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    9. Primitive Art Boas (Extractos)

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    Primitive Art Boas (Extractos)

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    Sebastianesfa

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    FRANZ BOAS PRIMITIVE ART NEW YORK DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC PREFACE his book Is an atempr to give an anaytial description of the fundamental traits of primitive art. The treament given 10 the ject is based on wo. pinciples that, | believe, should guide Al invesignions into the’ mantesations of le among peimiive people: the one the fundamental samenest of mental processes In Al races and in all cultural forme of the present day; the other, the consideration of every cultural phenomenon es the result of historical happenings. “There must have been a time when man's mental equipment was Aitterens rom ‘what itis now, when it was evolving. from « cond tion simi to that found among the higher aps. That period es far behind us and’ no trace of a Jower mental organization t found in any ofthe extant races of man. So fr a8 my personal experience foes and so far as I Teel competent wo judge elographical dats on fhe bass of thie experienc, tbe mena processes of man are the same everywhere, regardless of race and culture, and regardless of the apparent absurdity of beefs and castoms. ‘Some theorists assume a menial equipment of primitive man aint from that of civized man. I have never seen «person in Drimive life 10 whom tis theory would apply. There are slavish bievers inthe teachings of the past and there are sclfere and unbelievers; there are clear thinkers and muddleheaded banglers: there are strong characters and weaklings. "The behavior of everybody, no. mater to what culture he may belong, is determined by the traditional material he handles, and rman, the workover, handles the material transmined 40 hin o> Carding tothe same methods. ‘Our tradiional experience has tmught us 10 consider the course of objective events as the result of definite, objective crustion. Tnexorable causality governs here and the outer world cannot be Influenced by mental condiions. Hence our hesiating wonder at the phenomena of hypaoiem and suggestion in which these lines seem no longer sharply deava. Our ealtural environment has In- prested this view upon our minds so deeply that ve assume fundamental fact that material phenomena, particularly 0 Side of the Beld of human Behavior, can never be influenced by tment, subjecive processes. Sill every ardent wish implies the possbiity of fltlment and prayers for objective benefits or for Feip dor ifr in principle from the atempes of primitive man to interfere with the uncomrollable course of nature. The credulity ‘vith which Tatas theories bearing. upon health are accepted, the fonstnt ree f relpour sci with abstre dogmatic ene 8 well fs the shone ja ssendie and_phiesophic theory prove the weak- fess of eur claim to rational view of the worl “Anyone who has lived with primitive tribes, who has shared their Joys and sorrovs, ther privatons and their uxures, who sees in them not solely subjects of study to be examined hike a cell under the microscope, but feling and thinking haman beings, wil agree that there is 90 Such thing 8a “primitive mind”, a * mageal™ oF "peelogial” way of thinking. ut that each idvidaal a primitive™ scery is 4 man, a woman, a child of the same kind, of the same ‘way of thinking, Yeeling and acting os ian, woman or child in our ‘own soy Tovesigators are too apt to forget thatthe logics of science, — that unatinable eal of the discovery of pure relations of cause ‘and effet, uncontaminated by any kind of emotional bias a8 well 48 of unprored opiion,— are not the logis of le. The flings underying taboo are everpresent among us. I remember that 38 a boy, when receiving lstrucdon in religion. that sin dogms tan insuperable ition against tering the word “God”, and 1 ud not be brought to answer a question that required the answer "God". IF | had been older I should have searched for and found ' personaly saisying explanauon for this inhiiion. Everyone knows by experience that there are actions ‘he will not perform, His of thought tha: he wil ot follow, and words that he will not ‘uver, Because the sctlons are emotionally bjeconabe, of the though Bod strong restances and involve our innermost We 20 deeply that they cannot be expressed in vords, We ere right in calling these social aboos. It requires only # dogmas stndardl- tation eo tanaorm them into true taboos. ‘And magic? I elie if « boy should observe someone siting fon his photograph and cuting it 10 pieces he would feel duely futraged T know If tht should have happened to me when 1 wat 1 student, the result would have beea a duel and I should have ove my evel best o do to my adversary in natura what he hd one to me in effiie and I should have considered my success as 1 compensation for the harm done me;—all his without any psycho- ‘analyte meaning. 1 donot believe that my feelings would heve ilred much fFom those of other young men. Again a standard zation and dopmatiztion woul! bring us right back 10 ~magial” aades Dr, Torzer's' collection of superstitions of College students with the enlighmning remarks by those who hold the belts will be read with pro by all those who are convinced of our mental superiority 4nd the lick of sbllty of clear thinking among the primiives. ‘Sill other consdertont should cation us against the assumption of a radical diference between primiive and civilized mentaty. We Tike 10 see this distinction in greater individual mental freedom from social Sondage expressed in # free crital atte that makes pos- Site individ crentveness| ‘Our much admired scientie training has never proved «safeguard ‘aginst the seductiveness of emotional appeals, just as litle ws thas prevented the acceptance st gospel ruth of the grosestebsuries, 5 presented with sufelen energy, self assertion and authority. IP