutator is an electrical device which conducts current
to or from the external circuit through stationery carbon brushes in
contact with its outer surface. In other words it is an extension of
armature conductors with little more thickness to withstand wear
and tear due to carbon brush friction when it rotates. The com-
mutator segments are very carefully insulated from each othePwith
insulating and heat resisting materials. High quality mica is most
-50
75 ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTIN(—
suit)! Ina , erid fr this p1-us. When segments are nsembi

and built up, commutator will form cylindrical shape. The segment
when assembled together and mounted on sleeve or ring, will fern
cylindrical shape due to the fact that the thickness of each segmen
on outer side is more than its thickness on inner side. The com-
mutators are mounted over the shaft as near to armature as 05
sible, The commutator is held over the shaft with the help of a ke
to avoid relative motion between rotating parts. The outsid
diameter of the commutator is approximately three fourth th
diameter of armature.
Parts of a Commutator
The commutators essentially consist of the following parts
Segment or commutator bar. The segments are made (
copper. Each segment has 'V' shaped
notch on both sides so as to be held
between two cone shaped end rings from
both sides. The segments are held .-... l:..
together in c y lindrical form and
mounted on a sleave such that 'V'
notches of all the segments will form
circular shape and held by conical .
projecting end of sleeve and end ring.
Each commutator bar or segment is in-
sulated from its surroundings i.e. Fig. 2224
sleeve, end ring etc., byproviding mica
layer 2 to 4 mm thick. The thickness of segments varies at top ar
bottom so that when certain number of such segments are arrangE
23Z0
4 Stud s6@
4O 'co
76
II-I!!
\ 1. Sos in
end ring
Fig 22.25
M1SCELLAEOUS ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
769
together, it should form a cylindrical shape. The length of com-

mutator Outer surface depends upon size and number of brushes and
current in the armature. If the number of segments is increased, it
will result in better commutation but thickness of segmentconnot
be ignored for iiiechanjcal considerations The projecting end of each
segment has a saw cut to receive the conductor end from the
armature and soldered into saw cut. Where projecting ends do not
exist, the saw cut is made on one side of each segment. Sometimes,
C
a
±k_nff .5
C; to
1. ?
!.
) LLJ
'- -;t,-------..
0I
C-) -C
Fig. 2226. Commutator

770
separate risers are permanently held in the saw cut and conductors
are held and soldered in the risers. The angle of conical cut of
segment is normally 33.
The drawing in Fig. 22.26 represents an isometric view of
commutator assembly in section. The segments are held together in
cylindrical form and mounted over cast iron sleeve. One end of sleeve
is of the form of an end ring. The conical projection of sleeve :s
covered with mica ring before segments are placed in position.
Similarly outer circular surface of the sleeve is covered with mica
sleeve. When segment cylinder is placed in position, an additional
end ring is provided to hold the segment cylinder from opposite side
with the help of studs. The end of each segment is projected outward
for placing armature conductor ends in its cuts. The mica layer
projecting outward beyond the segments is tied with a cord to avoid
centrifugal force on mica.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
An elevation and isometric view of assembly of transformer
with winding in section is given here and detail of parts of the same
are given in Fig. 22.28. It consists of five parts assembled together.
Laminated Core Fig. 22.28(a). The JaminationS are made of

silicon steel insulated from each other by a thin insulating paper or
paint. The thickness of each lamination is .35 mm to 0.5 mm which
are made up of two sectors assembled together i.e. limb or bottom
as one U' shaped piece and top straight yoke as other piece. Both
the pieces are assembled together making complete rectaniular
lamination assembly. The laminations covered on front and back
(except top) by mica insulation layers.
MARY COIL
:ONDARY COIL
A INSULATION
:CYLINDER)
INSULATION
MINATED
:onr
:ORE CLAMP
MCA INSULATION
LAYS R
S STUD
Fig, 22.27 Current transformer in isometric projection.

Winding Coil Fig. 22.28(b). The secondary winding is wound

over a central mica cylindrical sleeve. Again, another mica sleeve is
placed overthe secondary coil between primary and secondary coils.
The mica sleeve is extended outward on both sides. The primary
winding is covered with insulating tape from outsides.
Core Clamp Fig. 22.28(c). Two core clamps, one on each side
of the core are used to clamp the core between them. Four studs at
four corners are used for this purpose. For providing additional
strength to the clamp, each clamp is provided with two curved
surfaces or projections. A flat horizontal base is also formed on both
clamps to provide a base to the assembled transformer.
Mica nsuta3.
IflSUiQQr ..._-..-. core
- 65 -..
S Sid
(d)
T
pa
11
otr sdes
9 2-5Topped P.cS
-- br
(h) (c )CORE CLAMP
Fig. 22.28. Detail of parts of current transformer.

Terminal Block Fig. 22.28(d). It consists of an insulation

plate (bakelite) having two countersunk holes one on each side.
There are two pairs of connecting block or conductor holders at-
tached to it with studs. Each block has a hole to receive conductor
for connections for input and output supply. The studs shown in Fig.
22.28 are used to clamp the core clamps.
1
F-
C
U1

LU SJO1 OjJ.O
5
LI
UI
UI
Fig. 22.29 Assembly of current transformer with coil in section.

FIELD MAGNET FRAME

The casting or frame which holds the field magnet poles and
interpoles is called Field Magnet Frame. The frame is required to
complete the path of flux which posses from North Pole through the
air gap and armature to the South Pole and back to ",'-Pole via the
yoke. The frame provides mechanical protection against the dust
and moisture to the armature. It holds field magnet frame and
provides suitable support for the bearing in which the armature
runs. It may be made of one or two pieces depending upon size of
machine. The frames are made of magnetic material such as fabri-
cated rolled steel etc.
5 PAIRS OF HOLES FCR
ITEROLES Sb20 EACH
CONTACT SU
7Sm ABOVE

SPACE FOR
il.":
1 BOLT S IP 2C
22 ROLE
- FIG3
Fit. 22.30. Ficd Magnet Frame
F.
23
Bell Circuits and Indicators
Types of Bells and their description ; Bell Transformer ; Simple Alarm
Circuits Without Relay Types of Diagrams; The use of Relay in Alarming
Circuits; Bell Circuits using two Supplies; Exercises; T.D.R. Circuits; The
Use of Indicators in Various Circuits ; Examples on Indicator Wiring.
Types of Bells and their description
To meet the different requirements electric bells of various

t y pes are manufactured Some of those most commonl
given below y used are
1. Vibrating bell.
2. Single stroke bell.
3. Continuous ringing bell.
4. Combination of vibrating and single stroke bell.
5. Bracket bell.
The types of bells which are most commonly used described
below
1. Vibrating bell (Fig. 23.1 ) It is most commonly used house
bell. It consists of two electromagnets, metal projection provided
with adjusting screw, pivot armature, hammer, gong, frame and a
contact post etc. When the push button is pressed, the current is
passed through the electromagnets to the adjusting screw, down
through the armaturt means of cOntact spring and then to the
source of supply. When this condition occurs, the current energies
the magnets which attract the armature, causing the hammer to
strike the bell, but before it reaches the end of the stroke, the contact
breaker breaks the circuit. As soon as the circuit is de-energised, the
hammer of armature moves back to the original position, thus again
closing the circuit. This process is repeated again and again produ'--

BELL CIRCUITS AND INDICATORS 775
ing vibration of the hammer as long as the push button remains

pressed.
g scr
Gong
Home
Projection
: . sotncd otI
Ar molurZ o r , C
0' contOCt co'e
F(t 52rr - Corrr
Lose— I
(_Trrnr JS-
L 721 11
L1,ff
Bry Push
6 buUOr
Fig 23.1
2. Single stroke bell. It is a bell in which the hammer strikes

the gong only once, each time the circuit is closed or push button is
pressed. It consists of following major parts
Two electromagnets (solenoid coils)
Pivoted armature
Hammer
Gong and
Iron Frame
In the single stroke bell, the current flows th.tough the solenoid
coils net through the armature. When the push button is pressed fot'
operating the ben, the current is sent through the electromagnets
(produced in the solenoid coils) which are connected directly across
the terminals and energies them. It causes the rmature to be
776
ELECTRICJ. WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
attracted towards the iron cores of solenoid coils. The h

ammer when
attracted by electromagnets strikes the gong. The armature
remains in the attracted position till the push button r
pressed As soon as the push button is released, the el emains
ectromagnets
are de-energised causing the hammer to return to its original
Position with the help of spring power. The action is repeated as and
when the push button is pressed.
This bell ma y not be used as a means for providing an acknow-
ledged call or alarm but may be used for the purpose of givin g a
signal or code of signals such as are required in various types of
telegraph and railway signalling apparatus.
Goi scre w
Hcmr
S r Mogntft cc'l
Sorod cod
M og n 2? C
b r ck 2 Care
Ht sp
Conn2Ct ng
Sckh wires
hose
Battery Push
6V button
Fig. 23.2
3. continuous ringing
Bell. When the push button for
operating the bell is pressed, it continues to ring, until its local
battery : s fully discharged or until it is silenced
p urposely by pulling
down of a cord or chain attached to it. Sometimes, a switch like object
is attached near the bell to silence it. This type of bell is used for
giving alarms in special circumstances.
-4
777
BELL CIRCUITS AND INDICATORS
_Gong screw
Gong
Hammer._
M/ \N
\
Trr Or Lc--.
Spr:ng s
- Mcgr!.0 con
Adjustrrg
corntQc screw
(soIerod coni
- MO9fltIC
Arraturc cce
ccrvccrç wnr -
Flat sprir4I_-1
oklit
bcse—.-
:k 10 Trmina post-.
Push but
F. ccr: ^ -- J ________
Batt e ry
6V
Fig. 23.3
The (Fig. 23.3-) above shows detail of parts in the continuous