anything, the late war with its organized governmental and private ‘Propaganda should make us undersund this truth. Opinions ener- ae, hI Tats Ss Ong nt Saal Conan ew Yer 105 r- 4 Prete romped mt priate ignty nema sor Ectoeg't te prs et ately of te cao. The fecal scenes ey a te und y ammo frosons tus corm the mow cde of tne snd pc sod Tite the ecg of slrigeouen Tey ger over ie end ol ceo an word sd, when ard by thee la ratory, make Sina apr ei ‘ar adv ver inv ppl soe of seer knows tthe acne wal pay ye bythe or of sey gee Soma toute witch we opted who fret tcf id ott aon aang etn ge pce or dn dtr ehh een rt oe ogres 12 ou of pie tong a baaed cr eto cere ‘ma pre mn ao We dens y oyeay rece mo ine, Toe ric bot tm each ce a decrined by the tndnal Knowledge a he Sao fe na ‘The second fundamental point 10 be borne ia mind it that exch ‘ure canbe understood only 28 an historical growth determined bythe social and geographical environment in which each people Is placed and by ihe way i which it develope the cual mater tht comes int its possession fom the ousde or throogh I Own crentveness. For the purpose of an historical analysis we teat ich paricalar problem fst of all as unt, and we atempe 10 ‘unravel the threads that may De traced in the developmear of is resent form, For this reason we may sot start our inquiries and Imerpretitiors, as though the fundamental thesis of «single uninesl evelopment of cultural tris the world over, of development hat follows everywhere the sume lines, had been deftly proven Itt | claimed hat culture nes run such «course, the assertion mst be proven on the buss of denied stadies ofthe historia changes in ange Caltres and by te demonstration of analogies in their development Preface 5 1s safe to sey that the evita study of recent years has deftly Alaproved the existence of far reaching homologies which would permit us to arrange all rhe manifold eulural lines in an ascending Seale im which 10 each can be ssgned its proper place. On the other hand dynamic conditions exist, based on environ- iment, physiological, psychological, and social fciors, that may tring forth sine caltral processes in dilferen parts of the word, that tis proeble that some of the historical happenings may be iewed under mere geteal dynamic vewpints ‘But historical dia re not avaliable and when prehistore research oes not reveal sequences of cultral changes, the ony avalle method of study isthe geographical one, ihe study of diselbuton This has een emphasized in the last thied ofthe pas century by Friedrich Rate. It has probably been most rig developed in ‘he United States. 1 ilustated this method in 1891 by study of the distribution of folktales In North America® and i has become ‘more and more the method of analytical sudy of cutural forms Tis very fraiflness, however, hus led ro extremes in its applce- tion that should be guarded aginst. I poimed out, in print in 1911 snd oflen before and since that sme in speaking, tht there ie & {erain Homology between universal astetbuton of sutra fs and ‘hele antiquity The fundamental peineple involved in this sssump- tion was fully clecused ty Georg Gerland in 1875? although ve tre hardly ready to accept his contusions The daia of pretistorie trchacology. prove that some of these universal achievements go back to paleolitic times. Stone implements, fire and ornaments tre found in that period. Ponery and agriculture, which ere less tniversally dstibued, ppear itr. Metals, the use of whichis sal more limited in space, are found stil ner. Recent atiempis have been made 10 raise to 8 general principle this point of view which, with due caution, may be appled here "Jour of American Foon, Vol IV, pp. 13-21; ko Soe, Vo Xt (it p14 108. hecoplsbe Be, Hale a, pp. 4 et and there. Herbert Spinden in hls reconsrustion of American Dehetre chronology, Alfred Kroeber in his analysis of cultural forms of the Pacifle Coast, and quite receniy Clark Wiser have but up, founded on this principle a sysiem of historic sequences that apppear 10 me as guile untenable. That widely disribeed Ctural tents develop special forms in each particular area i truism hat does not require any proof That these local dexelop- ‘ments may be arranged in a chronological series, that those of the ‘most limited distribution ae the youngest, is only parially true. It ‘not cult to find. phenomena that center in'a erin region fod dvindle down at the outtkirts, but it is not trve that these fveriaby sree on an ancont subsiratim. The converse is ofen trae, that an idea emanating from a center is difused over a wide tre, "Neither may the origin alvays be looked for in the area of the strongest development. In the tame way a8 ve find animals surviving and Mlourshig ia regions [ar distant from the localiy in Thich they developed, 0 cultural traits may be transfered and Sd their highest expresin in regions far avay from their origin. The ‘bronze castngs of Benin; the wood carvings of New Zealand; the ‘bronze work of ancient Scandievia: the giant stone work of Easter Island; the early cultural developmen of Ireland and is Influences ‘over Europe are examples of ths kind Equally unsafe are the methods uted by Frits Graebner and Pater \W. Schmidt who cluim the stability of cerain very old and, a8 1 fear, etious correaions between cultural tai tis probably not necessary 10 poit out the ater inadequacy of Blot Smith's tempt to reduce all etrological phenomena fo 8 single and entropologilly speaking, Ite source and to assume & Permanence of cultural forms that exits nowhere Tr has ofen Been observed that cultural traits are exceodingly tenacious and that features of hoary antiquity survive unt he ‘resent day. ‘This has let the impression that primitive culture | almost stable and has remained what iis for many centuries This does not correspond © the cs.” Wherever ve have detaed 1 information ve see forms of objects and customs in constant fax, fometines sable for a perod, then undergoing rapid changes. ‘Through this process elements that at onetime belonged together 5 cultural units are tom apart. Some survive, others di, and 30 far as objective ents are concerned, the cultural form may Become ‘Kaleidoscopic picture of miscellaneous tris that, however, are remodelled scording 10 the changing. spiritual background that pervades the culture and that ianaforms the monic into an organic ‘whole. ‘The beter the integration of the elements the more valuable ‘appears to us the allure. I televe that st may te sid that the coherent survival of cultural features that are aot ongenclly connected is exceedingly rare, while single detched elements may ‘possess marvellous longevity In the present book the problem of growth of individual art styles will be touched upon only incidentally. Our object is rather an attempt 10 determine the dynamic conditions under which art syes grow up. The specfe historical problem requires much Tiler Matera’ than what we now posses. There are very few pars of the world in which we can tae, by archaeological or comparative ‘eographical study, the growth of art styles. Prehistoric archaeology tm Europe, Asia, and America shows, however, tht, #8 general cultural Waits are in a constant sate of ux, 30 also change and the breaks in the arisic ie of 1 surprisingly sudden, It rem to derive generally valid lows that contol the growth of specie tar siyes, such as Adama van Schelema has tried 10 derive for North European art! With increasing echnical skill and perfection ‘of tools, changes are Bound to occur. Their course is determined by the general cltral history of the people. We are not in 2 positon to say that the sime tendencies, modifed by local histozalhapperings, reappear in the course’ of art development everywhere, [wish to express my thanks 10 those who have assisted me in ‘tering the ustreve material for this volume. 1 am indetied 10 the American Museum of Netral History, especially to Dr. Pay E. Goddard for permission to have deavings made of specimens, for Neral help in ther selection and also fur the use of Hlstaive ‘material rom the Maseum publications. I am also indebred to the Fels Museum, Chicago; the United Sues National Museum, ashngion; the University Museum of the Universiy of Peensy! ‘yang at Philadelphia, the Free. Public Museum of the City of Mivaukee and 10 the Linden Museum st Statgart for lutions of specimens. The drawings were made by Mr. W. Baake, Miss 1M, Franzske oas and Mise Lilian Sternberg. INTRODUCTION 0 people known to ut, however hard their lives may be, spend all their time, all thelr energies in the acyulsiton of food and seler, nor do those who live under more favorable canons and ‘vo are fee to devote 10 other pursuits the time not needed for securing their sustenance occupy themselves with purely industrial ‘work oF idle away the days in indolence. Even the poorest tes Ihave produced work that gives to them esthetic pleasure, and those ‘whom a bountil nature ofa greater wealth of inventions has grated Freedom from care, devote much of thei energy to the creation of works of bens. Tn one way or another esthetic pleasure is fet by all members of mankind. No mater how diverse the less of besuty may be, he general characier ofthe enjoyment of beauy is of the same order fererywhere; the crude song of the Sirians, the dance of 1 ‘Alcan Negeots the pantomime of the Calforian Inia, the sone ‘work of the New Zealanders, the carvings of the Melanesians, the Sculpture of the Aluskans appeal to ther ia « manner not diferent from that fe by us when we hear « song, when we sce an este dance, or when we edie ornamental work, paining or sculpture ‘The very existence of song, dance, punting and sculpture among sll the trikes known to us ls proof ofthe caving to produce things that ee felt a8 satisfying through ther form, and. of the capability of man to enjoy them, ‘Al human actives may assume forms that give them esthetic values. ‘The mere ery, or the word does not necessnrily possess the elements of beauty. If i does a0 it i merely a mater of accident Violen, unrestrained movements induced by excitement; the exertions of the chase and the movements required by daily occupations are pariy reflexes of passion, partly pracically deter Imig. They have ‘20 immediate extese appeal. The same Ie 10 Introduction trae of all products of industrial ativy. The daubing of pint, the ‘whiting of we0d or Bone, the Baking of stone do not necessary lead to ress that compel our admiration on account of thelr ‘Nevertheless, all of them may assume esthetic values. Rhyth- nical movements of the body or of objects, forms that appeal 1 the eye, sequences of tones and forms of speech which please the ar, produce artic efecis Muscular, visu and auditory sense- tions are the materials that give us eseic pleasure and that are ed in er ‘We may ako speak of impressions that appeal 10 the senses of smell ase and touch. A composition of scens, 4 gusronomical repast may be called works of tr provided they exce pleasurable senate. ‘What then gives to the sensation an esthetic value? When technical treatment has atuined a cerain standerd of excelence, ‘hen the control of the. processes involved is such that cerain typi forms are produced, we cll the press an art, and however simple the forms may be, they may be fudged from the pois of ‘ew of formal perecton; industria pursuits such a cutig, carving ‘moulding, weaving: a5. well as singing, dancing and cooking are capale of ataining techaial exellenes and Bxed forms. The ju ‘ment of pefecion of technical form is essentially un esthetic ju iment. tis Barly posible to sate objectively jst where the line beneeen aistic and pre-aristc forms should be drava, because we ‘annot determine just where the esthetic aide sets in. It seems ceraia, hovever, tat wherever a defnte type of movement, ¢ efnie sequence of tones or a fixed form bas developed it must ‘become a standard by Which its perfection, that fs, is Beauy, is sensu, ‘Sach types exist artong mankiad the world over, and we must assume tha an wnsandardized form should