ringing bell alongwith its electrical circuit. The bell consists of parts
which are in an ordinary vibrating bell. A few more parts are
provided which help to make it continuous ringing The circuit is
completed through solenoid coil, flat spring, armature and adjusting
contact screw. The armature is also connected to battery through
trigger, contact screw and terminal. When push button is pressed,
the electromagnet is magnetised which attracts the soft iron arma-
ture towards it. During the process, the end of trigger is lifted up by
spring action which comes in contact with the contact screw which
is further connected to battery. The current which first flows
through the solenoid coils as in normal cases is now cut-off owing to
the break in the contact. A new path is thus made upon such that
the current flows from pivot to the contact breaker via the trigger
to the supply mains. Thus the bell continues to riig until the cord
operating the trigger is pulled down, so that the later eng.?es with
the projection on the contact breaker.
778 ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTThtATING
AND COSTING
Bell Transformer
The bells for office and domestic purposes are designed for 230
volts AC without using any step-down transformers
Some electric bells are designed to operate on 6, 9 or 12 volts
which can be either obtained from battery or by step down trans-
former.
Pri mary
il
Sec
coil
^bBe V
Bell
AC
230V N
M a ins
:1^
Cut oul a ?P
BeIH ush
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
Fig. 23.4
The circuit is easy to understand and operate. If low voltage

bell is to be used for domestic purpose supply conductors are ex-
tended up to cut-out and from there, the leads are connected to
primary winding of the bell transformer. The leads for bell or other
equipment are taken from secondary which provides reduced volt-
age.
Simple Alarm Circuits Without Relay.
The alarm circuits
connection are used to convey information by means of light or bell
signals. The basic principle of wiring connection of bells is same as
Bell
Bell-
push
[_6V Battery
jltlII
Fig. 23.5
719
the lighting circuits. In general practice, the neutral is given direct
to bells where as phase is supplied through push button. The alarm
usually installed in small houses .ay be
of signalling system
divided into two general classifications The first is the audible or a
visual type of signalling system which attracts the attention by
means of sound, given off by an electric bell or buzzer, or by a visual
signal such as the glow of a coloured electric lamp. The second is
voice transmission signalling system represented by telephone, by
means of which one person may converse with another at any
distance.
The simple wiring diagram of electric bell, apart from wiring
necessary to conduct the electric current on its path consists of three
important parts:
1. Usable load (in this case, a bell).
-
2. Means of control (in this case, a push button).
A source of supply (in this case a battery - or 230 V a.c.
3.
supply)
The connections to the bell are made such that the positive
path of current of the battery travels through push button to the
bell. The negative pole of the battery is connected to other terminal
of the bell, completing the path of current through the bell. The bell
push, also known as push button is in series with battery and beP
No current will flow through the circuit until the push button is
pressed.
There are two ways of drawing alarm
TypesThe of Diagrams.
schematic diagram or circuit diagram which is an
circuits. (a) of details of operation
explanatory diagram for easy understandin g
The wiring diagram showing connections
of an electric circuit. (b)
actually applied and the layout of the wiring.
and
Draw a wiring diagram, single line representation
1.
schematic diagram of one bell controlled by two push buttons located
at two different places. The bell should ring by pressing any of the
two buttons. Looping system of wiring should be adopted.
This circuit is useful when there are two officers to be attended
by one peon. The bell should ring by pressing any of the two push
buttons located in two different offices. However, the peon cannot
krow, which of the two officers has called hi: In these circumstan-
ces, the peon can be made to understand only if different modes of
sound are adopted by the officers.
780 ELECTRICAL WIRING,
N e utral
Bell
P1
Phase
Fig. 23.6. Schematic diagram of the bell operated by two push buttons.
The phase wire first enters push buttons No.1 and from there
it is looped-in to push button No. 2. The terminals from a push button
No.1 and push button No.2 is connected to the bell. The bell should
ring when either of the two push buttons is pressed.
2. Draw a wiring diagram, single line diagram and schematic
diagram of two electric bells controlled by their respective push
buttons located at two different places, such that the bell should ring
when its respective push button is pressed. Looping system of wiring
should be adopted.
This is a very common circuit used in offices. The circuit is

useful when there are two officers having their individual bell
pushes and bells to call the peon or to pass on some information
through bell signal system. The basic idea of this circuit is to create
two signal systems from one supply.
P h
I P '^
_T_^^
230 v P2
Bell Be.i
N A
Fig 23.7. Schematic diagram of two bells controlled by their

respective push buttons.
The phase wire is taken to one push button Pj, from Pj it is

looped-in to P 2 . The second terminal of P 1
is connected to its own
bell and similarly second terminal of P2 is connected to its own
bell-2. The bell-i should ring when P 1 is pressed and Bell-2 should
when P3 is pressed. The two push buttons and bells may be located
at different places. Each bell thus has its individual control.
Supply
Bell 2
NP
(One bell controlled by two push buttons) (Two bells operated by their
respective push buttons)
Fig. 238. Single Line and Wiring Diagrams.
3. Draw a wiring diagram, single line representation and a
schematic diagram to control three bells connected in series with
three push buttons located at different places. All three bells should
ring simultaneously when any of the three push buttons is pressed.
Adopt joint box system of wiring.
Th ircuit maybe very useful when some information is to be
conveyed through bell signals simultaneously at three different
places from either of the three different locations.
Ph
230V
A CM31os
N L_
Fig-23.9

For ; tonce, on push hi l t o.
other ii t ints oL;ce L116 one in tile time keeper's
office. The bells are similarly located one each in three different
sections of the office or industry. When ever some information is to
be conveyed through bell signals i.e. observance of recess timings,
interval etc. it will be conveyed from time keeper office. Some special
information for instance for calling three section incharges etc. may
be conve y ec from officer's office. Some other similar information
may have to be conveyed by assistant b y pressing a push button from
his office. The circuit can also be used for similar other purposes.
4. Draw a bell circuit in three different ways to control two
bells (located at different places) operated by their re.spectic push
buttons. These should be aprovision to temporarily put out of circu it
one of the bells by adding a switch. Adopt looping system of wiring.
Pb___
230V
A C Moins
Swfth
B1
Fig. 23.10
F 1,
3U2p1 P p2
Sup P1
N
SL
Supp!y
Fig.23.11 Wining Diagram
Three bells in series to ring together when any of the three push button is
oressed (Joint box system of wiring). Two bells each controlled in
dependently by
two push buttons with provision to temporarily dislocate one bell when required.
783
Two push buttons are located in the officer's office to call his
assistant and peon by call signals. When push button Pi is pressed,
the Bell B i in the as
sistant's office rings to provide a call to him by
the officer. The push button P2
is pressed for calling the peon by
ringing of the bell B2. When peon is to attend some other side, he
will dislocate the bell by a switch before going, so that the bell does
not ring unecessarily in his absence. When he comes back, he again
Puts the switch to ON position to attend to that office again.
5. Draw a bell indicating circuit in which an officer can call
any one of his fi ve
subordinates sitting at different places by pressing
a common push button after adjusting a selector switch installed by
the side of the push button. The bell of the subordinate room should
ring only for the period for which the push button remains pressed.
A four terminal selector switch is used, one each for an in-
dividual bell. A push button is provided before the selector switch
i.e.
the phase will first enter into push button and then connected
to incoming terminal of the selector switch.
The bells are installed in different rooms of the building to
provide signals. For example, the person wants to ring bell B2 he
will first set the moving contact of the selector switch to No 2
terminal and then press the push button, the bell B2
Similarly any p articular bell can be operated by setting thewill ring.
moving
contact on its respective contact and pushing the push buttons.
Several bells say 10 or even more can be controlled from one
push button by using selector switch having out going terminal
equal to the number of bells installed.
Ph
5e push
se*e
c
230V
2
ACMains
B' I
Fig. 23.12
Neutral
A plan of an office compris ing four rooms and

a verandah
shown in Fig. 4.14 The installation of wiring of bells and selector
switch is also shown in single line representation
—51

I
3 4
Supply
Selector
switch for
1. Bells
Bell-12
Bell push
Any of the various bells located at different places can be operated by setting the
selector switch to that particular number and pressing the bell push installed
near to the selector switch.
Fig. 2.13. Single line and wiring diagram of selector switch circuit.
The selector switch is installed in the manager's office from

where he can call his attendant, typist, cashier or head clerk to his
office by operating selector switch and pressing a single push button.
? Bell I Selector
Switch
Typist [ tcsier I I
clerk Manager's
Oflice Bell
- 0 _______
Push1
Verandah 0
Attendant
Fig. 23.14
6. Prepare a wiring diagram, schematic diagram and a single
line representation of bell circuit, where it could be possible to operate

two bells out of three simultaneously by pressing any of the two push
buttons (the third bell is common to both the push buttons). The three
bells and two push buttons are all located at different places of the
building. The connections should be made such that nowhere there
are more than four wires in the circuit.
The bell circuit is not very commonly used in normal cases. It
maybe used where the person calling the attendant is to make sure
that the circuit is working.
Phase
617
^1 &I
2
i
A.0 Ma ns
Nzu r
Fig. 23.15
Bell push B1 are located in one office and Bell push

P2 and Bell B3 are located in the second office. Bell B2 is located
outside the office in attendant's room. When Bell push Pi from one
office is pressed, bells Bi and B2 placed in series will ring. Bell Bi
will make sure of the continuation of circuit. Similarly if Bell push
P2 is pressed, Bell B3 and B2 will ring.
The circuit may be used in several ways, where information
about calling an individual is to be confirmed through bell signals.
r b 611, Push b2I

ci Pjsh
1or2 2crd3
ELECTRICAL WIPING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
push-j Bell Push-2

Bell No.1 and 2 or bell N3, 3 and 2 will ring in
series when any of the two push
buttons is pressed. Therefore bell
No.2 is common to both the push buttons
Fig. 23.16 Single Line and Wiring Diagram
7. The bus is running fully loaded with passengers. The driver

of the bus pushes a push button in front of him for a bell to ring in
the rear of the bus-as signal to the conductor to enquire whether some
passengers are to be dropped at the next stop. The conductor presses
a push button, for a bell to ring near the driver as a response to his
enquiry if the bus is to be stopped. The driver faced
no difficulty to
enquire about how to act. Draw the schematic diagram, wiring
diagram and also add a single line diagram of the response call
System.
8. Design a bell response circuit in which when an officer sitting
in his room preses apush button it gives a ring in the subordinate's
room till the beti push remains pressed. To give back a response after
the ringing, if a bell push is pressed by the subordinate it glows a
lamp in the officer's room giving the indication that the call has been
heard.
Draw the schematic diagram of-the circuit and the wiring

diagram in lcopir-ir' "-'zr'th r'tliline representation.
(For solution add signal lamp in place of B2)
1
p7_1^1
230 V
a
TX---'-
III_ ACAcns I
Fig. 23.17. Response call with two electric supplies.

BELL CR1TITS AND INDICATORS 787
9. An officer calls his assistant through the call bell which

rings in the room of the assistant. The assistant responds to the
officer's call from his own room by pressing a push button, a bell
rings in the officer's room that the assistant has received the call. The
supply of current to the circuit is from two sides. The push buttons
having make and a break contacts (NO and NC means normally open
and normally closed) NO and NC are used on both sides. Draw the
wiring diagram, schematic diagram and single line representation
of the circuit.
Solution. The phase and positive wires of each supply are
given to one terminal of each push button. The second terminals are
connected to their respective bells. The third terminal ofbush button
P1 and P2 are connected to each other. Push button Pi and bell Bi
Be HT
S..; W
B P ^ S-
B2 91
a iH
SppIy
Fig. 23.18. Single line and wiring diagram.
are located in officer's office and push button P2 and Bell B2 are
located in accountant's office. When push button is pressed the bell
B2 should ring. Similarly, by pressing P2, the current will flow from
P2 to Pi and rings the bell Bi.
It is important to note that the moving contact of push button
will remain in contact as shown. It will again takes its original
position as and when push button is pressed and released.
788 ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING
AND COSTING
10. A man is standing in the front verandah of a bungallow
from where he pressed apush button for calling the doctor. The doctor
is not in the house and subsequently the assistant of the doctor or
some other family member pressed a push button from inside the
house for a bell (in verandah) for attention of the person waiting
outside and immediately pressed another push button which indi-
cated on the verandah signal panel by lighting a red bulb where the
'word 'our is written. This is sufficient indication for the person
waiting outside to understand that the doctor is not in the house.
There are three different coloured bulbs installed on the verandah
signal panel-Red, Green and Blue, where the words 'OUT, COME
IN and WAIT are written respectively. The bell is also installed in
verandah to draw attention of the person waiting outside before
giving the signal.
Draw the diagrams in three different ways to provide following
indications on verandah panel as OUT, COME IN and WAIT, by
pressing different push buttons from inside the house. An indicating
lamp on panel inside the house should be provided to have check on
the response signal that call is going through.
Prc2
Fig 23.19
Solution. The single line diagram and wiring diagram on
opposite page fulfill the above conditions. A call signal panel in
installed in the veranc1h of the bungallow, on which three signal
lamps, one push button and a bell are located.
The response panel is installed at a convenient place inside
the bungallow on which four push buttons, a bell and an indicating
lam p are ifl3talled
The circuit is very similar to an ordinary lighting circuit where

several lamps/fans are controlled from one switch board. Here in
this case there are push buttons in place of switches. -

789
In
C-
^
S upply Response pneI IOut

Bell
I ( iPush
Colt syno
panel
H H
ltrng
Lrrc. IC
El - 1
Be::
P.;"
Li
s;or.sc pc
Fig. 23.20. Single Line Representation and Wiring Diagram.
11. A workshop manager has aprouisiOfl to call three different

persons from a far located section of the workshop or any portion of
the building where call signal panel is installed. The caller's panel
with push buttons etc. is installed in manager's office from where,
any person can be called by pressing either of the three push buttons.
The three different coloured lights are provided on the panel from
where a particular person is to be called. Each colour of light may be
pre-determined to call the particular person. For instance the
manager pushes a bell push for extra attention of the person called
and then pushes a push button for green light to call engineer.
Similarly, red light for foreman and blue light for supervisor can be
pre-determined. The person called also has a provision to push a
button from his office for a buzzer installed in the office of manager
as a response signal that the call has been received.
790 ELECTRICAL WIRING,
E STIMATING AND COSTING
An indicating panel with three coloured lights in the same

order is also installed in manager'so
ffice for a check to ensure that
the circuit is functioning.
Prepare a wiring diagram, schematic diagram and single line

repr esentation of the circuit to meet the above requirements.
Solution. The panel board consisting of four push buttons, an

indicating lamp and a buzzer is installed near to his seat. He can
call any person by pressing the pre
-determined push button. The
person called for has also a provision to respond to his call through
an indicating lamp and buzzer by pressing a push button from his
own office (push-5). The different coloured lights for calling different
persons is pre-determined.
An indicating panel is also installed in the manager's room at

a suitable place for providing a check on the call that the call is going.
The number and colour of the lights on indicating panel are similar
as those on 'caller's signal panel. The layout of offices showing and
schematic diagram wiring and installation is shown in Fig. 23.21.
Ph -
I
4 1p3'
AC
jjLr1i
Or HER OFFIC E S
md 'ccl ing
panel
0000 1
Manager
A sstt. Mj
Fig. Installation plan of

wiri ng of above circuit.

173
INOICAT I NO
SUPPLY PANEL
[32®1
234
S
CALLERS PUSH BUTTONS CA.LERS SGNAL P/.NE.
N IP
CV

INDICATING
HH
2L
A C SUPPLY

c-E S SV3L
CEPS PU5
12. Prepare a schematic diagram, wiring diagram and single

line diagram that may fulfil the following conditions:
A man wants to see a doctor in his bungallow during day time,
he pushes a push button located in verandah and the bell rings in
the drawing room of bungallow. The doctor attends to the person in
response to his bell signal. But during night time, the doctor may
Push Jtcr
N.gh bell
To. :y
AC
.içfl

I SW IZ I
bell ____
0
N
233V
General drawing showing the day and night call Schernaic Diagram
bell system
Fig. 23 .23
wish to receive the night call in his bed room, although the visitor
has press the same push button.
Solution. A two way switch will be used iii between bells and
push button, the function of which is to change the path of current
to either of two directions i.e. bed room or drawing room. A two way
switch has two outgoing terminals and one incoming terminal. The
connection is given to incoming terminal, but outgoing terminals are
connected one each to bells.
When moving contact of the switch is on left side (as in Fig.
23.22), the DAY BELL will ring as and when push button is pressed.
When moving contact of switch is on right side, the continuous
ringing bell, installed in bed room will ring. If the bell is connected
to electromagnetic relay, it will ring continuously till it is silenced
by pulling a chain (attached to lever of the bell to de-energise its
magnetisation effect) attached to the bell. The bell can only be
silenced when the person gets up to pull the chain.
Note. The electromagnetic relay is not installed in the circuit.
lgli bell Day bell

Sppy ______
Day \oNight
2 -Vi oy
S.' I
ai
PLSr
H
Supply I Spccl Crinry
230Y N;ht conInous bel fo r day
W1
I w h
Push
Fig.23.24. Single line representation and wiring diagram of Day and

Night call bell system.
1

793
13.
Draw in three different ways, a circuit for the office of a
principal of a college for giving light and bell signal to call his office
staff. The principal has three push buttons, a signal lamp and a
bu:zer on the panel near to his table. There is another panel in the
main office with three indicating lamps and bell. Each of the three
persons to be called has his own bell push for the bell to ring in the
principal's office in response to his call. There is another indicator
lamp panel with three lights in the principal's office to check that the
call is going through. When he presses a push button Pj to call the
head clerk, an indicating lamp on the indicator lamp panel in his
office will glow apart from the same coloured lamp in the office panel
as an indication for the head clerk. But before this, the principal will
press a push button for the bell located in office panel for attention
of the persons. The head clerk presses his push button for the bell in
principal's office in response to his call.
230V - ----------------
rF:,
H
I CtECK PANEI.
I PRINCIPALS
I CALL SIGNAL
L I PANEI
PANEL
P, P1 OFFICE
WiringDiagram
'7' p 2 ,'p3 ,'p4 B

LJ
P = Push Button
4i4 Fig. 23.25
R2 2
P3
R = Red Lamp
B = Blue Lamp

4.
794
ELECTWCAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
G= Green Lamp
R = Return or Response Pu8h
Bell No. 1.
14. Draw a response circuit for the sècuritypersonr,l of a hotel
in which it is possible to give a general call by means of three bells
to be given by the security officer to three attendants deputed on three
fl oors of a hotel. The individual push button for attendants enables
them to give a response signal to the security officer by means of three
bells located in the office of security officer to ensure that they have
received the call. Draw schematic and wiring and single line
diagram:
B1 B2, Ba
and P are loaded in the office of security officer
Ai, and Pi for attendent of first floor.
A2 and P 2 for attendent of second floor.
Aa and P 3 for attendant of third floor.
Fig. 23.26 (a)
23O
AC
Wiring Diagram
Fig. 2&26(b)
THE USE OF RELAY IN ALARAMING CIRC1.ITS