prove 10 possess an ‘esthetic appeal for 8 community i would realy be adopted. Fisty ‘of form seems ro be most imtimately connected wth our ideas of beauty. Introduction " Since a perfect stndard of form can be sttined only in Iighly developed and perfecily controlled technique there must be am ivimate relation berween technique and a feeling for besty I might be suid thar achievements ireevant as Tong as the ‘eat of Beauty Tor which the would-be artist strives fin existence, although on account of imperfect technique he may be unable 10 attain it Alois Riegl expresses this idea by saying thatthe wil 10 produce an esthetic result isthe esence of arisic work. The truth ofthis assertion may be admined and undoubedly many Individuals ttrve for expression of an estheic impulse without being able 10 realize it. What they are striving for presupposes the existence of ‘tn ideal form which the unakled muscles are vnable to express adequately, The intuitive feeling for form must be present. So fr fs our knowledge of the works of art of primitive people extends the feling for form is inextricably tound up with technical expe- rience. "Nature does not seem to. present formal Seal—tha is Axed types that are ited. except when 4 satral objet Is used in dally Me; when i is banded, perhaps modified, by technical processes. It would seem that aniy'in this way form impresses sel? upon the human mind. The very fct that the manuferres of man in each and every part of the world have pronounced style roves that a feeling for form develops with techrcal sctvites, "There is nothing to show thatthe mere contemplation of nature Or of natural objects develops a sense of fixed form. Nether have ‘we any proof that = definite stylsic form develops’ as x product purely'of the power of the imagination of the workman, unguided by bis technical experience which ring the form ino his consious- ‘ess. is conceivable tht elementary esthetic forms like symmetry ‘and rhythm, are not entirely dependent upon technical activites; but these are common to all art syles; they are not specifically eharae- ‘erste of any parscular region. Without sailty of form of objets, mapufuctured oF In common use, there is no syle; and stability of orm depends upon the development of «high technique, or in a few cases on the constan use of the same Kind of natural products, 2 Introduction ‘When stable forms have been atained, Imaginnive development of form in an imperfect technique may se in and in this case the will to procuce an esthetic recut may outrun the ablity of the would-be Arun The sume consideration holds good in regard 10 the esthetic ‘value of muscular movemens used in song and dance. ‘The manafitures of man the world over prove that the eal forms are based esentaly on standards developed by expert tehn- ‘ans, ‘They may also be inugiaatve developments of older stan- ‘razed forms. Without a formal basis the wil 0 create something ‘that appeals fo the sense of beauty can hardly exis. Many works of art affect us in another way. The emotions may te simulted not by the form slne, but also by close associations that nist betveen the form aod ideas held by the people. In other ‘words, when the forms convey « meaning, because they real past txperences or Bese they act as symbols, a new element is added to the enoyment. The form and ts meaning combine to elevate the mind tbove the indierent emotional at of every-day fe. Benuaflscalpare ‘or paloting, musical composition, Gramatc et, a pantomime, may 40 afect us. Thit is no less true of peimitive at than of our own. Sometimes estheic pleasure is released by natural forms. The song of 2 bird may be Deal; we” may experience pleasure in ‘iewing the form of a landscape ‘or in viewing the movements of fin aia; we may enjoy a natural tate or smell, or #. pleasant feeling; grandeur of nature may give ur an emotional thel snd the ‘sions of animals may have a dramatic effect; all of these have feietie valves but they are aot a.” On the other band, a melody, ‘carving «painting, a dice, « pantomime are estheic productions, because they have been crested by our own actives Ferm, and creation by our own activites are essential features of ax. The pleasure of elevation ofthe mind mst be brought about by 1 pariculr form of sense impression, bat this sense impression must be made by some kind of human astvty or by some product oF human sett. jection a 1e Is exseaial to bear la mind the twofold source of aria eet, “the one based on form alone, the other on ideas associated with form. Othervie the theory of art wil be onesded. Since the art of mtn, the world over, among primitive tribes a8 wel x among ‘lized avons, contains both element, the purely formal and the Sigicant, i isnot admissible t base all dacusions of the manies- tations of the art impulse upon the assumption that the expres- sion of emotional sates by sigicant forms must be the beginning ‘of at, tay, lke language. aris «form of expression. In modera times tis opinion is baved in parton the ote observed fact that in primiive art even simple geometrical forms may posses » mean- ling that os to their emosional value, and that dance, musie and poetry almost alvays have definite meaning. However, significance ‘Of asic form is neither universal nor can it be shown that it 8 necesarly older than the form. TT do not intend to enter into # discussion of the phlosopica! ‘theories of esther, but will confine myself to a few remarks on the views of nunber of recent authors who have treated art on the basis of ethnological material, and only in so ras the question is concerned whether primitive arti expresive of defte Kens, (ur views agree fundamentally with those of Fechner" who recog. nizes the “direct” eppealof the work of art on the one side and the associated elements that give # specie tone 10 the esthetic ‘eflects on the othe ‘Wundt® restricts the dcustion of art to those forms in which the arise work expresses some thought oF emotion. He says, "Por the prycholopel study art sands in a posiion