When the distance between the bell and push button is consid-
erably more for the control of the bell, the length of wire might also
BELL CIRCUITS AND INDICA7,ORS
795
be equally more. The resistance of the circuit or voltage drop is so

great that the battery or bell transformer cannot supply a current
sufficiently large to operate the bell at a considerably more distance.
In these circumstances, it may be advisable that the bell is operated
by an independent battery connected through a relay because it may
not be convenient to increase the existing battery or bell transformer
voltage. It is very convenient and economical to use bell transformer
in place of the battery for domestic bells. The bells are designed for
230 V a.c. supply which are more preferred as compared to low
voltage bells.
The simple electromagnetic relay is an electrically operated
switch which can be closed by a comparatively weak current.
Regarding the operation of the bell, the relay is the major part of an
electric bell with the aiinature having trembling action being at-
tracted to the iron core of the relay. Another major aim of bell circuit
with relay is that the bell should continue to ring even when the
pressure on the push button is released. This can be achieed by
using relay operated by various types of push buttons.
\•
Ph b.1ton
Fig 2327. A bell along with an electromagnetic relay.
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil wound over

an iron core forming an electromagnet. When current is made to
pass through the coil winding, the iron piece is magnetised and
attract the soft ir 'iri piece known as 'armature' which is further
pivoted on one side and provided with make and break contact points
on the other side. The armature when attracted by electromagnet
closes the local circuit.
The relay in normal cases is open circuit relay, which operates
as and when the bell push is pressed. (Open circuit of relay means,
the armature is not in attracted position and ultimately not touching
796 ELECTRICAL WIRI NG,ESTIMTING AND COSTING
the terminals which otherwise it is made to be in contact). As in the

case of relay circuit mentioned above, the relay will operate causing
the bell to ring as and when the bell push is pressed. When the push
button is released, the bell will cease ringing.
The relay is usually provided with four terminals, two of which
are connected to relay winding which are further connected to bell
transformer or battery. The other two are connected to the circuit
to be controlled. The bell push for making or braking the circuit is
provided on opposite side to the bell. The two terminals of second
battery or bell transformer are connected to the terminals which
make contact only when relay is energised and armature is at-
tracted.
In ordinary bell circuits, the bell rings as long as its push

button remains pressed. But we have to develop the circuit in which
the bell should continue to ring even when the pressure on the push
buttorjs released. The bell-should be got silenced by pressing
another push button. This type of circuits are only possible if an
electromagnetic relay and special types of push buttons are added
in the circuit. The diagram below provides answer to the above
mentioned requirements.
-
230V
I I Armature
, - P1 button
Push
AC I
Mans A
I Relay
coil
Co
nlact
rtact C' NCp
N _
Fig. 23.28. Relay d :uit operation.
Two types of push buttons are used in such circuits such as:
N.O. (Normally Open). It remaL-,s open or in disconnected
form. It closes the crcuit when it is p ressed but comes to the
disconnected position as and wen the pressure on the knob is
released.

N.C. (Normally Closed). It remains closed or in connected

form. It opens or disconnects the existing circuit when it is pressed.
It comes to the original or connected form as and when the pressure
on its knob is released.
In the circuit shown above, if N.O. push button 'F' is pressed,
the electromagnetic relay gets energised and pulls the movable soft
iron, piece (known as armature) towards it against the pressure of
the spring. The contacts Ci and C2 being interlocked with armature,
are pulled completing the circuit through C. When the push button
'P' is pressed, the supply to coil of relay commences and continues
through C2. The bell will thus continue to get supply and keep
ringing If the supply to the relay fails or the circuit is broken
intentionally by pressing N.C. push button Pi the coil will be
energised and the armature will be thrown back by the spring
pressure resulting in opening the contacts Ci and C2. When the
supply returns, the bell will not ring unless the push button Pj.is
pressed again.
The principle of starting of electric motors is also same. Once
the motor is started by pressing the 'Start' push button, the motor
starts running. If the supply fails, or another 'Stop' push button is
pressed, the motor stops running. It is important to note that the
motor cannot start again even if supply returns at the same moment.
The motor can be started again only by pressing 'Start' push button..
The relay coil and contacts Cl and C2 are housed together as shown
by a dotted line and the complete assembly is called relay.
Another simple relay circuit is shown in Fig. 23.29. The relay
consists of coil wound on an iron core forming an electromagnet
which attracts the armature --
pivoted at a point near to it as
and when the relay is con-
nected to supply. The lower
surface of armature comes in L-0-7
nd
NC Push
contact with terminal 'C' to

complete the circuit through
armature as and when the Relay A NO Pjsh
push button is pressed. button
LJ
When NO (Normally
t Open) push button is pressed, Arrntur
the circuit will be completed
Fig. 23.29. A simple Relay circuit.
through NC (Normally
Closed) push button and terminal 'C' energising the relay coil and
798 ELEMIcAL WIRING
magnetising the iron core. The electro
Will attract the armature towards it. Themagnetic action
lower end of of the circuit
touch terminal 'C' giving way to a new path of currentarmature will
armature and contact 'C' keeping the coil energised eventh
rough the
if NO push
button is released. This action of the bell created by pushing the NO
Push button will result in lighting the indicator lamp till the circuit
is broken by pushing NC push button. To conclude it is very
that the indicating lamp will glow by pressing NO push button. clear
It
will continue to glow even if NO push b
utton is released but will go
off when circuit is broken by Pressing the NC Push button.
NO Push bu0
Indicating
Lai..p
ell in peon's
Iron core room
Relay A
NC Push
button Placed
fl corridor
Battery
Fzg, 23.30, Relay circuit
Another example of relay circuit is given in Fig. 23.30. When
NO push button is pressed mo mentai.
ily, the armature will be
attracted towards the elec
contact w tromagnetic relay coil which makes the
ith,tminaI 'K'. A new path of current is formed
terminal K and armature keeping the through
continue ringing and indicating lamp coil energsed The bell will
Co ntinue lighting till NC push
button is pressed releasing the armature and breaking the circuit.
The armature will take its Or
iginal position (as it is spring
led) to allow the process to be repeated again. It is a verycontrol-
useftil
circ,jt The NO push button, relay and indicating lamp can be
in
stalled in principal's office. The bell and NC push button are
located in peon's room. The indicating lamp will show that the call
is going through.
This bell circuit is similar to the previous circuit except that

two magnetic coils and two i
the ar ron cores are used in this relay to attract
mature. Only one betteryor bell transfoér is used. There
is only one supply, this circuit is th
is located at remote places. erefore not applicable where bell
When NO push button is p

and attract the a ressed, the iron core is magnetised
rmature making the bell to ring. The circuit can be
broken by NC push button to silence the bell.
BELL CIRCUITS AND rNTMCA'roRs 799
-Arrnature
Relay 8
K1
Battery R± Bel t
Pivot NC Push
NO Push
button button
Fig 23.31. A Relay circuit connected with a bell.
Bell èircuits using two supplies

Most of the modem automatic equipment is based upon auto-
matic control using relays and relay circuits. Two supplies have been
created to control bell at 230 V a.c. and relay and push buttons at 6
V or 12 volts d.c. It is possible to convey the signal from one circuit
to another circuit without the two being necessarily connected
electrically. As already stated, we can use the bell rated at 230 volts
a.c. and for pushbutton and relay we may use only 6Vor 12 V supply
for the sake of human safety.
AC 12V D.0 .
P. +
NO Push
button
NC
230 V Push button
A.C.
Mains
02 al Sni-ig
AC
Bell
Fig. 23.32. A relay circuit using two uppliea.i.e. AC and DC.
In Fig. 23.32, the two supplies have been used to operate th

bell and relay. The coil and push buttons have bee connected to 14
vcts d.c. supply whereas b•311 is connected L 2' r' v clts ac. supply.
—52
When push button is pressed, the electromagnetic relay coil is

energised which attracts both the spring controlled and interlocked
contactors towards it The bell starts ringing on 230 volts a.c. supply.
The supply to coil commences through contactor A2 even when NO
push button is released and continues to ring. The bell can be
silenced only if contactors are pushed back. This can be done only if
the coil is de-magnetised by pushing NC push button. The process
can be repeated by pressing NO push button for continuous ringing
of bell.
Taking references from above Figures, a schematic diagram
is reproduced here to ijridertana}1 the fiicwing circuits.
In the schematic diagram shown in Fig 23.33, the rela y coil is
marked 'A' whereas a i and 02 are the NO contactors of the relay.
Practically, the relay and contactors are closed together but here
these have been shown at different places because the circuit is to
be explained in a proper manner in the schematic diagram. It is not
rsrv to show the t'' sitio. of the components. When NO
push buttu i'j is pressed, tre rela y J ..- drei G.L. suppy and
gets energised. The energised coils gets contactor ci and a 2 at-
tracted towards their terminals. The bell starts ringing as its the
contactor a2 is in conthct. The coil will continue to get supply thruugh
a even if NO push button is released.
If the NC push button is pressed, the contactors a l and 02 will
come in original disconnected form thereby disconnecting the a-c.
supply to bell. All the following circuits using relay work on the same
principle.
C
1 1 i Dc
NoPusH1\_
— Push button
I Bell
RZICY
Fig.23.33. Schematic Diagram of relay circuits.

Example 1. Draw the schematic diagram, wiring diagram

and single line diagram for a bell to be operated from a 230 volts
suppl y by means of two push buttons located at two different places.
The push buttons and relay are re- sv oc AC
quired to be operated at 6 volts d.c. p
Solution. The rela y and two

push buttons have been controlled p P2arm ci u r
byd.c. supply and bell works on 230
volts ax. supply.
A Relay
When either Pi or P2 is Bell
pressed, the current flows to the
relay coil thereby magnetising its -
iron core. The relay armature or Fig. 23.34
contactor will he attracted. The attracted armature will allow the
ac. current pass through to the bell. It is simple circuit with two
supplies. The bell will ring as long as the push button remains
pressed.
Example 2. (a) Draw the single line representation, it
diagram end sch,, matic diagram for an electric bell to be contollcd
b y a push le iOn and a relay. The bell should continue ringing after
the NOpe.d: h:au has been momentarily pressed. The bell should
stop ruigng ','ressing the NC' push button.
Co::
Be
pjsn
N
Wiring Diagram
Diagram Schematic Diagram
Fig.23.35
Another alternative wiring diagram is given in Fig. 23.36
Example 2 (b) Draw the schematic diagram and the wiring

diagram for a relay operated bell circuit. The bell is rated at 230 V
ac. whereas the rela y works on 24 volt dc. upon pressing a push
button, the relay should be energised and the bell should get 230 volts
cc. supply t.rogh tho contact of the relay. (1ns. as in Fig 23.36)
I H
802
C
IC)
1:3
-"C
01
:3
C
C
D
'C
S
C)-
>.
0.
0.
S
Lfl
Z;
0
C,
C)
U
çr)
Fig 23.36. Single Line Representation and WiritigDiagran )

of controlling
a bell through a push button and relay.
Example 2. (c) Draw a sch ematic diagram, wiring diagram

and a single line diagram in which it is possible to ring a bell from
three cii fferent push buttons located at three different places The be.'
.i
should ring by pressing either oft/i th-c push buttons but
the 671
iuuZd continue to ring till it is put off by pressing a searate puh
button. Adopt looping system of wiring.

, ) ^
7L?
230 V
AC
Mors
Bell
I Peloy Al
Fig. 23.37 (a) A bell to be controlled from three different places.
230V
Moms
Bell
P2 P3 N C
Fig. 23.37 (b) Wiring diagram of a bell controlled from three different places
Example 3. Design a relay operated relay circuit to be used

by an officer. The officer by pressing a push button can make a bell
to ring in his P.A's room and the lamp to light in his own roort
simultaneously. Both the lamp and the hell work on 230 volts ac.
The lamp and the bell get supply through one contact of the relay.
The relay coil is rated for 12 volts d.c. Thus by pressing the push
button the officer can call h i s P-A. and also can see through the lamp
2 cczll is going or not. Draw the schematic diwram f3r the
control Circuit and the wiring diagram.

804
'V DC 230v A.0
NO
Push
Tn—p
Lamp
H
Fig. 23.38 (a)
HH
230
Fi
I
I.!11J
T'1'T I
in d
Lamp
P ell
Or,
'tj
.. ish
Fig. 23.38 (h)
Example
requ1rfl5: 4. Design an alarm circuit to meet the following
In thc eLent of taiure of electricity in the shop floor of a factor-v
C hl/ will ring giuin alarm in the control room. The bell works
on 12 Vd.c Draw the schematic diagram and wiring diagram.
Solution. The relay remains energised so long as there is
supply. The contactor 'a'
remains attracted When a.c. fails, the
contactor is pushed back by spring pressure and make contact with
23Q/,C I2VCC 4 P
N [E Battery
-B
¶
805
another terminal thereby completing the d.c. circuit and ringing the
bell. If the circuits are to be isolated in case of need, two switches
can be included in the circuits.
Design a relay operated bell circuit in which one
Example 5.
common bell is used by two different officers. Two separate push
buttons are provided in the two officer's room. When any of the two
push buttons is pressed the bell should ring. The bell should also
ring when there is any disconnection in the relay circuit. The relay
coil is rated for 12 volts d.c. whereas the bell is rated for 230 V a.c.
Draw the schematic diagram and wiring diagram.
233'. AC
233's t.0
'p
N N3 F5' b.Y.:rS
Fig, 23.40
Solution. In this case, NC push buttons have been used for
the officers. When any of the two push button is pressed, the relay
'a' will be closed causing the
coil will be de energised and contactor open only when coil
bell to ring on a.c. supply. The contactor 'a' will
is energised. The push buttons have been placed in series. It has the
disadvantage that the relay coil A will remain energised causing
loss of power. If there is any disconnection in the relay circuit or a
loose contact develops in the relay, the hell will ring cotiflu0uSlY
g iving warning for attention.
Draw the schematic diagram, wiring diagram.
Example 6.
and single line diagram, for the circuit to be used in a bus. When the
conductor presses apish button, for giving signal to the driver to
stop the bus, two red lamps, one facing the passengers and another
on a panel facing the driver's seat will glow. The conductor should
both lamps as an indication
press anot her push button to switch off
for the driver to start the bus again. Adopt any system of wiring
(looping system or joint box system) but confusion in the diagram
.due to more number of-lines must not exist.
806 ELECT'-'AL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING
NO
Push
huttOn Fi
0
NC
P uh
button
Fig. 2341
2'. V
DC
N OPiSh N C R0y
Push
button
Fig. 2342
Example 7. Draw the schematic and wiring diagram of a

relay operated signal circuit for an officer's office. The officer can call
his H.C. (Head Clerk) by pressing a push button. The bell will ring
for as long as the push button remains pressed and simultaneously
a signal lamp will continue to glow in H.C.'s office till the H.C.
presses another push button in his room to switch off the signal lamp.
If he is not in the office, at that time, upon his return, he will find the
lamp glowing and thus come to know that he should attend to his
officer. The H.C. must push another push button to switch
signal lamp.
off the

','' I 0 z ICJ
5i;r. I
Lrr.
NC
Fig. 23.43
230V
AC
Mc r5
Pelcy Bell
:mp
NO
Push NC
Bu U or Pus B.in
'. i .-z '3 - Ow -
Fig. 23.44
Example S. A man wants to see a doctor in his bungallow
during day time. He pushes apush buttor, located in verandah and
bj I r
L DL
Fig. 23A5
..0
ns
IJ
H Nç
Fig. 23.46
A two way switch is included in the circuit. The two way switch is operated for
choice of day or night bell.
808 EI.ECTRICIJ. WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
t e ^gs in the drolci7tg room Of t I ; e hungaltoie. But during night

time, the doctor ma y
wish to receive the night call in his bed room
although the visitor has to push the same push button. Once
thepush
button is pressed, the be!l should continue to ring q utomatica//y till
the doctor wakes up and presses another push button to silence the
hell. Draw the schematic diagram and wiling diagram
Example 9. A bus is provided with two

push buttons for the
passengers and one red and one green signal lamp in of the
driver's seat. B y
pressing any ofthe two push buttons by a passenger
who wants to get down, a red signal can be given to the driver to stop
the bus but simultaneously a green lamp should go off The driver
stops the bus. When the bus is ready to move, the conductor should
be able to switch off the red light and siLitch on the green light by
pressing a re-set push button installed near
to his seat. The same
procedure can be repeated wherever any passenger wants to get
down. Dra w the scheni a tic diagram
and the multi/inc it
H H
Fig 23, 47
I__i
Fig. 23. 48
Note.
Another alternative wiring diagram and single line
diagram is given in Fig 23.49.

S
mz S' usn bution
Fig. 23.49 (a) Single Line Representation.
Fig. 23.49(b) Wiring diagram.
Example 10. Draw a schematic diagram, wiring diagram

and a single line diagram which should meet the follo:ting require-
merits
The passenger bus consists ofa main bus and a trailer (A trailer
is an additional compartment coup led to the main bus to carry more
24V DC
) ).
1 21 3f
bc
S
1
Fig 23.50
810
passengers). There is one conductor each in the main bus and in the
trailer. The passengers can give to the driver a. red signal for stopping
the bus by pressing any one of four push buttons. (Two in the main
bus and two in trailer). The driver must get a green signal before he
may start again, The circuit design must ensure that the green signal
comes only when the Conductors of the main bus as well as of the
trailer have both pressed push buttons provided separately for them.
This means that the green signal should not appear on the indication
of one conductor only.
-®
fl i
Lj -----
TI
iL
CL
' I+
BELL CIEUITS AND INDICATORS 811
Fir push buttons are meant for the passengers for giving red
signal tzthe driver to stop the bus. Push buttons 1 and 2 are fixed
in the nain bus and push buttons 3 and 4 are in the trailer. Push
buttons! is installed in the bus and 6 in the trailer for use by the
conducts.
Ewnple 11. Alight and bell circuit is to be designed for four
special voms of a hospital. The arrangement should be such that
when tI .patient in any of the four rooms wishes to call The nurse, he
pressesrpush button from near his bed. The relay operates and as
a result.an indicating lamp outside his rm in corridor goes 'on'
and anther indicating lamp bearing the number of his room on
indicatüg panel in nurse's room also goes 'aet'. The only bell (common
for alltient rooms) installed in nurse's room also rings for her extra
attentim This is an indication for the nirse to know from which
room tI'call has come. If she desires, the bell can be silenced by the
nurse ba switch on indicating panel but the signal lamp should be
still 'on'The indicating lamps and bell can be re-set bvpressing a
push buftrn from patient's room. The secord indicating lamp glow-
ing outsde the patient's room after his calc is an additional indica-
tion forthe nurse so that she can attend to another patient before
returniig to her room after atendLng the first patient.
Duw the schematic diagram, wiringdiagram and a sngle line
rep resettation fulfilling above conditions-
1 I
i
ir
L • i L
!
Fig. 23.52
1ution. Mark relay A, B, C and D on the above diagram.