Intermediate Between language and’ myth... Thus the creative amisic work appears to us as a peculiar development of the expressive movement of the body. Gesture and language passin a fleeting moment. In art they are sometimes given a higher sigifeanee; sometimes the 1 G7, Fetter, Vance der Aces Aeeing movement Is given permaneat form . «All these rele. tions re manifested principally in the relatively envy, although not in the very arliet stages of arse work In which the momentary needs of expression of thought dome art as well as language.” Max Verworn’ says: “ARC isthe faculty to express conscious processes by means created by the arist himself in such « manner that they may be perceived by our sense organs. In this general ‘sense language, song. music and dance are at just as well a pint Ing, sculpture nd ornamentation. The graphic and plastic ars in ‘he narrow sense of the term result from the ablity of making conscious processes visible in permanent materia.” Richard Thuravald" accepts the view-point of Wundr when he says, "An, however inadequate is means may be, fe # means of ex pression that belongs fe mankind. The means employed are distinc from those used in gesture, language and wring. Even when the rit is intent oaly upoa the repeiion of whar he has in mind he oes so with at lest the subconscious purpose of communicating his ideas of influencing others” “The same onesidedness may be recognized in Yn6 Hi's? opinion, ‘who says: In onder to understnd the art impulse at tendency to esthetic production we must brig it into connection with some fueton from the mature of which the specially artistic qualies may be derived. Such ncn is to be found, we belive, inthe tvs of emotional expression.” 1 willbe seen that all these authors confine their defniton of {rt those forms which are expressions of emotional sates or of eas, while they do not include in art the pleasure conveyed by purely formal elemears that are not primarily expressive Ernst Grose expreses similar views In somewhat cifferent form. Dl Atos er Kanu Jer, 10, "Kuntar Sine kt, igs We seen ap Kner’ ewe Tura abi der vergicheeden Payee, Nerusezeten ve Gon RW Introduction 1s Us sesh a re ie me ith spe tn platy ince At cata aac helt te ‘oct Eo pil pe we ied te oe Seo aetna Seay See hae sna pt sr yg ad yarn Sharks Seed Oy pa at Seriya t's ways egret ae Seedy BE pate ol Wa ot nde eae coat tale St ces tom he dee ici eM ser nl Se a ep Tu Si ame gp ce ecm ea Spacomare oa Sh ae oe dca ota moeinn eit pt by acho eo ne foe Sat SP el tent SN re ce 3 Fae et ce he Eee d nd of oy vhs et pct sCpimint at Tre an WH Hie wk he il ta crane ane Ty deca ci Stee yr Sc te ee “pla et at ei’ Epon See aa ea ee = a Sener empath ingore of ft scl Ba eh Meas et ici ipl eng mt Soe ps reece pny fo see faucets Se a Sie omeatneea aN sci Teel Santi chee Si tn te 16 Intro Alois Riegl* is sso insine to stress the representative character ‘of the most ancient art forms, tasing his argument essentially upon the realistic paleolihic carvings and paintings. He sees the most important sep forvard in the atempt to show the animals in out ling, on 4 two-dimensional surface which necessitates the substur tion ofan ideal line or the theee-dimeasional form that is given to tus by every day experince. He assumes that geometric ornament developed from the testment of the tne, obtained by the process just mentioned, according to formal priciles. Seting aside the assumed sequence of these two aspects, is view- point i csiguished from that of the authors referred to before, ‘by the recogion of the principle of frm es spun that of coment. The principle of form is sill more energetically delended by van Scheltema, who ties 10 prove definite developmental processes ‘through which the formal trearment of Norh European art has passed, ist in the Neolithic period, then in the bronze age and finally nthe iron age* ‘Aled Vierkandt? also emphasizes the fundamental importance of the formal element in the esthetic eect of all manifestations of art " Ais Re Stage, 2 eon, Ber, 12, 9.2 et "Adana vn Sheen, le atorcte Kua Bera, 192 Fr « com fretensive re Atoanbe rumen, inmates Ac Mr Xnapapie, Sapplemeat Vaume 1X, Leen, 184; ae te biogpy in ete von Son De Kast fer tarater and cer Vou, Bei 101; aot Herbert Kata, Die Kuas det mien, nce, 123 An excelent review of te sujet hs Been gee lath Wor, Des Oraneat Diver, Usiversy of Lei “Pricpesgen cer eatpichen Ranatchng, Zenit ir Ase nd algemine Kustienchah Vol. NIX, Ber 12, pp 8 og Se ‘is jth Pr hsoracte Vooande, Vl; Vom Waren der Veltans, ‘ea; Rel Keslen, Ciison fSeuth Ameri Ina, New Yr, 928 “ REPRESENTATIVE ART ile the forma elements which ve have previously dacussed ‘ace fundamentally void of dete meaning, condivons are quite erent in representative art. The term itself implies thatthe work oes not afeet us by its form alone, but aso, sometimes even primarily, by ie content. The combination of form and content ves 10 representative art en emotional value entirely apart from fhe purely Formal esthec elec, has been customary 10 begin the discussion of representative far with consideration ofthe simple attempts of primitive people (OF of children to draw object that interest them. I believe that the-art problem is obscured by this procedure. The mere atempt to represent something, perhaps Yo communicate an iden graphically, ‘cannot be claimed to be an art; just a litle as the spoken word for the gesture by means of which an idea is communicated, or an ‘bject—perhaps spear, # shield or s box.