Also fixd and mark the contactors which will be operated by pressing
a parular push button to energise that relay. For instance for
relay .1, a is for relay (near its push button ) a2 for signal lamps
(first pir of lamps), a2 for bell. Similarly mark bi, b2 and b3 for
relayl and soon.
Example 12. The call signal arrangement is to he proitded
for t1e special rooms of a hospital. When the patient in any of Jie
threevoms presses a push button from .2 panel near his bed t call
the misc, the relay operates and one lamp outside his room and a
one la'np in nurse's rcom goes 'on'. This isan indication for the nurse
Ii itr
II tci E
r44-________ I
0
La::
H^—, Moz,
I
100 10
_ 1
to know some patient has called her and comes out in corridor and
immediately know from the indicating lamp glowing outside the
patient's room which ofthe patients has called her. Both the indicat-
ing lamps can be switched off by pressing a push button inpatient'
room.
Draw at least two alternative circuit des:gns in a schematic
!1
diagram and add a multiline and single line diagram.
Solution. The circuit is very similar to the previous circuit
except the indication of particular room. Here, nlv one indicating
lamp is installed in nurse's room in place of an idicating lamr and
bell panel. When a push button say Pi is pressed by the patient, the
relay A is energised which attracts contactor al and 02, the lamp
Si(placed in series in a) circuit with relay A) installed in front of
room No. I will glow and another lamp S4 in nurse's room will also
glow through contactor a. Both the lamps can be switched off by
pressing a push button from patient's room.
p P
Pus-i
NC
Pi .:i? c4
b
bz
1H
?.JJS
t
S- çs3
N
N
Fig. 23 54
Fig. 23.55
The schematic diagram shown in Fig. 23.54 a) has been

followed here and draw the wiring and schematic diagram as shown
below. The relay signal lamps have been shown in series, the relay
therefore will have to be designed specially for the purpose.
Draw another diagram showing rela y and signal lamp in
parallel by taking reference from schematic diagram shown in Fig.
23.54 (b).
Example 13. A light and bell circuit is to he designed for four
special rooms, he presses the push button from near his bed, relay
operates crd as a re2', or. ::LdicatingiCTnO outside his room in
corridor goes ON and another indicating lamp bearing the number
of his room on an indicating pa.nel in nurse's room also goes ON The
onlv bell (common) for all patient rooms in nurse's room also rings
4- 0 4-
Un 0 E
a 0
0
U, U,
D U,
S
z
LU
(U U,_
0 law
C
Un
o
1
(C
C Z.
0 0
C
Z
1E E
0
0
Ll Un
C
C 0
0 a
\ ' \ \ ' ccxxvx
0
Z
E £
a
Un 0
LU
0 0
0 a- a
a
0.
•.1
0 a>-
(U - a =
a a. (U
a
C Z
Fig. 23.56 Single line Representation and Wiring Diagram.

La
for her extra attention. This is an indication for the nurse to know
from which roor the call has come. If she desires the buzzer can he
BELL CIRCUITS AND MICA1,ORS815
silenced by the nurse by a switch on indicating panel but the signal

lamp should be still 'on'. The indicating lights and bell can be re-set
by pressing a NC push from patient's room.
Draw the wiring diagram, schematic diagram and a single line
rep resentation fulfilling the above conditions.
Solution. The problem is interesting and easy to understand
The panels are installed in each room near the patient's bed to call
the nurse as and when necessity arises. The indicating panel is
installed in nurse's room atsuitable place from where she can
immediately see and respon d to the call. Four indicating lamps.
each representing a different room number and relay are inalled
on the indicating panel, in addition to this, a buzzer is also pro-
vided to invite extra attention of the nurse. The buzzer can be dis-
connected by a switch if not required momentarily
When patient in room number 1 presses a push but-
ton to call the nurse, she will press button P 1 The arma-
ture will then be attracted towards relay and sub-
NC NC NC f, NC
P to- d
Switch
4 [±1] 8
I±IJc
2
e
2
'?
Relay E LZIIJ Relay E

Fig. 2157
sequently, the lower portion of the armature will make contact with
a point and a circuit will be completed through the NC push button,
relay, indicating lamp (outside the patient's room), indicating lamp
in nurse's room and a relay on indicating panel. The indicating lamp
ponel
V E P A N 0 A H Sin& Iw,i 25 c.,tde

_•________ patent S ml,
Fig. 23.58. Installation plan of wiring showing various room panels
and indicating panel.
—53
Li and 1 will glow and keep on glowing, as an indication to the nurse

to know which room the call has come from. The indicating lamps
will go off, only when NC push button (in patient's room) is pressed
to dislocate the existing cirdit.
' Iz
-
HE' H
- 0
0'-
t I-,
-
>.
0. .L ->
0. -
1
z
Example 14. A relay operated signal circuit is to be provided

rJ for a three storey hotel building which should meet the following
cnditions:
BELL C IRCtJfl's AND INDICATORS
817
There are five rooms on each of the first and the second floor.
One attendant is provided each for the first and second floor. The
manager's office is on the ground floor. Each attendant is provided
with a panel board having on it five signal lamps (one lamp for each
room signal) and a buzzer. In the manager's room on the ground
floor, there is a panel board provided with two rows of signal lamps
with five lamps each, indicating number of floor and room number.
Near the two-rows of lamps, there is also a buzzer. If the push button
in any of the rooms provided to call the attendant is pressed the
buzzer on the panel of the concerned floor and on the manager's
panel will ring for as the push button remains pressed. Two signal
lamp i.e. one on the concerned attendant's panel board and the other
with same room number on the manager's panel will continue to
glow even if the push button is released. The lamps (one on
attendant's panel and other on manager's panel) can go off simul-
taneously only when the concerned attendant has gone to attend the
guest where he will press a push button marked 'off. The manager
is therefore able to ensure from the panel that the guest's calls are
being attended. If a particular lamp on his panel remains 'on' for a
long period, the manager can question the attendant for not attend-
ing that call. Draw the schematic and wiring diagram which should
be clear enough to be incorporated practically.
1
:lt1.tI2h11 .34c(1 IJ e('
L ilL L ?LL, E+LLTS

B UPLG
ZZ E P
'.—k._JPANEL
Fig. 23.60. Arrangement for hod floor Signal Circuit.
.4 Lfl
I- . --
c,J Cfl .4 fl
till
Let
E=1 10
0
z
_____ 1-- - - ----
I = I
zo_
I Example 15. A light and bell circuit to be designed for four

special rooms of a hospital. The arrangement should be such that
when the patient in any of the four rooms wishes to call the nurse, he
has come. If she desires, the bell can be silenced by her by a switch
on indicating panel but the signal lamp should be still 'on'. I' the
presses a push button from near his bed. The relay op.? .r and as
a resultan indicating lamp outside his room in con-., . -goes 'on , and
anotherlamp bearing the number of his room on indicating panel in
nurse's room also goes 'on'. The only bell (common for all patient's
rooms) installed in nurse's room also rings for her extra attention.
This ison indication for the nurse to know from which room the call
patient pressesapitsh button to call her, the lamps will glow but the
bell will not ring if the switch on indicating panel is 'off'. This is a
drawback. The indicating lamps and bell can be switched 'of by a
Push button from the patient's room. If the nurforgets to switch on
the bell switch, the bell will not ring when the patient presses their
respective push buttons.
Fig. 23.62
Design a circuit in which the switch is replaced by a push
button so that the nurse may press a push button instead of a switch
in her room by which, the bell will stop ringing but the lights will
continue to remain 'on' until she presses a push button in patient's
room. The bell should ring again if any patient presses his push
button. Draw the schematic diagram for the above design.
Example 16. The manager in a big lacier,, is provided with a
push button marked CALL in his office to call his three assistant
managers for a conference. Each assistant manager is provided with
a bell and a signal lamp. When the manager presses a push button
marked 'CALL' to call his assistant managers, the bell in the assis-
tant managers offices will ring for as long as push button remains
pressed but the signal lamps will continue to glow even after the
manager releases the CALL vush b. 'Then the assistant
managers reach his of/ice, the manager can s.. .. all the lamps
in assistant manager's offices by pressing cnothe .-h button
marked 'OFF installed near his seat. Draw the schematic . -.. am
and add a wiring diagram.
820 ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING A1.JI) COSIING
F I
N L2. -3
1
----
I II

1 1 Bi L2 8 Z L) 83
LAMP BELL
Li0
NO NC
PUSH PUSH RELAY
BUTT- BUTTON
Fig. 23.63
Example 17. Design a bell circuit in which one push bun
and two indicating lamps i.e. one green and one red are mounted on
the plate outside the residence of Mr. X. In case somebody presses a
push button from outside, a bell should ring inside the house. if the
doctor is inside the house, he will press a push button from inside. A
hell should ring and red lamp goes off and simultaneously a green
lamp should glow outside. This should happen only for the period
the push button remains pressed, otherwise the red lamp should
continue to glow. -
Draw a bell circuit. Draw its schematic diagram and wiring
diagram in looping-in system using multiljne representation.
P - p
N
(a) Using Relay
(b) Using 1 NO-1 NC Push Buttot
Pig. 23.64
Solution
I. Circuit using relay.
In this case, the relay is used along
with a contactor. The relay remains cons tantly
e nergised and red
lamp remains ON as NC push button is used between line and relay.
BELL CIRCUITS AND INDICATOR S - 821
As long as the relay remains energised, the wntactor 'a' remains
open. When NC push button is pressed, the relay is de-energised
y
and red lamp goes off and simultaneousl the ctactor 'a' closes the
circuit thereby ringing the bell and glowing green lamp. The contac-
tor closes the circuit as long as the NC push button remains.pressed.
As and when the pressure on the NC push button is relased, the
relay is again energised, as a result of which the red lamp will glow
and green lamp will go off.
2. Using 1 NO-1 NC bush button. This type of push button
has two contactors. As it is spring controlled, one contactor is
normally open where as the other contactor is normally closed.
When push button 1 NO 1 NC is pressed, the red lamp which will
normally remain ON will now go off and the greer lamp will glow
for as long as the push button remains pressed. As soon as the push
button is relased, again the red lamp will glow and green lamp will
go off simultaneously.
EXERCISES
1. The drawing below shows the incomplete schematic
diagram and wiring diagram for a bell controlled by two push
buttons. The bell will ring if either of the two push buttons is
pressed. There are seoarate supplies for the relay circuit and the
bell circuit. Complete the schematic and wiring diagram.
A E^ 111
N Pi z. 23.65
Lj
T
L
rl J
N
(a) Schematic Diagram Fig. 2366

INn
(b) Wiring Diagram
ELEMICAL W
IRING, ESTIMATING
AND COSTING
2.
The drawing below shows the Incomplete
Wiring diagram for a sch ematic and
relay operated light and bell c ircuit. Relay A
is constantly energised by a D.C. supply. Contact (armature of relay)
'a' is thu in
such a position that the light and bell are 'off'. When
the NC push button T is pressed relay 'A' is
light and bell must give a signal together. d e-energised and the
and Wiring C omplete the schematic
and the belldiagram.
circuit There are separate Supplies for the relay circuit
3. Draw the s
chematic and wiring diagram for the following.
An electric bell is to be controlled by two push buttons and a relay.
The bell should continue ringing after the ON push button has been
mo
mentarily pressed. The bell should stop ringing after Pressing
the OFF push button.
4. The drawing below shows the
driver's indicating lamp c ontrol. In the sc hematic diagram for a bus
sc hematic diagram, only the
Push buttons contacts, relays and signal lamps have been shown.
C
omplete the schematic diagram and draw the wiring diagram to
meet the following require ment s.
Push buttons 1 and 2 are to be used by the

in the bus. By pressing any of the push buttons p assengers
meant forsitting
the
p assengers it is possible to switch off the
the red light. On such indication gr een light and switch on
p assenger gets down the bus, the , the driver Stops the bus. After a
co nductor can reset the lights
switch off the red light and switch on the green light by means i.e. of
Push button T. -Also locate the mistake in
sym
Your diagram. (Follows the fig. of Question No. bols and rectify it in
5)
5. The figure below shows the schematic
repre sentation of a
relay circuit drawn incomplete. This circuit is often used in buses.
Push button 1, 2 are to be used by the passengers Push butt
0 't' is
with the conductor. The driver will drive the bus on green signal.
By Pressing one of the push buttons meant for the
gr
een signal can be switched off and the red signal p assengers the
can be switched
V
A^
C
G ARe IRC
Fig. 23.67
/

on. By pressing the push button 't' the conductor can reset the lights
to give green signal. Complete the schematic diagram for the control
circuit.
6. The incomplete diagram below shows a bus driver's indicat-
ing lamp control. The push buttons, relay and signal lamps have
been shown. Complete the connections of this diagram so that the
following conditions are fulfilled.
to
02!
Jo
1 2
3t(4 °i'j

5 b 2
6 C',
03)'
b'
8 EP C 0 0
G Pd
Fig. 23.68
The bus consists of a main bus and a trailer (A trailer is an

additional compartment coupled to the main bus to carry more
passengers). There is one conductor each in the main bus and in the
trailer. The passengers can give to the driver a red signal for
stopping the bus by pressing push buttons 1 to 4. The driver must
get a green signal before he may start again. The circuit design must
ensure that the green signal comes only when the conductor of the
main bus has pressed button 5 as well as the conductor of the trailer
has pressed button 6 simultaneously.
Also find out the mistake in the electrical s ymbols used here
and place correct symbols in the diagram you prepare.
7. Draw the schematic diagram and wiring diagram fora bell
circuit such that the bell will continue ringing by pressing a push
button but would stop when NC push is pressed.
S. A medical doctor has two bells in his residence, both to be
controlled from a single push button located in verandah. During
day time a bell in drawing room is used. During night time a bell in
bed room is used. The bell in bed room to be used at night is relay
operated, such that the bell will continue ringin g till the doctor

824
ELCTRICAJ WIRINGESTI
MATING AND COS
silences the bell by
pressing NC push button from his bed n
Draw the schematic diagram, Wiring and single line
di agrams.
9. The diagram below Shows a bell controlled by three
buttons The bell should ring by Pressing either of the three p
buttons There is a s
the sc eparate supply to the bell and relay. Comp
hematic and Wiring diagram
I _
(a) Schematic Diagram Fig.

(b) Wiring Diagram
23,69
The drawing ShOWS
the Sch
ematic diagram and wiring
diagram of a relay operated bell circuit The bell will continue
ringing
a
fter the push button 'K' has been momentarily pressed
because the contact 'a' of the relay 'A' will act as a hold on contact.
The
de bell should stop ringing after Pressing push button 't'
- ene rgise the relay 'A'. Co which will
diagram for the above. mplete the sc
hematic and Wiring
T.D.R. Circuits
T.D.R. Circuit No. 1. Draw the
diagram using time delay relay in Which sch ematic and wiring
green Should continue to glow two lamps, one red and one
time alt
ernately with a certain interval of
b and When the switch 'S' is closed, the relay A is energised through
the lamp R glows taking Supply
in
terval of time, its contacts al and through a j . After a certain
a2 operate such that al is
disconnected (disconnecting apply to signal lamp R) and
connected
ing. After athereby
certajj henergising relay B. The green lamp starts glow-
a2 is
th interval of time the contact boperate5 and makes
relay A and s1muJtanusJy, the contacts 01 and a2
Oreturn to their Original POsition. Thus the green
ff and the red la mp glows. This cy
lam
result , p i wjtched
thecle
red and green lamp COfltj of op eration repeats as a
flu0 glowing
al ternately with a
825
P
230V -
A.C.
Mans
Fig. 23.70. Wiring Diagram.

definite interval of time. The amount of time lag can be increased
or decreased with the help of an adjusting screw provided in each
T.D.R.
T.D.R. circuit No. 2. Draw the schematic and wiring
diagram of the traffic light for the crossing of two roads. One red
lamps and one green light will be installed on each side i.e. two red
lamps and two green lamps on the two roads at the crossing will
glow at a time. When the red lamps on one road are ON to the stop
RGAD 2
R. J
ROAD I
P1 R2 G2
ROAD 2
Fig. 23.71
82
ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND.COSTING
the traffic, the green lamps on the other roads should also be ON to
allow the traffic to cross. Draw the circuit using T.D.R.
3l
MAINS
f

ri 11 iF fl 'iTL
1 R G4
A L.
b1
Fig. 23.72
The red and green lights are for giving particular signal to the
traffic. When the traffic is allowed to cross along road (1) giving
green signal the traffic along road (2) should be made to stop by
glowing red signal lamps and vice versa.
If traffic is allowed to move
along road (1) the R 1 and R3 should be on and G 2
and G 4 should also
be ON.
THE USE OF INDICATORS IN VARIOUS CIRCUITS
Indicators are designed primarily for service signals. The
indicator systems are installed for the purpose of having all calls
terminate at a central location. It is i mpracticable to have more than
two or three bells located at one point, because it results in con-
fusion, even though they may have gongs of different tones. For this
reason, a device, known as an indicators is used to indicate by visual
means, the signals that are transmitted over electric call bell cir-
cuits. The indicators are used mostly in hospitals, hotels, offices,
residences and the places where call bell service is required.
There are different types of indicators which are distinguished
from one another by the form of the indicating device. The most

commonly types used are
(a)Gravity drop (hand operated reset and electric automatic

reset types).
(b) Needle or arrow drop.
(c) Electric drop.
(d) Lamp indicators.
(a) Gravity drop signal. The Fig. (23.73 a and b) shows

gravity drop indicator. It consists of relay, armature with claw and
shutter comprising number on it. By pressing a push button, when
the circuit is completed, the relay coil is energised and iron core lying
in it is magnetised. It attracts the armature pivoted at one point.
When the armature is attracted by the electromagnet, it is pressed.
downward. Since it is angular in shape and pivoted at one point, the
other side of it will move outward forming a dotted shape as shown
in the sketch above. The claw C then takes the position ofC' thereby
relca . ing the shutter pivoted at P allowing it to drop by gravity to
P,ct
_____ —Armature
:
. buttor
Pus h 40
"
Sit l er Pivot
4-Gravity
Shutr
drop
Face
(a)
Bell
]Reset
knob
Battery
(b
Fig. 2373
828
ELECTRICAL WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
the position marked by dotted line
dis playing the number
Upon its face. When the armature is attracted shown by dottedmarked
lines,
the Position of claw and shutter will also be as shown by dotted linc
The number of electromagnets and .other eq
uipment will be equal
to the number of drops required in the indicators
The drawing below shows another type of indicator with
gravity drop. Its consists of bell, reset rack push button,
nets, shutter, armature and a drop which is used to exhibit electromag-
the
circuit number. The bell is used to make the signal audible. The
reset rack is used to hold the drops in the indicating position after
being released, and to return them to their original position
d
esired. When push button No. 1 is pressed, the current when
through the electromagnet to complete the circuit to negative side flows
Battery
eset
Fig. 23.74
of battei-y. The electromagnet is thus mag
ar netised and attracts the
mature towards it releasing the shutter which falls down on reset
rack due to gravity. The number engraved on the face,of the shutter
come on the front side so that the person can see which number has
drawn his attention To invite more attention the bell is also placed
in series which rings as and when push is pressed. The shutter is
shifted to its original position with the help of re-Set rack.
The basic principal of almost all indicators is the same. The
Push buttons and elect
any number. romagnets may be increased or decreased to
(b) Needle or Arrow drop
me ind icators. The whole
chanism except bell is enclosed in a wooden or backlite case. The
bell Should be placed as close to the
indicator as possible b re maining portion of the
ecause, bell will attract the attention by
udibIe sound and needle is to be seen for indication
etc. The indicator consists of a hand, or arrow, which Of room number
is rigidly
fastened to the front end of shaft close to the face of the indicators.
A lever is fastened to the rear end of this shaft and is normally held
in position by means of a notched armature. When the electromag-