—in which an idea of ‘usefulgess is Incorporated, Is In elf a work of art. U8 likely ‘hat an aris concept may sometimes be present in the mind of the maker or speaker, but Is becomes « work of art only when itis technically perfect, or when it shows striving alter a formal patera Gestures that have rhythmical strctre, words that have hythic and tonal Beauty ae works ofr; the implement of perfect form lays cai to beauy: and the graphic or sealpural representation hasan esthetic. tn aristic vale, when the technique of representation has been mastered. When a tyro attempts 10 crete a work of art, we may recognize and study the impulse, but the fished produc teaches only his vain efforts to master eiflcult ask. When man is confronted vith e new proiem like the building of « house of new, uafumiiar material, he is apt to find & solution, but hs achievement isnot a, Wis work adapted to a praical end. It may be thatthe solution is intlive, that that thas not been found by an intelectual process, but afer having, been solved i fs subject 10 2 rational explanation, Representati m7 8 Just when mn hao represent an object conor wth 2 scthem ta denads saan Theft slant n an ett ote patel achievement. We a delig ito werk of ey only hen fe ston te eadowed seth formal teat or ssven fr I The ela work bp serie eh poem fa een mated ‘When primitive tan i en penal aed paper and seed fo dw an jc naar, fe he te tol tno han frecniga tat he as never ied. He mont break wey Fem taverry cntods of wort tna ave 2 new prion. "The Tul cao! be ewok a ey inept pokaps made very vasal eaten Jets the cil ne woul be eit coved wits tk for Wich fe aks tcc prepare tnd many of he dieses ‘ere te child beset hw alse ence he apparent simi "EM Erba, Web item bervun cre rong ond thoes of primi men: "The anempt of toh are made in silar thatons’ A mou carers ce of ts Kind want 0 by Me BiieeSeth He sated an Exo of Iga toe ih 1 pen ons pee of papers vars hon. The ne was wale fovecrempleh ths tu and thr sven etomps be ook 8 nu tuk, and cared the whe soon ia Wory, «ecole: in ich be wo tami The core beeen eprevenion fr te sk of represen ant reprecnnion tsa wort of art apes ery in any canes Ted ef examples "The Inn of th stan a moc trove Menke wer besly enbradere or woven hig he csens of which ee lary based on Spah motes Here farts end ulated sine fre combine wi power orm {re the consent elements (hg 89a) Besides ese embroidered tnd woven fabrics, Which are of excelleat workmanship, we And small embroidered rags (0g. $9 ), which are attached to arows and. ferve the purpose of representing © prayer to deity. A roughly Feb Entel, Hable AL. Pose ain men, utines figure of » child expresses « prayer for the heakth of the child; that of « deer. a prayer for success In humting. The arrows withthe atached rags are stick into the thatched fof of «temple ‘where they ae allowed to decay. ‘They are not intended a works of rt but only #8 representations that serve # temporary purpose; hence the disregard of form and of exaciness of workmanship. ‘Quite similar observations may be made on the clothing of the Amur tries. The skin clothing worn by the people, particulary on festive occasions, is beauty rmamented in applique, o by pating. The ornamens are in prt geometrical, in pat representative. Figures of birds and fish abound (Rg. 60). On the otter hand the pained Aresses of shamans are roughly executed (Plate VI). "They represent 48 fed Hl sf BD AY ft AK Fie 6. Upper ow, wenn of Ole i mythological concepts and have a value solely on account of their Imeaning, The interest does ot center in the form. Ax compared to wearing spparel they are crudely done, for the beauty of execu tion ts of minor Importance. ‘A shird example is found among the North American Indians of the Great Pisin Their representative at, n the suit sense of the term, in almost entely confined 10 a crude form of picture wag. ‘They have not developed a high technique of pining und the forms of horse, men, buflaoes and tents are mercy reminders of inidents the le of the people. The figures (Bq 61) are In no way orme- ‘mental and bear no Felaton to the object on which they are depicted. ‘They are made for the purpose of representation only. They are sot art in the ig sense of the tem.” Judging from the character « Representativeart of the figures and their use we may safely say thatthe ets In terest s eniely absen, We may even apply this observation 10 the pictre wring of the ancent Mericane (@e 62), which, as com- pared to heir sculpure, is of inferior vale. The imporance of ‘Communicrng ideas outweighs the artic Interest We shall see Tater on that nevertbeess there 42-8 deine relation between arinic aye and the forms of inure pining (se p. 164). Tcidenally it may be re. ‘marked here that the diference fin iveret sometimes leads 10 contrasting a eyes, provided ‘he repeesenaive work flo executed in 8 perfectly control Ted technique. Thus the North vest Amerians who have a very characeriste style of art fometimes make carvings that ae intended ro deceive by their realm. In one of thee cere ‘monies 8 person is apparently decapitated and air the de- ‘apiion the head Is shown hel by the hale This ead is ‘carved in wood and done with fret care io s most realistic fahion. It is entirely fee of the fyi characterises of Northwest cont carving” and pining (@ee Bg 156, p. 185) "We revert sow to 8 consideraipn ofthe simple, crude repressn- tative drawings. The most import inference that may be drawn {rom the study of euch representations, graphic as well a plastics ‘hat the problem of representation is fret ofall solved by the use of symbolic forms, There is no atempt st accurate deieation 02 Mena ping Cater Neither primitive man nor the child beleves that the design or the "figure he produces is actully an ascurse picture of the obec to be represented. A round knob on an elongated cylinder may re- present head and body wo pact of thin, straight strips of rounded ross secon, arms and legs; or Ina drawing a circle overs rec. sng may suggest head and body straight lines, arms and eps; short diverging lies atthe ends of arms and legs, hand and feet ‘The break berveen symbole representation and realism. may ‘oscur in one of two waye. The arist may endeavr o render the form of the object 10 be repre- fenied in forceful outline and Subordinale all consideration of ex! under the concept ofthe teats as a vhole, He may even izcard all details and cover the form with more of less far ecoration without losing the ef fect of realism of the general utine and of