net becomes energised, the armature is attracted causing the lever
to be released and to fall upon a supporting pin on the reset rack.
As the arm falls, the arrow is rotated upward so that it points
towards the number from where the call has come. To return the
drop to its original position the reset handle is forced up, which in
turn causes the supporting pin to raise the lever and to turn the
arrow downward.
(c) Electric Reset Drop. The electric reset drop has the
advantage over the two types previously mentioned such that the
drops maybe reset individually or collectively either at the indicator
at a distant point or both or it may be arranged for automatic reset.
In this case, the last drop operated remains in sight until another
call in sent in.
Eec , c - .1.
gre ¶
ec'e- y
rj
Ln
Fig. 23 75. Needle Drop lndieator.
(d ) Lamp Indicators. The lamp indicator makes use ofsignal
lamps instead of drops. When the push button may be pressed, the
desired lamp may be illuminated and by pushing a reset push button
at the indicator or at any convenient location the lamp may be
extinguished
EXAMPLES ON INDICATOR WIRING
Fig. 23.76
830
ELECTRICAL WIRING ESTIMATING AND COSTING
Indicator and Bell syste m
combined. As shown above,
there are two push buttons for two electric bells apart from indicator
push buttons. The ekctric bells may be placed somewhere else and
the indicator at the ivoin from where calls are to be attended.
Fig. 23.77
Controlling either of the two indicators with a lever

switch. As above, one or the other indicator can be thrown into
service. An eight point lever switch is used. Any one of the push
buttons when placed on a closed circuit will operate a correspond-
ingly numbered drop in that indicator. If the lever switch is
op9ted , nnj
the Fame push button is pressed, the oti:el indicator
will be affected.
Return call indicator system. As shown above, the in-

dicator and lower set of push buttons i.e.
P5, P€, P7 and Ps are
installed at a central point. The oth:- ....... 'sh buttons and four
ofe on bell and one push button each are
located at different places in the building. The push button at the
central point may call its cor
respondingly numbered station in a
Fig. 23.78
831
different part of the building by p ressing a push button ringinga
bell which in turn presses a push button for operation of indiactor
and its bell, The correspondingly numbered flag on the indicator will
fall giving visual indication for having received the call.
When P1 is pressed, the flag No. 1 on the indicator will fall and
its bell B5 will ring. In return, the message for having received the
call can be conveyed by pressing P5 for which, the bell B1 installed
near Pi will ring. It can be used for conveying or receiving the signal.
From practical point of view, the circuit is simple, easy to maintain,
economical and also very useful.
The diagram (Fig. 23.79) provides answer to the problem given

below. A hotel has four rooms on each of its first and second floors.
For calling the room service, a bell cum indicating circuit is to be
designed. A panel on each floor is to be provided with one bell and
four indicating flags. A third panel is also provided on the ground
floor where the room service check office is lacated. This third panel
has one bell and two flags i.e. one flag for each floor to observe that
the calls are answered.
'A Fig. 2179

832 ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING AND COSTING'
When a call is given from any of the rooms by pressing a push

button, the bell placed on the respective floor and the check office
should ring simultaneously, at same time room indicating flags on
the panel of the respective floor and the floor indicating panel in the
check office panel should fall.
Master and Sub-Indicator System. The Fig. 23.80 above

shows another type of indicator for room service for three storey
building. This ma y be used for practically the same purpose as that
in the last diagram but instead of indicating only floor number on
the lower or master indicator it shows all the room numbers of the
above floors on the sub-indicators. One sub-indicator of indicator
installed on each floor, only the room numbers on their respective
floors are registered. For example, when push button 1 is operated,
N n C FLOOR
OR
S^j8-r_CA OR
7REL4Y'
MASTER INDATCR
RELAY
Fig. 23.80
flag 1 on the sub-indicator of the same floor operates and flag 1 on

the in aster indicator at the central location also operates. Only one
sources of supply is used to operate the system. Indicators designed
for parallel operation have been used to insure proper operation. A
tie or common.wire is connected between all indicators.
Example. 1. Draw the wiring diagram, schematic diagram
and single line diagram of an indicator circuit which should fulfill
the following conditions.
There are five push butt ons provided in five different rooms of
a hospital. Indicators with five relays provided with indicating flag
are installed in nurse's room. When a push button is pressed, the
relay is energised and flag falls giving a visual indication that it has
been operated. The nurse called upon then knows from which room
the call is given: The indicating flag is reset manually by operating
a knob.
Solution. As already stated, the indicators are designed
primarily for service signals and they indicate calls from various
rooms and points within the same building. The schematic diagram
is given below and wiring diagram is also given. When any of the
Fig. 23.81
five push button (installed in five, different rooms) is pressed, a

relay of that number on the indicator operates causing the release
of a shutter to drop. The shutter thus dropped will show in the
windowof the indicator a particular number written on the drop.
The bell also rings for extra attention of the person called for. A
re-set knob is used to reset the dropped shutter manually after
attending to the call, so as to be repeated again by that person as
and when be desires.
834
EEEI
INDICATOR
Re-set knob
Fig. 23.82 (a) Wiring Diagram Indicator Circuits.
Ii
230 V
AC MAINS
BELL
INDICATOR
P5 '-'J P2 Pi
Fig. 23.82 (b) Single Line Representation.

Exampie. 2. There are five push buttons provided in five
different rooms of a hotel. The indicator having relays provided with
indicating flags is installed in attendant's room. When any of the
push buttons is pressed, the relay is energised and the flag falls
giving a visual indication that it has been operated The person
called upon thus knows which room he has to attend. There is
another push button near the indicator to reset the indicating flag
automatically with the help of relay to allow the call to be repeated
again. Draw the wiring diagram and schematic diagram.
Solution. The circuit is very similar to the previous indicator
circuit except the difference that the indicating reset rack is relay
operated. The indicating flag is reset back by pressing 'a push button
'' automatically.
Fig. 23.83
.ELL CIRCUITS AND INDICATORS 835
The bell and relays are provided in series. The indicator is

installed in attendant's room. As and when a push button is pressed,
the relay is energised and indicating flag or shutter falls giving
visual indication to the attendant. A shutter or indicating flag is
reset back by pressing a push button T autornaticallywith the help
of relay.
S u y
Fig. 23.84
Example. 3.A hotel has four rooms on each of its first and
second floor. For calling room service, a bell cum indicctng circuit
is to be designed. A panel on each floor is to be provided with one bell
and four indicating flags. A third panel is also provided on the
L.
23C AC
Mcrr.s
Fig. 23.85
836
ELECTRICAL WIRING, ESTIMATING ANDCOSTING"\
ground floor ihcre the room service check office is locatedi'hjs third
panel has one bell and two flags i.e. one flag for each floor to observe
that the calls are answered.
When a call is given from any of the rooms by pressing a push

button, the bell placed on the respective floors and at the check office
should ring simultaneously, at the same time room indicating flags
on the panel of the respective floors and the floor indicating panel in
the check office panel should fall.
A push button each on the panel of first and second floors is to

be provided which when pressed should reset simultaneously the
room indicating flag on the floor panel and the floor indicating flag
in the ground floor panel. Draw the schematic and wiring diagram
of the circuit.

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r

Late J.M. L4ROL4, N.D.E.E.

Revised and Enlarged By

All Rights are Reserved

First Editio7I 1963 (3 Reprints)

price: Rs. 165.00

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

5. Protective Devices .. 109-128

7. Internal Wiring Systems and Lamp Circuits ... 181-22(

9. Underground cables and Installation ... 260-286

10. Electrical Earthing and Shock ... 287-306

12. General Specifications ... 373-387

13. Measurement of Earth Resistance and Testing

15. Internal Wiring Estimates 447-608

18. Estimates For 11 K y . Feeders and Sujstations .. 69-677

19. Extracts from Indian Electricity Amendment

22. Miscellaneous Electrical Components ... 745-773

1. Control Gear and Distribution Fuse-Board

(I) Main fuse-board without switches, light-

(12) Single light pendant

(34) Socket-outlet and switch combined, 2 pin

S. Fix Heating Outlet

(54) Fire alarm indicator (at 'N', insert number

9. Public Address System

B-13. Othe, Symbols

1.Introduction. It is said that among the tool kits of engineers,

Square blade Screw Driver

Side cutting pliers

Diagonal cutting pliers.

So under such odd circumstances diagonal pliers as shown in Fig.

This type of pliers is useful for conduit wiring, where its

Slip Joint Pliers,

5. Hammers. For electrical work, generally two types of

(a) Straight claw hammer (b) Ball-peen hammer

is made from tool steel. It has a bevel at the cutting edge.

(a) Wood Chisel (b) Cold Chisel

Ratchet bit brace

For new constructional work, a bit with coarse pitch of thread

stroke. For starting, an accurate cut should be made with a blade

20. Conduit Wiring Tools. The conduit wiring is a specialized

(a) Self-locking vice (b) Portable vice attached to wooden post

(c) Portable vice with stand

23. Conduit Cutting by Hacksaw. The conduits can better

For cutting threads over the conduits, two types of die-stocks

Die and Die-stock

Hickey with handle

(b) Bending Racks. It has an arrangement of A' shape made

(c) Pressure benders. For pressure bending of the conduits, the

(1) The sharp edged tools such as pocket knife, chisels,

3. Stranded wires. 4. Types of wires. 5. Rubber

1. Introduction. For estimating the cost of internal wiring, it

The sizes to the wires are assigned much intelligently. Alu-

04 0372 ' 0348" 02/2' 0 . 144

OR 710 0R4/0 OR 0R2/

Illustration of sizes of various notches of wire gauge

WIRES, WIRE SPLICING AND TERMINATION 21

zero) or written as 7/0 having adiamet.er of 0.5". It should be noted

Gauge Diameter Area

7/0 .500 12.7000 250000 19635 126.6769

1 .300 7.6200 90000 .07069 45.6037

9 .144 3.6576 20736 .016286 10.5071

14 .080 2.0320 6400 .005027' 3.2429

British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G.)

Inch mm CIRC.Mjl,g SQ. Inch nun?I