the istibuton of surfces and of masses. On the other hand, he may endeavor vo give # realise representation ‘of details and his work may consist of an assembly of shes, With Hide regard to the form a5 2 whole ‘An excellent example ofthe former method & the Filipino vood carving, 8g 634. Head and. chest show the concentration ofthe fist upon the deliming surfaces and an utter disregard of deta ‘The sume method {6 used in the fgure of « harpist belonging othe ancient art of the Cyclades (6, 638) » In Bg 66, an Afican mask, the surfaces offorehend, eyes, cheeks ‘and note are the determinants ofthe form which has’ been treated ‘ecoravely with the greatest freedom, There are no eas; the eyes fre slis with geometreal ormaments; the mouth a ckcle emelosing FeO Monin mak ‘ran Cone ape Gut New Gace 4 cross In fg. 6S, representing x pinied carving from New Guine, the oun o the face, emphasized bythe hairline, eyes and mouth, ‘easly recognized bur all the other paris are treated purely decoraivey. ‘The opposite method is found, for instance, In Egyptian paintings and reliefs in which eyes, nose, hands, ad feet are shown with # lative art 1 en fai degree of realism, but composed in ways tht dtr: the nual ‘form and which are pespecively impossible (Rg. 66, A sill beter a the draving, fg. 67, an atempt of ove ofthe best Hue tise from Northern Brissh Columbia to Musrate the story of an tagle carrying away a woman. The fice of the womta ie evdenty mended as a thresquarer view. Facil palodng wil be noted on the let Cheek; the lel ear only i shown a8 ‘seen In profle; the mouth with teeth ‘is placed under the nose in xed fal ‘rofe and front view, and has been Fees ‘moved to the right side of the fice, In the lower lip i « large labret shown en face, for only ia this view was the arist able 12 show the Tabrt wih fi chartctrisic oval surface. The nove seems 10 be drawn in profle although the nosis pear en fae. In a grape representation of objects one of t40 pals of view may be taken: it may be coniered a9 essen that all the chare- terse Features be shown, of the objet may be drawn ast appears fat any given moment. In the former case our atenton i directed ‘marly towards those permanent eats tht are most striking and 2 er by which we recngnize the obec, while others that are not chaac- tere, or at least less characterise, are considered as irrelevant. Tn the later ease ve are interested solely in the visual pcre that ive receive at any piven momen, and the salient features of which “This method more realise than the other only Mf we cake that ‘he essence Of resism is the reproduction of single momentary sual image and i the selection of what appears a ellentfeeire {0 us is given» paramount value In sculpture or modelling in the round these problems do not appear in the same form. Here also atetion may be directed primarily towards the represenation of the essential, and the same Principles of selecion may appear tht are found in graphic at, but {he arangement of the pars does not offer the same dilfcues that ‘ne always present in grophic representation. AS soon as man Is confronted. with the problem of representing © three dimension! ‘object on # two-dimensional surface and showing na single, per~ ‘manent postion an object that changes its visual appearance from tine to time, he must make 1 choice between thee two method, vis easy itligibie tha «profile view of an animal in which oaly fone eye is seen and in which one whole side deappears may not ‘satisfy"a8 realistic representation. The animal has ovo eyes ‘wo sides. ‘When it turns I see the other side i exists and should be pert of a satstying picture. In a frat View the animal appears foreshortened. The ta is invisible and so are the Nanks; but the animal has tal and flanks and they ought to be there. We are confronted wit the same problem in our representations of maps of the whole world. Ina map on Mercator projection, or In ouF piniglobes, we distort the surface of the globe in tuch a way that A pars are visible. We are ingresed only in showing, in # manner ‘8 smsfacory a8 posible, the interrelations between the pas ofthe lobe. We combine in one picture aspect that could never be seen st one glance. The same is true n orthogonal architectural drawings, Partcaariy when two adjoining views taken st right angles 10 each Representative art a other, are brought into contact, or in copies of designs in which the ‘scenes or designs depicted on a cylinder, a vase, of « spherical pot fre developed ons fat surfice in order to show ata single glance the interrelations of the decorative forms. In drawings of objects for scientific study ve may also sometime adopt similar viewpoint, ‘moments are repretented (a diagrams in which mechanical move- ‘ments are ilsrated and in which, in order to explain the operation (of & device, various postions of moving parts are shown In primkive ar both eoktions have been atempted: the perspec- tive as well as that shoving the esseaal parts in combination. Since the essential parts are symbols ofthe object, we may ell his method the symbolic’ one. I repeat that In the symbolic method those features are represented’ that re considered at. permanen! and ‘essential, and that there is no atempt on the part of the deafsman to confine himself f0 » reproduction of what he actually sees at « ven moment is easy 10 show that these poins of view are not by any means absent in European at. The combination of éiferent moment in fone paining appears commonly in earler aft for Instance when ‘in Michel “Angelo's punting, Adam and Eve appear on one side of the tree of knowledge in Paradise and on the other sie ofthe tree 1s being driven out by the angel AS a mater of fact every large aneass contin a combination of distinct views, When we direct fur eyes upon a scene we see only a small limited area distinctly, the pola farther away appear the more blurred and indistinct the farther removed they ‘ave from the center. Nevertheless most of the elder palmings Of large scenes represent all parts with equal Aisinness, as they appear to our eyes when they wander about and tke in all the diferent parts one by one. Rembrandt forced the atienton of the specttor Spon is main Agures by strong ight, 1s upon the swords inthe great scene of the conspiracy of Caudius Gila and his Batavans agsinst the Romans, but the distant figures ” lepresentalive art fare distinct in outing, although in dark colors. On she other hand, Hrdler, in bis painting of e duel drvws compelling attention 1 the pons of the swords which are pained in sharp outline while every- thing else 4s the more indistinct the farther removed it is from the point on which the interest ofthe artist centers “Trae considered ab permanent characteristic play a re even in ‘modern art. Unil very recent times the complexion of man was conceived as essentlly permanent. At least the strong changes that ‘etualy occur in ciferent postions have not been punted until very ‘ecent times. A person of fair complesion standing between green bash end a red brick wall has cerminly a fice green on one ede tnd red on the other, and ifthe sun shines on his forehead it may be at times intensely yellow, Sil we ae, or atleast were, not sccutomed to depict these eminently realise trait We rather con- ‘entate our atention upon what is permanent inthe individual com- plexion as seen in ordinary difuse daylight. We are ecustomed to ‘ee the acedental momentary lights weakened in fAvor of the per- ‘aneat impression. In primitive, symbolic representations these permanent ris appear {in the sme way, sometines strongly emphasized. twill be really seen shat children’s dravings are essentially of the characer here Gescibed, ‘They are not memory images, xs Wundt chins, except {in 90 far as the symbol are remembered and reminders, but com posklons of what to the chil’: mind appears essential, perhaps also fs Feasible. “A person has tvo eyes which have their most chrac- feristc form in front view, © prominent nose which is mos striking In profile; hands with fingers which are best seen when the palms tre turned forward; feet the form of which is clear only in prof. ‘The body Is essential and so is the clothing, Hence the socalled Remygen pctres In which covered parts are drawn. These drawings are collection of symbols held together more or less sashctorly Dy a general outine, although single traits may be misplaced, The ‘sme tats preval commonly in primbive drawings. When Karl von ‘den Steen ed the South American Indians draw 4 white man, they “ 8 ‘iiced the moustache ax s characteris symbol on the forehead, for it suflced to place it ax a symbol on the most avaible space “The Egyptian paimings with their minture of protle and ron views and teapsprent objects through which hidden pert may be een (te, 68) must be viewed in the same manner. They are not by any ‘means proof of an inabily to ste and draw perpesively they ‘merely show tha the intrest of the peuple centred In the fll e- resentation of the symbol. ‘When excepionally great weight is atached wo the symbol, 30 4 ene outweighs the Inerest in ‘he out, the general form may be dwarfed and forms orga that, from our perpetive pnt of view, loreal semblance of realism. The ‘most characteris case of this ind is found i the ar of te Nornvest, toast of Americ, in which the whole tinal form is redoced 10 a0 ak fembly of daconnested symbols AF Ertan ans shrew teaver adeqrly represented by *M ME See een ‘large ead with evo pairs of large lncisore and a squumous tail (ce pp. 186 et seq). However, in sis cae we are no longer dealing with crude epreenatons, but wih {highly developed ar. Ite form proves tat tats development "yoo represennion has been of fndarental pounce. "The second form of represention is by means of perspective raving, in which the momentary visual Impression repress of the presence or abaene of charactersc symbol, i uid. This ‘method i nt by any means absent in the dravings of primitive man ts well sin those of children, bat iti not a5 common as symbole epresenation. In a way mos erede symbolic Forms contain per spective element, although it dots no extend over the whole figure, but only over pars which are mare or less skilfully put cogeber, ip Sachs lip —— epee a 7 so that a semblance of the general outline is maintined. This is the cave in Egyptian painting, in those of Australians and in Nor ‘American picture wring (ee fs. 61, 62), In other cases the art Of perspective drawing rises to real excellence. The slhouetes of the Eskimo may be mentioned as «case in pont (i. 69) Their figures are always smal, scratched into ivory antler or bone, and filed with hachure or with Dick pigment. Form end pose ae well done, Although there is geverlly no perspective arrangement of {roups, each figure is well executed and fenders single Wisul m= Bresson. We find perspective of groups isthe rock paimings of South Attica (Rg. 70), nor perfect, but indicted by the overcuting of fgures and by the relative sles of objects near by and of those teen ata distance. Perspective realism of single Aigures is even more filly developed in the puintings of later paleolhic man found inthe eaves of southern France and of Spun (8-71) Less skill tffors at perspective representation are not rare. On matings from 2 repre t the Con rein, on tstetry ht from Vancouver Id (te 72) fuer cmoy snp have ten made. In thse om the former ‘ego ere are annals role he Iter wali seer men foie oct canoe and hing Int barpoored whale ‘Mich mere common ae carvings Ia "wood, Doe OF Ht, oF sorery objec are not spol treo mare Tvory earings ‘the Esme, Chater and Korat (73), preiver evn, acery fom North Amer ae example. As ted bebe & sar ne betvoea theo meds of ape seprecann cate be fave. In mot cae sya ere oa ae ant in part peropecve, cer ino rst ger oem male, or a pars are showninperspete frm hie penectnerepresaione uty townie "yabaledaveun "When he L Poel Indian pei te form of der SSE SB, vite hie dearer of prpecive soumey ee fe 2p 10), ba nds wo nd

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